Islam: Resistance and Reassertion

Author(s): Amin Saikal

Source: The World Today, Vol. 43, No. 11 (Nov., 1987), pp. 191-194
Published by: Royal Institute of International Affairs
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40395873
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Islam:resistanceand reassertion

AminSaikal
one forcontemporary
The lastdecadehas been a momentous
eventsoccurredin 1978whichprovided Varieties of Islamic resurgence
Islam.Two significant
an unprecedented
Islam in The current
Islamicresurgence,
inIranorAfghanistan
whether
impetusto thevoicesofresurgent
an or Pakistanor Egyptor anyotherpartoftheIslamicworld,is
moderntimes.One was theIranianrevolution,
delivering
theotherwas theSoviet-backed
com- divided,manifesting
'Islamicgovernment';
local features,indigenousaccentsand
munistcoup in Afghanistan,
differences.
Ittherefore
cannotbe lookedatas a monoopeningtheway fortheSoviet sectarian
a lithicmovement
invasionofthecountryin thefollowing
but ratheras a clusterofmovements.
Whatyearand prompting
MoslemAfghans
tobeginan Islamic ever theexternalmanifestations
ofpredominantly
underdifferent
majority
leaderships,
inoneformoranother,
jihad(holywar) againsttheatheistaggressorsand theirsur- theyareallinspiredandinfluenced,
bya
commongroupof crosssectarianand cross-national
Islamic
rogates.
and activists;
sharecommonobjectives;andarefirmly
The Islamicsuccessoftheminority
ShiitesectofIslaminIran thinkers
underthespiritualand politicalleadershipofAyatollahKho- groundedin thebasic principles
ofIslamas an 'all-embracing
oflife- as a faithas wellas an ideologyand programme
a moral,philosophical
meiniunderlined
andpracticalchallenge system
to thosewhoeitherdisagreedwithitsreligiousdispositions
or oflife'.
andviability
intheprevailing
itslegitimacy
interna- These thinkersand activistsrange fromDr Muhammed
questioned
as seenby Iqbal (India) and Mawlana SayyidAbdulAla Mawdidi(PakiinAfghanistan,
The Sovietaggression
tionalsystem.
Hassan al-Banaand SayyidQutb
Moslemsandthewest,poseda seriousthreatbothtotheIslamic stan)totheMoslemBrothers
The Iranianphenomenon
Khomeini(Iran).
worldandtowestern
interests.
spark- (Egypt),andtoDr AliShariatiandAyatollah
some interpretational
differences
ed offnotonlypocketsof oppositionwithinIran- a country Notwithstanding
among
a
and wester- them,thesefigures'Islamicworksand discoursesconstitute
whichhad experiencedsubstantial
secularisation
and
ruleofthelateShah- but substantialbodyof political-philosophical
internisationundertheAmerican-backed
thought
thatplace Islam in a moderncontextand seekits
debateand,aboveall,publicdisquietoutsidethe pretations
alsopassionate
revitalisation
as a drivingforcein theMoslemworld.
atwhatwas seentobe happeningin Iran.
country
inthewest,they
to
The Sovietbloc foundit preferable
forreasonsof political
view,particularly
Contrary a widespread
be
cannot
referred
to
as
either
'traditionalists'
or 'fundamenrefrain
from
to
and
emotional
reactions.
expediency
ideological
In contrast,manywesternobserversand analystssoughtto talists'in thestrictsenseoftheseterms.Whilefirmly
believing
and totalityof thecentralprinciplesof Islam
demeantheIranianphenomenon
itinderogatory in theeternity
bydescribing
andmisleading
terms.Forexample,theylabelledita victory
(sunna),which
by (sharia)and ofProphetMohammed'straditions
the 'daggersof Islam', 'Islamic militants'and 'Islamic fun- formedthebases fortheoriginalidealIslamicsociety(ummah)
damentalists'.
On the otherhand, theAfghanIslamicresis- thatMohammedset up in compliancewiththeIslamicholy
and
SunnisectofIslam book,theKoran, theydo notholdtheIslamicprinciples
tance,whichis dominatedbythemajority
in
in
as
frozen
time
their
historical
sunna
the
the
and supported
Soviet
Union
to
label
applicability.
They
by west,prompted
waslefttoits
thatresistance
as a reactionby 'bandits'and forcesof'regres- contendthatafterMohammed,theIslamicummah
in'time-space'
toseeitshistorical
to be wipedout followers
, witha
sion' and 'darkness';and therefore
development
deserving
view
to
into
account
the
circumstances
and
taking
changing
by Sovietpower.The SovietUnion's ideologicalblinkersand
within
in
conditions
the
Islamic
ummah
relation
to
the
world
at
far
have
it
from
so
prevented
moving
hegemonialaspirations
the
but
without
Islamic
tenets.
western
but
democracompromising
large,
righteousness,
beyondself-propagating
Whatconcernsthemmostis thefactthatafterthedeathof
theirown
cies have themselves
not succeededin overcoming
Mohammed
and hiscompanions,
whopresidedoverwhatthey
ideologicaland culturalprejudicesin theirapproachto the
a
view
as
and
thelargerIslamic
ummah,
and
just,
equitable
dynamic
waveofIslamicresurgence.
current
Theyhave,by
large,
coursewhichleditawayfromIslamic
and objectively
theunderlying domaintookan historical
failedto graspdispassionately
and Mohammed'ssocialmodel,and intoincreasing
dynamicsoftheMoslems'renewedyearningfor principles
philosophical
and
ofnewcondidefiance
in
oftheworld'stwomajorideologies, political socialdisarrayundertheinfluence
self-realisation
conThis is precisely tions,oftendictatedbyoutsideforces.The mostdisastrous
liberaldemocracyand Marxism-Leninism.
of
wheretheconceptualgapbetweentheactiveIslamicforcesand sequenceof this,in theirview, has been the bifurcation
theworldat largelies today.The consequentconflictis not Islamicsocietiesintoreligiousandpoliticalspheres,underminofIslam as an all-embracing
culturalor personallevel,butrather ingthetotality
systemoflifeand
merelyat thetheological,
and
one. It is a conflict
between makingtheMoslemsocietiesvulnerableto internalstrife
at thepoliticaland philosophical
.
and directand indirect
domination
forthe outsideincursions
thetwo majorideologiesand the Islamicalternative
These thinkers
attribute
thisto twomainfactors:one is the
Moslems.
This article'smainobjectiveis to explainthenatureofthe weaknessofthetraditionalist
theologians
amongboththeSunni
currentIslamic resurgenceand to evaluatethe philosphical and ShiitesectsofIslam,whointheirviewhavereacheda comandthema- promisewiththetemporalauthorities
betweentheIslamicalternative
basisoftheconflict
and takentheIslamic
in
context
of
Islam
not
as
a
the
as
'frozen
in
In
time'.
this
just
theological principles
jor ideologies
way, the traditional
forcebut as an ideologyof resistance(al-muquwamah)
and theologians
havedeniedthemselves,
sincethethirparticularly
reassertion
teenthcentury,
theoptionofrigorousIslamic-basedindepen(al-takid).

191
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NOVEMBER 1987

192 THE WORLD TODAY

In otherwords,noneofthem,
dentestimation
andreasoning
means thecontext
as an appropriate
ofexisting
conditions.
(ijtihad)
forapplyingIslamtochanginghistorical
The other includingAyatollahKhomeini,3has argued that Moslems
conditions.
butratherthattheyshould
factorof Islamic disarray,which has interactedwith the shouldreversethecourseofhistory,
weaknessof the traditionalist
Theyare
development.4
theologians,has been foreign applyIslamin thecourseofhistorical
and
modernIslamicjurisprudents(mujtahiddin)
infiltration
and dominationof Moslem societiesby western consequently
in
the
who
believe
reformists
in
of
a
few
of
them
the
case
self-innovating
(muslahiyyun),
powersand,
(notablyAfghanistan),
a soundprocessofreinterideologicalpowerofIslamthrough
bySovietpower.
pretation.
Secularisation and dependence
differences
Of course, thereare interpretational
among
not
overtheprinciples
are
These
them.
and
however,
differences,
haveproducedseveralnegative far-reaching
Thesefactors
hasbeentheseculari- but the exegeticapplicationof theprinciplesin timeand in
Of particular
significance
developments.
ofIslamic keepingwithsectarianvariations.The latterhavehistorically
economicandsocialinstitutions
sationofthepolitical,
powersocietiestakingforeignsocietiesas a modelbut in defianceof enabledtheShiitesecttodevelopa farmorecentralised,
withintheboundsoftheinMohammed'sideal model,and in blindimitation(taqlid)of fuland radicalreligiousleadership
dominatedbya singleimam(or God's chief
ofimamat
thevery stitution
whichundermine
ideas,valuesand practices,
foreign
after
moralfibreofIslamicsocieties.Thishasgonehandinhandwith vicegerent
Mohammed)thantheSunniMuslimswithin
in lineof
institution
of
the
external
countries
of
Islamic
a growingdependence
presidedoverby a khalifa
khalifat,
upon
and
succession
to
Mohammed's
two
followed
leadership
has
education
political
religious
increasingly
powers.Furthermore,
different
paths,one religiousand theothersecular,and thisin butnotprophecy.
ofsecularelitesand traditional
theemergence
turnhasfostered
and potentially
socialcharacteristics,
forceswithverydifferent
Spiritualand temporal spheres
in
which
a
the
about
views
societyshouldbe
way
antagonistic
ordered.This has helped foreignscheming.Consequently, re-united
is to
concernofthemodernmujtahiddin
thesecountrieshave experienceda crisisof leadership.The The firstand foremost
re-embrace
and
to
rediscover
in
a
radical
the
Moslems
been
has
Moslem
of
the
traditional
way
system- help
society
leadership
of
ruleorby theirIslamicfaithas thecomplete,
erodedandhasbeenreplacedeitherbyforeign
system
justandinnovative
atically
hasbeenableto life,as instituted
localrulers.Sucha leadership
by Mohammedand practisedbyhiscompaforeign-oriented
whichwassetapart
Islamicummah,
ina growing
exercisedictatorial
politicaland economicpower,but has not nions, ushering
To them,it was this
ofIslamand has notwonthe fromtheworldof ignorance(jahiliyyah).
actedaccordingto theprinciples
and
ofthepeople.It has beenestrangedfrom religioussystemoflife,withno divisionbetweenspiritual
trustand confidence
have restedmuchmorewithforeign temporal
Islamand itssympathies
spheres,thatputtheMoslemson a dynamichistorical
ofGod's ruleand His revealedwayof
marchforglorification
elitesand thelife-style
theyhavetypified.1
inthisworld,andofhuman
andachievements
and ac- humanexistence
thinkers
In theviewoftheleadingIslamicresurgent
- thatis, beforetheMoslems
tivistsand the masseswhomtheyhave inspiredin various rewardsin theworldhereafter
tiedto weredirectedor impededfromtheirtrueIslamicpathafter
noneofthesechanges,essentially
Islamicmovements,
of
eitherliberaldemocraticor Marxist-Leninist
century.They view the Islamicunification
ideologyin dif- the thirteenth
on which
ferentways, has broughtmuch benefitto the Moslems. If spiritualand temporalspheresas thebasiccondition
the
ofthemtolosea clearsightof Mohammed foundedhis social model. By definition,
anything,
theyhaveleda majority
withoutcreating
theirown Islamicrootsand to be robbedof divinemeaning, MoslemscannotfulfilIslam in its entirety
in theirsocietiesand an Islamicideoand directionin life,and to livein abjectmoraland Islamic governments
morality
on
for logicalbondofcoalitionand fusionwithinthelargerummah
andsubjugation
materialpoverty
andearthly
subordination
ofthepowerelitesimposedon thebasis oftheoriginalIslamicideasand theirexemplary
thepoliticaland socialcomfort
apthemandactingat thebehestofvariousforeign
ideologicaland plicationby Mohammedand hiscompanions,whosetup the
interests.This has been so at the cost of originalmodeltobe pursuedand sustainedovertime.
political-economic
Allthemodernmujtahiddin,
todeveloptheirexegeticelaborafromGod and His law and,
manyMoslems' estrangement
in
an Islamicgovernment
in
'self
is
of
what
constitutes
alienation
from
individual
self
Islam
tions
therefore,
essentially
(since
with historical
a reflection
ofGod and isfulfilled
compliance
onlythrough
process,relyon boththecentralprincipleofIslam,
and bydefini- thatis theunityofGod in man (tawhid),
His law and ProphetMohammed'straditions);
fromwhichall other
tionfromummah.
In short,theyrejectbothcapitalism
andcom- principles
flow,and on thewaythatMohammedandhiscircle
munismas totallyunworkableforMoslems.As Muhammed appliedthis.TheyholdthatIslamis theonlyreligionin which
theLord,deceivemankind. thisprinciple
has notbeencorrupted.
with
Islamaffirms
tawhid
Iqbal putsit:'Bothfailtorecognise
The oneforrevolution
theotherfortribute:
is oneGod whois creatorofeverything
thirsts,
theyaretwo thecommandthatthere
thatpulverisethehumankind.'2
else.This meansthat' thereis no rulersaveGod, no legislator,
millstones,
In placeoftheseideologies,theyupholdIslamas theonlyall- no organiserof humanlifeand humanrelationships
to the
encompassing
ideologyofrightexistenceand eternalpleasure world,to livingthingsor humanbeingssaveGod. FromHim
forMoslems,providedthisideologyisadoptedinitstotality
and aloneis receivedall guidanceandlegislation,
all systems
oflife,
notin parts,and is appliedcorrectly
to historical
conditions
of normsgoverningrelationships
and the measureof values.'5
humanexistencethrough
a processofreinterpretation
a
and itguarantees
{ijtihad) Thus, tawhid
providesone singledirection
who unifiedspiritofitsadherents.
andreform
bythescholars(ashabal-ray)
(islah),as employed
or governance
In this context,whereastotalsovereignty
propoundedtheirviews,relyingon theirpersonalopinionsin
cen- (hakimiyyah)
theclassicalperiodofIslam(fromtheeighthtothetwelfth
and
reflection
man
is
God's
to
God,
belongsonly
turiesAD), in orderto createselfIslamicsocieties therefore
relationon earth.His vicegerent
God's vicegerent
motivating
withinthelargerboundsofummah.
In thissense,theycannotbe shipwithGod isthatofGod as Creatorandmancreature.
In his
labelled
either
'traditionalists'
or
'fundamentalists'
as
is
a
as
man
social
He
correctly
capacity vicegerent,
divinely
being. is not
orforthatmatterothertermswhichconveysimilarmeanings. onlyprovidedwithotherdivineprinciples,as a follow-up
of
whichare enshrined
in theKoran,butis also endowed
They have notwantedto recreatetheconditionsof Moham- tawhid,
med'ssocialmodel,buttorealisetheprinciples
ofthismodelin withthenecessaryfaculties,in particular*wisdom',as in its

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THE WORLD TODAY 193

ISLAM

and ' comprehen- statusofmaninIslamandtherefore

Koranicmeaningof 'rightcomprehension'
oftheIslamicstatemadeup
with
is
the
mission oftheconglomeration
sionoftruth'.He also furnished
ofbelievers,givesriseto theconclusion
exemplary
ofMohammed,whofoundedhissocialorderofIslam(or total thatmanis thevicegerent
ofGod. Thus thestatedoesnotmake
based
on
or
tawhid
in
submission
toGod) as nizam-i
or
enforce
law
its
own
name,but actsas theagentofGod.
unity
(system
and is providedwithall otherbasicearthlynecessities 'Man' is hereused in a collective
sense,sincetherighttoexertawhid);
Withall this,God's trust ciseauthority
andmeansoflifeinsupportoftawhid.
inheresnotinanyparticular
eliteorgroup,butin
inthewayofGod andaccording
toHis thecommunity
inmanistoexcelhimself
of Moslem faithful.
Thus, Islam rejectsboth
withfellow- socialstratification
lawand His messenger's
and personaldictatorships.
'The rulerinan
teachingsin communion
believersas equals withinthe nizam-itawhidforthepurpose Islamicstateis onlyonecaliph[orinthecaseofShiites,imam],
of God's ruleand man's self-realisationor vicegerent
ofGod amongtheentirecommunity
of bothglorification
ofcaliphs,
oftheindividualand andhe rulesonlybecausetheothercaliphshavedelegatedtheir
in time.Thus, tawhid
'is thefoundation
and relationships, caliphatetohim.He isanswerable
sociallifeofa Moslem.All humanactivities
bothtothemontheonehand
or artistic,oughtto be and to God on theother,as indeedall individualMoslemsare
whether
literary,
political,economic,
' It 'not
and directly
foundedon tawhid.
answerableto God.'7 This formswhatMawdidicalls
onlygivesmancertainty
firmly
it also makeshim 'popularvicegerency'
a senseof securityand innertranquillity;
as thebasisofdemocracyin an Islamic
forthewelfareof his own selfand thesocietyin stateas against'popularsovereignty'
whichformsthebasisof
responsible
tohisexistence. . . democracy
in a secularstate.
whichhelives,givingmeaninganddirection
to
is thebasisfortheexistenceof
itcreatesforhima worldviewbywhichhe reactsrationally
Justas consentofthefaithful
in him to theIslamicstate,so is consultation
his environment,
creatingnecessaryresponsibility
prin(shura)an important
oftheIslamicstate.The shura
couldtake
based]justsocialorder'.6Furthermore, cipleofthefunctioning
bringabouta [divinely
thecriteria
on which different
as indeeditdidunderMohammedandhiscomin itsIslamicexegesis,determines
forms,
tawhid,
electheMoslemsoughtnot onlyto base and judge theirbeliefs, panions,whichdo notexcludemoderndirectand indirect
whosedutyit
behaviourand socialexistenceas a whole,butalso to tionsfortheheadofstateandlegislative
assembly,
thought,
tothe
as in- istoelaboratetheIslamiclawandtoseetoitsapplicability
and expandIslam's originalnizam-itawhid,
perpetuate
itiatedby Mohammed.Thus, the Islamicsociety,based on existingconditions.SinceIslamcommandstheprocessofconor
sensus(ijma)and shura,thereis no roomfordictatorship
formand a politicalideal.
is bothan historical
nizam-i
tawhid,
thatIslam
in Islam.Thus,thesystem
ofgovernment
Nizam-itawhidpredicatesan Islamicgovernment
(and no despotism
where
otherkind)ina Moslemsocietyas partofthelargerIslamicum- essentially
approvesis one oflimited'theo-democracy',
andHis vicegerents
their
as coreoftheeternalvaluesofIslamprovides Godisthesovereign
mah.Whiletawhid
spiritualorganise
the politicalstructure
the substanceand directionof an Islamic government,
accordingtoHis lawandinmutualconsultaitselfis obviouslyshapedin its external tions, andwheretheMoslemsrunthestateandthenon-Moslem
Islamicgovernment
in the contextof changinghistoricalcir- minorities
manifestations
are providedprotection.Mawdidi states:'All adnature
and
the
and
mattersand all questionsaboutwhichno explicit
ministrative
cumstances,
demographic
heterogeneous
and sectarianandlocalaccents,whichhave injunctionis to be foundin theshariah
are settledby theconsocialpeculiarities,
- inparticu- sensus
societies
cometodivideMoslemsintowell-defined
amongtheMoslems.EveryMoslemwhois capableand
their qualifiedto give a soundopinionon mattersof Islamiclaw,
inthemoderntimes- andtocharacterise
larnation-states
modern
that
the
of
this
because
It
is
modus
is entitledto interpret
thelaw of God whensuchinterpretaoperandi. precisely
of
the
In this sense the Islamic polityis
becomes
tion
reinterpretation
importance
re-emphasise
necessary.
mujtahiddin
in theapplicationofIslamand, by and large,cannot, democratic'.8
(ijtihad)
thedetails
in all itsexternaldispositions
andoughtnot,specify
By thesame token,Hassan al-Turabipointsout thatsuch
thebodiesoflearnedscholars
an Islamic government.
of whatconstitutes
They maintain Moslemsingeneralcanconstitute
All it reIslamicexegesis of Islam (ulama)and moreparticularly
forinterpreting
as thebestmethodology
mujtahiddin.
ijtihad
and forapplyingIslaminthe quiresone to be a memberof thesebodiesis to be versedin
aroundIslam'seternalprinciples,
Moslemsocieties thelegacyofreligious(revealed)knowledge(Urn)and capable
ingeneral,andtothevarying
courseofhistory
havearisenindividually, of relatingit to God. 'Because all knowledgeis divineand
themselves
fromwhichthemujtahiddin
or a juristare
inparticular.
religious,a chemist,an engineer,an economist,
differencesall ulama',9and forthatmattercan be mujtahiddin.
That is whyone findsexegeticalinterpretational
Thus, all
outward
suchas
the
and
Ali
other
Khomeini
while
For
them.
dispositions,
concerning
particulars
Ayatollah
example,
among
financialtransactions,
coma mode ofeconomicdevelopment,
andnationalcircumstances
theirownsectarian
Shariatireflect
an merceand foreign
worksofwhatconstitutes
policyquestions,withregardtowhichthere
greatdeal in theirreinterpretive
needtobe workedouton the
Islamicgovernment,
SayyidQutband MawlanaSayyidAbdul are no directIslamicinjunctions,
theirownsectarianandnationalcondi- basisofijma.
Ala Mawdidiunderline
arenot
and its
oftawhid
It is intheseareasthattheleadingmodernmujtahiddin
tions.However,whenitcomestotheprinciple
intheir
one
with
the
in
about
full
all
in
clear
are
another,given
agreement
always
agreement
they
principles,
follow-up
and
conditional
sectarian
dividual
an
Islamic
which
on
fundamental
differences,
circumstantial,
government,
principles
in theIslamicworlditmaybe, shouldbe based. The and theirapplicationofIslam in timeand in relationto an inwherever
of creasingly
ofthesovereignty
istherecognition
oftheseprinciples
central
complexmodernworld.It oughtto be stressedthat
arenotover
intheseareasamongthemujtahiddin
in
Moslem
law
a
the
differences
of
source
man
is
the
and
not
that
God
is,
God,
overtime.
of
in
and
but
the
sharia
His
of
manifestations
the
and
will,
principles
application
exegetical
principles
earthly
society,
and Such differences
arisingfromapplicationof Islam in history
applicability,
sunna,have eternaland all-encompassing
basisofstateaction.
formtheonlylegitimate
oughtnotto be seenas exclusiveto themodernIslamicmujtaforno ideology,whether
hiddin,
religiousor secular,has been
Consent and consultation
in itsapplication.This has been trueofliberaldemonolithic
or for
as there- mocracy,
just as ithas been trueofMarxism-Leninism
Moreover,Mohammedistakenas enjoyingauthority
other
of
matter
in
that
and
as
of
thought.
body political-philosophical
sovereignty
any
justified exercising
presentative God,
Of course,contradictions
in thearenaofpracticeare reguis sanctioned
ofGod Himself.Thisauthority
bytheKoran,and
theinadequaciesand shortexplainsthestatusenjoyedbythesunnaas a sourceoflaw. The larlynotedas a wayofhighlighting

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194 THE WORLD TODAY

NOVEMBER 1987

whichthis
Islamicmovements.How- and God on the other.The notionof reassertion
comingsof the currentresurgent
of
intheoriginalconception
ever,it is worthnotingthatno bodyofpolitical-philosophicalideologyembodiesfindsitssanctity
as
a
resistance
in
desired
has
itself
and
achieved
its
to
was
for
Mohammed
Islam,
thought history perfected
obliged practise
anditsfollow-up
oftawhid
shortspaceof prerequisite
endsintherealmofapplication
withina relatively
thedoctrine
forasserting
sides
are different
and reassertion
of practiceand refinement principles.
time.It has requiredgenerations
Thus, resistance
aroundit. of theone coin in Islam. Withoutresistancetherecan be no
beforea polityor a movementhas been solidified
of
to follow,theactivity
whetherin Iran or reassertion,
If today'sresurgent
Islamicmovements,
and withoutreassertion
to an
and resistanceis essentially
pointless.This is fundamental
anyotherpartoftheIslamicworld,exhibitshortcomings
it shouldnotbe understanding
Islamicstrugglein bothIran
in theiroutwarddispositions,
contradictions
of theresurgent
are unbridgeable.However, and Afghanistan,
the two stateswhose recentexperiences
assumedthatthesediscrepancies
will prove servedto sparkoffrenewedinterestin thepoliticalroleand
whetherefforts
to overcometheseinconsistencies
fruitful
remainstobe seen.Nor is itsoundtoexpectthemove- functioning
ofIslam.
elementsand tendencies,
mentstobe freeofpluralistic
leading
some individualsor groupsof individualswithintheirmain- Conclusion
their Noneoftheabovediscussionofcourseimpliesthattheviewsof
whichlargelyreflect
streamstoresorttotypesofactivities
ofIslam are uncontroversial.
While the fundamental thetheorists
individualor group circumstances.
Indeed,theirmost
well
be
themselves
a
itself
as
Islam
strenuous
of
are
held
Islam
Moslems,occupyeternal,
may
permits
opponents
principles
in Moslem
structures
traditional
it
within
in
historical
their
of
authority
although
application,
ingpositions
degree pluralism
Islam is directednotonly
whichcouldresultin a devia- countries.To thisextent,resurgent
condemnsanyformofpluralism
and ideologies,but also against
or in againstoutsideimperialisms
tionfromor,falsification
of,thefundamental
principles,
whoareviewedas having
elitegroupswithinMoslemcountries
criminalactionsagainsthumanity.
sacrificedthe eternalveritiesof Islam in exchangeforthe
Resistance and reassertion
existence.These elitesare viewedas
luxuriesofa westernised
and practicalsurrogatesforthe ideologiesof liberaldemocracy
reference
ofprinciplewithintheframework
It is precisely
Islamis in conwithwhichresurgent
and and Marxism-Leninism
ijtihadthat the notionsof 'resistance'(al-muquwamah)
are engravedin Islamicideology.Islam flictat a conceptuallevel.
'reassertion'
(al-takid)
dimenand reassertive
and reassertion.
In thiscontext,Islamin itsresistant
ofresistance
By
beganas a divinemovement
and
outside
with
the
into
conflict
come
can
sions
thedivineforceofitsmessageoftawhidand
world,
parensuingprinciples,
and by virtueofMohammed'sapplication,Islam initiatedits ticularlyif the outsideworldis not preparedto addressits
own basis for,and formof,socialstruggle.Mohammedwas philosophicalrootsand politicalaspirations.To reducethe
and magnitudeof thisconflict,it is imperativenot onlyforthe
instancetoopposetheworldoijahiliyyah
disposedinthefirst
The Prophet's westernised
or Sovietisedelitesin theMoslemworld,butalso
assertIslamas thefinalreligionoverjahiliyyah.
ofscholarsand analystsas wellas
whichbyand forthewesterncommunity
involvedactiveresistance,
opposition
necessarily
in
Islamicresurgence
thecurrent
in
not
free
of
understand
but
at
times
could
be
to
was
defensive
nature,
makers,
large
policyand politicallight.
some offensive
actionsin defenceof Islam and his mission. itsproperphilosophical
Similarly,his successin foundingthe originalIslamiccomin the
munityin Medinaand theexpansionofthiscommunity
1 See KhurshidAhmad,'The NatureoftheIslamicResurgence'
ofIslam
Arabianpeninsuladuringhislifestampedtheassertion
, inJohnL.
overjahiliyyah.

Islam(New York: OxfordUniversity

Press,
Esposito(Ed.), Voices
ofResurgent
1983),pp. 218-29, at p. 219.
2 MuhammedIqbal, Javid-nama
(London: GeorgeAllen& Unwin,1966),
p. 57.
3 Foran outline Khomeini'spoliticalideas,see HamidAlgar(Ed.), Islam
of

In thiscontexttheIslamicconceptofa struggle
inthewayof
thenotionofthe'justwar' whichhas emGod (jihad)mirrors
ergedin westernpoliticaltheory.
Jihadcan in practiceinvolve
eitherdefensive
or offensive
operationsdependingon circum- and Government:Writingsand Declarationsof Iman Khomeini(Berkeley: Mizan
1981).
stances,as longas itdoesnotinvolveinnocent
lives;butconcep- Press,
4 See Hassan al-Banaon 'Renaissancein theIslamicWorld',in KemalH.
di
is
the
defensive.
Thus,
tually, jihad always
AfghanmujahideenKarpat (Ed.), Politicaland Social Thoughtin theContemporary
Middle East (New
inthewayofGod) are involvedin a whollydefensive York:
(warriors
Praeger,1982),pp. 98-103.
in particular 5 SayyidQutb, citedin YvonneY. Haddad, 'SayyidQutb: Ideologueof
war, even thoughtheymay take the offensive
IslamicRevival',in Esposito,op.cit.,pp. 67-98, at p. 77.
battleswiththeSovietinvaders.
6 AbdulazizSachedina,'Ali Shariati:IdeologueoftheIranianRevolution',
However,an accountofthepoliticaldimensionofcontem- in
Ali Shariati's
Esposito,op. cit.,pp. 191-214,at pp. 200-1, summarising
poraryIslam is incompleteif it emphasisesresistanceat the argument;fordetailsofShariati'sviewsseeHamidAlgar(Ed.), OntheSociology
expenseof reassertion.Resistanceis an essentiallynegative ofIslam:Lectures
(Berkeley:Mizan Press,1979).
7 CharlesJ. Adams,'Mawdudiand theIslamicState',in Esposito,op.cit.,
whereasreassertion
is a positivegoalwhichcan
phenomenon,
serveas a focusforthe activitiesof committed
Moslemsin pp.8 99-133, at p. 116.
Abdul Ala Maudoodi, TheIslamicLaw and Constitution
(Lahore: Islamic
Moslemsocieties.The ideologyoutlinedinthisarticlemakesup
Publication,1960),p. 148.
a positivecode whichspecifiestheappropriaterelationsbet9 Hassan al-Turabi,'The IslamicState',inEsposito,op.cit.,pp. 241-51, at
weentheindividualon theonehand,andhisfellows,
hissociety p. 245.

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