I

II

SIA
SIWA
SAUPDNA KATATSOVABMIS
A DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

tienne L. Poisson
2

III

Second print

IV

1 Foreword%................................................................................................2
2 The Alopian People%................................................................................4
2.1 Origin of the Alopian People!..........................................................6
2.3 The Alopian Family Tree!.................................................................10
2.4 The Siwa People!.............................................................................13
2.4.1 Siwa Territory!...............................................................................13
2.4.1.1 Geography!......................................................................14
2.4.2 Sociolinguistic Situation!..............................................................14
3 Phonology%...............................................................................................16
3.1 Vowels!............................................................................................16
3.1.1 Short Vowels!......................................................................18
3.1.1.1 Short Open Vowels!....................................................18
3.1.1.2 Short Closed Vowels!..................................................19
3.1.1.3 The Archiphoneme <>!.............................................19
3.1.2 Long Vowels!......................................................................20
3.1.3 Diphthongs!........................................................................20
3.1.3.1 Diphthong Contraction!..............................................22
3.1.4 Semi-vowels!......................................................................23
3.1.5 Triphthongs!.......................................................................23
3.1.5.1 Diphthong and Long Vowel Coalescence!................23
3.1.6 Vowel Apocope!.................................................................26
3.1.7 Vowel Prothesis!.................................................................26
3.1.8 Vowel Polarity Inversion!....................................................27
3.2 Stress!..............................................................................................29
3.3 Orthographic Conventions Regarding Vowels!...............................30
3.4 Consonants!....................................................................................31
3.4.1 Consonants & Allophones!.................................................31
3.4.1.1 Allophony and Sound Changes!.................................33
3.4.2 Long Consonants!..............................................................56
3.4.3 Palatalized Consonants!.....................................................56
3.4.4 Glottalized Consonants!.....................................................56
3.4.5 Preaspirated Consonants!..................................................56
3.4.6 Initial Consonant Clusters!..................................................57
3.4.7 Internal Consonant Clusters!..............................................58
3.4.7.1 Anaptyctic Pronunciation!..........................................64
3.4.7.2 Ejective Pronunciation!...............................................67
3.4.8 Lenition!..............................................................................67
3.5 Diachronic Phonology!....................................................................73
3.5.1 Consonants!.......................................................................74
3.6 Prosody!...........................................................................................76
4 Nouns%.....................................................................................................78
4.1 Animacy!..........................................................................................79
4.1.1 Inanimate!...........................................................................80
4.1.2 Animate!.............................................................................81
4.1.3 Ambiguous Nouns!.............................................................85
4.1.4 Honorific Nouns!................................................................85
4.2 Marked Form!...................................................................................86
4.2.1 Inanimate Marked Form!.....................................................86
4.2.1.1 Vowel-Final!................................................................86
V

4.2.1.1.1 A-declension!.....................................................87
4.2.1.1.2 E-declension!.....................................................92
4.2.1.1.3 I-declension!......................................................97
4.2.1.1.4 O-declension!....................................................102
4.2.1.1.5 U-declension!.....................................................108
4.2.1.1.6 Y-declension!.....................................................111
4.2.1.2 Marked Consonant-Final Form!..................................115
4.2.1.2.1 S-declension!.....................................................116
4.2.1.2.2 N-declension!.....................................................116
4.2.1.2.3 T-declension!.....................................................117
4.2.1.2.4 L-declension!.....................................................118
4.2.1.2.5 Honorifics in -ts!.................................................120
4.2.1.3 Diphthong Coalescence Declension!........................120
4.2.2 Inanimate Plural!.................................................................121
4.2.2.1 Collective Plural!.........................................................123
4.2.2.2 Plural Nouns!..............................................................124
4.2.3 Animate Marked Form!.......................................................124
4.2.3.1 Overview!....................................................................139
4.2.3.2 Dual Nouns!................................................................140
4.2.3.3 Action Nominals!........................................................142
4.3 Irregular Nouns!...............................................................................144
4.4 Approbation!....................................................................................145
4.4.1 Marking!..............................................................................145
4.4.2 Approbative!.......................................................................147
4.4.3 Pejorative!...........................................................................149
4.5 Cases!.............................................................................................150
4.5.1 Agentive Case!...................................................................151
4.5.2 Patientive Case!..................................................................153
4.5.3 Genitive Case!....................................................................154
4.5.4 Dative Case!.......................................................................156
4.5.4.1 Dative vs. Genitive!....................................................159
4.5.5 Locative Cases!..................................................................159
4.5.5.1 Inessive, Illative and Elative!......................................160
4.5.5.2 Adessive, Allative and Ablative!.................................161
4.5.5.3 Locative Cases for Indirect Objects!..........................162
4.5.5.4 Abessive, Instrumental and Essive!...........................165
4.6 Double Case Marking!.....................................................................166
4.7 Indeclinable and foreign words!.....................................................172
5 Adjectives%................................................................................................173
5.1 Function of Verbal and Participial Forms!.......................................174
5.1.1 Translative Verbal and Adjectival Forms!...........................176
5.2 Function of Adjectival and Copular Forms!.....................................179
5.2.1 Copular coalescence!........................................................179
5.3 Predicative Adjectives!....................................................................180
5.3.1 Object Predicative!.............................................................182
5.3.2 Subject Predicative!...........................................................183
5.4 Attributive Adjectives!......................................................................184
5.5 Adjective Formation!.......................................................................187
5.6 Declension!.....................................................................................192
VI

5.7 Formation of Verbal Forms from Non-Derived Adjectival Forms!....192

5.8 Degrees of Comparison!.................................................................194
5.8.1 Comparative!......................................................................194
5.8.1.1 Comparative constructions!.......................................196
5.8.2 Superlative!.........................................................................197
5.8.3 Equative!............................................................................200
5.8.4 Comparative and Superlative of Non-Adjectives!..............200
5.9 Compound Adjectives!....................................................................202
5.10 Nominalization of Adjectives!........................................................203
5.11 Non-Numeral Quantifiers!..............................................................206
5.11.1 Comparative and Superlative!..........................................210
6 Adverbs%...................................................................................................212
6.1 Adverbial Form of Adjectives!.........................................................212
6.2 Adverbial Form of Verbs!.................................................................215
6.2.1 Participial Adverbs!............................................................215
6.2.2 Verbal Adverbs!..................................................................216
6.3 Adverbial Form of Non-Numeral Quantifiers!..................................217
6.4 Comparative and Superlative!.........................................................218
6.5 Locative Adverbs/Postpositions!.....................................................220
6.5.1 Cardinal Directions!............................................................222
6.5.2 Up and Down!....................................................................225
6.5.3 Over and Under!.................................................................229
6.5.4 In, On and Out!...................................................................231
6.5.5 Before, Behind, In The Middle and Through!.....................233
6.5.6 At, Near, Away!...................................................................236
6.5.7 Amongst, Next To and At The Edge Of!.............................238
6.5.8 Across and On The Other Side!.........................................240
6.6 Temporal adverbs!..........................................................................242
6.7 Indeclinable Adverbs!.....................................................................248
6.7.1 Indeclinable Adverbs of Degree!.......................................248
6.7.2 Indeclinable Adverbs of Time!...........................................249
6.7.3 Other Indeclinable Adverbs!..............................................250
6.8 Negation Adverbs!...........................................................................251
7 Conjunctions%...........................................................................................252
7.1 Coordinating Particles!....................................................................259
8 Postpositions%...........................................................................................264
9 Verbs%.......................................................................................................278
9.1 Verb morphology!............................................................................278
9.2 Verb Structure!................................................................................281
9.2.1 Independent Verbs!............................................................281
9.2.1.1 Prefix slots!.................................................................281
9.2.1.1.1 Slot -3!................................................................281
9.2.1.1.2 Slot -2!................................................................282
9.2.1.1.3 Slot -1!................................................................282
9.2.1.2 Verb Stem!..................................................................283
9.2.1.2.1 Slot 1!.................................................................283
9.2.1.2.2 Slot 2!.................................................................284
9.2.1.2.3 Slot 3 and 4!.......................................................284
9.2.1.2.4 Impersonal Verbs and Verbal Adjectives!..........289
VII

9.2.1.2.5 Slot 5!.................................................................291

9.2.1.2.6 Slot 6!.................................................................292
9.2.1.2.7 Slot 7!.................................................................293
9.2.1.2.8 Slot 8!.................................................................293
9.2.1.2.9 Slot 9!.................................................................293
9.2.2 Copular Verbs!...................................................................294
9.3 Verbal Personal Pronouns!..............................................................296
9.3.1.1 Inclusive vs. Exclusive!...............................................297
9.3.1.2 Obviative vs. Proximate!.............................................298
9.3.1.3 Fourth Person!............................................................299
9.3.2 Agentive Pronouns!............................................................303
9.3.3 Recipient Pronouns!...........................................................303
9.3.4 Patientive Pronouns!...........................................................304
9.3.5 Unagentive Pronouns!........................................................306
9.3.6 Overview!............................................................................308
9.4 Agentivity!........................................................................................309
9.4.1 Unagentive Verbs!..............................................................309
9.4.1.1 Patientive Verbs!.........................................................311
9.4.2 Agentive Verbs!..................................................................311
9.4.3 Ambiguous Agentivity!........................................................312
9.4.4 Double Agentivity!..............................................................313
9.5 Valency!...........................................................................................315
9.5.1 Transitive!...........................................................................315
9.5.2 Intransitive!.........................................................................317
9.5.2.1 Intransitive Syncope!..................................................318
9.5.3 Translative!.........................................................................319
9.5.4 Subjective!..........................................................................321
9.5.5 Ditransitive!.........................................................................324
9.5.5.1 Subjective Directional!................................................327
9.5.6 Passive!..............................................................................327
9.5.7 Impersonal Verbs!..............................................................328
9.5.8 Prefix Coalescence!...........................................................330
9.6 Evidentiality!....................................................................................331
9.6.1 Assertive!............................................................................331
9.6.2 Inferential!...........................................................................332
9.7 Mood!..............................................................................................333
9.7.1 Indicative!...........................................................................334
9.7.2 Conditional Realis!..............................................................335
9.7.3 Conditional Irrealis!.............................................................337
9.7.4 Optative!.............................................................................339
9.7.5 Obligative!..........................................................................342
9.7.6 Imperative!..........................................................................343
9.7.6.1 Imperative Obviative!.................................................344
9.8 Postverbal Vowel Coalescence!......................................................346
9.9 Aspect!............................................................................................354
9.9.1 Conclusivity!.......................................................................354
9.9.1.1 Verbal Inconclusive!...................................................355
9.9.1.2 Copular Inconclusive!................................................356
9.9.1.3 Telicity!.......................................................................357
VIII

9.9.2 Habitual!.............................................................................359
9.9.3 Perfective!...........................................................................360
9.9.4 Secondary Aspectual Markers!..........................................361
9.9.4.1 Reversive!...................................................................362
9.9.4.2 Semelfactive!..............................................................363
9.9.4.3 Persistive!...................................................................366
9.9.4.4 Frequentative!.............................................................367
9.9.4.5 Inchoative!..................................................................368
9.9.4.6 Subitive!......................................................................368
9.9.4.7 Habilitive!....................................................................370
9.9.4.8 Diminutive!..................................................................371
9.10 Tense!............................................................................................372
9.10.1 Past Form!.........................................................................374
9.10.1.1 Past Marking on Vowel-Final Verbs!.........................374
9.10.1.1.1 Vowel-final Stem Coalescence!.......................376
9.10.1.1.2 Vowel-Final Verbs!...........................................377
9.10.1.1.3 Diphthong-Final Verbs!....................................385
9.10.1.2 Past Marking on Consonant-Final Verbs!.................385
9.10.1.2.1 Strong Consonant-Final Verbs!........................385
9.10.1.2.2 Weak Consonant-Final Verbs!..........................391
9.10.1.3 Irregular verbs!.........................................................393
9.10.1.3.1 Augmented Verbs!...........................................394
9.10.1.3.2 Syncoped Verbs!..............................................395
9.10.1.3.3 Proper Irregular Verbs!.....................................395
9.11 Tense-Aspect Coalescence!.........................................................398
9.12 Location and Movement!...............................................................399
9.12.1 Primary Locative Markers!................................................400
9.12.2 Definite Secondary Locative Markers!.............................401
9.12.3 Relative Secondary Locative Markers!.............................402
9.13 Preverbal Adverbs!........................................................................403
9.13.1 Locative Preverbal Adverbs!............................................403
9.13.1.1 With Transitive Verbs!...............................................404
9.13.1.2 With Semantically Passive Verbs!............................405
9.13.1.3 With Paritciples!........................................................405
9.13.1.4 Modifying the Verb!..................................................406
9.13.2 Simlpe Preverbal Adverbs!...............................................410
9.14 Absolutive Descriptives!................................................................424
9.14.1 -AHP-!...............................................................................425
9.14.2 -AHT-!...............................................................................427
9.14.3 -ATST- or -ADD-!..............................................................429
9.14.4 -IB- (also -IB-)!................................................................430
9.14.5 -IKS-!.................................................................................432
9.14.6 -IPR-/-IUL- or -IB-!..........................................................433
9.14.7 -UP/-YP-/-EB-!..................................................................434
9.14.8 -OHN/-HN-!....................................................................436
9.14.9 -OHK-!...............................................................................437
9.15 Complementization!.......................................................................439
9.15.1 Short Forms!.....................................................................441
9.15.1.1 Short Forms in Direct Speech!.................................442
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9.16 Copula!..........................................................................................442
9.16.1 Independent Copula!.......................................................443
9.16.1.1 There-Existential Phrases!........................................444
9.16.1.2 To Be!.......................................................................447
9.16.1.3 Relative Clauses!......................................................450
9.16.1.3.1 Subjective Relative Clauses!............................453
9.16.1.3.2 Objective Relative Clauses!.............................455
9.16.1.3.3 Possessive Relative Clauses!..........................458
9.16.1.3.4 Locative Relative Clauses!...............................459
9.16.1.3.5 Link Constructions!..........................................462
9.16.1.3.5.1 Temporal Link Constructions!..................463
9.16.1.3.5.2 Goal Link Constructions!..........................469
9.16.1.3.5.3 Adverbial Link Constructions!..................470
9.16.2 Dependent Copula!..........................................................473
9.16.2.1 Copular Endings!......................................................477
9.16.2.2 Defective Copular Verbs!.........................................478
9.16.2.3 Coalescence!...........................................................480
9.16.2.4 Use!..........................................................................482
9.16.2.5 Miscellaneous!..........................................................483
9.17 Participles!.....................................................................................483
9.17.1 Active Participles!.............................................................486
9.17.2 Patientive Participles!.......................................................489
9.17.3 Temporal Participles!........................................................491
9.18 Infinitives!.......................................................................................492
9.18.1 Nominal Infinitive!.............................................................497
9.18.1.2 Verb Stem and Nominal Infinitive Coalescence!......498
9.18.2 Copular Infinitive!.............................................................504
9.18.2.1 Time And Evendiality!...............................................505
9.18.2.2 Bare Infinitives!.........................................................506
9.18.2.3 Locative Infinitives!...................................................507
10 Pronouns and Determiners%...................................................................510
10.1 Personal Pronouns!.......................................................................511
10.1.1 First Person!......................................................................513
10.1.2 Second Person!................................................................513
10.1.3 Third Person!....................................................................514
10.1.4 Fourth Person!..................................................................515
10.1.5 Self!...................................................................................515
10.2 Demonstrative Pronouns!..............................................................516
10.2.1 Independent Pronouns!....................................................518
10.2.2 Attributive Pronouns!........................................................520
10.3 Adverbial Pronouns or Pro-Adverbs!...........................................524
10.4 Question Words!............................................................................526
10.5 Interrogative Adverbs!...................................................................529
10.6 Indefinite Pronouns!.......................................................................530
10.6.1.1 Known To Speaker!..................................................532
10.6.1.2 Unknown To Speaker!..............................................533
10.6.1.3 Non-Specific!............................................................533
10.6.1.4 Polar Question!.........................................................533
10.6.1.5 Conditional!..............................................................534
X

10.6.1.6 Indirection Negation!................................................534

10.6.1.7 Direct Negation!.......................................................534
10.6.1.8 Comparison!.............................................................534
10.6.1.9 Free Choice!.............................................................535
10.6.1 Known Existential Pronouns!............................................535
10.6.2 Unknown Existential Pronouns!........................................536
10.6.3 Elective Pronouns!............................................................538
10.6.5 Known Negative Pronouns!..............................................539
10.6.6 Unknown Negative Pronouns!..........................................541
10.7 Universal and Distributive Pronouns!............................................542
10.7.1 Distributive Pronouns!.......................................................542
10.7.2 Universal Pronouns!.........................................................544
10.8 -ni Determiners!.............................................................................545
10.8.1 -ni Determiners on Pronouns!...........................................547
11 Numerals%...............................................................................................549
11.1 Cardinal Numerals!........................................................................549
11.2 Ordinal Numerals!..........................................................................552
11.2.1 Halves and Fractions!.......................................................553
11.3 Nominal Numerals!........................................................................554
11.4 Collective Numerals!......................................................................554
12 Interjections%...........................................................................................556
13 Interrogation%..........................................................................................557
14 Derivation%..............................................................................................558
14.1 Derivational Phonological Changes!.............................................558
14.1.1 Fronted Vowels!................................................................559
14.1.2 Lengthened Vowels!.........................................................560
14.1.3 Shortened Vowels!............................................................562
14.1.4 Overview of Vowel Changes!...........................................563
14.2 Derivational Endings!.....................................................................564
14.2.1 Nominal Derivational Endings!.........................................564
14.2.1.1 Non-Productive Endings!..........................................573
14.2.2 Deverbalizers!..................................................................574
14.2.2.1 Verbal Derivational Endings!....................................575
15 Syntax%...................................................................................................586
15.1 General Word Order!.....................................................................586
15.2 The Noun Phrase!..........................................................................587
15.3 The Adjectival Phrase!...................................................................588
15.4 The Adverbial Phrase!...................................................................588
15.5 Interrogative Phrase!.....................................................................589
15.6 Topicalization!...............................................................................589
16 Dialects%................................................................................................591
17 Texts%.....................................................................................................595
Nitaka Siiko%..............................................................................................595
17.1 English Version!...............................................................................601
18 Lexicon%..................................................................................................607
19 Glossing%................................................................................................667
20 Siwa Swadesh List%...............................................................................668
Appendix A: Modernization%..........................................................................673
19 Glossing%................................................................................................682
XI

20 Siwa Swadesh List%...............................................................................683

21 Map %......................................................................................................686
22 A Beginners Course in Modern Siwa%....................................................688
Uosaui!......................................................................................689
1 NIETAT ESTOT - First Lesson: Hi, my name is.%.........................698
1.1 TAMOSI II!.............................................................................................698
1.2 OAKIMA!..................................................................................................699
1.3 TAMOSI K!..............................................................................................708

2 NIETAT EUT - Second Lesson: This is my friend%........................716

2.1 DA MMNI DDA? !..................................................................................716
2.2 DA NDNI DDA? !...................................................................................719
2.3 KITUANA KENDAI NHR?!....................................................................725

3 NIETAT NEVUT - Third Lesson: Im not from around here%..........730

3.1 SIBOAKI NGA? !...................................................................................730
3.2 KOKKASA NHR KITAMI? !....................................................................737

4 NIETAT AITSET - Fourth Lesson: What would you like%.................744

4.1 Pevuana i nhr ? !..................................................................................744
4.2 Mantuemi m kadlka yi!...........................................................................751
4.3 Ndni unokkis tten? !...............................................................................756

5 NIETAT HAKNET - Fifth Lesson: How do you feel today%...............763

5.1 Toa aymika!............................................................................................763
5.2 Para gedna!.............................................................................................769

5 NIETAT SUDNET - Sixth Lesson: Do you want to come to the cabin with
us?%..........................................................................................................781
5.1 Kobai mitsnta mimiei. !........................................................................781

Appendix A: Modernization%..........................................................................786

XII

XIII

1 Foreword
Siwa is a constructed language or conlang that came to be as the result of many
years of exploration, imagination and hard work. The original project started
sometime before 2005 when I decided to catalog my ideas for a new language in the
form of a journal. The project bore the name Glossopoiesis and although the result
you will find in this book has little to do with the original project, there is an unbroken
chain of work, ideas and documents that extend over 10 years and have culminated
in the form of this book.
!
The hobby of creating languages is called conlanging. It is a difficult idea to
explain to the uninitiated or those who have never considered language creation as a
tool for creativity. As I came to find out, language creation is very much a form of art,
disguised in linguistic terms and abstract grammatical ideas. There is beauty in using
the infinitely complex and diverse phenomenon of language, which is available to us
all, and turn in into something distinctly private and personal. There is also a
fundamental problem with conlanging this hobby is often only ever fully
appreciated by its creator. It would be foolish for anyone setting out creating a
language to think that there will be an audience for the creation. Indeed it is quite far
from the point of this book. Instead, the satisfaction I get from having created my own
language lies in my ability to express my thoughts and ideas in a way uniquely
tailored to my taste, my esthetics, my view of the world. Conlanging is a lonely and
selfish hobby, which is perhaps why so few dare to share their work with the world.
!
I started conlanging at a young age, first by designing and modifying all
types of alphabets. I was still young when I discovered an old family heirloom, a book
on Ancient Greek grammar, passed down from father to son for 200 years. The
alphabet fascinated me and it stimulated my imagination. I was able to express
myself through the creation of alphabets. All my school books were covered in
various indecipherable scribblings. My curiosity quickly turned to languages, which
took up most of my interest throughout my teens. I read through every language book
I could find and I was assiduously studying Icelandic and Finnish with perfect fluency
as my goal. The more I learned about foreign languages and their grammar, the more
inspired I became to make my own language, using what I liked about the many
languages I was studying to create something uniquely mine. The result was the first
systematic attempt to describe the creation of a conlang, which many years later
would lead to the birth of Siwa.
!
Siwa, and my goal of finishing this book, widened my horizons and
introduced me to exciting subjects; anthropology, botany, biology, genetics, human
prehistory and most importantly linguistics. Of the languages I have studied, a few
have left a very important mark on Siwa, namely Finnish, Northern Smi and
Georgian.
!
Now, more than 700 pages later, Siwa is a functional, rich, realistic apriori
conlang with a large vocabulary and one speaker. A fully operational machine
capable of expressing any thought beautifully, set in a detailed culture and
landscape of pre-Columbian Native America.

!
Although the medium I chose to express myself artistically is unusual, I hope
I have succeeded in capturing my vision of Siwa so that those who wish to peer into it
may learn about it, appreciate it and even find out something new about the world.

tienne L. Poisson
Reykjavk, 2014

2 The Alopian People

The Siwa people are a pre-columbian North-American seminomadic people who
inhabit a 525 km long belt of land in central Quebec, mostly centered around lake
Mistassini (Sipsi) and westward along the Rupert River (Sengi) to the shores of the
James Bay. Siwa and their relatives form the Alopian language family (from the
Ancient Greek male fox, a common symbol amongst these people).
!
The Alopian family contains seven languages regrouped in three branches on the
basis of their development and shared features:
!
!
Forest Alopian
!
!
Siwa
!
!
Sigori
%
Tundra Alopian
!
!
Eastern Onori
!
!
Western Onori
%
Costal Alopian
!
!
Costal Olma
!
!
Southern Olma
The Forest and Tundra Alopian branches are grouped together as the Inland Alopian
branch. The Alopian language family is of no genetic or linguistic relation to any other
language or language family in North America and the surrounding Algonquian and
Iroquoian languages.
!
Compared to their neighbors, the Alopian languages have a remarkably
different morphology and phonology the languages are not typical of the
northeastern native american linguistic profile; Alopian languages show distinction
between voiced and unvoiced consonants; certain languages have rounded vowels;
all Alopian languages have fixed initial stress, etc. On the other hand, there is much
homogeneity between all Alopian languages, and even the most divergent
languages, for example the linguistically and geographically opposed Eastern Onori
and Southern Olma languages, are not as distant from each other as English and
Russian their similarities and dissimilarities are more comparable to those of English
to Swedish. Physically, the Alopians are not similar to their Algonquian neighbors.
Alopians are short, have large elevated flat cheekbones, somewhat small noses,

heavy but bare brow and brown hair. However, unlike other native populations,
Alopian people sometimes display curly hair in much lighter shades, freckles, pale
brown to green eyes and a paler complexion.
!
Genetically, Alopians are atypical in that they exhibit the highest rate of the X
MtDNA haplogroup in the Americas, with as much as 45% of the population carrying
the X haplogroup. They are followed by the Algonquian people (their neighbors to the
west) with a frequency of as much as 25%. The X haplogroup is the only founding
haplogroup of Native Americans (the others are A, B, C and D) which is found in
Europe, specifically in Near East, Caucasus and Mediterranean Europe. This, along

with other clues discussed elsewhere in this book, points to an ultimately European
origin for the Alopian people and languages.

2.1 Origin of the Alopian People

It has been proposed that the Alopian people arrived in Quebec from Europe
sometime after the beginning of the Holocene epoch roughly 10,000 years ago when
most of Quebec was still covered by a thick layer of ice. These people who settled
the northeastern part of America would have likely spoken a single language, which
quickly took to diverging into the present Alopian languages over a period of
2500-3500 years. Viewed in concert with the range of with their domain, the arrival of
the Alopian people in North-America can be placed 5,000-4,000 years ago, during
the late Boreal or early Atlantic periods of the Holecene epoch. This places the
present Siwa people and their relatives in time at around 2,500 years ago.
!
The reconstructed proto-language, ancestor of the Alopian languages, is
likely to have been spoken somewhere in Eurasia to the west of the Ural mountains.
This generally supported scenario indicates that Proto-Alopians moved westward
and likely encountered the early Uralic or Finno-Ugric people in or east of
Scandinavia. This interaction would have lasted for some time to allow for the
incorporation of several loanwords into the early proto-Alopian language. Eventually
proto-Alopians are thought to have traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and settled
what is known today as Quebec. The means of this migration over tha Atlantic ocean
are unknown, but travel by boats is possible, especially in view of the advanced boat
making skills displayed by the Olma people, who build boats strong enough to go
fishing many tens of kilometers out into the Atlantic.
!
The evidence for this migration from Europe to America is composed of a few
borrowings from a very early Uralic language as well as traits generally dissimilar to
the native american cultures that surround Alopian people and similar traits to many
Siberian reindeer herders. This theory, if correct, would make the Alopian people the
only genetic and linguistic group to have settled America from the Atlantic Ocean.
Due of the great time depth involved in reconstructions of proto-Uralic languages
(proto-Finnic, proto-Saamic and/or proto-Finno-Permic. depending on the
classification) which appear to go back to the earliest stages of proto-Uralic, it is not
possible to confirm a time or area of contact between the proto-Alopian and early
Uralic peoples if it occured.
!
However, it seems very likely that these two groups were at one point in
Sprachbund with geographical proximity and sociolinguistic contact. Genetic or
otherwise, evidence of community or contact includes cultural terms common to the
Uralic language. The proto-Uralic *wk (sometimes termed a Wanderwort)
resembles the proto-Alopian form *(v/m?)ski (cf. SIWA moski wild copper and OLMA
vaik golden, reddish, yellow). Similarly, the proto-Uralic *ysi bow is similar (but
not identical or regularly derivable) to the proto-Alopian *ks (cf. SIWA ksy bow).
!
Further evidence places the movement of the proto-Alopian people in a
migration course near the Baltic sea, such as the extensive use of amber in graves,
6

large ceramic containers decorated with fine lines, using of large tipis and wooden
houses common to the Comb-Ceramic or Pit-Comb culture of neolithic Scandinavia,
which places a proto-Alopian presence there at 7000 years ago.
!
This is coherent with apparent loanwords from a Uralic language:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*suksi ! !
*ss:i-ba %
sohpa ! !

ski

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*suksi ! !
*ss:i
syhhi ! !

ski

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!
!
!
proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!
!
!
!

*meki !!
bee
*mi
meihho !beehive

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*puwe ! !
*pmi
pymi ! !

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*jik ! !
*j:ec
gekes ! !

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*rep ! !
*re<te>pa
retema !fox

fox

!
!
!

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*pjw !!
*pej-pe
peibi%
!

sun

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*hi- !
*hexhel-%

proto-Uralic!
!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*tuke ! !
*to-ka
tkka ! !

ski

bent tree

*we ! !
*vee
v !
!
!
!

brother-in-law
male visitor who is allowed to
sleep with hosts daughter
wood
unedible cambrium
age
year

full-moon

polish
!

to polish, to make smooth/even

push
it will give birth to it (of animals)
7

These correspondences are however at a time depth too deep for more than
speculation on whether these words are true borrowinsg or convergent coincidence.
2.2 The Alopian People in North-America
Proponents are currently divided over proposals on the mechanism of proto-Alopian
migration, currently into two separate camps; the most likely route of settlement is
along the southern margins of the Atlantic sea ice (early settlement theory) or by
crossing the ocean on boat (late settlement theory).
!
An agricultural force such as the Corded-Ware culture might have forced the
hunter-gathering proto-Alopian people to migrate westward. Most of the present
Alopian territory would have been unaccessible or covered in a large lake (the Tyrrell
sea) 9000 years ago. Proto-Alopian people would have first settled in the eastern
Woodlands and subsequently moved up into the Shield Archaic cultural region as the
Laurentide Ice Sheet recessed. Unlike the Algonquian people, who are believed to
have come from the west and have more or less always been part of the Shield
Archaic culture, Proto-Alopians would have gone through a cultural switch, going
from semi-nomadic forest hunting and light agriculture to a much more nomadic
lifestyle of forest and sea hunting and a heavy dependence on caribou herding.
!
Many terms related more or less to the lifestyle of the Shield Archaic culture
found in Alopian languages are borrowed from an early Algonquian language:
!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*ahp- ! !
*o-p-i
bi !
!

dark blue, bruise

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*amekwa !
*meskwa
msko ! !

beaver

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*peiwa !
*piwe
pivi ! !

lynx

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*nepi- ! !
*niiwnivvon% !

water

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*ak-! !
*sk-ama
ohkama !

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*-axkw- !wood
*-ga- % !
(in certain tree names)
serula ! !
larch

X gets a bruise

beaver meat

lynx

wet
unripe
raw

larch wood1

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

iruoga ! !
!
*ekwe- !
*iskwe ! !
ski !
!

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa! !
!

*ka:wa:ntakwa white spruce

*kauwa:ta
kumora !
white spruce

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*mahkate:w !
*mka-si
moasi ! !

black

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! %
Siwa ! !
!

*namewa !
*nomwa
nommo!!

sturgeon

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*na:pe:ya:kwa % male porcupine

*nobeja
nobia ! !
porcupine

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*oxpwakana ! pipe
*bwakon
uboko ! !
pipe

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-Alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*se:hse:ka:ntakwa !
black spruce
*seseka:ta
seskora !
tree used to find ones way

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-alopian ! !
Siwa ! !
!

*wekwani !
*oskwan
oskon ! !

his forehead

!
!
!

proto-Algonquian!
proto-alopian ! !
siwa ! !
!

*wesa:w !
*os
usu ! !

yellow

woman
woman

black bear (taboo word)

sturgeon

male moose

smoked2

(cf. siula fir > iuoga fir wood and npi dwarf birch neuoga/neoga drift wood (proto-Siwa *nw-ga,
contaminated by neo sand)

(reanalyzed as *os-u, cf. toski it keeps for a long time from *os-k and oskima durable)

2.3 The Alopian Family Tree

The diagram below shows how Alopian languages are thought to have evolved from
the proto-Alopian language and how they are related to each other.

proto-Alopian

Costal Alopian

Eastern Olma

Central Olma

Southern Olma

Inland Alopian

Tundra Alopian

Eastern Onori

Western Onori

Forest Alopian

Siwa

Sigori

The Alopians are organized in 3 main groups according to both a cultural and
geographical separation; the nomadic caribou herders of the north (the Tundra
Alopians); the semi-nomadic hunter gatherers of the Boreal Forest (the Forest Alopian
speakers), and the semi-settled fishermen, farmers, traders and hunters of the
southern territory (the Costal Alopial speakers). The settled Costal Alopians have
been influenced by the extended North-Eastern cultural area of North-America and
are thus similar to Iroquoian people. The nomadic and semi-nomadic Forest and
Taiga Alopians of the North belong to the Subarctic hunter-gatherer cultural area.
Despite large cultural differences, the Alopian peoples recognize their distinct
culture, ethnicity and linguistic relationship. This is supported by an intricate system
of cooperation, intertribal visitations, intermarriage and trade.

10

11

*tio:di-un
*ku-m
*sl-ka
*ma:hi

snowshoes

aspen

maple

*siwe

honey

guts

*tine

firewood

*tsxi:

*sudo

berry

cedar

*sira

fish

ProtoAlopian

maihhi

solka

gykin

toadun

tsn

sivi

tinin

suvo

sira

Siwa

salka

sauk/
sauka
ma:/ma:i

sanaka
mauhi/
ma:fi

ma:

ykyn

o:o

ti

ie

ini

su:

sina

Western
Onori

yka/kyka

o:unu

o:an/
o:nu
ikom/ika

tsm

e:j

eni

su:j

si:/si:s

Eastern
Onori

Tundra Alopian

tsuhi/tso:

sibi

ie/ieni

suo/suju

sina

Sigori

Forest Alopian

ma:j

sauka

cca

uanu

ie

sieb

cien

suol

siesa

Southern
Olma

ma:bi

so:ka

uonu

ii

si:b

en

su:ru

si:s

Central
Olma

Costal Alopian

maub

solk

aa

anu

i:

ep

iem

suli

sicci

Costal
Olma

12

tamosi

*ta-msi
*migi
*ei

hunter

one

two

ei

savpi

*s-bi

forest fire

myry

bieli

*mr

*bi:li

fat

obena

Siwa

mje

tamoi/
tamo

soppi

mini

ii

me

ii

mi

tami

saspi

saspi/
sappi
tami

myry

bieli

ona

Western
Onori

myry/myny

be:w/be:j

wo:na/
wo:ni

obna/
wabna
bieli/biali

Eastern
Onori

Tundra Alopian

Sigori

Forest Alopian

fly (n.)

*obena

smoke

ProtoAlopian

mag

tama:

saumpi

mana

pieja

vuapi

Southern
Olma

max

tamo:

sampi

mana

paja

wapi

Central
Olma

Costal Alopian

meg

tamo:

sauppi

mana

paja

wapin

Costal
Olma

2.4 The Siwa People

The Siwa people call themselves Siuragi in their language, Siwa (Sia). There are
various endonyms used for different parts of the Siwa territory. These two names are
clearly etymologically related (siu- and si-), though the ultimate origin is unclear.
Siwa themselves consider that the words originate from sivva foxes, as they strongly
associate with the arctic fox (vulpes lagopus). However, another possibility is that the
two cognates could be related to the word sivi honey. In Siwa mythology, the world
came from a drop of honey that was shattered by lightning. This is also supported by
various words with a positive conotation derived from honey (sivusomi honeyman
means a righteous, good man) and the central role that honey plays in Siwa culture
honey is considered a holy substance, a cure and even a form of payment.
!
As a people, the Siwa are united by their way of life, their mythology, stories,
songs, skills and dialects. All Siwa are semi-nomadic, constantly moving during the
winter and regrouping in permanant villages during the summer months. Siwa society
is organized around multiple units formed of one or many families living together in
communities around lakes and rivers. These communities are home to children and
woman all year round, with the men and boys being away from the communities for
up to 9 months of the year.
!
Siwa people survive thus through hunting and the keeping of caribou (or at
the very least the hunting of caribou) and some light forms of agriculture (certain
communities grow beans, berries and squashes). Great hunting and fishing skills and
an extensive knowledge of the flora in which they live has allowed Siwa to grow and
expland over a large territory and diversify into specific regional communities. For
example, the western communities are known for their seal hunting while eastern
communities exceed at weaving baskets and shoes from birch bark.
2.4.1 Siwa Territory
Siwa territory contains four main regions, each of which have their own dialects,
culture and own ethnonyms. They are the western, mid-western, mid-eastern and
eastern territories. Eastern Siwa people call themselves Tatimragi (shore-people, cf.
temmu shore), mid-easterners are called Aslaragi (antler-people, cf. salama
antlers), mid-westerners are called Denigi (arrow-people, cf. deno arrow), and
easterners are called Heigi (salt-people, cf. hego salt). Mid-eastern and midwestern territories are sometimes refered to as Mamoski (game-people). These
ethnonyms reflect characteristic features of those who live in each territory.
!
There are 22 main Siwa communities spread over the whole territory, with
many more smaller settlements and temporary camps. The most populous
community is the city of Aingo, whose dialect is the basis for the language described
in this book. The communities and territories are organized as such:
!
!
!
!
!

Western communities (Heigi):

!
dnu
!
Riekka
!
Nenniauki
!
Regna
13

!
!
!
!
!

Mid-western communities (Denigi)

!
Tski
!
Hadloi
!
Kola
!
Skisa

!
!
!
!

Mid-eastern communities (Aslaragi)

!
Sarsirit
!
Onnu
!
Saihken

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Eastern communities (Tatimragi)

!
Aingo
!
ekla and Hokla
!
Rhri
!
Kelin
!
Neihesko
!
Kevvi
!
Kuomin
!
Sorhi
!
Nupddima
!
Sutaen

2.4.1.1 Geography
The geography of Quebec was quite different 3000 years ago than it is today. The
water levels of lakes and rivers was higher, the climate was wetter and slightly cooler
than today. Flora and fauna found more to the north were common in the south of
Quebec. The Boreal Forest also began further south than it is today. Wetlands,
quagmires, bogs and marshes were much more common than today. The Tundra,
Open Boreal Woodland, Mid Taiga and South Taiga vegetation/climate belts would
have been respectively shifted to the south, such that the Tundra belt of today would
have been found where todays Open Boreal Woodland belt is, and the Open Boreal
Woodland belt would have been where the Mid Taiga belt is today, and so on. The
tundra area would have been treeless, perhaps similar to northern Finland and its
tunturi.

2.4.2 Sociolinguistic Situation

It is estimated that are about 30,00060,000 Siwa people. About half of the males
speak at least another language, most commonly Sigori. Some may be able to
communicate with neighboring Algonquian peoples. Siwa people recognize their
close ties with the Sigori, and the continuum between the two languages can become
unclear in the dialect of Siwa which closest resemble Sigori, namely the Sorhi dialect.

14

Siwa is best thought of as a continuum composed of 8 dialect groups spoken in 22

areas, which are generally separated into East and West. The grammar contained in
this book is based mainly on the eastern dialects, especially that of Aingo, which
belongs to the Sapsi dialect. To illustrate how the dialects differ from each other, the
phrase the man burned himself in the fire is shown in each dialect:
'
!

Western Dialects
!
Far Western, spoken in dnu, Riekka, Nenniauki and Regna

Mid Western, spoken in Tski, Hadloi, Kola and Skisa

'
!

Eastern Dialects
!
Mid Eastern, spoken in Sarsirit, Onnu and Saihken

Sapsi dialects, spoken in ekla, Rhri and Kelin

%
!
!
%
%

%
!
!
%
%

%
!

Far Eastern, spoken in Kevvi and Kuomin

North Eastern, spoken in Sorhi (called Saro)

asai nobetta ot sonka

asavi nobenda at sonka

asai noenda ot skko

osai noemta ota somo

South-Sapsi, spoken in Aingo, Nupddima and Sutaen
osavvi noimmita otta skko

North-Sapsi, spoken in Neihesko

%
%
%
osai noemta otta sonko

usavvi noenda okta songu

asaddi noemba ata smko

The western dialects have most heavily been influenced by surrounding Algonquian
languages;they contain more loanwords, are less conservative than eastern dialects
and are generally regarded as less proper by eastern dialect speakers.

15

3 Phonology
3.1 Vowels
The table below shows all vowels of Siwa, both phonemes (in //) and allophones (in
[]).

front
close

/i y/

near close

/e /

nearfront

mid

near-back

//
[]

back

/u/
[]
//

close mid
open mid

[ ]

near open

//

open

[a]

//

//

Siwa has phonemic distinction between short and long.

!
!
SHORT! !
!
!
LONG
!
/ e i u y / !
!
/: e: i: : u: : y: :/
!
<a e i o u y > !
!
< u u>

The former are either open or closed, and the latter are always long vowels. The
two semi-vowels are /j w/ < >. The semi-vowels can also be long, then spelled g [j:]
and vv [w:]. The short vowels are pronounced as follow in closed syllables (before
two consonants or before a word-final consonant, though not before long
consonants):
!
!

/a /
<a e i o u y >

The vowel // <> does not exist in closed syllables, being instead replaced by []
<e>, and <y > being being pronounced [] when in closed syllables.
Siwa also has a vowel which lacks its own surface form it is a phoneme which has
no fixed pronunciation; an archiphoneme. This archiphoneme is <> (not to be
confused with the anaptyctic []). Its pronunciation is dependent on the preceding
vowels. It is not found in stressed syllables (see 3.1.3). It is sometimes found written
as <o>, especially when transcribing certain eastern dialects which have kept it as

16

the phoneme [] or [], e.g. kgini [cij:ini] youngest child vs. kgoni [ci:j:ni].
However, since this is restricted to only a few dialects, it will not be used here.
!
Below is a chart summing the vowels and their orthography:
short

long

open

closed

open

closed

/a/

[] a

[a] a

[:]

//

[]

[:]

/e/

[e] e

[] e

[e:]

/i/

[i] i

[] i

[i:]

/o/

[] o

[] o

[:] or [:]

/u/

[u] u

[] u

[u:]

/y/

[y] y

[y:]

[:] u

[]
//
//

[]
[]

[:] u

The terms open and closed refer to the type of syllable the vowels appear in. Open
syllables are of the type V.(C)(V), where the coda of the first syllable is followed by
another syllable without onset. Closed syllables are of the type VC# (word-final coda
other than -s) and V.CC. For example, at.a [ta] is open, at [at] is closed and so is
an.ta [anta]. Note however, that -CC- must be composed of two different phonemes
long consonants and the sounds [t ] and [ts] do not cause a syllable to be
closed.
%
%
%

gedli % %
hiddua %
katsa % %

[eti] % %
[hi:uja] %
[ktsa] %

X will work (rarely [ti])

X will stack Y up (never *[h:uja])
outside %

The quality of a vowel (short open, short closed, but not long) changes only
allophonically when in a stressed syllable, i.e. the vowels realization changes but it
maintains the same phonemic value, if short:
%
%
!
%

ddna % %
dnaka %
ehhama %
ehhakka %

[d:tna] !
[d:nga] %
[eh:ma] %
[eh:aka] %

pillow !
pillow GEN.
seam
seam GEN.!
17

3.1.1 Short Vowels

Short vowels are:
!
!
%

in open syllables!
[ e i u y ] %
<a e i o u y > !

!
%
!

in closed syllables
[a ]
<a e e i o u y >

Short / y/ respectively are not phonetically distinguished in closed environments, but

they remain distinguished through orthography. In the Regna dialect, // in closed
syllables can be realized as [] or []. The nasal // has no allophonic variation in
closed or open syllables.
!
kulu [kulu] cloudy
!
gagi [gi] with !
!
nuppua [npua] X will snatch
!
galmot [galm] soft!
!
Y
!
!
!

kmes [cms] happy

megi [mei] I
netra [ntxa] really

!
!

nita [nia] X will teach Y

pilra [plra] copper

!
!

pohi [pi] chubby

sodna [sxtna] shade

!
!

pd [pd] log
str [stx] frustrated

!
!

tygi [tyi] poison

ymni [mn:i] early fall

!
!

khi [ki] memory

kga [kga] bear cub

3.1.1.1 Short Open Vowels

Short open vowels are those which appear in front of a single consonant, a long
geminated unvoiced stop ([p:] <bb> [t:] <dd> [k:] <gg>), any geminated sonorant or
[] <t ti> [] <d di> [t] <dl> and [ts] <ts>, followed by another vowel in an
open syllable.
!
!
!

ata !
!
[ta] ! !
open mouth
atra ! !
[atxa] ! !
open mouth GEN.
(short open vowel in open syllable into closed syllable)

!
!
!

sukno ! !
[s] !
large isolated conifer
sungoma !
[su:ma] !
large isolated conifer GEN.
(short closed vowel in close syllable into open syllable)

!
!
!
!

hallu ! !
[hl:u] !!
haluka ! !
[hluga] !
(unaffected by geminated /l/)
!

electricity
electricity GEN.

18

The vowels /a/ is realized as [a] <a> word finally for most speakers. More elevated
speech may have [].
!
3.1.1.2 Short Closed Vowels
Short closed vowels are those which appear in front of a single consonant word
finally, or next to two consonants word internally, i.e. a closed syllable. Short closed
vowel never appear in originally open syllables, with the exception of // (though not
as an allophone of / a/). They can only be in open syllables as the result of a shift in
the syllable structure, in which case the become open.
!
!

gedna ! !
genari ! !

[tna] !
[enri] !

nut
nut GEN.

!
!

kuspo ! !
kusoi ! !

[ksp] !
[kuswi] !

skunk
skunk GEN.

!
ede ! !
[xe] ! !
air
!
eteri ! !
[eteri] ! !
air GEN.
!
3.1.1.3 The Archiphoneme <>
The archiphoneme <> has no pronunciation of its own. It is not written, but it is its
own phoneme. It is never found in stressed position, and is found in a number of
derivative suffixes. Its pronunciation is dependent on the preceding vowels:
oa

ei

uy

u/o

i/e

y/u/

!
For example, the derivational suffix -n marks large objects (and causes lengthening
of the stressed vowel):
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

tahha ! !
toahhun !

[th:a] !
[th:n] !

tree
large tree (underlying *toahn)

gasi ! !
gausun !

[gsi] ! !
[gusn] !

moon
full moon (underlying *gausn)

gei !
!
gegin ! !

[ei] ! !
[ej:n] !!

snout
big snout (underlying *gegn)

kyi ! !
kin ! !

[cyi] ! !
[cn] !

squirrel
big squirrel (underlying *kin)

19

3.1.2 Long Vowels

Long vowels are always:
!
%

[: e: i: : u: : y: :]
< u u>

Long vowels are found in both open and closed syllables.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

mra % %
mhra % %

[m:ra] !
[mhra] !

we !
bear!

psi %
pbmui
pni %
pdna %
pbi %

[pe:si] !!
[pe:pmui] !
[pi:ni] ! !
[pi:tna]!
[p:bi] !!

maternal uncle
X will bounce
corn
direction
seal

thni % %

[t:hni] !

late spring

!
!

ma % %
dno % %

[u:ma]! !
[u:tn] !

a lot of
angelica

!
!
!
!

u %
ulbi %
%
mhni

%
%
%
%%

[:] ! !
[:lbi] ! !
[jy:] ! !
[my:hni] !

sand
hoof
end, ending
wolverine

!
!

kuba % %
ut %
%

[k:ba] !
[] ! !

the most
newly fallen snow

%
%
%
%
%

3.1.3 Diphthongs
Siwa has a rich system of diphthongs. Diphthongs in Siwa can only consist of two
short vowels. A long vowel can be combined with any other vowel, in which case the
result are two separate syllables, e.g. s.ubmi [si:pmi] hungry. Below is a table of
all possible vowel combinations and/or the result of two vowels coming in direct
contact with each other.
!
When vowels come in contact through consonant syncope, they form
diphthongs or monophthongs according to the table below. Diphthongs may change
when they find themselves in a closed syllable. This open syllable diphthong is
shown above, with the closed (or contracted) version below. Contracted diphthongs
are irregularly used and vary greatly across speakers and dialects. They may be
ignored completely, but they form the basis of many dialects.

20

Note that in many cases, when vowels come together, a consonant may be inserted
between them or the result may not be that which is presented in the table below.
This happens with prefixes as well as suffixes. The changes are tied to grammatical
or morphological markings - they happen when two vowels or more come together as
the result of a morphological coalescence, for example adding preverbal vowels.
Because these are function specific in nature (i.e. each change is particular to a
grammatical function), they will be explained in the relevant chapters (see 4.3.1.7,
4.4, 5.3 and 5.4.4)
a-

e-

i-

o-

u-

y- / a
[a]

-a

[:]

ia
[i]

oa
[]

[y:]

ua
[u]

a
[a]

[y:]

-e

ai
[i]

ei
[ei]

[e:]

ie
[ie]

oi
[i]
or
ue
[ue]

ui/ue
or y
[ui/ue]
[y]

oi
[]

ui or y
[ui]
[y]

i
[]

[y:]
i

-i

-o

-u

-y / -

ai
[i]

ei
[ei]

[i:]

[]

[y:]

au

eu

io

uo

[u]

[eu]

[i]

[]

au
[u]

ay
[]

eu
[eu]

iu
[iu]

ay

ey

[]

[]

[i]

21

ou
[u]

[u:]

[u:]

[y:]

Notice that [:] is always spelled <u>. The diphthong <ue> is mostly found with
inanimate nouns ending in -o with a stressed -e-.
!
Dialectal variation in diphthong is great and often constitutes the basis on
which one can identify them. It is worth noting that the following diphthongs are
pronounced differently in closed syllables:
!
!

<au oa eu ia ie io iu i ou ua ui ay ey>
[a a a a ]

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

aubmi % %
koakvi % %
neulkio %%
nianso % %
riehpi % %
diuksi % %
miout % %
anuahmo %
vuihli % %
gaykka %%

knot ! !
!
!
call ! !
!
!
ant ! !
!
!
creek ! !
!
!
wife ! !
!
!
icicle ! !
!
!
warmth !
!
!
lichen covered spot GEN.!
X will whistle ! !
!
X will satisfy Y !!
!

[apmi]
[kakw:i]
[nlci]
[nans]!
[rhpi]
[dks:i]
[m]
[wnahm]
[vhli]
[ka]

3.1.3.1 Diphthong Contraction

The segment -o- and -u- are affected by lenition, in which case they change to
(or u is stressed) and similarly, -i- changes to y (or if stressed) after lenition. The
semi-vowel is not pronounced after t- d- n- k- and g- because it shows palatalization:
!
!
!
LENITION
!
-ov-V% -o-V ! !
!
!
-u- or -!
-uv-V% -u-V ! !
!
%
-u- or -!
-iv-V% -i-V! !
!
!
-- or --

!
suvi % %
[suvi] ! !
flow
!
simo % %
[sim] !
flow GEN.
!
( suvi *sui-mo *syi-mo simo )
!
!
huo % %
[huw] !!
fog
!
huoma %%
[huma] !
fog GEN.
!
(huo *huo-ma *hyo-ma huoma)
!
!
!
!
With other diphthongs, the process is irregular, unpredictable and is disappearing as
a productive change. It is still found in derivational processes, but as a productive
and regular change, it is mostly only found in elevated speech or in the speech of
older speakers of the eastern dialects, especially in the north-east (Sorhi and
Kuomin, and rarely in Kevvi).

22

3.1.4 Semi-vowels
Siwa has two semi-vowels or glides, and . They behave like consonants in most
respects - they are not affected by other vowels (no contraction). They can also be
found as long, then [w:] <vv> and [j:] <g>. The long semi-vowel <vv> is more
common in stressed positions than its short counterpart <>.
!
!

igut % %
%
[ij:] ! !
mood
luvv % %
%
[luw:u:]!!
intense heat
EAST % oala % %
%
[wla] !
wide
WEST ! ovvala/oula %
%
[w:la/la]! wide
!
!
The semi-vowel is written without its diacritic if it is the onset of a syllable not directly
after a stressed syllable, i.e. third syllable from the beginning of the word. This is to
reflect the pronunciation of most speakers, though it might not occur if a speaker is
speaking in a more elevated register. !

3.1.5 Triphthongs
Siwa allows the following triphthongs:
!
%

/iu ii iei ieu iue ii i eui ui uei/

<iau iai iei ieu iue ioi oai eui uoi uei>

The diphthongs <iei ieu iue> may be pronounced with a glide or [] in both open or
closed syllables. Other diphthongs are also subject to change in closed syllables.
Not all dialects have <eui>, some have <ei>, <ey> or <evvi> instead.
!
!
!

tsiauga %
tkkiauki %
tieibid % %

[tsxiua] !
!
!
[tciui] !
!
!
[tjeib] or [teib] !!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

mieumi %%
[mjeumi] or [meumi] ! !
niue % %
[njue] or [nue] !
!
toaika % %
[tiga] !
!
!
peuiskvi %
[pskw:i] ! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
(also peiskvi~peyskvi~pevviskvi)
ruoiknei %
[rei] !
!
!

cedar wood
litter
twig GEN.
leg GEN.
sand GEN.
urine GEN.
slippery jack
(suillus luteus)
X wakes up a little

3.1.5.1 Diphthong and Long Vowel Coalescence

Siwa has a complex system of rules that govern how certain diphthongs and long
vowels behave when they coalesce with other vowels. They are especially important
in the creation of new words, and for inanimate nouns whose stressed syllable

23

contains a long vowel or a diphthong, and whose consonant coda disappears

completely through lenition.
!
The rules are fairly simple, but many exceptions exist. Generally, diphthongs
ending in -u will lose this sound and have -m-, or -b- (before -o/-i/-/-y), whereas
diphthongs in -i change to -, or -g before -i/-/-y. The diphthong ay is reduced to mor -b-, and both eu and ey change to m- or b-. Diphthongs with a front rounded
vowel cause -u to change to -.
!
Suffixes beginning with a - are grouped under suffixes in -i. However, the
glide - disappears and only leaves -g-, -b- or -i-. For example, the word hbaka tidal
pool was formed by adding the ending -aka (causing vowel fronting) to h sea
water thus, one could infer the original form *hbaka.
back

front

rounded

-a

-o

-u

-e

-i

-y/-

ai-

-aa

-ao

-au

-ae

-agi

-ey

oi-

-oa

-oo

-ou

-oe

-ogi

-o

ui-/ue-

-ua

-uo

-uu

-ue

-ugi

-g

ei-

-ea

-eo

-eu

-ee

-egi

-e

ie-

-iga

-igo

-igu

-i

-iei

-igy

i-

-a

-o

-g

-e

-gi

-g

ay-

-ma

-bo

-b

-me

-bi

-b

uo-

-uma

-ubo

-umu

-ume

-ubi

-b

au-

-ama

-abo

-amu

-ame

-abi

-am

-oma

-obo

-omu

-ome

-obi

-om

eu-/ey-

-ma

-bo

-b

-me

-bi

-b

iu-

-ivva

-ibo

-ibu

-ivve

-ibi

-ivv

-a

-o

-u

-e

-gi

-ey

-oma

-obo

-omu

-ome

-obi

-om

-uma

-ubo

-ubu

-ume

-ubi

-b

-evva

-evvo

-evvu

-ege

-egi

-ey

ouoa-

24

back

front

rounded

-a

-o

-u

-e

-i

-y/-

-ivva

-ivvo

-ivvu

-ige

-igi / iddi

-igy

-yma

-ybo

-yby

-yme

-ybi

-yby

u-

-ma

-bo

-b

-me

-bi

-b

Here are examples of this process:

!
!
!

ggi ! !
gagi ! !
!
!

[:ji] ! !
[jji] !!
!
!

summer solstice
summer solstice GEN.
(gi is a plural marker, < *g+a)

!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

gei !
gee !

!
!

[ei] ! !
[eje] ! !

snout
snout GEN. (< *gei+e)

goi !
goo !

!
!

[gi] ! !
[j] ! !

sharp edge
sharp edge GEN. (< *goi+o)

hego ! !
hivve ! !

[heg] !!
[hiw:e] !!

salt
salt GEN. (< *hiu+e, < *heo+e) (also hiobi)

keugo ! !
kbue ! !

[ceu] !
[cbue] !

burden, load
burden, load GEN. (< *keu+o+e)

niuba ! !
nivvadi !!

[niuba] !!
[niw:i] !

despair
despair GEN. (< *niu+a+di)

maidi ! !
magika !

[mii] !
[mj:iga] !

measure unit (30cm)

measuring unit GEN. (< *mai+i+ka)

saiu ! !
sauka ! !

[siwu] !
[sjuga] !

pot
pot GEN. (< *sai+u+ka)

tiegibi ! !
tieibid ! !

[tiejibi] !
[tieib] !

twig
twig GEN. (< *tie+ibi+d)

tuobi ! !
tubimo !!

[tubi] !!
[tubim] !

juniper
juniper GEN. (< *tuo+i+mo) (also tuovvumi)

25

!
!

vebo ! !
vivve ! !

[veb] ! !
[viw:e] !!

knot
knot GEN. (< *viu+e) (also viobi)

3.1.6 Vowel Apocope

Final vowel sometimes go through apocope, i.e. they are deleted before the addition
of another vowel or consonant. This is especially productive in inanimate nouns, less
so in animate nouns and fairly rare in adjectives. Vowel apocope occurs when the
emerging consonant cluster is allowed. The complexity of the apocope may influence
whether a animate noun or adjective will go through the change. More complex
changes are less likely to occur. Apocope is especially common with the vowel -i-.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tsammi !
tsama !
tsamita !

[tsm:i] !
[tsamxa] !
[tsamida] !

forest
forest GEN.
forest ILLAT. (not *tsamaita)

sira ! !
shdi ! !

[sira] ! !
[si:hi] !

fish
fish GEN. (not *siradi)

kori ! !
kohko ! !

[kri] ! !
[khk] !

boy
boy GEN. (not *koriko)

pyry % %
pyhma %%

[pyry] !!
[phma] %

gust of wind, wind

gust of wind, wind GEN.

Verbs with the postverbal vowel -i- may or may not go through apocope if the
resulting cluster is allowed - both forms are usually in free variation.
!
!
!

saumkka !
ltemkka !

[sxamk:a] !
[i:lmk:a]!

we will breathe (also saumigga)

we will come crawling (also ltemigga)

For a more detailed description of vowel apocope in nouns, see section 4.3.1.

3.1.7 Vowel Prothesis

Vowel prothesis consists of the addition of a vowel to the beginning of a word. This
happens regularly in certain dialects, especially those of the east. This is done to
avoid initial consonant clusters which have become illegal in the eastern dialect.
Vowel prothesis is usually analyzed as part of the root, as the examples below show,
where the past tense preverbal vowel a- is added onto the already augmented form om-, whereas commonly Siwa shows simply the (irregularly) syncoped root -m-.

26

Standard Siwa
moa
[mxa]
-mo-a-
TR-drink-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

X will drink Y
ama
[amxa]
a-m<>-a-
TR-drink.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

X drank Y
Eastern Dialect
anoma
[nmxa]
an-o=m<>-a-
TR-drink.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

X drank Y
!
See section 4.3 on irregular verbs.
3.1.8 Vowel Polarity Inversion
Vowels may see their polarity inverted. In Siwa grammar, a vowel has two polarities its default polarity and its inverted polarity. In other words, the inverted polarity of a
vowel is its opposite within the context of Siwa phonology. Most vowels have more
than one inverted polarity. In the case where one is rounded and one is not, the
rounded vowel will be found after another rounded or a high front vowel. In other
cases, it is not quite possible to predict the outcome.
polarized
a

i/e (o before -i/-e in

western dialects)

ie/ei

u/o

27

polarized

uo/(vv)

u/y

uo/

i/y

e/ai

/ey

oi/

uo/ui

i/ei

Polarity inversion is an important derivational strategy. Many words are derived or

even combined with inverted polarity. For example, many nouns have a poetic or
higher-register counterparts derived from the noun by using polarity inversion and the
ending -ts, whose genitive also requires polarity inversion. Adjectives can freely be
derived from nouns by polarizing the last vowel and adding a suffix. Most nouns,
when attached to another to form a compound, have a polarized final vowel.
!
!
!
'

tsammi !forest!
tsammuts !
forest (high-register)! !
!
!
tsamebme !
forest GEN (high-register)!
!
!
tsammuha '
of the forest, sylvan (-ha adjectival marker)!

(iu)
(ue)
(iu)

!
!
!

npi ! !
npyts ! !
npoibme !

dwarf birch (betula nana)

dwarf birch (high-register)!
!
dwarf ! birch GEN. (high-register)!

!
!

(iy)
(yoi)

!
!
!
!
%
!

mavvu ! !
mavvedna !

meat
meaty (-dna adjectival marker)! !

(ue)

gauta ! !
gautumehiu !

color ! !
+ mehiu %
colorfully painted' !
!

28

painted
!
!

!
%
!
!
%
!
%

bansi ! !
bansubelmo !

today ! !
+ belmo %
todays chore! !
!

chore, work
!
!

ono % %
onikeltuha %
nuhhi % %
nuhhurhha %

lichen %%
+ kelta % %
ground
having a lichen covered ground (-ha adjectival marker)
old woman % + r %
%
tooth
having teeth like an old woman (-ha adjectival marker)

Polarity inversion is also commonly used as a genitive marker for personal names
and place names, e.g. Surri-ini Surros daughter, rather than ini Suddi (true
genitive).

3.2 Stress
Stress is fixed on the initial syllable of a root word. Prefixes do nto affect stress. Only
when affixes create new words may stress change.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
but!
!
!

entiebbie %
[ntiep:ie] !
I should
Root is -tiebb- to ought with prefix en-.
moheimeni %
[mhjeimeni] ! I am hot
Root is -heimen- to feel hot with personal !
prefix m- and subjective preverbal vowel -o-.
osikkami %
[skmi] !
I will sneak
Root is -sikk- to sneak with subjective preverbal vowel -o-.

ogauldigge %
[galic:e] ! we will talk together
ogalen%%
[gln]!
conversation
The verb has the affix o- while the noun has incorporated the affix into the
root and allows it to carry stress.

Certain words saw their prefixes assimilated and stress was shifted to the first
syllable.
!
cf. !
!

asa ! !
[asxa] ! !
ashes
sahha ! !
[shh:] !
X will burn Y
Here with syncope of a in the root sahh- to burn.

Note that in certain dialects, especially in the east, the word-initial consonants [p t k/
c] <p t k> may be found as ejectives if they are preceded by suffixes.
!
!

entiebbie %
or !
!

[ntiep:ie] !
[ntiep:ie]

I should

29

3.3 Orthographic Conventions Regarding Vowels

Siwa orthography is fairly regular and logical, but it presents certain difficulties to
those who are not familiar with it. Two vowels have special rules regarding their
orthography: the vowel [] <> cannot take diacritics - instead, it is written [:]
<u> when long. Siwa orthography can sometimes express the same sound in more
than a single way. For example, [] can be written both <y> and <>. This means
that there are homophones which are only distinguishable through their written forms,
e.g. ndna and nydna are both pronounced [ntna], but the the former means
wave while the latter means adult (of women). Siwa contains the following
orthographic exceptions:
!
The suffix -ha of the possessive case is pronounced [] not [ha].
!
Hyphenated clitics do not change the word boundaries but the word and the
clitic read as one unit.
!
not !

mhra-nen '

[m:hrann] ! !
*[m:hrnn] !

ones bear!

30

3.4 Consonants
The table below shows all consonants of Siwa.

bilabial

dental

alveolar

post
alveolar

palatal

velar

glottal

nasal

m
(m)

n
(n)

plosive

pb
(p)

td
(t)

kg
(k)

fricative

s
(z)

affricati
ve

()

trill

lateral

l~ t
(t)

3.4.1 Consonants & Allophones

Siwa consonants are:
!
!
[m p b v n t d : s r t c : k g x h ]
%
<m p b v n t d s t d r dl k g ng n k g hh h>
The table below shows all the phonemes with their allophonic variation. Explanations
for special cases are below.
stressed
front
vowel

stressed
back
vowel

/m/
/p/
/b/

unstressed
front vowel

unstressed
back vowel

[m] m
[p] p

[b] p

long

31

glottalized
stressed

[m:]
mm

[pm]
bm

[b]
b

[p] pp

[p:]
bb

[b] b

palatalized

stressed
front
vowel

stressed
back
vowel

unstressed
front vowel

unstressed
back vowel

long

palatalized

glottalized
stressed

/v/

[v] v

[w:]
vv

/n/

[n] n

[n:]
nn

[] n

[tn] dn
[t] tt

/t/

[t] t

[] t

[d] t

[:]

t []

/d/

[d] d

[]
[] d

[]
[] d

[t:] dd

d []

[:]

[:]

[:]

//

/s/

[s] s

[s:] ss

//

[]

[:]

//

[] t

[] t/t

[] t

//

[] d o

[] d/d

[] d

[:]
dd

/r/

[r] r

[r:] rr

/l/

[l] l

[l:] ll

/t/

[t] dl

/:/

[:] ng

//

[]

[:] ng

[] n

[] kn
[:]
nn

[] n

/k/

[c] k

[k] k

[] k

[g] k

[g]
g

[c]/[c] k

/g/

[] g

[g] g

[j] g

[] g

[k:]
gg

[j:] g

/c/

[c] k

[c] k

[] k

[] k

//

[dz] g

[] g

[j:] g

[j:] g

[:]
gg

[]

32

[k] kk

/x/

stressed
front
vowel

stressed
back
vowel

unstressed
front vowel

unstressed
back vowel

long

[x]

[x]

[] or
[x]

[x]

[x:]

[] h/

[] h/

[:]

[h:] hh

[h] h

[h:]
hh

//
/h/

[h] h

[h] h

palatalized

glottalized
stressed

[h:j] (h)h

[] h

3.4.1.1 Allophony and Sound Changes

Siwa sounds interact with each other in a dynamic and complex system of allophonic
variation and sound changes. Due to changes that occur inside and between Siwa
words, consonant that were once apart often come together. Special rules govern
how sounds fuse together or coalesce, if they can do so at all. Below is a description
of how consonants change and interact with other sounds. Only relevant phonemes
allophonic changes are given below (those not included do not show any significant
allophonic variation).
/m/
The sound /m/ can be found short as [m] <m>, long as [m:] <mm> or glottalized as
[pm] <bm> (sometimes simply [m]). It can also be preaspirated as [hm] <hm>.
!
!
!

moni % %
lohma % %
mamma %

[mni] ! !
[ljhma] !
[mm:a] !

path
infectious
leg

When /m/ comes in contact with /n/, they form the cluster [mn:] or [m:n] <mn>.
!
!
!
!

umna %
ymni %
hmno
imni %

%
%
%
%

[mn:a] !
[mn:i] !
[hj:mn:] !
[mn:i] !!

the place below

early fall
the place below
to produce smoke

Note that although /p/ is voiced in unstressed position, when /m/ precedes it, the
cluster it forms is pronounced [mp].
!

kimpa %%

[cmpa] !

pair of boots

Similarly, when /m/ precedes /k k:/ <kk gg>, they combined to form the cluster [mk:]
or [mk:] <mkk>. This often occur with the first person plural pronouns in -gga/-gge.

33

!
!
!
!

tmkki !!
lemkka !
saumkka !
ltemkka !

[tmc:i] !
[ljmk:a] !
[sxamk:a] !
[i:lmk:a]!

boulder
to infect
we will breathe (< saumigga)
we will come crawling (< ltemigga)

If /m/ finds itself next to /k g/, there are three possible outcomes - [mx] <m> or [mk]
<mk> after /m: pm/ or a long vowel, or [k] <kk> especially in inanimate nouns and
adjectives. This is not always predictable. However, /m/ and /x g/ always combine to
[mx] <m>. The cluster <m> regularly changes to [m] <m> before an unstressed
<i> (note the exception semia cod).
!
!
!
!
!

damu ! !
dama !!

[dmu] !
[damxa] !

skin with fur

skin with fur GEN. (< *damka)

kaibmu !!
kaimka !!

[kapmu] !
[kamka] !

walking stick
walking stick GEN. (< ! *kaimka)

but!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tsammi !
tsama%%
tsamia%%

[tsm:i] !
[tsamxa] !
[tsamia] !

forest
forest GEN. (< *tsammka)
forest INESS. (<*tsammia)

ehhama%
ehhakka !

[eh:ma] !
[eh:aka] !

seam
seam GEN. ( < *ehhamka)

gaukama %
gaukakka !

[ugma] %
[ugaka] !

down
down GEN. (< ! *gaukamka)

If /m/ is combined with /t ts tsx/ <t ts ts>, then it changes to /n/ <n> forming the
clusters <nt nts nts>. Note that -om- and -um- turn to -- before <t ts ts>. This is
sometimes not the case with inanimate nouns and adjectives whose genitive form
ends in -mV - apocope of the vowel does not necessarily cause the /m/ to change in
the illative. /m/ and // combine to form [m] <m>.
!
!
!

tama ! !
taintsi !!

[tma] !
[tantsxi] !

many
numerous (< *taimtsi)

Similarly, when /m/ combines with /d/, it may become [md] <md> or [nd] <nd>in
unstressed position.
!
!
!
!

dmma !!
dndi ! !

[di:m:a] !
[di:ni] !

treeless mountain
treeless mountain GEN. (< *dmdi)

kinaubmi !

[cinapmi] ! foreign
34

kinaundi !

[cinani] !

foreign GEN. (< !*kinaumdi)

/p/ and /b/

The sound /p/ can be found short as [p] or [b] (in unstressed position) <p>, long as
[b] <b>, glottalized as [p] <pp> or as an ejective [p] when in non-initial syllables,
whereas /b/ can only be found as short [b] <b> or long [p:] <bb>. Both /p/ and /b/ can
be preaspirated as [hp] <hp> and [hb] <hb>. Word initially, /p/ is aspirated as [p]
<p>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

pila %
%
laipin % %
mppi % %
oabi % %
loba % %
ieppi ! !
haihpo %%
tiehba % %

[pila] ! !
[libn] !!
[me:pi] !
[abi] !!
[lba] ! !
[ijpi]! !
[hahp] !
[thba] !

red
bitter
knee
gums
dregs
sticky
strong, spicy
hands GEN.

When /p/ is combined with /v w w:/ <v vv>, the cluster becomes [p:] <bb>.
!

onbbi %%

[np:i]!

X wants to get caught (< *onpi)

When /p/ and /b/ combines with /m/, they form the cluster [pm] or [m] <bm>.
However, if instead of /p/ one has /p p:/ <pp bb>, the resulting cluster will be [pm:]
or [p:m] <pm>.
!
!

nubmi ! !
tspmi !!

[npmi] !
[ts:p:mi] !

X is angry (< nupi X will be angry)

X is bleeding !

Both /p/ and /b/ cannot stand before /n/, in which case the cluster they form becomes
[mn:] <mn>. When /p/ is next to /s/, they combine as [bs] or [ps] <bs>, but next to //,
the outcome is [p] <p> or [b] <b>. However, if /p p:/ <pp bb> combine with /s/,
the cluster is [ps:] or [p:s] <ps>.
!
nypsiri ! !
[nps:iri] !
they usually stick out
!
!
!
!
!
(< *nyppsiri)
!
tspsiri !!
[ts:ps:iri] !
they usually bleed
!
!
!
!
!
(< *tsbbsiri)
!
!
If /p/ precedes /t/, the resulting cluster is [mt] <mt>, while /b/ and /t d/ combine to
form [:] <>. Both /p/ and /b/ combine with /k/ to form [g] <g>.

35

!
If /p/ or /b/ and /h r/ combine, they become [px] <pr>. In certain dialects, /p/
and/or /b/ and /g x/ combine to [b] <b>, but other dialects (mainly western dialects)
only have [px] <pr>.
!

tipra% %

[pxa] %

X will write Y

If /p/ or /b/ and /s/ <s> combine, they become [bs] or [ps] <bs>. Similarly, /p b p p:/
and // <> form [b] or [p] <b> and [p:] or [p:] <p>. However, /p p:/ <pp bb>
and /s/ become [ps:] or [p:s] <ps>. Western dialects do not differentiate between
<ps> and <bs>.
!
elepia !!
[elp:ia] !
!
!
gabi ! !
[gabi] or [gapi] !
!
!
!
The combination of /p/ and /k/ is [g] <g>.
!
!
!
!
!

in bloom
fool

oapi % %
oago% %

[bi] % %
[ag] !

help
help GEN. (< *oapko)

rapa % %
raga ! !

[rpa] % %
[raga] !

hill
hill GEN. (< *rapka) (also rapra [rapxa])

/v/
The sound /v/ can be found short as [v] or [] <v> or long as [w:] <vv>.
!
!
!

vmi % %
savi % %
seuvvi % %

[vi:mi] ! !
[svi] ! !
[seuw:i] !

X will scream
than
sweat

When /v/ or [w:] <vv> precedes the consonants /p m n t l s k/ <p m n n t l s k>, the
resulting sounds are geminated as [b m: n: : : l: s: g] <b mm nn nn ll ss g>,
with the stops /p t k/ becoming affricates.
!
!

sivvi % %
simmo !

[sw:i] %
[sm:] !

proof, sign
proof, sign GEN. (< *sivmo)

!
!

tussa % %
tymmi % %

[tus:a] %
[tym:i] %%

to turn (< tuvsa)

is heavy (< *tyvmi)

When /v/, whether it is short or long, precedes /p t k/ <pp tt kk>, they combine to
form /p: t: k:/ <bb dd gg>. This is not a common sound change, but may appear as
the result of vowel apocope.

36

!
!

idda % %
tudda % %

[it:a] % %
[tut:a] %%

stay! (< ivitta)

turn! (< tuvitta)

In addition, /v/ and [w:] <vv> may combine with /h h:/ to form the cluster [h:w] <hh>.
!
!

kehno % %
kehha !

[chn] %
[ceh:wa] !

pine
pine GEN.

/n/
The sound /n/ can be found short as [n] <n>, long as [n:] <nn>, palatalized short as
[] <n>, palatalized long as [:] <nn> or glottalized as [tn] or [n] <dn>. It can also
be preaspirated as [hn] <hn>. It is found word finally, sometimes causing
nasalization of <o u>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

netuba %%
tona % %
kini % %
na %
%
hanna % %
knnli %
ldna % %
ihna % %
hiamin % %
hihlon % %

[netuba] !
[tna] !!
[cii] % %
[a] ! !
[hn:a] !
[c:li] !
[li:tna] !
[hna] % %
[himn] %
[hhln] %

lily
West
fringes
now
fair, pale
X will settle down
great
certainly
milk and honey drink
shelter

If /n/ precedes /m/, they can either combine through metathesis as [mn:] <mn>, or
more commonly, they become [m:] <mm>, especially in unstressed positions and in
inanimate nouns and adjectives.
!

mamna %

[mamn:a] %

center (< *manma)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

obeno % %
oimma% !

[bn] %
[im:a] !!

smoke
smoke GEN. (< *obenma)

ono % %
omma ! !

[n] % %
[m:a] !!

lichen
lichen GEN. (< *onma) (also omna)

sumana %
sumamma !

[sumna] %
[summ:a] !

irritated, sore
irritated, sore !

GEN.

(< *sumanma)

When /n/ finds itself next to /s/, three things may happen: least commonly, they simply
form [ns] <ns> (though this is not common in Siwa), metathesis resulting in the
37

cluster [hn] <hn>, or most commonly they will combine to form [nt] <nt> (however,
the forms -ont- and sometimes -unt- change to -t-). Similarly, /n/ and // combine to /
n/ <nt>, /n/ <n> or [] <t> and /n/ and /ts/ or /tsx/ combine to [ntsx] <nts>
or [tsx] <ts>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

noni % %
nten !!

[nni] % %
[nn] !

X will swim
X cant swim (< nonien)

koni % %
ktsii ! !
kti ! !

[kni] % %
[ktsii] !
[ki] !!

X will walk !
X cant walk (< konisii)
X can walk (< konii)

bansi% %

[bansi] %

today

!
!
!
!

mani % %
mansi ! !

[mni] %%
[mansi] !

X will come
X came

untsi % %

[ntsi] % %

along the bottom (< *untsi)

If /n/ precedes /k/, the resulting cluster is [k] <nk>, while if it precedes /g/, the
resulting cluster is [:] <ng>. However, if /n/ is followed by /k/ in an unstressed
syllable in inanimate nouns or adjectives, the resulting cluster is like to be [k] <kk>.
This is always true after /k k:/ <kk gg>.
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

bana % %
banka ! !

[bna] %%
[baka] !

place
place GEN. (< *banka)

anna % %
anka ! !

[jn:a] %%
[jaka] !!

accumulated snow
accumulated snow GEN. (< *anka)

rakana %%
rakakka !

[rkna] %
[rkaka] !

fragile
fragile GEN. (< *rakanka)

atana % %
atakka ! !

[tna] %
[taka] !

big
big GEN. (< *atanka)

If /n/ precedes /h/, the resulting cluster is either [nh] <nh> (especially after apocope
in inanimate nouns and adjectives), or may irregularly go through metathesis and
become [hn] <hn>.
%
!
!
!
!

lonis % %
lonhi ! !
!
!

[lns] % %
[lnhi] ! !
!
!

short walk
short walk GEN. (< *lonhi)
(also lhhi [lh:i] or lohni [lhni] )

bunus % %

[buns] %

small squash
38

!
!

bunhi ! !
!
!

[bnhi] !!
!
!

small squash GEN. (< *bunhi)

(also bhhi [bh:i] or buhni [bhni] )

/t/
The sound /t/ can be found short as [t] <t> word initially, [t] <t> in stressed position,
[d] <t> in unstressed position before all vowels except /i/, and [] <t> before /i/ in
unstressed syllables. It can also be long as [:] <>, glottalized as [t] <tt> or as an
ejective [t] in non-initial stressed syllables. /t/ can be preaspirated as [ht] <ht>. /t/ is
found word-finally, and is usually pronounced as [] or [V] where the preceding
vowel is repeated, or also commonly as [x], unless preceded by /i/, in which case it is
often found as [].
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tatami % %
eita % %
tita % %
kitton % %
shta % %
soos %%
hokot % %
at'
'
hait'
'
sirit %
%

[ttmi] !
wolf
[eida] ! !
X will build Y
[i:ida] !
later
[ctn] !
boot
[s:hta] !
lung
[s:s] !
evening
[hjk()]%
care
[aa]%%
this
[ha]% %
that
[sir]~[sir] % fish stock, amount of fish in a lake

When /t/ comes in contact with /m/, the resulting cluster is [bm] or [m] <bm>.
However, /t/ combines with /m/ to form [pm:] or [p:m] <pm>.
!
tata ! !
[tta] ! !
X will think
!
tabmi ! !
[tapmi] !
X is thinking
!
Similarly, when /t/ comes in contact with /n/, the resulting cluster is [tn] or [n] <dn>,
and /t/ combines with /n/ to form [tn:] or [t:n] <tn>.
!
!
!
!
!

dno ! !
tva ! !

[u:tn]!!
[u:tw:a] !

angelica
angelica GEN.

ndednukli !
hetna ! !

[ny:tkl:i] !fern head, furled frond (< ndet+nukli)

[htn:a] !
to scatter

When /t/ comes in contact with /s/, the resulting cluster is [ts] <ts>, which is a
phoneme. It can combine to form the clusters [tsw: tsm: tsn: tst: tsk: tsx] or [ts:v ts:m
ts:n ts:t ts:k tsx] <tsv tsm tsn tst tsk ts>.
!
!

atsio ! !
kotsmi ! !

[tsi] !!
[ktsm:i] !

glade
walking path
39

tetsni ' '

[ttsn:i] !

dried fish

When /t t/ come in contact with /l/, the resulting cluster is [t] or [t:] <dl>. A number
of words have <dl> initially. The combination is actually a phoneme and does not
cause closed syllable. It is also found in the clusters [tw: tm: tn: tk: tx] <dlv dlm
dln dlk dl>.
!
!
!
!
!

dla ! !
dlei !
!
adlmi''
seidla %
padlva '

[i:ta] ! !
[tei] ! !
[xwatmi] !
[stxa] !
[patw:a] !

late
X will itch
rainbow
pregnant fish
otter

!
setula ! !
[setula] !
X will push Y
!
sedla ! !
[seta] !!
X pushed Y
!
!
!
If /t/ or /t/ precedes /v w/ or [w:] <vv>, they combine to form [t:v] or [tw:] <tv>,
which is found word-initially as [tv]. Similarly, with /ts/ the resulting cluster is [tsw:] or
[ts:w] <tsv>. Note that <tv> can be preaspirated to [htw:] or [h:tw] <htv>.
!
!
!
!

kotvi ! !
notvi ! !
beitsvi ! !
tvmyn ! !

[ktw:i] !
[ntw:i] !
[btsw:i] !
[tvi:mn] !

X wanted to walk (< *kotti)

X wanted to swim (< *notti)
X wants to spend the day (< *beitsi)
vagina

If /t/ precedes /h r g/, they combine to form [tx] <tr>, while /ts/ and /hts/ form [tsx] and
[htsx] <ts hts>. However, with /t/, the resulting cluster is [t:x] (or less commonly
[tx:]) <t>, and similarly /t/ and // <> also form the same cluster, but this is a rare
occurrence and is not found in all dialects. Inanimate nouns and adjectives having an
unstressed /t/ which should normally get the marked ending -ka/-ko get instead -ra/ro (originally *-a/-o). This is the most common cause of this allophonic change.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

gauta ! !
gautra ! !

[guda] !
[gatxa] !

color
color GEN. (< *gauta, < *gautka)

nauto ! !
nautra ! !

[nud] !
[natxa] !

vertigo
vertigo GEN. (< *nauta, < *nautka)

seta ! !
seta ! !

[seta] ! !
[st:xa] !

X will place Y
X will place Y (< *seta, semelfactive)

When /t/ precedes /k k k:/ <k kk gg>, the resulting cluster is [tk] <tk>. Similarly, /ts/
and /hts/ combine with /k k k:/ <k kk gg> to form [tsk:] <tsk> or [htsk:] <htsk>.

40

!
!
!

otka ! !
totka% !
biohtska !

[tka]! !
[tka] !
[bhtsk:a] !

we will unite (< otigga)

we will cooperate (< totigga)
we will play (< biohtsigga)

/d/
The sound /d/ can be found short as [d] <d> in stressed position, [d] or [] or [] or [l]
or not pronounced at all, but written <d> in unstressed position before all vowels
except /i/ (including consonant clusters ending in -d), and [] <d> before /i/ in
unstressed syllables. It can also be long as [t:] <dd> (never palatalizes) or
palatalized as [] <d>. /d/ can be preaspirated as [hd] <hd>. A handful of words
begin with [t] <dl>. Word finally, /d/ is pronounced [] after /e i/. The sound /d/ can
be found word-finally, only if preceded by /i/, in which case it is pronounced []
<d>. /d/ as a stressed coda is commonly pronounced as a flat and written <r>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
%

dedna % %
d %
%
ida %
%
iedot % %
!
!
kendita %%
lngid % %
dlei %
%
tieibid % %
kodi~kori%
edi~eri% '

[dtna] !
village
[e:] ! !
grey
[ida] ! !
X will fall
[ied / ie / ie / iel / ie]
!
!
deciduous
[cnida] ! early
[li::] !
splinter GEN.
[tei] ! !
X will itch
[tieib] !
twig GEN.
[kdi~kri]!
X walked
[edi~eri]!
X sat

Like its unvoiced counterpart, /d/ and /m/ form the cluster [pm] or [m] <bm>.
However, [t:] and /m/ form the cluster [pm:] or [p:m] <pm>.
!
!
!

tiobmi ! !
kahbmi !
kebmi ! !

[tpmi] !
to hold (< *tiodami)
[ku:pmi] ! to decorate with shells (< *kahdami)
[cpmi] !
to carry (< *kedami)

When /d/ and /v w w:/ combine, they form [w:] or [:w] <v>.
!
!
medvi % %
[mw:i] !
eyelid

lodvot % %

[lw:] !

delayed, long, slow

Similarly, /d/ combines with /n/ to form [tn] or [n] <dn>, and [t:] and /n/ form [tn:] or
[t:n] <tn>.

41

!
!
!
!

idnu ! !
keidna ! !
so sitna-a? !
s-otoatna-a !

[tnu] !!
[ctna] !
[sstn:a:] !
[statn:a:] !

to fall badly (< *idinu)

to light oneself a fire (< *keidina)
did you understand? (< so siddina-a)
did you come along? (< so otoaddina-a)

When /d/ comes in contact with /p b/ and /k g/, the respective resulting clusters are
[b] <b> and [g] <g>. However, /d/ combines with /k:/ to form the cluster is [k:]
<k>, while /d/ and [x] combine to form [x] <d>. Note that /t:/ combine with /k k: k
g/ to form [tk:] or [t:k] <tk>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

bdi ! !
bga ! !

[b:i] !
[b:ga] !

pain
pain GEN. (< *bdka)

gidu ! !
giebi ! !

[idu] ! !
[bi] !!

X will dry in the open air

drying frame

totka ! !
noka ! !
sidami !
otoatka !!

[tka] !
[nka] !
[sixmi] !
[tatka] !

we cooperated (< toddigga)

we will sing (< nodigga)
I suddenly understand (< sidigami)
we came along (< otoaddigga)

When /d/ is followed by /h r/, the resulting cluster is [tx] <tr>. However, in certain
cases where apocope is involved, /d/ combines with /h/ to form [lh] <lh>.
!
!

sitri !
!
guokveitri !

[stxi] ! !
they will understand (< sidiri)
[gkw:txi] ! they will play hard to catch (< guokveidiri)

!
!

niedas ! !
nielhi ! !

[nieas] !
[nlhi] !!

fir
fir GEN. (< *niedhi)

!
!

puodus !
puolhi ! !

[pus] !
[plhi] !

navel
navel GEN. (< *puodhi)

Finally, /d/ and [t:] combine with /l/ to form [t] or [t:] <dl>.
!
!
!

geudlu !!
!
!
maudli ! !

[eutu] !
!
!
[muti] !

to be worth doing, to be
possible (<geudlu)
maple sap (< *maudli)

//
The sound // is always found as long [:] <> or may be short in consonant
clusters.
42

!
!
!
!

oo % %
saa % %
sieo % %
imi % %

[:] ! !
[s:a] !
[sie:] !
[m:i] ! !

night sky
fire
foot
raven

When // comes in contact with /m/, they become [m:] or [:m] <m>.
!
!

dami ! !
heimi ! !

[dam:i] !
[hm:i]!

to answer (< *daami)

X was appetizing (< *heiimi)

!
!

komi ! !
koa ! !

[km:i] !
[k:a] !

guest
guest GEN. (< *kota)

When // precedes /p b/, /t d/ and /k g/, the respective resulting clusters are [b]
<b>, [:] <> and [g] <g>. However, before glottalized or long consonants, //
becomes /h/ and devoices the following consonant, except in the case of // and /k:/,
which form the cluster [k:] <k>. Similarly, // and /v/ or /v:/ combine to form the
cluster [w:] or [:w] <v>.
!
!
!
!

eka !
sibi !
vego !
vevo !

!
!
!
!

[jk:a] !
[sbi] ! !
[vg] !
[vw:] !

we will run (< eigga)

shoe (cf. sieo foot)
crow (cf. uemi black bird)
X would have wanted to be

If // and /l/ come in contact, they form the cluster [t] <dl>. Before /s/, // changes
to /h/, forming [hs] <hs>.
!
!

udlu ! !
ehsa ! !

[utu] ! !
[jhsa] !!

for the night sky to clear up (< *ulu)

to run (< *eisa)

In some dialects, syllables in -VV- are found as -VV-.

/s/
The sound /s/ can be found short as [s] <s> or long as [s:] <ss>. It can also become
palatalized as [] <>. /s/ can be found word-finally.
!
!
!
!

sara % %
uss ! !
misas % %
mimkis %

[sra] ! !
[us:u:] ! !
[misas] !rock
[mims] !

good
smoked fish
butterfly

When /s/ is followed by /v w w:/ <v vv>, the resulting cluster can either be [sv] <sv>
or [sw] <s>.
43

!
!

svama !
okasvi !!

[svam:a] !
[casvi] !

foam
X wants to hurry up (< *okasi)

In a few cases, /s/ and /m/ will combine to form [hm] <hm> instead of the expected
[sm] <sm>. This is especially true of the second person pronoun -sa- before the first
person pronoun -mi-.
!
!
but
!
!

nuahmi !
luguahmi !

[nujahmi] !
[luj:ahmi] !

I will see you (< nuasami)

I love you (< luguasami)

kasmi ! !
nosma% !

[casmi]!
[sma] !

to speed up (< *kasami)

deaf GEN.

Similarly, if /s/ is followed by /n/, the resulting cluster is often [nt] <nt> (or nasalized
<t>) instead of the expected [sn].
!

kanta ! !

[canta] !

to hurry up (< *kasna)

The cluster /sl/ is also allowed as [sl] or more commonly [s] or [st] <sl>.
!

osli !

[js(t)i] !

complication, knot, lump

When /s/ is followed by /k k:/ <kk gg>, they form [sk:] or [s:k] <skk>, while /s/ and /r
g x h/ <r g h> form [sx] <s>, which is the most common word initial cluster.
!

okaskka !

[cask:a] !

we will hurry up (< *beitsi)

!
!

moski ! !
moskko !

[msci] !
[msk:] !

wild copper
wild copper GEN. (< *moskko)

!
!

sappiska !
sappiskka !

[sapska] !
[sapsk:a] !

paw
paw GEN. (< *sappiskka)

!
!

keltause !
keltausi !

[cltuse] !
[cltasxi] !

terrestrial
terrestrial GEN. (< *keltausri)

In addition, /s/ is found in the cluster [skw:] or [skv] <skv>.

%

miaskvi [%maskw:i] or [maskvi] %X wants to celebrate

//
The sound // can be found short as [] or [] <> or long as [:] or [:] <>. Certain
eastern dialects allow word-final <>.
44

!
eira % %
[eira] !!
bearberry
!
tomi % %
[tm:i] !
X is young
!
sei % %
[sew]!!
little river (eastern dialect)
!
!
!
The sound // can combine with /p v t k/ to form [p] <p>, [v] <v>, [t] <t> and
[k] <k>, in addition to being found in the cluster [kw:] or [:kv] <kv>.
!
!
!
!

pa % %
pikeli % %
kotet % %
nukva %%

[i:pa] %%
[pceli] %
[kt] %
[nkw:a] !

grandparents
X will be in a coma
wood-work, art
hail

When // comes in contact with /r h x/ <r h >, the resulting cluster is [:] <>. This
is common in verbs ending in - in the habitual.
!
!

kya ! !
kya ! !

[cya] !!
[cy:a] !

X will try Y
X usually tries (< *kyha)

// and /
The sounds / // can be found short as [] <t> and [] <> or long as [:
:] <tt dd>. They are not found in any clusters and do not come in contact with
other consonants. The long <dd> may be pronounced as the ejective [] in noninitial syllables.
!
!
!
and
!
!
!
!
!

tieka % %
toairu %%
veto % %

[iega] !
[iru] !
[ve] !!

snake
will rot
rash

doki % %
data % %
hda % %
oaiddi % %
hiddua %

[ci] !!
[ta] !
[hja] !
[i:i] !
[hi:uja] !

trap in snow
X will mourn Y
pregnant
along the south-west
X will stack Y up

/r/
The sound /r/ can be found short as [r] <r> or long as [r:] <rr>. It may also be found
preaspirated as [hr] <hr>.
!
!

rabma % %
riehpi % %

[rapma] %
[rhpi] %

canoe
wife

45

!
!
!

sira % %
arro % %
ohra % %

[sira] % %
[r:] %
[hra] % %

fish
wild turkey
god, deity

When /r/ is next to /v w:/, the resulting cluster is [rw:] or rarely [r:w] <rv>.
!

tervima%%

[trw:ima] %

it is twilight

When /r/ precedes /m/, the resulting cluster usually goes through metathesis to
become [m(b)r] <mr>. However, [rm] <rm> is also possible, whereas in unstressed
position and sometimes stressed position, they combine to form [hm] <hm>.
!
!
also!

tomri % %
kimra % %
kirma % %

[tmri] %%
[cmra] %
[crma] %

velvet
in the morning
in the morning

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kobbomora !
kobomohmo !

[kp:mra] ! salamander
[kbmhm] ! salamander GEN. (< *kobomormo)

myry ! !
myhma !

[myry] !!
[mhma] !

fly
fly GEN. (< *myrma)

sro ! !
shma !!

[su:r] !!
[su:hma] !

berry bush
berry bush GEN. (< *srma)

When /r/ precedes /p b/, the resulting clusters may either be [hp hb] <hp hb>
especially in unstressed position, or in stressed position [rb] or [rp] <rp>. However,
before /p b:/ <pp bb>, the resulting cluster is always [rp:] <rpp>.
!
!
!
!
!

shpi ! !
srumi ! !

[si:hpi] !!
[si:rumi] !

whale
whale GEN. (< *srpi)

orpi % %
kurppo !

[rpi] or [rbi] ! X will misbehave

[crp:] !
hollow

Similarly, when /r/ precedes /t d/, the resulting clusters may either be [ht hd] <ht hd>
(this is also true of / / and /ts tsw: tsx/), especially in unstressed position, or in
stressed position [rt] or [rd] <rt>. However, before /t t:/ <tt dd>, the resulting cluster
is always [rt:] <rtt>.
!
!

lri !
!
lhdi ! !

[lri]! !
[lhi] !

scum, dirt
scum, dirt GEN. (< *lrdi)

trhi !

[te:rhi] !

sun

46

!
!
!
!
!

thta ! !

[te:ha]!

sun GEN. (< *trta)

artaita ! !
ertto ! !
nrtteni !

[artida] !
[xrt:] !!
[e:rt:eni] !

compared to
threshold
X will hurt

When /r/ precedes /n/, the resulting cluster may be [hn] <hn>, [rn] <rn> more
commonly [nr] or [ndr] <nr~ndr>. When /r/ precedes /l/, the resulting cluster may be
[l(d)r] <lr> (with metathesis) or less commonly [rl] or [rt] <rl>.
!

tsulra % %

[tslra] %

pressed/vapor-molded wood (also tsurla)

As with the other stops, when /r/ precedes /k/, the resulting clusters may either be
[hk] <hk>, especially in unstressed position, or in stressed position [rk] or [rg] <rk>
(this mainly occurs as the result of [r:] <rr> coming in contact with /k/). However,
before /k k:/ <kk gg>, the resulting cluster is always [rk:] <rkk>. This often occur with
the first person plural pronouns in -gga/-gge.
!
!
%
%
!
!
!
!
!

gori ! !
gohko ! !

[ri] ! !
[hk] !!

doubt
doubt GEN. (< *gorko)

toarra ! !
toarka ! !

[tr:a] !
[tark:a] !

root vegetable
root vegetable GEN. (< *toarrka)

tsoairkka !
erkka ! !
!
!

[tsairk:a] !
we will go by ski (< tsoairigga)
[rk:a] !we will be careful (< erigga)

If /r/ precedes /g x h/ <g h> however, the resulting cluster is usually [rh] <rh>,
though some dialects have [hr] <hr>.
!
!
!
!
!

airha ! !
oairha !!

[jarha] !
[jarha] !

X will suddenly row (< airiga)

calm, easy to row (of water) (< *oaira)

kiras ! !
kirhi ! !

[ciras] !
[crhi] !!

early morning
early morning GEN. (< *kirahi)

Eastern dialects have the cluster [rx] <r>, whereas western dialects usually simply
have [rh] or [hr] <rh hr>.
!
!

nora ! !
biro ! !

[rxa] !!
[brx] !!

duck (also norha)

beam (also birho)
/l/

47

The sound /l/ can be found short as [l] <l> or long as [l:] <ll>. It may also be found
preaspirated as [hl] or [:] <hl> 1. /l/ may be found word-finally, especially in adverbs
some dialects do not allow final /l/. Many speakers tend to devoice /l/ to [] before
unvoiced stops. /l/ can be palatalized as [lj] <l>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

lahton %
lasa %
svilla %
sohla %
vihla %
pigil %
l%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%

[lahtn] %
[ljsa]! !
[svil:a] %%
[shla] %%
[vhla] % %
[pijl] % %
[lj:]! !

mitten
X will lacerate Y
braid
best
flesh
health (more commonly pig)
resin

When /l/ precedes /p b/, the resulting clusters may be [lp lb] <lp lb>, but not all
dialects have both versions (<lb> is more common in dialects with only either [lp] or
[lb]). However, before /p b:/ <pp bb>, the resulting cluster is always [lp:] <lpp>.
Certain speakers pronounce <lp> as [p] and <lb> as [lp].
!

tsalbi ! !

[tsalbi] or [tsalpi] !

rarely

!
!

tyry ! !
tolba ! !

[tyry]! !
!
[tlba] or [tlpa] !

!
!

son
son GEN.

!
!
!

delpia ! !
lppi ! !
nalppa !!

[dlpia] or [dlbia] or [dpia] ! X will turn Y over

[j:lp:i] !
!
!
hare
[nalp:a] !
!
!
snout

Similarly, when /l/ precedes /t d/, the resulting clusters are [t~lt ld~lt] <lt ld> (this is
also true of / / and /ts tsx/). However, before /t t:/ <tt dd>, the resulting cluster is
always [lt:] <ltt>.
!
!

ylta %
%
klda ! !

[lta] or [ta] !
[ci:lda] or [ci:lta] !

for/to/before the night

again

!
!
!
!
!
!

killa !
kildi !

[cil:a] ! !
[cli] !

!
!

all
all GEN.

[suili] !
[nalt:a] !
[clt:a] !

!
!
!

X will live together

tooth, pike
ground

!
!

suikildi !!
noaltta !!
keltta ! !

1 A great deal of speakers pronounce <hl> as an unvoiced l [] often spelled <>, which in many cases

causes lengthening of the preceding vowel. This explains variations of sohla best such as soaa, svaa,
sa and soua, for example. Western dialects tend to simply geminate the vowel phoneme (then with
<>): va [v:a] flesh (far western dialects).

48

!
!

nelli ! !
nelta ! !

[el:i] ! !
[la] !

chief
chief GEN.

!
!
%
%
!

koalgi ! !
koaltsa !!

[kali] !
[kaltsa] !

paternal aunt
paternal aunt GEN.

vilo !
!
viltsa ! !

[vil] ! !
[vltsa] !!

maternal aunt
maternal aunt GEN.

As with the other stops, when /l/ precedes /k g/, the resulting clusters may either be
[k lg~lk] <lk lg>. However, before /k k:/ <kk gg>, the resulting cluster is always [lk:]
<lkk>. This often occur with the first person plural pronouns in -gga/-gge.
!
!

kala ! !
kalka ! !

[cla] ! !
!
[calka] or [caka] !

land
land GEN. (< *kalka)

!
!
!
!
!
!

kolkon ! !
noalgi ! !
olkko ! !
otilkka !
knnlkka !
!
!

[klkn] or [kkn] !
[nali] or [nalci] !
[lk:] ! !
!
[lk:a] !
!
[c:lk:a]! !
!
!
!

bread
tar kiln
temple
we will dry ourselves (<otiligga)
we will settle down
(< knnligga)

When /l/ precedes /s h/ <s h>, the resulting cluster is [lh] <lh> or [x] <l> with <>.
!
!
!
!
!

ples ! !
pelhi ! !

[pls] !
[plhi] ! !

stuffed stomach
stuffed stomach GEN. (< *plhi)

gos ! !
gosulha !

[gsu:]! !
[gslha] !

calm
calm ADJ (< *gosulha)

neli ! !

[nlxi] ! !

X will suddenly bud (< nelia)

Many dialects allow for /l/ to be in final position, especially eastern dialects. It is often
found unvoiced then.

//
The sound // is always found long intervocally as [:] <ng>. It is also found
glottalized as [] <kn>, which some speakers pronounced long as [:].
!
!

ang ! !
bengomu !

[:i:] ! !
[be:mu] !

seed
roof

49

ekni !

[i] or [:i] way

If // precedes /m/, the resulting cluster is [m:] or [:m] <gm>.

!
!
!

tegma !
omigmi !!
muogmi !

[m:a] !
[mm:i] !
[mm:i] !

child
I will get ready (< omingimi)
I will stay the night (< muongimi)

If // precedes /n/, the resulting cluster is [n:] or [:n] <gn>.

!
!
!

gegna ! !
migna % %
muogna !

[n:a] !
[mn:a] !
[mn:a] !

den
to get ready (< *mingina)
to stay the night (< *muongina)

If // precedes /k k:/, the resulting cluster is [k:] <nkk>, while // and /k g/ form [k]
<nk>.
!
!
!
!
!

ominkka !
muonkka !

[mk:a] !
[mk:a] !

we will get ready (< omingigga)

we will stay the night (< muongigga)

lainga ! !
lainka % %

[li:a] !bait
[laka] !

bait GEN.

/k/
The sound /k/ is always palatalized to [c] before before /i e y / <i e / y > . It
can be found short as [k] <k> word initially or palatalized as [c] <k>, [k] <k> or
palatalized as [c] <k> in stressed position, [g] <k> or palatalized as [] <k> in
unstressed position. It can also be long as [g] or palatalized as [] <g>,
glottalized as [k] or as an ejective [k] in non-initial syllables, or palatalized as [c]
<kk>. /k/ can be preaspirated as [hk] or palatalized as [hc] <hk>. In addition, /k/ can
be palatalized to [c] word initially, [c] in stressed position and [] in unstressed
position as <k>. This is not indicated before /i e y / <i e / y > as they already
cause palatalization.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kaibmu %%
kokve % %
khlo % %
hokoma %
euka % %
maiki % %
koga % %
kagu % %
mokkuo %
kykky % %

[kapmu] %
[kk:ve] %
[c:hl] %
[hkma] %
[euga] %%
[mii] % %
[kga] %
[kau] %
[mku] %
[ccy] %

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

walking stick
light
high
back and forth
X will produce Y
white
twin brothers
fresh wood
beak
voice
50

!
!
!
!

nahkara %
ohki % %
kehko % %
atakka ' '

[nahkra] %
[hci]! %
[chc] %
[taka] !

%
%
%
!

louse
deep
birch bark canoe
big GEN.

If /k/ comes in contact with /m/, the resulting cluster is usually [hm] <hm>, especially
in unstressed syllables. However, /k/ and in some cases /k/ usually combine with /m/
to form [km:] or [gm:] or [k:m] <km>.
!
!

odikmi %%
!
!

[km:i] or [gm:i] !
!
!
!
!

I will show off

(< odikkimi )

!
!
!
!

ka ! !
kmo ! !
!
!

[ka] ! !
!
[km:] or [gm:] !
!
!
!

tundra
tundra GEN.
(also commonly hmo)

dikma % %
sokmi % %

[km:a] or [gm:a] !!
[skm:i] or [sgm:i] ! !

!
!
!

on display, obvious
seagull

When /k/ precedes /w/, the resulting cluster is [kw] <k>, but [kw:] before /w: v/ <vv
v>. In unstressed position, however, /k/ and /v w/ usually combine to [kv] or [gv]
<gv>, or may also simply be [kw] <k>. If /k/ combines with /v w w:/ <v vv>, the
result is always [kw:] or [k:v] <kv>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

iuakvimi %

[ijuakw:imi] !

I want to cut boughs (< *iuakimi )

odikvi % %

[kw:i] !

X wants to show off (< *odikki)

guokvo % !
obinugvi %
!
!

[gkw:] !
[bingvi] !
!
!

frog
X wants to become wealthy
(< *oinuki, also found as obinuki)

When /k k/ precede any bilabial stop (/p b p p:/ <p b pp bb>), the resulting cluster
is always [hp] <hp>. Similarly, /k k/ combine with all dental stops (/t d t t:/ <t d tt
dd>) to form [ht] <ht>.
!
!
!
!
!

riehpi ! !
riekumi !!

[rhpi] !
[riegumi] !

wife
wife ADJ (<*riekpi)!

kia !
hta !

[ji:ia] ! !
[ji:hta] ! !

in the west
to the west ( < *kta)

!
!

When /k k/ precede /n / <n ng>, the resulting cluster is [] <kn>.

51

!
!
!
!
!

osoaki ! !
soakna !!

[si] !
[saa] !

X will build itself a house

to build oneself a house (<*soakina)

lotieki !
ltiekna !

[i:liei] !
[i:li]!

X will crawl on ice

to crawl on ice ( < *ltiekina)

Both /l/ and /r/ combine with /k k/ to form [kl:] or [k:l] <kl>. Many speakers
pronounce <kl> as [k:]. However, in unstressed position, /k/ combines with /r/ to
form [x] <> or [x:] <>.
!

nukli % %

[kl:i] or [k:li] or [k:i] !

hook, finger

!
!
!

goka ! !
goakla ! !

[gka] ! !
!
!
[gak:la] or [gakl:a] ! !

sheath
mollusca ( < *gokra)

If /k k/ and /s/ come together, the resulting cluster is [ks:] <ks> or also [k:s]. The
same is true of //, forming [k:] <k> or [k:].
!
!

tnksi !!
ksy% %

[tnks:i] or [tnk:si] !
[y:ks:y] or [y:k:sy] !
!

attack leader
bow

/g/
The sound /g/ always palatalizes before before /i e y / <i e / y > in stressed
position. It can be found short as [g] <g> word initially and in stressed position or
palatalized as [] <g>. In unstressed position, /g/ is always pronounced [j] <g>
before /i/, but [] or [x] before other vowels. It can also be long as [k:] or palatalized
as [c:] <gg>. /g/ can also be palatalized before /i e y / <i e / y > word-initially
to []. Word-internally, <g> always represents the sound [j:].
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

goi %
%
giga % %
kgge % %
poagga %
oaiga % %
kinagi % %
gosmi % %
gekes% %
gykin % %
goga % %
hog % %

[gi] % %
%
[iga] % %
%
[ci:c:e]%%
%
[pak:a] %
%
[ia] %
%
[cinji] %
%
[smi] %
%
[dzecs] or [zecs] %
[dzycn] or [zycn] %
[gj:a] % %
%
[hj:] %%
%

52

point, edge
goose
spark
seal meet GEN.
X will hook Y
foreigner
is tired
year
snowshoes
X will adze Y
nonsense

When /g/ precedes /m/, the resulting cluster is [hm] <hm> or occasionally [m:]
<gm>. However if /k:/ <gg> precedes /m/, the resulting cluster is [km:] or [gm:] or
[k:m] <km>.
!
!

kega ! !
kehmi ! !

[cega] !!
[chmi] !

X will hide Y
to hide ( < *kegami )

!
!
!
!
!
%

suga ! !
suhmi ! !

[suga] !!
[shmi] !

X will visit Y
to visit ( < *sugami )

tsuogga !
tsuokmi %
%
or %

[tsuk:a] !
[tskm:i] %
[tsgm:i] !

X will hope for Y

to hope

Similarly, when /g/ precedes /n/, the resulting cluster is [hn] <hn>, and if /k:/ <gg>
precedes /n/, they combine to [] <kn>.
!
!
!
!
!

okegi ! !
kehna ! !

[cei] ! !
[chna] !

X will hide itself

to hide oneself ( < *kegina )

imiggi !!
miknin %

[imc:i] !
[mn] !

X will hold on to
to hold on to ( < *migginin )

When /g/ precedes /v w w:/ <v vv>, they combine to form [kv] or [gv] <gv>, but /k:/
forms [kw:] or [k:v] <kv>.
!
!
!
!

piagvi ! !
!
!
imikvi !!
!
!

[pakvi] or [pagvi] ! !
!
!
!
!
[imk:vi] or [imkw:i] !
!
!
!
!

X wants to fall asleep

( < *piagi )
X wants to hold on to
( < *imiggi )

When /g/ precedes stops, it preaspirates them, except in the case of /k k k:/ <k kk
gg>, which combine to form [k:] <gg>. This is not especially common, however.
!
!

okegga !
!
!

[cek:a] !
!
!

we will hide ourselves

(more commonly okegigga )

When /g/ precedes /s/, they form [ks] or [gs] <gs>. This is common in the genitive
form of inanimate nouns, as <ks> is lenited to <gs>. However, /k:/ <gg> combines
with /s/ to form [ks:] or [k:s] <ks>.
!
!

diugsid %%
rugsoma %

[dks] or [dgs] %
[rksma] or [rgsma] %

53

icicle GEN.
circle GEN.

Similarly, /g/ and /l/ combine to form [gl] or [kl] <gl>. This is common in the genitive
form of inanimate nouns, as <kl> is lenited to <gl>. However, /k:/ <gg> combines
with /l/ to form [kl:] or [k:l] or [k:] <kl>.
!
!

suglimo %
syglyma %

[sglim] or [sklim] % %
[sglyma] or [sklyma] %

protection GEN.
team GEN.

If /g/ and /h r x/ <h r /g> combine, the result is [x] <>, though /g/ and /r/ may
combine to [rh] <rh> through metathesis.
!
!
!
!
!

giga !
grhi !

!
!

iruoga ! !
iruorha %%

[iga]! !
[i:rhi] ! !

goose
flock of geese ( < *ggra )

[irua]!!
[irrha] !

coniferous wood
made of coniferous wood ( < *iruogiha )

/x/
The sound /x/ is pronounced [x] <> word initially. Intervocally, it is pronounced [x]
<>, but all western dialects have <> change to [] <> before front vowels in
unstressed position. It can also be palatalized, in which case it turns to [hj] <h> or
more commonly [h:j] <hh> in stressed position, though this is mostly a historical
change. In eastern dialects, some inanimate nouns ending in non-front vowel may
have a word final - in the plural, usually pronounced [x]. The phoneme /x/ is most
commonly found in clusters such as <s> and <ts>. It can be found long as [x:] or
[:] or even [q:] <>.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

emi % %
oli %
%
ia %
%
moa % %
neui% %
!
!
neui % %
!
!
sevai % %
!
!
sevai % %
!
!
boaihhi %
!
!
tapa % %
kya' '

[xemi] %
X will shake
[xli] ! !
hilltop
[ixa] % %
X will accept Y
[mxa] %%
X will drink Y
[neuxi] %birch wood GEN.
!
!
(standard/eastern dialects)
[neui] %%
birch wood GEN.
!
!
(western dialects)
[sevxi] %
burnt embers GEN.
!
!
(standard/eastern dialects)
[sevi] %
burnt embers GEN.
!
!
(western dialects)
[bih:ji] %
floating weeds in lake
!
!
(cf. boi branch with leaves)
[tpax] !
bulbs (eastern dialects)
[cyx:a] !
mouse

54

When /x/ precedes /m/, they form [xm] or [xm:] <m> or in unstressed position [hm]
<hm>. Similarly, /x/ and /n/ form [xn] or [xn:] <n> or [hn] <hn> in unstressed
position, and with /l/, the resulting cluster is [xl] or [x:] <l> or [hl] or [:] <hl> in
unstressed position. These clusters are fairly uncommon and speakers may replace
them with their preaspirated counterparts.
!
!
!
!

imi ! !
momi !!
soli ' '
kuoni ' '

[xmi] or [xm:i] !
[mxmi] or [mxm:i] !
[sxli] or [sxl:i] %
[kxni] or [kxn:i] %

!
!
%
%

to accept ( < *iami )

to drink ( < *moami )
X will thaw
X will argue

Before /s/ and /r/, /x/ becomes [h] <h> to form [hs] <hs> and [hr] <hr>.
!
!
!

mohsa !!
moahrit !
!
!

[mhsa] !
[mahr] !
!
!

to drink ( < *moisa )

drinkable water supplies
( cf. moaa drinkable water )

If /x/ precedes /h/, the /h/ is dropped and only // remains.

!
!

seu % %
sea ! !

[sexu] ! !
[sexa] ! !

barren land
barren ( < *seeha )

//
The sound // is mainly found before other consonants, namely [t p k m n]
<tt pp kk kn bm dn>, but intervocally it is found as [] <h> in stressed syllables or
<> in unstressed syllables. The glottal stop can also be found long, then [:] and
written <> 1.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kihaa % %
kahi % %
koahi % %
minii % %
miha % %
paha % %
saiha % %
tahama %

[cia] %
[ki] % %
[ki] %
[minii] %
[mia] %%
[pja] %
[sia] %
[tma] %

there is something very large

shell
enough
common snipe GEN.
X smoked Y
healer, shaman
X warned Y
world

1 One of the more famous tongue twisters of Siwa is:

!
%
!

Aitaina ien tkien puoua det, koaorena u

[:it:ina in tci:n pu:ua d k:renaju]
'if you can keep squeezing it that way, you will split it in half'

55

!
!

nee % %
puu % %

[ne:e] %
[pu:u] %

well, you see, hm...

woosh, go away!

/h/
The sound /h/ is always found long as [h:] <hh> in stressed position (though not word
initially). In unstressed syllables, it is found short as [h] <h>. It can be palatalized as
[h:j] <hh> in stressed position and [hj] <h> in unstressed position.
!
!
!
!
!
!

hai %
%
hmno %
ihha % %
kegahi % %
kohha % %
gekehi %

[hai] % %
[hj:mn:] %
[ih:a] % %
[ceghi] %
[kh:ja] %
[dzecehji] %

glue
midwife
just, only
ftus GEN.
X will rip Y
birthday GEN.

The sound /h/ is found as the first sound in preaspirated consonants (see 3.4.5)
3.4.2 Long Consonants
The long consonants are [m: p: v: n: t: : s: : : j: r: l: k: x: : h: :] <mm bb vv nn dd
ss dd g rr ll gg ng hh >. Long consonants do not count as CC but C:
(thus not closing syllables). All long consonants occur intervocally. The voiceless
stops /p t k/ have unusual long allophones, [b : g] <b g>.
3.4.3 Palatalized Consonants
The palatalized consonants are [ c ] <t d n k g-i/e> in stressed syllables
but [ j] <t/t-i/e d/d-i/e k/k-i/e g-i/e> in unstressed syllables. Stressed
palatalized consonants are the result of historical palatalization. True productive
palatalization only occurs in certain case in weak syllables before /j/ or diphthongs
whose first sound is /i/.

3.4.4 Glottalized Consonants

Only the voiceless stops /p t k/ and the nasals /m n :/ are glottalized. They are
written <pp tt kk bm dn kn> and pronounced [p t k pm tn k:]. They are found
intervocally only.

3.4.5 Preaspirated Consonants

Siwa has the following preaspirated consonants:
!
[hp hb ht hd hk hm hn hl hs hr hts htsk: htsx htv htx h:w h:j]
%
<hp hb ht hd hk hm hn hl hs hr hts htsk hts htv htr hh hh>

!
!

hpi % %
ihba % %

[i:hpi] % %
[hba] %

arrowhead
the least
56

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

hehta % %
nigehdi %
ohkama %
sohma %%
kehno % %
kihli % %
vahsu % %
lehra % %
sihtsa % %
oahtska%%
rahtsi %%
mihtvi % %
soahtra %
sehhe%%

[hhta] %
[nij:hi] %
[hkma]!
[shma]!
[chn] %
[chli] % %
[vahsu] %
[lhra] %%
[shtsa] %
[ahtsk:a] %
[rahtsxi] %
[mhtw:i] %
[sahtxa] %
[seh:we] %

completely!
!
!
X will do summer work
raw
in the evening
pine tree
thread
X will grow stronger
straw
X will look for Y!
from the edge of
X will run (on four legs)
X will whisper
eighty
eager

3.4.6 Initial Consonant Clusters

A number of initial consonant clusters are allowed in Siwa. They are [sv sx sxw ts tsv
tsx tsxw t tv kv km kn xv] <sv s sv ts tsv ts tsv dl tv kv km kn>. Many dialects
lack <km kn> entirely, e.g. kmti~mti bustle, turmoil. Certain more conservative
dialects of the far east have also kept two other clusters which have vanished from all
other dialects, [tm tk sm mx] <tm tk sm m>: SORHI DIALECT tmisas [tmisas] but
standard is misas [misas] rock, or sma X ate Y instead of standard ma and megi
[mxei] I, mri [mx:ri] we. Higher registers commonly include <m>, perhaps
due to it being found in fairly common words 1.

.1 Some of the more common words with m- found in high register are:
%
megi I (meigi GEN., mta PREC.)
!
ma- me
%
mri/mra we (mendra/mendri GEN., mtra/mtri PREC.)
!
mari-/meri- us
!
mo- drink
!
mieg- to herd (miedu herd and mmi herder)
!
motona claw
Words in km- kn- tm- tk- sm- include:
!
kmaitsa toe
!
kmanda type of priest
!
knes sour drink
!
knabi small mushroom
!
tmisas stone
!
tmetvi cow vetch
!
tmla type of mushroom
!
tkien without stopping, steadily, ongoing
!
tkaggi wood duck
!
smairui X smiles (usually mairo-)
!
smoro landsnail

57

!
Certain western dialects include the clusters <mh nh> initially, then rendered
as voiceless [ ], sometimes spelled < >. This is non-standard, however, e.g.
mahatru I ought to can be found as atru in the west.

3.4.7 Internal Consonant Clusters

Internal consonant clusters can either be anaptyctic, glottalized, preaspirated or nonanaptyxis (normal clusters). Normal clusters are (excluded are preaspirated clusters
and the long voiceless stops <b g>):
mp [mp]
ampo [jamp] on the other side
kimpa [cmpa] pair of boots
sompo [smp] swift

aimra [amra] wrongly

giamra [amra] one hundred thousand
mk [mk]
haumka [hamka] bright GEN.
kaimka [kamka] walking stick GEN.
nmka [n:mka] sturgeon GEN.

mn [mn:] or [m:n]
umna [mn:a] space below
homna [hmn:a] quiet waters in stream
imni [mn:i] X will produce smoke

mkk [mk:]
nmkka [ny:mk:a] X will pile Y up
tmkki [tmc:i] boulder
temkka [mk:a] X will diminish Y

mt [mt]
uemta [u:mta] black bird GEN.
pimta [pmta] ungulate ILLAT. (also
pimita)
dotsamta [dtsxamta] idea ILLAT. (also
dotsamita)

m [mx]
dama [damxa] skin with fur GEN.
gama [gamxa] character GEN.
ama [jamxa] the other side GEN.

ms [ms]
oamsu [amsu] X will get snowed in
amsi [jamsi] along the other side

mh [mh]
liamhi [lamhi] hat GEN.
timhi [mhi] chain GEN.

mst [mst]
omste [mste] type of knot
Tatimstagi [ttmstji] Eastern-Siwa
(.GEN)

pm [pm:] or [p:m]
tuopmo [pm:] shallow GEN.
spma [su:pm:a] black GEN.

m [m]
simi [smi] human
imi [mi] bear ritual
tomimo [tmim] velvet GEN.

ps [ps:] or [p:s]
dapsa [daps:a] younger sister
hopsai [hps:ai] X will vomit
kepsi [cps:i] mushroom
p [p:] or [p:]
elepia [elp:ia] in bloom
hpi [hp:i] purple finch

mr [mr]
otomrti [tmri] X will rub its antlers
off
58

pr [px] or [px]
ipro [px] carcass
kprirui [ci:pxirui] X will chirp
moaksapri [maks:apxi] it is time for
ptarmigan hunting

n [n]
eni [ni] early winter.
oni [ni] channel catfish
nr~ndra [nr] or [ndr]
benra [bn(d)ra] dog GEN.

bm [pm] or [m]
nebmia [npmia] perhaps
nbma [ni:pma] birch bark
rabma [rapma] one-man canoe

nk [k]
ranka [rjaka] hip GEN.
sinka [ska] a long time ago
tonkua [tkua] sinew

bs [ps] or [bs]
tsebsue [tspsue] a little GEN.
kebsie [cpsie] mushroom GEN.
!
b [p] or [b]
miebi [mpi] fat person/animal
gabi [gapi] fool

nh [nh]
benho [bnh] dog
minhi [mnhi] black spruce
tv [tw:] or [t:v]
htva [htw:a] X will hit Y
mitvo [mtw:] night frost

nt [nt] or [n]
hantui [hantui] X will lie
inta [nta] yes
muontia [mnia] X decided Y

tn [tn:]
btn [bu:tn:i:] cast of bad weather
hetna [htn:a] to scatter
ts [ts] (has the value of a single
phoneme)
tsi [e:tsi] wall
etsa [etsa] X will start Y
gaitsa [gitsa] star

nts [nts]
tontsori [tntsri] puffin
gogantsi [ggantsi] X will limp
nts [ntsx]
taintsi [tantsxi] numerous

tsv [tsw:] or [ts:v]

beitsvi [btsw:i] X wants to spend the
day

nd [nd] or [n]
hindu [hndu] X died in combat.
india [nia] X was scattered around
ndl [nt]
ndli [xnti] X will sigh

tst [tst:]
tsta [i:tst:a] lifetime GEN.
kiutsta [cijtst:a] room GEN.
nesotsta [nestst:a] green GEN.

ns [ns]
kansi [kansi] female moose
keukonsimo [ceuknsim] band,
marching band
mansi [mansi] X came

tsl [tsl:] or [ts]

matsli [matsl:i] bastard
tetsli [ttsl:i] american coot

59

tsm [tsm:] or [ts:m]

kotsmi [ktsm:i] walking path
latsma [latsm:a] log-bridge

ryty [rt:xy] hammer

m [m:]
svama [svam:a] foam
tama [tam:a] furthest back!

tsn [tsn:] or [ts:n]

tetsni [ttsn:i] dried fish
mitsni [mtsn:i] cabin

dn [tn] (or [n])

hdna [hu:tna] steam hut
ldna [li:tna] great!
nidna [ntna] hut

tsk [tsk:] or [ts:k]

nitski [ntsc:i] unit
otski [tsc:i] laced
patskon [patsk:n] inconsiderate

dl [t] (single phoneme)

sudlu [sutu] X will bear berries
todli [ti] late summer!
dli [xi:ti] X will crackle

tskv [tskw:] or [ts:kv]

meitskva [mtskw:a] spruce sprout
kotskven [ktskw:n] wooden ring to
tie skins around
!
ts [tsx]
pitsa [ptsxa] X will scold Y
tsiame [tsxime] cedar strips!
katsi [katsxi] jam

k [k:] or [:k]
ika [k:a] we will fall (also idigga)
keika [ck:a] we will start a
fire (also keidigga)!
v [w:] or [:w]
mevi [mw:i] eyelid
lovot [lw:] delayed, long, slow

tsv [tsxw]
batsvi [batsxwi] X will look for Y
tsaatgva [tsxatsxwa] bug!

d [x]
nedi [nxe] X will sit down
ede [xe] air!
odi [jxi] X will yelp

tr [tx]
netro [ntx] pistil!
retro [rtx] northern pike

sm [sm]
miasma [masma] peace
nosma [sma] deaf GEN.!

tk [tk]
rietki [rtci] where the forest ends
saitki [satci] X will disappear!
tatkatka [tatk:atka] inside out

sp [sp]
spa [i:spa] X will pinch Y
kuspo [ksp] skunk!

tkv [tkw:] or [t:kv]

piatkvi [patkw:i] X wanted to go to
sleep
okitkvi [ctkw:i] X wanted to take a
break!

sv [sv]
osve [sve] sour
svotta [svta] mother GEN.!
svohka [svhka] X will slam Y

t [t:x]
tsutasi [tst:xsi] lunar eclipse
seta [st:xa] X will place Y!
60

st [st]
tusta [tsta] barricade, steep hill
stua [y:stua] X will kiss Y!
estot [st] first

p [p]
pa [i:pa] grandparents
typi [pi] X speaks with an
accent

sl [sl] or [st]
kslo [ci:sl] noose
aisla [asla] X will drag Y

v [v]
va [i:va] grandparents GEN.
sovi [svi] secondly

sk [sk]
hesko [hsk] small bay
ski [i:sci] woman!
kieska [cska] X will watch Y

k [k]
kika [cka] away ELAT.
loiko [lk] leech GEN.
kv [kw:] or [:kv]
nukva [nkw:a] hail
ekvo [kw:] slush

skl [skl:] or [s:kl]

eiskla [skl:a] X interviews Y
Tasklabi [taskl:bi] topynym!

rm [rm]
orma [jrma] young bull GEN.
kirma [crma] in the morning (also
kimra)

skv [skw:] or [s:kv]

miaskvi [maskw:i] X wants to
celebrate
peuiskvi [pskw:i] slippery jack
toskvi [tskw:i] caribou without antlers

rp [rp] (or [rb])

orpi [rpi] X will misbehave
rarpo [rarp] angry

skk [sk:]
tsaskka [tsask:a] X forgot Y
peskko [pjsk:] snowflake
siskki [ssc:i] it thundered

rpp [rp:]
suorppi [srp:i] X will drink (animal)
varppi [varp:i] rude

s [sx]
tauson [tasxn] rigid
hausa [hasxa] edible
kesamo [csxm] teacher

rv [rw:] or [rv]
tervima [trw:ima] it is twilight
rvi [rw:i] surroundings

sv [sxw]
svelmi [sxwlmi] gland
kesven [csxwn] chickadee

rt [rt] (or [rd])

artaita [artida] compared to
ertobi [xrtbi] threshold GEN.

m [m]
koma [kma] strong wind
nomo [nm] pouch
simu [smu] bottom

rtt [rt:]
torttiu [trt:iu] paralyzed
ertto [xrt:] threshold

61

rk [rk] (or [rg])

rkyno [rcyn] close to
vrke [vi:rce] short, stumpy

ln [ln]
oklni [clni] X will make its nest
lnuma [u:lnuma] milky way
kelne [clne] more

rkk [rk:]
liarkko [lark:] guest bench
sarkka [sark:a] X will break Y

lt [lt] or [t] (or [ld])

loalta [lalta] to the back
noaltaka [naltga] tooth GEN.

r [rx], also rh [rh]

nora [rxa] duck (also norha)
biro [brx] beam (also birho)

ltt [lt:]
keltta [clt:a] ground (also kelta)
nolttima [lt:ima] X is sick
noaltta [nalt:a] tooth

rh [rh]
rhu [y:rhu] X will grow (of scars)
brho [bi:rh] canid
erho [rh] careful

lts [lts] or [ts]

viltsa [vltsa] maternal aunt GEN.
koaltsa [kaltsa] paternal aunt GEN.

lm [lm]
galmot [galm] soft
kolmo [klm] esker GEN.

ltsv1 [ltsw] or [tsw]

Meltsva [mtswa] toponym

lp [lp] or [lb] or [p]

holpo [hlp] dull
lpika [j:lpiga] hare GEN.
nalpaka [nalpga] snout GEN.

lts [ltsx] or [tsx]

iltsa [xtsxa] disgust
ltsv [ltsxw] or [tsxw]
Teltsvi [ttsxwi] toponym

lpp [lp:]
gylppa [dzlp:a] wet snow
lppi [j:lp:i] hare
nalppa [nalp:a] snout

ld [ld] or [l]
aelda [jlda] marrow GEN.
bieldi [bli] fat GEN.
klda [ci:lda] again

lb [lb]
kelba [clba] shoulders
kilbi [clbi] usually
nalbi [nalbi] husband (also nalvi)

l [l]
salinhi [salnhi] caribou head
sacrifice
!
lt [l] or []
eultai [lai] high grasses GEN.
nelta [la] chief GEN.
!

lv [lv]
tlvu [te:lvu] X will clear up
tulvi [tlvi] nutrient
bialvuni [balvuni] cray fish, crustacean

1The clusters <ltsv lts ltsv> are also found as -uts-/-yts- in other dialects. The river Teltsvi is also

commonly called Teytsvi.

62

ld [l]
tildui [lui] X screamed

dl [tx]
seidla [stxa] pregnant fish
dlt [tx] throat
sidla [sxtxa] reins (pl.)

lr [lr] or [ldr]
gilra [lra] wet weather
olra [lra] fewest

km [km:] or [gm:] or [k:m]

dikma [km:a] on display, obvious
sokmi [skm:i] seagull

lk [lk] or [k] (or [lg])

kolkon [klkn] bread
gagulka [gglka] community

kv [kw:] or [k:v]
guokvo [gkw:] frog
kokve [kkw:e] light
leikva [lkw:a] slippery
kva [kvi:a] X will feel Y

lkk [lk:]
olkko [lk:] temple
hialkko [halk:] wound
lg [lg]
noalgi [nali] tar kiln
lgi [j:li] male rite of passage

kn [] or [:]
lekna [lja] snowless
nakna [naa] X will break Y
sykni [si] generation

l [lx]
pln [plxn] bud
ala [xalxa] callus

ks [ks:] or [k:s]
tnksi [tnks:i] attack leader
ksy [y:ks:y] bow

lh [lh]
kelho [clh] dried meat
nielhi [nlhi] fir GEN.

ksk [ksk:]
nkskon [nu:ksk:n] eternal

dlv [tw:]
edlvi [xtw:i] thick fog
radlva [ratw:a] X will disturb Y
padlva [patw:a] otter

k [k:] or [k:]
aki [ak:i] death
pikima [pk:ima] X is hurt

dlm [tm:]
adlmi [xwatm:i] rainbow
sodlmot [stm:] snowdrift

kl [kl:] or [k:] or [k:l]

rokloma [rkl:ma] round
saykla [skl:a] X will protect Y

dln [tn:]
hadlna [hatn:a] sea ice
ndlni [ntn:i] it will be flooding/
overflowing

gm [m:] or [:m]
tegma [m:a] child
igmo [m:] rapidly changing weather
gv [kv] or [gv]
kegvia [kwkvia] X will call Y (animal)
sigvima [skvima] it is dusk

dlk [tk:]
kodlken [ktc:n] firefly
midlkis [mtc:s] crab

63

gn [n:] or [:n]
gegna [n:a] den
migna [mn:a] to get ready

m [xm] or [xm:]
imi [xmi] to accept
momi [mxmi] to drink

gs [ks] or [gs]
diugsid [dks] icicle GEN.
rugsoma [rksma] circle GEN.

v [xv] or [xw:] (usually <hv> [hv])

avi [axvi] X stayed (also ahvi)
n [xn] or [xn:]
kuoni [kxni] X will argue

gl [kl] or [gl]
tsoglimo [tsxklim] rakovalkea
nuglimo [klim] finger GEN.
!

l [xl] or [xl:]
soli [sxli] X will thaw

3.4.7.1 Anaptyctic Pronunciation

Certain internal consonant clusters may be pronounced with anaptyxis (insertion of a
vowel to break up a cluster), and are called anaptyctic consonant clusters or the
anaptyctic pronunciation. This is commonly the case where the latter part of the
cluster is geminated (Siwa tends to geminate the second consonant). This trait is
common in both dialects and can be in free variation in speakers, but is somewhat
more common in older speakers. There is much variation in the pronunciation of
anaptyctic clusters. One finds an anaptyctic // (or also commonly //) inserted
between the consonants and usually lengthening or glottalization of the of the second
consonant and voicing of the first consonant. In the east, the vowel // is not present
or very short, and only lengthening occurs, whereas in the wear, // is present (or may
be pronounced as a schwa) and voiceless stops are glottalized (most common) or
lengthened.
!
Anaptyctic clusters are the following:
<mn mkk pm ps p tv tn tsv tsm tsn tst tsk tskv ts tk tkv t k v d skv skk kv rpp rv
rtt rkk lpp ltt lkk dlv dlm dln dl km ks ksk k kv kl gm gn m v n l>
They are all clusters normally pronounced with the second consonant being
geminated. Anaptyctic pronunciation breaks down the clusters to the following:
[mn: mk bm: bs: b: dw: dn: dzw: dzm: dzn: dzt dzk dzkw:/tsgw: dzx:
dk dkw:/dgw: dx: k w: : skw: sk kw: rp rw: rt rk lp lt tw:
tm: tn: tx: gm: gs: gsk:/ksk: g: gw: gl:/g: m: n: m: w: n: l: ]
Note that anaptyctic clusters have a strong tendency to phonologically lengthen the
preceding vowel (though not <skv kv>) without affecting its pronunciation, i.e. the
vowel remains unchanged but is lengthened. The following examples show normal
pronunciation and its anaptyctic counterpart. Anaptyctic pronunciation is sometimes
64

transcribed into Siwas orthography (though not gemination), especially when writing
western dialects.
!

homna %%

[hmn:a] %
[h:mn:a]

quiet waters in stream

tmkki % %

[tmc:i] %
[t:mc:i]

boulder

spma %%

[su:pm:a] %
[su:bm:a]

black GEN.

dapsa % %

[daps:a] %
[da:bs:a]

younger sister

hpi % %

[hp:i] %
[h:b:i]

purple finch

%
%

htva % %

[htw:a] %
[h:dw:a]

X will hit Y

hetna ! !

[htn:a] !
[h:dn:a]

to scatter

!
!

beitsvi ! !

[btsw:i] !
[b:dzw:i]

X wants to spend the day

nesotsta %

[nestst:a] %
green GEN.
[nes:dzt:a]

!
!

!
!

!
!

nitski % %

[ntsc:i] %
[n:dzc:i]

unit

saitki ! !

[satc:i] !
[sa:dc:i]

X will disappear

toskvi % %

[tskw:i] %
[tskw:i]

caribou without antlers

peskko %

[pjsk:] %
[pj:sk:]

snowflake

nukva %%

[nkw:a] !
[nkw:a]

hail

65

!
!

varppi % %

[varp:i] %
[va:rp:i]

rude

rvi %

[rw:i] %
[:rw:i]

surroundings

ertto % %

[xrt:] %%
[x:rt:]

threshold

sarkka % %

X will break Y

lppi % %

[sark:a] %
[sa:rk:a]
[j:lp:i] %
[j:lp:i]

noaltta %%

[nalt:a] %
[n:alt:a]

tooth

!
!

olkko ! !

[lk:] ! !
[:lk:]

temple

sokmi % %

[skm:i] %
[s:gm:i]

seagull

guokvo !!

[gkw:] !
[g:gw:]

frog

tnksi !!

[tnks:i] !
[tn:gs:i]

attack leader

aki !

[ak:i] !!
[a:g:i]

death

saykla ! !

[skl:a] !
[s:gl:a]

X will protect Y

tegma !

[m:a] !
[:m:a]

child

gegna ! !

[n:a] !
[:n:a]

den

hare

Younger generations also tend to pronounce preglottalized consonants as -VCwhere the -V- is either anaptyctic or a copy of the preceding vowel.

66

!
!

kekken%
[ccn] or [ccn]

Not everyone geminates or preglottalizes the second sound of a cluster. Clusters

containing <v> are especially likely to geminate the first consonant: <skv> can be
[skw:], [skw:] or [s:kv]~[skv]~[skw].
3.4.7.2 Ejective Pronunciation
The Siwa consonant clusters [tx px tsx] <tr pr ts> may be pronounced as [tq pq
tsq], that is to say as ejectives. This pronounciation sometimes extends to <t> and
<b> being pronounced as [t: p:] and even <> as [q:]. This is especially common
in eastern dialects and higher language registers. It is associated with more archaic
language, and may be used as a form of hypercorrection.
!
The consonants <pp tt kk dd dl> are commonly found as (geminated)
ejectives [p t k t] in non-initial syllables or when directly before a stressed
syllable.
3.4.8 Lenition
Lenition is a phonological process by which the intervocalic coda (most commonly)
of the stressed syllable in inanimate nouns is changed or weakened as part of case
marking. The sound changes range from loss of gemination, consonant cluster
simplification to consonants disappearing all together. Lenition only affects inanimate
nouns.
!
As a general rule, if lenition occurs, vowel apocope before case endings is
less likely. However, geminate sonorants do not always obey this.

agentive

genitive
Geminated Voiced Stops

[p:] bb

[b] b

sabbas
[sp:as]
sole

sabahi
[sbhi]

[t:] dd

/d/ d

saddama
[st:ma]
callus

sadakka
[sdaka]

67

/k:/ gg

/g/ g

keggas
[cek:as]
foetus

kegahi
[ceghi]

/x:/

/x/

naia
[nix:a]
thicket

naiaka
[nixga]

Long Sonorant

// g

[j]

nygis
[nyj:s]
spirit

nyihi
[nyjihi]
(also nhhi)

[m:] mm

[m] m

nmmi
[ny:m:i]
heap, hill

nmdi
[ny:mi]

[l:] ll

[l] l

tellu
[el:u]
catkin

telue
[elue]

/n:/ nn

[n] n

kinna
[cin:a]
fist, hand

kindi
[cni]

[r:] rr

[r] r

krru
[cr:u]
suspicion

krume
[crume]

Uvular Stops

68

[bx] b or [px] pr

[p] p

ipro
[pxo]
carcass

ipodi
[ipi]

[x] d or [tx] tr

/t/ t

ede
[xe]
air

eteri
[eteri]

glottalized Stops

[pm] bm

[m] m

sibma
[spma]
claw

simadi
[simi]

[tn] dn

[n] n

ndna
[ntna]
wave

nnamo
[nnm]

[:] kn

[] ng

akna
[aa]
trace

angaka
[:ga]

Consonant Clusters

[t] dl

[l] l

dlu
[i:tu]
sprout

ludi
[i:lui]

[lp:] lpp

/lp/ lp

gylppa
[dzlp:a]
wet snow

gylpamo
[dzlpm]

69

[lt:] ltt

/lt/ lt

noaltta
[nalt:a]
tooth

noaltaka
[naltga]

/lk:/ lkk

/lk/ lk

hialkko
[halk:]
wound

hialkodi
[halki]

[rp:] rpp

[rp] rp

kurppo
[crp:]
hollow

kurpoma
[crpma]

[rt:] rtt

/rt/ rt

nrtta
[e:rt:a]
sharp pain

nrtari
[e:rtri]

/rk:/ rkk

/rk/ rk

liarkko
[lark:]
guest bench

liarkodi
[larki]

[ps:] ps

[ps] bs or [p:s] ps

tsepsu
[tsps:u]
tiny bit

tsebsue
[tspsue]

/mk:/ mkk

/mk/ mk

tmkki
[tmc:i]
boulder

tmkimo
[tmcim]

[kl:] kl

[kl] gl

tsokli
[tsxkl:i]
rakovalkea

tsoglimo
[tsxklim]

70

[kw:] kv

[kv] gv

koakvi
[kakw:i]
call

koagvika
[kakviga]

[ks:] ks

[ks] gs

diuksi
[dks:i]
icicle

diugsid
[duks]

/sk:/ skk

/sk/ sk

peskko
[pjsk:]
snowflake

peskue
[pjskue]

Voiced Consonants

[v] /w/ v

sivi
[sivi]
honey

sd
[si:]

[w:] vv

or [w]

nivv
[niw:i:]
humidity

niila~nla
[niwila/ni:la]

[b] b

tibes
[ibs]
sign

/d/ d + back vowel

[l] l

puodus
[pus]
navel

71

tiehhi
[ieh:i]

puolhi
[plhi]

/d/ d + front vowel

hide
[hide]
hair

hiedi
[hiei]

/g x/ g + back
vowel

[v] v or [w:] vv

ougu
[uu]
hook

oumma
[um:a]

/g x/ g + front
vowel

tiogi
[tiji]
dam

toid
[]

// h/

vihi
[vii]
dirt

vd
[vi:]

Consonant -i

[ri] ri

[xi] i

[i] ni

[i] i

iri
[iri]
bark

[i] i

boi
[bxi]
(deciduous)
branch and
leaves

[j:i] gi

kini
[cii]
fringes on
clothes

72

iid
[i:]
(also hdi)

boko
[bk]

kigid
[cij:]

[h:ji] hhi

boaihhi
[bih:ji]
floating weeds in
lake

[i] i

boaika
[baka]

Long Voiceless Consonants

[p] p

mobi
[mbi]
hunting territory

mopiko
[mpg]

[:]

[h:] hh

saa
[s:a]
fire (in a forest or
house)

sahhaka
[sh:ga]

/g/ g

/k/ k

kga
[kga]
bear cub

kkamo
[kkm]

[b] b

Semi-Vowel

[w uw] o u

ois
[ws]
turtle

//

hhi
[y:h:i]

!
Note that in conservative language, the cluster <ng> disappears between two
identical vowels under lenition: tingi mating period can be found as tingid or td in
the genitive.
3.5 Diachronic Phonology

73

Going through all of the changes from Proto-Alopian to modern Siwa would be of little
use to the learner. However, certain consonants are worth examining as they may
help recognize cognates and may shed light on the development of Siwa.
3.5.1 Consonants
Below are given some of the relevant sound changes in consonants that have
occurred in earlier stages of Siwa.

*/b/
Proto-Siwa */b/ sometimes disappeared intervocally or changed to */m/, especially
before */ /. This can be seen in the Siwa pair bieli [bieli] fat, blubber (PROTO-SIWA
*bili) vs. mielo [miel] rot, mildew (PROTO-SIWA *blu). Before */o u/ it generally
remained */b/, but sometimes became */w/ and sometimes it became */m/ (usually
because of a neighboring dialects influence which kept the */m/ variant only), e.g.
voli [vli] arthritis (PROTO-SIWA *bol-) cf. malva [malva] sprain (PROTO-SIWA *blwa).

*/w/
Proto-Siwa */w/ went through complicated sound changes. It most often changed to /
v/ (before a stressed front vowel). Sometimes it fell together with */b/ and changed
to /m/ before / /, cf. vebo [veb] knot (PROTO-SIWA *wep-/wap-) but mpsemi
[me:psemi] to make knots (PROTO-SIWA *wp-). */w/ usually disappeared all together
between identical vowels.

*/d/
Proto-Siwa */d/ changed to */v/ before /a o/ intervocally, which can be seen in words
such as suvo [suv] berry (PROTO-SIWA *sud-) and sudlu [sutu] to blossom (PROTOSIWA *sudl-). Similarly, */d/ changed to */w/ before */u/, but it also sometimes
disappeared, e.g. saiu [siwu] pot (PROTO-SIWA *sd-) and sayna [sna] (PROTOSIWA *sdina) hiding place.

*/n/
Proto-Siwa */n/ changed to */j/ after a long front vowel, e.g. tinin [tinn]
firewood (PROTO-SIWA *tini-) cf. tiegibi [tiejibi] twig (PROTO-SIWA *tnibi).

*//
Proto-Siwa // has the most number of reflexes in modern Siwa. It is perhaps worth
describing all of them:

74

a-/o-/
u-

y-/-

e-/i-

-a

-o / -u

-e

-i

-j-

-hha-

-vv-/-b-

-e-

-i-

-g-

uemi
(<*oemi)
black bird

oi
(<*oi)
moon light

saugeni
(<*sajen)
X smells
burnt

savvu
(<*sau)
a burn'
sahha
(<*saa)
X will burn Y'

saubus
(<*sasa)
(small)
flame,
candle

-hha-

-vv-/-b-

-e-

-b-

-g-

nyhha
(<*nya)
X will make Y
curl/bend'

nb
(<*n)
ring finger'

ne
(<*nje)
coil'

ybi
(<*oi)
cloudless

ngkka
(<*njkka
)
X will coil Y'

-hha-

-hh-/--

-e-

-hhi-/-i

-g-/--

saie
(<*se)
burning
sensation'

tddi
(<*ti)
stimulus,
frustration'

segaka
(<*sejaka)
embers'

rehha
(<*rea)
X pull Y'

siebi
eagle
siehhumi
eagle gen
(< *s)
tigo
(<*to)
skin irritation'

Before /h/ it became // (deleting the /h/):

!
!
omoi ! !
[mi] !

game (< *o-mi)

Before /s/ it disappeared:

!
!
tamosi ! !

hunter (< *ta-msi)

[tmsi] !

Before /k g/ it became [s] <s>:

!
!
maski ! !
[masci] !

people (< *maki)

It lengthened /p b/ to [b] <b> and /t d/ to [:] <>:

!
!
kagu ! !
[kau] !
fresh wood (< *kakil)

75

The cluster /r/ became [tx] <tr>:

!
!
utra ! !
[txa] ! !

crowberry (< *ora)

The cluster */l/ became [t] <dl>:

!
!
sadlu ! !
[satu] !!

to burn in a pot (<*salu)

*/s/
The cluster */sr/ changed to /sx/ <s> in Siwa. In some cases, */s/ changed to [h:]
<hh> between /i y/ and /i/, e.g. kyhhisi [cyh:isi] mink and kuspo [ksp] skunk
both from PROTO-SIWA *kus- (possibly stinky animal).

*/l/
Proto-Siwa */l/ sometimes palatalized to //, but this became // in neighboring
languages as well as some eastern dialects, as can be seen from pairs such as Siwa
lemi [ljemi] infection and [i:] pus from UMO in wound from PROTO-SIWA *ljem(most likely a borrowing from an unknown language).

*//
Proto-Siwa *// often became Siwa // but after diphthongs is usually changed to /h/
or //, e.g. aihha [ih:a] thorn, sewing needle cf. aiskami [askmi] to sew (PROTOSIWA *-, earlier SIWA aika)

*/c/
As a general rule, Proto-Siwa */c/ palatalized to [] <t> especially before long front
vowels or /j/. Sometimes, it remained /c/, cf. Kuomin [cmn] Kuomin and
tiempa [mpa] sinuous, both from *cm- sinuous, twisting.

*//
Proto-Alopian *// remained as is in Siwa except between two identical vowels, in
which case it disappeared, e.g. tuo [tu] carrot (PROTO-SIWA *too) cf. laonga
[la::a] root soup (PROTO-SIWA *lutong-).
3.6 Prosody
Spoken Siwa has a variety of language registers, ranging from every day language,
hunter-speech or amisami, story telling to jocular or emphasized speech. Parallel to
this are the differences between mens and womens speech.
!
The most elevated form of Siwa is ceremonial story-telling or emphatic
speech called uoaimi (lit. correctly told). Uoaimi is characterized by monotonous
and long stretches of speech with a fixed rhythm. Phonetically, Uoaimi is unusuall in

76

having most prefixes and certain suffixes clearly separated from the word they attach
to by a glottal stop, []. Also, unvoiced plosives are often aspirated even in nonstressed position. For example:
!
katitsovahmi
!
[ktitsxvahmi] !
or!
[ktitsxvhimi]
!
I will tell you about it
Perhaps the most deviating register is amisami or hunter-speech. It is the
characteristic speech of hunters, typically used when talking amongst themselves.
The main feature of amisami, illustrated in the name, is the syncope of unstressed
vowel (see 3.6). For example, the phrase katsa satakana you will whistle at me
outside is normally pronounced [ktsa stkna], but in amisami, it becomes
katsa stakna [ktsa stgna]. Men also more often than women drop the copula in
infinitive clauses.
!
Men tend to turn [wa] into [] after <p t k s l n>. This also applies to /oa/.
Thus, men would tend to pronounced ntkat gender-based role singing as
[ni:tk]. Women usually lengthen the first sound of diphthongs and also have the lax
versions of diphthongs with /i/, then pronounced /e/, e.g. hiamin milk and honey
drink [he:amn] or [he:amn].

77

4 Nouns
Siwa nouns form an open category with a complex agentive derivation system. The
following description is valid for all substantives and proper nouns as well as all
attributive and post-positive adjectives.
!
Nouns are marked for case (agentive/dative, patientive/genitive, inessive,
illative, elative, adessive, allative and ablative), number (singular, plural, collective)
and can be marked for topic or approbation (approbative or pejorative). A small
number of nouns also require a verbal personal marking or possession marker. They
are called action nominals (see 4..3.3.3). Nouns also have animacy they are either
animate, inanimate or both.
!
Siwa nouns have two basic forms: an unmarked form, corresponding to the
agentive and dative case, and a marked form, corresponding to the patientive and
genitive case. The inessive, illative, elative, adessive, allative and ablative are
grouped together as the locative cases, and they are added onto the genitive form of
the noun, such that the locative case markings are considered to be secondary to the
unmarked and marked forms.
!
!
!

unmarked cases
!
agentive
!
dative

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

marked cases
!
patientive
!
gentive
!
locative cases
!
!
inessive
!
!
illative
!
!
elative
!
!
adessive
!
!
allative
!
!
ablative

This means that one only has two learn two basic forms of a noun to be able to
decline it in all of its cases. Take for example the word somi man:
!
!
!
!
!
!
singular!!
plural
!
!
unmarked form! !
somi% %
somigi
!
!
marked form! !
skko
!
!
locative forms
!
!
!
inessive!!
skkia
!
!
!
illative! !
skkita
!
!
!
elative! !
skkika
!
!
!
adessive!
skkima
!
!
!
allative! !
skkibma
78

ablative!!

skkiska

Plural marking is not required and is not usually found on the marked form of a noun.
The collective is marked regularly through a clitic ending. Likewise, the approbative
and pejorative markers are found as prefixed clitics:
!
!

!
!

approbative!
pejorative!

!
!

sussomi%
ussomi% %

good man/fellow
bad man

Nominal declensions thus consist of two major forms, the unmarked and marked, with
additional cases being formed from the marked form. Animacy only becomes visible
through the marked form, i.e. a nouns animacy is not obvious from its default
unmarked form. This explains why some nouns, whose marked forms are compatible
with both animacies may freely go from animate to inanimate.

4.1 Animacy
Animacy refers to whether a noun is considered to be living (animate) or non-living
(inanimate), though animacy also covers cultural salience and personal importance.
Animate nouns decline according to their ending, and the animate declensions only
contain a fix set of 33 endings, while inanimate nouns decline according to both their
stressed vowel and word-final vowel or only on their word-final consonant. However,
inanimate nouns which happen to end in one of the 33 animate endings may have
both an inanimate and animate marked form. Inanimate nouns are affected by
lenition in their marked form (see 3.4.8)
!
For example, the word eleba flower has both animacies the ending -ba is
one of the 33 animate endings. Its marked form can thus be either eleu (animate) or
elepri (inanimate). The choice may be contextual or up to the speaker. The animate
marked form implies a living, perhaps personified flower, while the inanimate form
implies a flower, or perhaps a dried/picked flower. This is called perceived animacy.
!
The majority of nouns are inanimate. Animacy is not restricted to biological
animacy. Animate nouns are generally perceived as being culturally more salient or
important. In fact, importance is a major factor in choosing animacy for ambiguous
nouns, and may greatly help in determining a nouns inherent animacy.
!
A small set of nouns have asymmetrical animacy, i.e. they are animate nouns
whose singular marked form is inanimate, but whose plural unmarked form is
animate. These include:
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
man! !
woman!
boy! !
girl!
!

singular!!
somi! !
ski!
!
kori!
%
dida% %

animate plural!
somigi% %
skigi% %
korigi% %
didagi% %

79

!
%
%
%
%

inanimate plural
somie
skie
korie
didua

Many speakers have more nouns in this category biologically animate but
morphologically inanimate nouns with an animate plural. The inanimate plural is
usually translated into English without the definite article:
!
!

!
!

somigi! !
somie! !

the men
men (in general)

4.1.1 Inanimate
Inanimate nouns include most lifeless things. They have two main groups of
declensions a change of ending to consonant-final words (consonant declensions),
or an ending dependent on a combination of the stressed vowel and the word-final
vowel (vowel declensions).

aihha

aihhaka

Inanimate nouns are optionally marked for plural and use a different plural marker
than animate nouns. Inanimate nouns include:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

aihha ! !
li !
!
bana ! !
dedna ! !
ekni ! !
gykin ! !
hamit ! !
uoku ! !
kaibmu !!
kykky ! !
leuvva ! !
mek ! !
n ! !
omi ! !
opsi ! !
poki ! !
rapa ! !
somora !
sugagi ! !
talta ! !
tsammi !
t !
!
ua !
!
u !
!

sewing needle, thorn

wound
place
village
way
snowshoe
metal
enclosure
walking stick, support
call
reindeer moss
river banks
knife
snow
cup
flint
small hill
gold
pea
clay
forest
stone
water
sand
80

!
!

ygi !
v !

!
!

spike
lake

However, many inanimate nouns are biologically animate:

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

hapri ! !
helon ! !
heutso !
lppi ! !
dlu ! !
ski !
!
keggas !!
kei !
!

flock of birds
pregnant animal
burbot
hare
sprout
woman
ftus
lynx

Such morphologically inanimate nouns may be referred to with animate pronouns,

especially words referring to humans (ski woman, somi man, dida girl, kori boy,
etc.).
!
Ambiguous nouns perceived as inanimate are usually non-specific, or may
also imply that the noun is of lesser or lowered importance. The former is especially
true of many ambiguous nouns referring to animal or plant species. For example,
guokvo frog, if perceived inanimate, may refer to frogs in general, e.g.;
!
%

so hana-a guogvoma!
so hana-a guokoi %

!
%

do you eat frog? !

(inanimate)
will you eat the frog? ! (animate)

4.1.2 Animate
Animate nouns typically include living things, people or culturally important, holy or
salient objects. They differ from inanimate nouns in their declensions and the fact that
they are always marked for plural in the unmarked form (-gi/-hi-/i or -i), with a
separate marker from the inanimate plural. Animate nouns see their last syllable
change, and no animate noun ends in a consonant. Animate nouns do not go
through lenition. The animate endings are:
%
%
%
%

-ma %
-ba%
-pa%
-va%

-mi %
-bi%
-pi%
-vi%

-mo
-bo
-po
-vo

%
%
%
%
%
%

-na %
-la %
-ra %
-i
-sa %
-ta %

-ni %
-li %
-ri %

-no
-lu
-ro

-si %
-so
-ti/-te % -to
81

%
%
%
!

-ka %
-ha %
-ga %

-ki/-ke % -ko
-hi/-i % -ho
-gi %
-go

Animate nouns include:

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

aosi ! !
amoi ! !
bialvuni !
dapsa ! !
demo ! !
eulhi ! !
eleba ! !
gasi ! !
helva ! !
hemi ! !
imi ! !
pa ! !
kansi ! !
ko !
!
kyi ! !
manta ! !
moasi ! !
nirhi ! !
nommo!!
oadi ! !
ohra ! !
peilki ! !
retema !!
sira ! !
imi ! !
ts !
!
dno ! !
rni ! !
yi !
!

open ocean or the impersonation of the sea

blood
shrimp
younger sister
bone
field
flower
moon
female caribou
bird
raven
grandparents
female moose
summer
squirrel
world
black bear (taboo word)
adults, parents
sturgeon
palate
god
trout
fox
fish
bear head
nose
angelica
female wolf
salmon

Many specific species names are animate (though the majority are in fact
ambiguous, but more commonly found as animate nouns). For example, koma auk
bird is any bird of the auk family and it is an inanimate noun. However, tontsori
puffin is animate. The same goes for plants: a coniferous tree is pio and is an
inanimate noun, but minhi black spruce, kumora white spruce and serula larch are
all animates.
!
Most kinship words in Siwa are animate (marked form given in italics):

82

kembo
kmoi
'grandfather'
kmaka
kmasa
kmaka
kmasa
'my grandfather' 'your grandfather'

sambo
smoi
'grandfather'
smaka
smasa
smaka
smasa
'my grandfather' 'your grandfather'

niebini
nieiga
'grandmother'
nieaka
nieasa
nieaka
nieassa
'my grandmother' 'your grandmother'

piddani
pitta
'grandmother'
pittaka
pittasa
pittaka
pittassa
'my grandmother' 'your grandmother'

psi
vilo
pta
viltsa
'maternal uncle' 'maternal aunt'

lillu
koalgi
lilda
koaltsa
'paternal uncle' 'paternal aunt'

atri
atta
'father'
ataka
atkaka
'my father'

suosa
suotta
'mother'

atasa
atkasa
'your father'

ska
ssa
smaka
smasa
'my mother' 'your father'

tyry
tolba
'son'

ini
ia
'daughter'

koi
gasta
'older brother'
kosoka
kososa
kottaka
kottasa
'my older brother' 'your older brother'

toabi
daumi
'older sister'
tobika
tobisa
toumika
toumisa
'my older sister' 'your older sister'

karsa
karta
'younger brother'

dapsa
daa
'younger sister'

83

In addition, the Siwa seasons are also animate:

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tli !
lni !
thni !
ko !
ni !
todli !
!
ymni !
guni !
heeri !
eni !
atkini !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

spring
early spring
late spring
summer (also commonly inanimate)
early summer
late summer
fall
early fall
late fall
winter
early winter
late winter.

Words for important events in the Siwa year also have the animate form as well as the
animate plural marker -gi/-i/-i/-hi (thus all plural nouns):
!
!
!
!
!
!

tserogi !!
aumulhi !
lhi ! !
salinhi !
skanhi !!
umuigi ! !

sweat lodge ceremony

female menstruation ceremony
male rite of passage
caribou head sacrifice
vernal equinox
autumnal equinox

Note that the following nouns are inanimate:

!
!
!
!
!

ggi ! !
gi !
!
gekesi !
maisagi !
imi ! !

summer solstice
winter solstice
birthday
winter hunt start ceremony
bear ritual.

The animate noun class also contains many body parts, most of which are irregular
(marked form given in parantheses here):
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

totami !
sata !
saba !
kita !
kiba !
narri !
lsi !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(todatta) !
(savva) !!
(saubba) !
(kivva)! !
(keubba) !
(naret) !!
(lhhi) ! !

head
ear
ears
eye
eyes
nose
nostrils

84

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kuki1 ! !
kppa ! !
tea !!
tiemo ! !
tiebba ! !
miebi ! !
mamma !
sieo ! !
mppa ! !

(kuta) !!
(khu) ! !
(tevva) !
(tieka) ! !
(tiehba) !
(mieumi) !
(mami) !
(sievva) !
(mhu) ! !

mouth
arm (from shoulder to wrist)
arm (from elbow to wrist)
hand
hands
leg (from hip to ankle)
leg (from knee to ankle)
foot
feet

4.1.3 Ambiguous Nouns

Ambiguous nouns are those which have one animate and one inanimate marked
form. Generally, ambiguous nouns perceived to be animate are given more
importance, made to be more salient, more specific, personified, or in the case of
many words referring to species of plants and animals, perceived animate nouns
refer to an individual plant or animal rather than the species in general. Thus,
ambiguous nouns are more commonly inanimate when plural (whether overt or not).
Any noun ending in one of the animate noun endings may decline as an ambiguous
animate noun. This is not consistently done but it can be done to underline the
personification of an inanimate noun (such as when an inanimate noun is given life in
narratives).
!
'
!

htuma !
!
!
khloita elhi htumari % %
khloita edli htuka '
'

balsam poplar
balsam poplars grow tall !
the balsam poplar grew tall !

(inanimate)
(animate)

!
'
!

miniso ! !
!
viviksui minii ' '
viviksui ministi % '

common snipe
the common snipe winnows !
common snipes winnow !

(inanimate)
(animate)

!
'
'

Ambiguous nouns include most tree species, many plants and many fish, bird and
animal species.
4.1.4 Honorific Nouns
Honorific speech in Siwa, used in certain ritualized circumstances (speaking before a
council, addressing elders or sometimes young women or children) is characterized
by absolute animacy all nouns capable of being animate are declined as as such,
even those which are normally never animate. For examples, the word poki flint has

Note that kuki exists both as an animate and inanimate noun (then kugmo in the marked form). When
used as an inanimate noun, it is slightly less polite.

85

the marked form pokko, but if one were to present flint as a gift or in a ritualized
circumstance, the marked form would be pota, which is otherwise not heard.

4.2 Marked Form

Siwa nouns have two basic forms; unmarked and marked. The marked form
corresponds to the genitive and/or the patientive case. Animate and inanimate nouns
form the two groups of declensions. Note that adjectives follow inanimate
declensions and will be included as examples here. Inanimate nouns undergo
lenition in marked form.

4.2.1 Inanimate Marked Form

Inanimate declensions are separated into two groups: consonant-final and vowelbased. Both groups go through consonant lenition, if possible. In vowel-based
declensions, the stressed vowel of a word as well as its final vowel govern the shape
of the case marker. The final vowel of a noun is very often deleted when the case
marker is added, though -o and -e generally remain unchanged before locative
endings. However, nouns which undergo consonant lenition usually keep their final
vowels, i.e. apocope is not generally allowed on lenited stems (though words in -i are
more prone to apocope, as well as sonorants). Syllable count may also influence the
shape of a marked noun polysyllabic words obey different rules than bi- or
monosyllabic words. The locative case markers delete the last vowel of the marked
form in most cases. These changes are explained in more detail below.
!
4.2.1.1 Vowel-Final
Vowel final declensions regroup bi- and polysyllabic words ending in vowels. The
ending for the marked form is dependent on the stressed vowel and the final vowel of
the verb.
!
Endings may assimilate differently to the word depending on the syllable
count of the word, or whether it contains a stressed diphthong. Words with a stressed
diphthong or long vowel, or with three or more syllables (polysyllabic) are called
weak nouns (W), while bisyllabic words with a simple stressed vowel are called strong
nouns (S). In some cases, stressed diphthongs and long vowels and simple
consonants may behave differently than their polysyllabic counterparts, and are then
called long nouns (L).
!
!
!

weak nouns!
strong nouns!
long nouns!

%
!
!

nobemo, raibma, rdni

gama, bana, upa
hauma, rmi

86

final vowel

-a

-e

-i

-o

-u/-y/-

-e or -obi

-me

stressed vowel

Adeclension
a au ai oa
ay

-ka or -a/-ra

E-declension
e ei ey

-ri/-i

-e

I-declension
i ie ia

-id or -di

Odeclension
o ou oi

-mo

Udeclension
u uo ui
Y-declension
y u eu
i a

-ko or -o

-mo

-mo

-ma

-id or -di

4.2.1.1.1 A-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose stressed vowel is a au ai and oa. This is
one of the simpler declensions. Generally speaking, the ending is -ka or -a. Below
are the rules for this declension. The marked form has its locative in -i- (-a is deleted).
!
Words ending in -mV or -mmV can either have the form -kka for weak nouns,
-ma for strong noun, which becomes -m- before the -i- of locative cases, or or -mka
after a stressed diphthong or a long vowel.

87

A-declension

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

gama
character

gama

gami-

-ma

-mi-

tsammi
forest

tsama

tsami-

hauma
bright

haumka

haumki-

saumi
caribou

saumka

saumki-

rmi
protruding
rock

rmka

rmki-

sasame
tipi

sasakka

sasakki-

asuma
fear

asukka

asukki

salama
antlers

salakka

salakki

-mka

-mki-

-mV

-kka

-kki-

Words ending in -nV or -nnV can either have the form -nka or -kka. Weak nouns in nV usually have the form -kka. Strong nouns in -nV or -nnV usually take -nka (and in
some cases, this changes to -n- before the -i- of locative cases, but not always).

88

A-declension
marked

unmarked

marked

locative

locative

bana
place

banka

bani-

-ni- / -nki-

anna
piled-up
snow

anka

ani

atana
big

atakka

atakki-

saihkena
point, cap

saihkekka

saihkekki
-

-nka
-nV

-kka

-kki-

Words ending in -pV can have the form -pra or -ga. Weak nouns in -pV or -bV
usually have the form -ga. Strong nouns in -pV take -pra (and in some cases, this
changes to -p- before the -i- of locative cases, but not always).
A-declension

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

rapa
small hill

rapra

rapi-

-pra

-pi-/-pri-

habi
nipple

hapra

hapi-

natabi
hemlock

nataga

natagi-

saipi
race

saiga

saigi-

-pV
-bV
W

-ba

-bi-

!
Words ending in -tV can have the form -tka or -tra. Weak nouns in -tV or -dV have the
form -tra. Strong nouns in -tV take -tka (and in some cases, this changes to -tbefore the -i- of locative cases, but not always). A small number of words with -tV
have the ending -tra where one would expect -tka and vice-versa.

89

A-declension

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

ata
mouth

atra

atri-

-tra

-tri-

gauta
color

gautra

gautri-

-tka

-ti-

ata
carved bowl

atka

ati-

unmarked

marked

locative

oari
edge

oahka

oahki-

kalara
hole

kalahka

kalahki-

takeri
person

takehka

takehki-

unmarked

marked

locative

mavvu
meat

magga

maggi-

poavvi
seal

poagga

poaggi-

davva
past

dagga

daggi-

S/W

-tV

Weak nouns in -rV have the form -hka.

A-declension
marked

-rV

locative

-hka

-hki-

Words ending in -vvV have -gga.

A-declension
marked

locative

-vvV
-gga

-ggi-

90

Words in -lkV -rkV -skV get -lkka -rkka -skka.

A-declension
marked

marked

locative

aurko
lake trout

aurkka

aurkki-

gagulka
community

gaulkka

gaulkki-

tasko
woods

taskka

taskki-

locative

-CkV
-Ckka

unmarked

-Ckki-

Other endings and most words that go through consonant lenition simply have the
form -ka (with deletion of final vowel after sonorants).

A-declension

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

kalsa
oven,
insides

kalsaka

kalsaki-

ddna
pillow

dnaka

dnaki-

mhra
bear

mhraka

mhraki-

aihmi
nesting hole
in snow

aihmika

aihmiki-

gaitsa
meteor

gaitska

gaitski-

aihha
needle

aihka

aihki-

soalu
fragrance,
smell

soalka

soalki-

-CCVka

locative

-ki-

-CCV

-Cka

-Cki-

91

4.2.1.1.2 E-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose stressed vowel is e ei and ay/eu. The
declension has three categories of ending; for words ending in -a or -e, for words
ending in -i or -o, and for words ending in -u, -y or -. Marked endings in -e are
always kept before locative endings (-eita, -eika, etc.).
-a/-e
Words in -a or -e which do not go through apocope of their last vowel get the ending
-ri.
E-declension -a/-e
marked

-a
-e
-ri

locative

-ri
-h-

unmarked

marked

locative

dida
tear

diari

diaridiah-

helva
female
moose

helvari

helvarihelvah-

de
gray

deri

derideh-

ede
air

eteri

eterieteh-

Words ending in -na or -ne have the marked form -di, which turns to -h- before the
illative, elative and abessive (-hta, -hka and -hma) and in -i- before the allative and
ablative (-ibma and -iska), but remain -d- before the inessive (-dia).

-na
-ne

E-declension -a/-e

unmarked

marked

locative

locative

heona
weak

heodi

heodiheoiheoh-

marked

-di

-di-h-i-

mrana
difficult

mradi

mradimraimrah-

Words in -ba/-be have the marked form -pri (sometimes -bi), which becomes -pibefore locative endings.

92

E-declension -a/-e

-ba
-be

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

eleba
flower

elepri

elepi-

-pri
-bi

-pi-

netuba
lilly

netupri

netupi-

Words in -ka/-ke have the marked form -i and -i- before locative endings.
E-declension -a/-e

marked

locative

-ka
-ke
-i

-i-

unmarked

marked

locative

segaka
burnt
embers

sevai

sevai-

teuke
silhouette

teui

teui-

neitrike
proboscis,
trunk

neitii

neitii-

Words in -ma/-me have the marked form -mmi, unchanged before the locative cases.
E-declension -a/-e
marked

locative

-ma
-me
-mmi

-mmi-

unmarked

marked

locative

teroma
twilight

terommi

terommi-

gegeme
hem

gmmi

gmmi-

bename
leather
pouch

benammi

benammi
-

Words in -va/-ve have the marked form -rri, those in -tsa/-tse have -tsi, in -sa/-se
have -si, and -la/-le have -lli. All are unchanged before locative endings.

93

E-declension -a/-e
marked

-va
-ve

unmarked

marked

locative

neivi
cone

neirri

neirri-

locative

-rri

-rri-

-tsa
-tse

-tsi

-tsi-

letse
pole

letsi

letsi-

-ta
-te

-tri

-tri-

eita
structure

eitri

eitri-

-sa
-se

-si

-si-

hesse
shovel

hesi

hesi-

nevala
diligent

nevalli

nevalli-

biele
fat

bielli

bielli-

keie
birch

keii

keii

-la
-le

-ha/-he
-a/-e

-lli

-i

-lli-

-i-

-i/-o
Words ending in -i or -o get the ending -e (changing -o to -ue). The ending -ue is also
found as -obi in more conservative language or dialects.

94

E-declension -i/-o
marked

locative

-i
-ie

-o

-ue
-obi

-iei-

-uei-obi-

unmarked

marked

locative

ekni
way, path

engie

engiei-

elki
high
grasses

elkie

elkiei-

kepsi
mushroom

kebsie

kebsiei-

benho
dog

benhue
benhobi

benhueibenhobi-

rento
grain

rentue
rentobi

rentueirentobi-

vebo
knot

vivve
viobi

vivveiviobi-

Words ending in -mi, -pi/-bi, -vi, -ni, -ri, -li, and -ki/-gibecome -mme, -bbe -vve, -nne, rre, -lle and -gge respectively.

E-declension -i/-o
marked

locative

-mi
-mme

-mmei-

unmarked

marked

locative

lemi
infection

lemme

lemmei-

seumi
soil, land

seumme

seummei-

temmi
animal
tracks

temme

temmei-

-pi
-bi

-bbe

-bbei-

reibo
beam of
light

reibbe

reibbei-

-vi

-vve

-vvei-

teivi
nit

teivve

teivvei-

95

E-declension -i/-o

-ni

-ri

-li

-ki
-gi

-nne

-rre

-lle

-gge

unmarked

marked

locative

tetka (<
*tetuni-ka)
guts

tetunne

tetunnei-

nekka (<
*nekuni-ka)
crumbs

nekunne

nekunnei-

teuriri
a couple

teuirre

teuirrei-

eluri
great,
fantastic

elurre

elurrei-

meuli
blue

meulle

meullei-

keggeki
boasting

kegegge

kegeggei-

rerreki
sudden
change of
mind

reregge

rereggei-

-nnei-

-rrei-

-llei-

-ggei-

-u/-y/-
Words in -u, -y or - which do not go through apocope of their last vowel get the
ending -me.
E-declension -u/-y/-
marked

-u
-y
-

-me

locative

-mei-

96

unmarked

marked

locative

detku
quality

detkume

detkumei-

tsepu
unfrozen

tsepume

tsepumei-

ennu
pole for
nagivation

enume

enumei-

The most common endings that go through apocope are in -mV and -nV, which get
the marked ending -mme, and -kV, which get the marked ending -gme (strong
nouns) or -hme (weak nouns).

E-declension -u/-y/-

marked

-mu
-my
-m
-nu
-ny
-n

-mme

-ku
-ky
-k

-ku
-ky
-k

-gme

-hme

unmarked

marked

locative

temmy
shore

temme

temme-

demy
mucus

demme

demme-

deumu
bone

deumme

deumme-

seky
cliff

segme

segme-

mek
river banks

megme

megme-

neiku
frown

neihme

neihme-

locative

-mme-

-gme-

-hme-

4.2.1.1.3 I-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose stressed vowel is i and the diphthongs ia
ie io iu. The declension has two main endings, -di for all final vowels except -i, which
have the form -id for words that do not go through apocope. Those in -di have
change to -h- before the illative, elative and abessive (-hta, -hka and -hma) and in -ibefore the allative and ablative (-ibma and -iska), but remain -d- before the inessive (dia).

97

I-declension

marked

locative

-V
-Vdi

-di-h-i-

unmarked

marked

locative

dida
girl

diadi

diadidiahdiai-

dlu
sprout

ludi

ludiluhlui-

hiedi

hiedihiehhiei-

rnid

rnidi-/
rnrnihrn-

mhkid

mhkidi-/
mhkmhkihmhk-

kd

kdkhk-/kddi-

hide
hair

rdni
thorn

-i

-id

-idi-/--ih--

mhki
frost

k
new

Words in -mV and -nV have the marked form -ndi, unchanged before the locative
cases. Note that certain adjectives in -bmi have -ndi in the marked form. Notice that
words in -umV/-omV and -unV/-onV have the marked for -di.

98

I-declension

marked

unmarked

marked

locative

dmma
treeless
mountain

dndi

dndi-

lama
facade,
place in front

landi

landi-

kinaubmi
foreign

kinaundi

kinaundi-

inina
rich

inindi

inindi-

kinna
fist, paw

kindi

kindi-

istoma
scalp, brain

istdi

istdi-

siehhumi
dried meat

siehhdi

siehhdi-

gikuni
cartilage

gikdi

gikdi-

locative

-mV
-nV
-ndi

-umV
-omV
-unV
-onV

-di

-ndi-

-di-

Note that kinaubmi goes through lenition and apocope despite being an adjective.
!
Words in -vV and -gV have the marked form -i, but when combined with
the elative, form -ga, and with the abessive, form -ma. Note that words in -gV may
also have a marked form in -hdi.

99

I-declension

marked

locative

unmarked

marked

locative

tsiauga
cedar wood

tsiaui

tsiauitsiaudtsiauv-

giga
goose

gii

giigi-

kinagi
foreigner

kinai

kinaikina-

unmarked

marked

locative

sisi
thunder

sisti

sisti-

imisi
animal

imisti

imisti-

kyhhisi
mink

kyhhisti

kyhhisti-

-vV
-gV
-i

-i-d-v-

Words in -sV have the marked form -sti.

I-declension

marked

locative

-sV
-sti

-sti-

Words in -rV, -hV -kV and sometimes in -gV have the marked form -hdi.

100

I-declension
marked

-rV
-hV
-kV
-gV

-hdi

unmarked

marked

locative

mieri
moss

miehdi

miehdi-

sira
fish

shdi (irr. -)

shdi-

siseri
south

sisehdi

sisehdi-

syhhi
bent tree

syhdi

syhdi-

bieluha
fat

bieluhdi

bieluhdi-

miuki
bog

miuhdi

miuhdi-

niuaka
sand dune

niuahdi

niuahdi-

iruoga
coniferous
wood

iruohdi

iruohdi-

unmarked

marked

locative

mielo
mildew

mieldi

mieldi-

milla
soggy spot

mildi

mildi-

pila
red

pildi
or
pldi

pildior
pldi-

siula
spruce

siuldi

siuldi-

locative

-hdi-

Words in -lV have the marked form -ldi.

I-declension
marked

locative

-lV
-ldi

-ldi-

101

4.2.1.1.4 O-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose stressed vowel is o ou u and oi. The
declension has three endings, -mo after vowels -a and -e, or -ko after -i and -ma after
-u, -y or -. Endings in -o tend to keep the vowel before the locative endings (-oita, oika, etc.), but -a is deleted and -o can also be deleted, but less commonly in higher
speech registers. Adjectives always keep the -o.
-a/-e
Words in -a or -e which do not go through apocope of their last vowel get the ending
-mo.
O-declension -a/-e
marked

unmarked

marked

locative

doba
handle

doamo

doamoi-

dotsa
idea,
thought

dotsamo

kokve
light

kokvemo

kogemoi-

osve
sour

osvemo

osvemoi-

locative

-a
-e
-mo

-moi-

dotsamoi-

Words in -ba/-be and -ta/-te have the marked form -bmo.

O-declension -a/-e
marked

-ba
-be
-ta
-te

-bmo

locative

-bmoi-

102

unmarked

marked

locative

nobba
beard

nobmo

nobmoi-

hobbe
earwax

hobmo

hobmoi-

koita
cocoon

koibmo

koibmoi-

doote
dispute

doobmo

doobmoi-

Words in -va/-ve, -ma/-me and -na/-ne have the marked form -mmo.
O-declension -a/-e

marked

-va
-ve
-ma
-me
-na
-ne

-mmo

unmarked

marked

locative

hoivva
flooding
river

hoimmo

hoimmoi-

loive
fin

loimmo

loimmoi-

ohkama
raw

ohkammo

ohkammoi-

mome
slope

mo mmo

mommoi-

onona
little

onommo

onommoi-

boina
belt

boimmo

boimmoi-

gonne
rind

gommo

gommoi-

locative

-mmoi-

Words in -ra/-re, -ha/-he and -ga/-ge have the marked form -hmo.
O-declension -a/-e
marked

-ra
-re
-ha
-he
-ga
-ge

-hmo

unmarked

marked

locative

somora
gold

somohmo

somohmoi-

tokura
amphibian

tokuhmo

tokuhmoi-

liha
leafy

lihmo

lihmoi-

lohhe
bob

lohmo

lohmoi-

toge
eyelash

tohmo

tohmoi-

locative

-hmoi-

103

Strong nouns in -ka/-ke, have the marked form -gmo, while weak nouns have -hmo.

O-declension -a/-e

marked

-ka
-ke

unmarked

marked

locative

goka
sheath

gogmo

gogmoi-

oka
forefather

ogmo

ogmoi-

ka
tundra

gmo

gmoi-

somuka
manly,
courageous

somuhmo

somuhmoi-

locative

-gmo

-ka
-ke

-hmo

-gmoi-

-hmoi-

Words in -la/-le have the marked form -lmo.

O-declension -a/-e

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

kola
ridge, esker

kolmo

kolmoi-

-lmo

-lmoi-

oala
wide

oalmo

oalmoi-

-la
-le

-i
Words of the O-declension whose final vowel is -i- get the ending -ko if no apocope
occurs. The ending -ko behaves exactly like the ending -ka of weak nouns of the Adeclension.

104

O-declension -i
marked

locative

-i
-ko

-koi-

unmarked

marked

locative

tosmi
hay

tosmiko

tosmikoi-

mobi
hunting
territory

mopiko

mopikoi-

sokmi
seagull

sokmiko

sokmikoi-

Words in -mi, -ni, -ki and -gi get -kko, as well as those in -lki, -rki and -ski/-si,
becoming -lkko, -rkko and -skko. Most nouns have -oi- before locatives, but forms in Vkko- often have -Vkki- before locatives.
O-declension -i
marked

-mi
-ni
-ki
-gi

-kko

unmarked

marked

locative

somi
man

skko

skki-

moni
path

mkko

mkki-

doki
trap in snow

dokko

dokki-

poki
flint

pokko

pokki-

hogi
pearl, ball

hokko

hokki-

locative

-kkoi-kki-

-lki

-lkko

-lkkoi-lkki-

molki
erosion

molkko

molkkoi-

-rki

-rkko

-rkkoi-rkki-

korki
blue jet

korkko

korkkoi-

moski
wild copper,
ore

moskko

moskkoi-

mosi
mammal

moskko

moskkoi-

-ski
-si

-skko

-skkoi-skki-

105

The other most common endings that undergo apocope are -li, -ri, -i/-hhi and -hi.
O-declension -i

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

holi
stem, core

holko

holkoi-

-lko

-lkoi-

voli
arthritis

volko

volkoi-

gori
doubt

gohko

gohkoi-

mori
a little

mohko

mohkoi-

tsoihhi
sleigh

tsoihko

tsoihkoi-

loii
leech

loiko

loikoi-

hhi
evening

ko

koi-

-li

-ri
-hi

-hko

-i
-hhi

-ko

-hkoi-

-koi-

-o/-u/-y/-
Words in -o, -u, -y or - which do not go through apocope of their last vowel get the
ending -ma, which is reduced to -mi- before locative endings, and sometimes -n(especially before the illative and elative). The ending -ma behaves exactly as the ma of words in -a/-e/-i, with the exception of endings in -kV generally always marked
as -hma in both strong and weak nouns.

-o
-u
-y
-

O-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

hog
nonsense

homa

homihon-

obu
sheaf

ouma

oumioun-

osmu
smell of fire

osmuma

osmumiosmun-

monnu
damage

monuma

monumimonun-

-ma

locative

-mi-n-

106

Words in -bV/-pV and -tV/-dV have the marked form -bma.

O-declension -o/-u/-y/-
-bV
-pV
-tV
-dV

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

opo
individual

obma

obmi-

-bma

-bmi-

hoto
peel, layer

hobma

hobmi-

Words in -vV, -mV and -nV have the marked form -mma.
O-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

obeno
smoke

oimma

oimmi-

ono
lichen

omma

ommi-

nobemo
fire

noimma

noimmi-

tmo
people

tmma

tmmi-

-vV
-mV
-nV

-mma

locative

-mmi-

Words in -rV, -hV, -gV and -kV have the marked form -hma.
O-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

tokor
fox (white)

tokohma

tokohmi-

roihho
droplet

roihma

roihmi-

koro
headwear

kohma

kohmi-

notoko
hollow,
cavity

notohma

notohmi-

-rV
-hV
-gV
-kV

-hma

locative

-hmi-

107

Words in -lV have the marked form -lma.

O-declension -a/-e
marked

locative

-lma

-lmi-

-lV

unmarked

marked

locative

kolo
cloud

kolma

kolmi-

4.2.1.1.5 U-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose stressed vowel is u uo and ui. This
declension is identical to the O-declension, with the exception of the O-declension
ending -ko for words ending in -i, which is lacking in U-declensions. Instead, one
finds -ma. The declension has two endings, -mo after vowels -a and -e and -i, or -ma
after -o, -u, -y or -. Note that many dialects only have -mo for this group.

U-declension -a/-e/-i
marked

-a
-e
-i

-mo

locative

unmarked

marked

locative

butta
bad weather

buttamo

buttamoi-

kuilva
drizzle

kuilvamo

kuilvamoi-

llkki
hot water,
hot pool

llkimo

llkimoi-

nukli
finger, hook

nuglimo

nuglimoi-

uitse
aquatic

uitsemo

uitsemoi-

-moi-

Words in -bV/-pV and -tV/-dV have the marked form -bmo.

108

U-declension -a/-e/-i
marked

-bV
-pV
-tV
-dV

-bmo

locative

unmarked

marked

locative

huopi
spy, scout

huobmo

huobmoi-

nubba
eyelid

nubmo

nubmoi-

ututa
still

utubmo

utubmoi-

-bmoi-

Words in -vV, -mV and -nV have the marked form -mmo.
U-declension -a/-e/-i

marked

locative

unmarked

marked

locative

huvvi
comfortably
cold

hummo

hummoi-

tsuma
fear,
paralysis

tsummo

tsummoi-

puna
deer skin

pummo

pummoi-

unmarked

marked

locative

kumora
white
spruce

kumohm
o

kumohmoi-

nuhhi
old woman

nuhmo

nuhmoi-

huoka
drunk

huohmo

huohmoi-

-vV
-mV
-nV
-mmo

-mmoi-

Words in -rV, -hV, -gV and -kV have the marked form -hmo.
U-declension -a/-e/-i

marked

-rV
-hV
-gV
-kV

-hmo

locative

-hmoi-

109

Words in -lV have the marked form -lmo.

U-declension -a/-e/-i
marked

locative

-lmo

-lmo-

-lV

unmarked

marked

locative

tuvala
heavy

tuvalmo

tuvalmoi-

-o/-u/-y/-
Words in -o, -u, -y or - which do not go through apocope of their last vowel get the
ending -ma, which is reduced to -mi- before locative endings, and sometimes -n(especially before the illative and elative). The ending -ma behaves exactly as the ma of words in -a/-e/-i.
U-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

dno
angelica

noma

nominon-

ulu
serious

uluma

ulumiulun-

v
whetstone

vma

vmivn-

unmarked

marked

locative

-o
-u
-y
-

locative

-mi-n-

-ma

Words in -bV/-pV and -tV/-dV have the marked form -bma.

U-declension -o/-u/-y/-
-bV
-pV
-tV
-dV

marked

locative

upo
vine

ubma

ubmi-

-bma

-bmi-

hutu
necklace

hubma

hubmi-

110

Words in -vV, -mV and -nV have the marked form -mma.
U-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

tuono
the same

tuomma

tuommi-

nunna
angry

nummo

nummoi-

umu
fog

ummo

ummoi-

-vV
-mV
-nV

-mma
-mmo

locative

-mmi-mmoi-

Words in -rV, -hV, -gV and -kV have the marked form -hma.
U-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

uoku
caribou
enclosure

uohma

uohmi-

sro
berry bush

shma

shmi-

uboko
pipe

uohma

uohmi-

U-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

puilma

puilmi-

-lma

-lmi-

puilo
nerve

-rV
-hV
-gV
-kV

-hma

locative

-hmi-

Words in -lV have the marked form -lma.

-lV

4.2.1.1.6 Y-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose stressed vowel is y u ey a and i.
The declension has three endings; -mo for words ending in -a, -di or -id for words
ending in -i or -e, and -ma for words ending in -o, -u, -y or -, and is thus identical to

111

the O-declensions, with the exception of -ko for words ending in -i. Generally, the final
vowels -y and - are less often deleted. Many dialects do not have the endings -di or
-id and use instead -ma.
-a
Words in -a which do not go through apocope of their last vowel get the ending -mo.

Y-declension -a

marked

marked

locative

ndna
wave

nnamo

nnamoi-

nydna
adult, mature
(female)

nydnamo

nydnamoi-

pbma
point

pmamo

pmamoi-

locative

-a
-mo

unmarked

-moi-

Words in -va, -ma and -na have the marked form -mmo.
Y-declension -a
marked

-va
-ma
-na

-mmo

locative

unmarked

marked

locative

rma
place near

rmmo

rmmoi-

ygana
summer
camp

yammo

yammoi-

srna
rough

srmmo

srmmoi-

kymina
nice

kymimmo

kymimmoi-

-mmoi-

Words in -ra, -ha, -ga and -ka have the marked form -hmo.

112

Y-declension -a

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

sgaka
branches of
river

sahmo

sahmoi-

sra
part

shmo

shmoi-

dyra
turn (river)

dyhmo

dyhmoi-

unmarked

marked

locative

tylla
little brother

tylmo

tylmoi-

locative

-ra
-ha
-ga
-ka
-hmo

-hmo-

Words in -la have the marked form -lmo.

Y-declension -a
marked

locative

-la
-lmo

-lmoi-

-i
Words of the Y-declension whose final vowel is -i- get the ending -id or -di, i.e. they
behave exactly like nouns of the I-declension. This is not found in all dialects. Some
have -i words following the same pattern as words in -a. Refer to the I-declension for
a more extensive description.

113

Y-declension -i
marked

locative

kyni
nest

kyndi

kyndi-

lri
scum

lhdi

lhdi-

pymi
hard bark

pyndi

pyndi

tsli
skull

tsldi

tsldi-

nieugi
ground mist

nibid

nibidinibihnib-

tygi
poison

tid

tiditiht-

-di-h-i-

-di

-id

marked

locative

-V
-C

-i

unmarked

-idi-/--ih--

-o/-u/-y/-
Words in -o, -u, -y or - which do not go through apocope of their last vowel get the
ending -ma, which is reduced to -mi- before locative endings, and sometimes -n(especially before the illative and elative). The ending -ma behaves exactly as that of
the O-declension. Refer to it for a more extensive description.

-o
-u
-y
-

Y-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

kydly
bell

kylyma

kylymikylyn-

mynty
animal track

myntyma

myntymimyntyn-

n
knife

nma

nminn-

-ma

locative

-mi-n-

114

Words in -vV, -mV and -nV have the marked form -mma.
Y-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

tna
rough

tmma

tmmi-

ymina
lost

ymimma

ymimmi-

ymy
terrible

ymma

ymmi-

tmo
people

tmma

tmmi-

-vV
-mV
-nV

-mma-

locative

-mmi-

Words in -rV, -hV, -gV and -kV (weak nouns) have the marked form -hma. Unlike the
O-declension, however, strong nouns in -kV do not go through apocope, cf. gyky still
weather gykyma.
Y-declension -o/-u/-y/-

unmarked

marked

locative

marked

locative

myry
fly

myhma

myhmi-

-hma

-hmi-

tygyha
poisonous

tygyhma

tygyhmi-

unmarked

marked

locative

l
sweat

lma

lmi-

-rV
-hV
-gV

Words in -lV have the marked form -lma.

Y-declension -a/-e
marked

locative

-lma

-lmi-

-lV

4.2.1.2 Marked Consonant-Final Form

For consonant-final nouns, the declension groups are much fewer and simpler. The
marked form is shown by altering the final consonant. Nouns of the S-declension
show considerable variation, often metathesis and apocope simultaneously.

115

4.2.1.2.1 S-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose final consonant is -s. The marked for
changes the -s to -hi or in stressed syllables, -hhi (which are shortened to -h- before
the illative, elative and abessive, becoming -hta, -hka and -hma respectively). Many
diminutives end in -s. Note that nouns in -dVs have the marked form -lhi. Certain
dialects have endings in -kVs become -hki in the marked form. Some dialects have a
marked form in -i, which is common in poetic language.

UNMARKED!

MARKED% %

%
%

%
%

-s
-hi -i -hi

!
bidis ! !
puppy, small dog !
!
biihi
!
bunus ! !
small squash ! !
!
bunuhi or bunhi or bhhi
!
gikis ! !
shard ! !
!
!
gikihi or gihki
!
hylys ! !
little or thin person !
!
hylhi or hlhi
!
ikos ! !
small axe !
!
!
ikohi or ihki
'
kiras ! !
morning !
!
!
kirahi or kirhi
'
kobas ! !
freckle !
!
!
koahhi
!
lagas ! !
ingredient, flour !
!
laahi
!
misas ! !
stone ! !
!

misahi
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
(also irregular as misi)
!
ms ! !
a little bit !
!
!
mhhi
'
nokos ! !
stick ! !
!
!
nokohi or nohki
!
rovus ! !
shore of lake ! !
!
rhhi
!
tohhus !!
young !!
!
!
tohhuhi
!
s !
!
young fish !
!
!
hhu
!
eis ! !
any young animal!
!
eihi
!
niedas ! !
fir !
!
!
!
nielhi
!
puodus !
navel ! !
!
!
puolhi
!
!
4.2.1.2.2 N-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose final consonant is -n. The marked form
changes the -n to either -s or -nta. Words whose stressed vowel is a o or u (most
commonly o) have -nta, whereas words whose stressed vowel is e i y or have -s.
Marked forms in -onta do changed to -r- before the locative cases. Words ending in n often depict a pejorative or larger version of another word.

!
%
%

UNMARKED!
MARKED% %

%
%
a o u% %
e i y % %

-n
-nta (-onta -ri-LOC)
-s

116

aou
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

hokon ! !
!
!
okon ! !
!
!
kotson ! !
!
!
okon ! !
!
!
oskon ! !
!
!
toron ! !
!
!

large boulder, ball !

!
hokonta
(cf. hokribma onto the large boulder)
large caribou herd !
!
okonta
(cf. okrika out of the large herd)
shock, scare, fright!
!
kotsonta
(cf. kotsria in shock)
big old man ! !
!
okonta
(cf. okrima on the big old man)
male moose ! !
!
oskonta
(cf. oskriska off the male moose)
big bear !
!
!
toronta
(cf. torrita into the big bear i.e. into a trap/danger)

eiy
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

blin ! !
dn !
!
ehhon ! !
gegin ! !
helon ! !
ilun !
!
leren ! !
pirin ! !
sinin ! !
innen ! !
!

liver ! !
!
barren field ! !
nuance, difference!
mouth (vulgar) !
pregnant mammal !
young !!
!
pile ! !
!
nugget !
!
big fish !
!
lake ! !
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

blis
ds
ehhos
geis
helos
ilus
leres
piis
sinis
ines

4.2.1.2.3 T-declension
This declension includes all nouns whose final consonant is -t. The marked for
changes the -t to either -tsta (also found as -dda or less commonly -tsitta) or -tta. Words
whose stressed vowel is a o or u have -tta, whereas words whose stressed vowel is e i y
or have -tsta.
!
%
%

UNMARKED!
MARKED% %

%
%
a o u% %
e i y % %

-t
-tta
-tsta -dda

A subgroup of this declension, which is only found in the eastern dialects, have the
form -Vut in the agentive, and take the form -lda in the patientive. Not many words are
part of this subgroup.
a o u% -t %
%
%
ageut ! !
!
!
!

%
%
%
%
heart, center, marrow! !
!
!
!
!
117

%
-tta
!
aelda
(also aeutta)!

!
'
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
eiy
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!

aihhot !
baut !
!
hamit !
koat !
kolot !
lungit !
oot !
ut !
sasat !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

%%
%
det ! !
elet ! !
t !
!
hingut ! !
!
!
igut ! !
!
!
kut ! !
!
!
miout ! !
!
!
mykyt ! !
!
!
ntkat !!
%
%
sirit !
!
!
!
dt ! !

thorny plant! !
!
butter! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
metal! !
!
!
born during the summer!
womb, placenta!
!
steam! !
!
!
amount of fish! !
!
newly fallen snow!
!
protective spirit!
!

!
aihhotta
!
balda
(also bautta)!
!
hamitta
!
koatta
!
kolotta
!
lungitta
!
ootta
!
utta
!
sasatta

%
%
%
%
a gray haired man!
!
open grassland!
!
swampy ground!
!
ghost! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
humor, personality, mood!
!
!
!
!
violence, war! !
!
!
!
!
!
warmth, energy!
!
!
!
!
!
path following a river! !
!
!
!
!
team-story telling singing
%
%
%
%
the fishstock of a lake! !
!
!
!
!
power or energy left! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!

-tsta/-dda
detsta or dedda
eletsta or eledda
tsta or dda
hingutsta
or hingudda
iutsta
or iudda
klda
(also kutsta)
miolda
(also mioutta)
mykytsta
or mykydda
ntkatsta
or ntkadda
siritsta
or siridda
utta

4.2.1.2.4 L-declension
This declension has up to four possible forms: one in a long vowel, one in -Vu/-V,
one in -Vl and with -il, the form -ir is also found:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

- !
- !
- !
- !
- !
- !
-u !

or !
or !
or !
or !
or !
or !
or !

-au !
-eu !
-iu/-i !
-ou !
-ul
-yl
-ul/-l

or !
or !
or !
or !

-al
-el
-il/-ir
-ol

118

The marked form changes the long vowel to a short one followed by -la or -ri. Words
whose stressed vowel is a o or u have -ri, whereas words whose stressed vowel is e i
y or have -la. Many abstract nouns formed from adjectives are part of this
declension.
!
%
%

UNMARKED!
MARKED% %

%
%
a o u% %
e i y % %

-VV -l -r -u
-ri
-la

aou
!
!
!
%
'
'
'
!
!
!

ang~angir~angil !
am~amau~amal !
gos~gosul !
!
h~hul !
!
luvv~luvvul ! !
kor~korul !
!
n~nul !
!
ok~okul !
!
savv~savvul % !
uvv~uvvul !
!

pit, seed!
!
snot! !
!
calm, cerenity! !
sea water!
!
intense heat! !
pot! !
!
desire, lust!
!
origin, source! !
goal, destination!
abundance! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

angiri
amari
gosuri
huri
lri
koruri
nuri
okuri
sauri
ri

eiy
!
%
!
%
!
%
!
!
'
%
'
%

b~beu~bel % !
d~deu~del ! !
~el ! !
!
~eu~el !
!
he~heul !
!
~iu~idd~l~r ! !
ku~kul !
!
mig~migiu~migi
midd~migil~migir'
pig~pigiu~pigi
pidd~pigil~pigir !
ymm~ymmyl ! !

acid! !
!
roll, tube!
!
plant! !
!
growth, success!
shiver! !
!
pitch dark!
!
attack, fight! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

bela
dela
ela
ela
heula
ila or la
kla

dew!

miila

!
!

piila
ymyla

health! !
!
good fishing waters!

119

4.2.1.2.5 Honorifics in -ts

Certain nouns can be modified by adding an honorific or poetic ending in -ts. This
ending polarizes the last vowel of the noun. The marked form of such nouns has a
polarized version of the already polarized vowel and -bme.
!
!
!

nelli ! !
nelluts !!
nellebme !

chief!
chief ! !
chief GEN !

!
!

(honorific)
(honorific)

!
!
!

hmha ! !
hmhets !
hmhobme !

she!
she, mam !
she GEN !

!
!

(honorific)
(honorific)

!
!
!

rogo ! !
rogyts ! !
rogoibme !

he!
he, sir !!
he GEN !

!
!

(honorific)
(honorific)

!
!
!

tsammi !
tsammuts !
tsamebme !

forest!
forest ! !
forest GEN !

!
!

(honorific)
(honorific)

!
!
!

npi ! !
npyts ! !
npoibme !

dwarf birch (betula nana)

dwarf birch ! !
(honorific)
dwarf birch GEN. !
(honorific)

4.2.1.3 Diphthong Coalescence Declension

A few (usually monosyllabic) words ending in -ai -ei -ie -oi -ui -i -au -ay -eu -ey -iu -
- - and - go through vowel-specific changes in the marked form, which is realized
by adding the copied stressed vowel to the word. Because most of the words are
monosyllabic, the first vowel of the diphthong is usually the copied vowel. The chart
of diphthong and long vowel coalescence in 3.5.1 is how these nouns decline.
!
Words whose last syllable begins with a consonant which goes through
gradation and disappears may leave a diphthong, in which case the noun may join
this declension group. This is not always the case, and only a limited number of
words do so.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

eu !
gei !
goi !
hie !
h !
ie !
iu !
kei !

scab, scar !
snout ! !
edge, point !
pile, mount !
ember !!
crack ! !
older relative!
lynx! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
120

eme
gee
gogo
hiddi
hobo (also honomi)
iddi
ibi
kee

!
!
!
!
%
!

madu !
nige !
r !
!
tey !

pregnancy ! !
!
mud at the bottom of a lake !
limit of territory !
!
bruise !!
!
!
egg ! !
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

mama
niddi
rumu
obo or bo
tme or te

4.2.2 Inanimate Plural

Inanimate nouns are generally only marked for plural in their unmarked forms.
Marked forms may be pluralized, but more commonly with nouns whose marked form
ends in -s -t -n -l.
!
Pluralization is done in two ways. Inanimate nouns ending in -s, -t, -n or a
long vowel/-l (L-declension) gain -ka in the plural. Note that in nouns of the Ldeclension, the final vowel is shortened and the underlying -l appears before the
addition of -ka. This plural is called the consonant-final plural. Note that monosyllabic
words in diphthongs also belong to this group. Here are examples of pluralized
consonant-final nouns:
!
'
'
'
'
'
!
'
'
'
'

gikis ! !
misas ! !
nokos ! !
sinin ! !
hingut ! !
t !
!
ang/angil !
!
!
ku ! !
eu !
!
kei !
!

shard! !
!
stone! !
!
stick! !
!
big fish!
!
ghost! !
!
swampy ground!
seed! !
!
plant! !
!
attack! !
!
scar! !
!
lynx! !
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

gikiska
misaska
nokoska
sininka
hingutka
tka
angilka
elka
klka
euka
keika

The second plural marker is used for all nouns ending in short vowels. Dialects differ
greatly in how the plural is marked onto vowel-final words. The -n plural of western
dialects is more common amongst younger generations and is spreading in the east
as well. Below is a table illustrating this:

121

plural form
final vowel
-a

Eastern dialects

Western dialects

-ua

-uma / -

-ie

-ime / -en

-uo

-umo / -

-a

-m / -n

-e
-i
-o
-u
-
-y
Certain eastern dialects also have a plural in - (after -e and -i) and - (pronounced
[x]). This usually implies an uncertain, undefined or vague amount, and it may be
considered to be impolite to use this plural in certain contexts:
!
!

sira ! [sirax] ! !
kepsi ! [cps:] !

a bunch of fish
a couple of mushrooms

It is not generally used when talking about things owned by people. Western dialects
lack this distinction. Another feature of eastern plurals is that the stops p t k and
endings in -ua and -uo join to form -ba -da -ga (from -ua) and -bo -do -go (from -uo),
though not after diphthongs or long vowels.
Here are examples of vowel-final noun pluralization:
singular

eastern

western

eleba flower

elebua / eleba

elebuma or eleb

gauta color

gautua/ gauta

gautuma or gaut

gori doubt

gorie / gori

gorime or goren

hemi bird

hemie / hemi

hemime or hemen

asuma tanned skin

asumua / asuma

kahi shell

kahie / kahi

kahime or kahen

kepsi mushroom

kepsie / kepsi

kepsime or kepsen

122

asumuma or asum

singular

eastern

western

natabi hemlock

natabie / natabi

natabime or nataben

oari edge, point

oarie / oari

oarime or oaren

rukso circle

ruksuo / rukso

ruksumo or ruks

sasame tipi

sasamie / sasame

sasamime or
sasamen

seky cliff

sekuo or seka or
sego / seky

sekm or sekn

sdd infection

sdda / sdd

sddm or sddn

tapa bulb

tapua or taba / tapa

tapuma or tap

Pluralization of inanimate nouns in Siwa is optional and not especially common, as

well as being quite emphatic. Nouns are not pluralized after numbers or quantifiers,
but if they are, it is usually equivalent to an article in English.
!
!
!
!

nevi mahhi !
tama eleba %
tama elebua '
eura suvo '

!
%
'
'

three fallen bears

many flowers
the many flowers
few berries

4.2.2.1 Collective Plural

The collective plural is a historical plural marker that is still found in certain
expressions. More commonly, the collective plural appears as an unproductive
derivative ending creating words for packs or groups of things. Its form was originally
-(V)rV, where -V- marks the same vowel as the preceding one. As a productive
marker, it can be found on the marked form of nouns as well as after locative cases.
!
!
eu !
scab, scar!
!
emre or re ! rash, skin disease
!
hemi ! bird! !
!
hamri/hapri !
flock of birds
!
giga ! goose! !
!
grha ! !
flock of geese
!
kepsi ! mushroom!
!
ksi ! !
place where many
!
!
!
!
!
mushrooms grow together, agglomeration
!
kuilla ! drizzle!!
!
gilra ! !
wet weather
!
neno ! pollen! !
!
netro ! !
pistil or stamen
!
seky ! cliff! !
!
seu ! !
barren land
!
s !
young fish!
!
rhu ! !
bank of fish
This has been especially productive in creating words describing species of plants,
trees, insects and animals based on a common characteristic:
123

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

benho ! !
eulbi ! !
kahi ! !
koma''
mahhi ! !
salama !!
suvo ! !

dog! !
hoof! !
shell! !
auk bird!
bear! !
antler! !
berry! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

brho ! !
bi ! !
tatskairi !
koro ! !
mosi ! !
solra ! !
sro ! !

canidae
ungulate
scarab beetles
sea bird
mammals
cervidae
berry bush

The collective plural marker -(V)rV is used in a few expressions to mean the many:
!
!

rdni !
!

thorn! !
!
!

!
!

idi rditara be out of luck (lit. to fall in the

(many) thorns)

!
!

dyra !
!

turn (in river)! !

!
!
!

riebmala dyrara be experienced (lit. to

have navigated (the many) turns in rivers)

4.2.2.2 Plural Nouns

Certain nouns in Siwa are always pluralized. Because the plural of nouns is often
marked by changing the final vowel, plural nouns may be misleading, as their final
vowel is not representative of the group or subgroup to which they belong. Only a
handful of words are always plural. They include:
!
!
!
'
'
'
!
!
'
%
'

henetka '
birch shoes ! !
kutkuska !
flooring/bough !
mokkuo~mokvo!beak ! !
!
pka ' '
canvas, material !
tetka ''
gut ! !
!
tetunne
tokkilka '
fish trap !
!
tonkua !!
sinew ! !
!
tska ! !
joint! !
!
varrua/varva ' ladle ! !
!
dirva% %
gills! !
!
bytsva% !
slime mold!
!

(*henet)!!
(*kutkus)!
(*mokko)!
(*p)! !
(*tetun)!

!
!

henetsta
kutkuhi
mokkoma
pyby

(*tokk)! !
(*tonka)!!
(*ts) ! !
(*varro)!!
(*dirra)! !
(*bytsa)!!

%
%

tokkiri
tonkamo
thhi
varoka
dirdi
bytsamo

4.2.3 Animate Marked Form

Nouns belonging to the animate group always have a final syllable in the shape -CV,
which changes in the marked form as the table below illustrates. Most of animate
nouns can also be declined as inanimate nouns (ambiguous). Certain endings may
have a more or less specific function, e.g. -ha/-ho nouns generally depict feminine
things, while -mo/-ma/-ro generally depict masculine things.

124

!
Note that the plural marker -gi changes the preceding -i- into - in western
dialects:
!
somi ! man ! !

somigi~somgi !
men.

-mo/-ma
This ending is particularly common with nouns depicting masculine agents,
especially nouns of the form t--mo. It is also the form of nominalized present
participles, i.e. present participles in -mo/-ma which are declined as animate nouns.
Nouns with a stressed o or u get the marked form -i.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-mo

-mogi

-ka or -i (if
stressed o u)

-ma

-magi

-kagi or -igi

thma
heart

thmagi

thka

thkagi

takeulmo
righteous man,
real man

takeulmogi

takeulka

takeulkagi

tiselmo
experienced
person

tiselmogi

tiselka

tiselkagi

totomma
family member

totommagi

totoi

totoigi

tottamo
trader

tottamogi

tottai

tottaigi

-mi
This ending is not strongly associated with any specific function. Nouns of the form Vmi have the plural form -Vmhi or -Vmi.

125

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-mi

-migi
-mi / -mhi

-ta
-tta

-tagi
-ttagi

totami
head

totami

todatta
(irr. -d-)

todattagi

htakemi
balsam fir

htakemi

htaketa

htaketai

kinapomi
guest, foreigner

kinapomigi

kinapota

kinapotagi

milmi
lip

milmigi

miltta

milttagi

-ba/-pa/-va
These endings are commonly found in words denoting pairs, though a number of
these words, especially jointed body parts, are excluded from this due to their
irregular declension. The ending -ba is quite common in flowers and flower bearing
plants:
!
!
!
!
!

netuba !!
monoba !
kinuba/kinulba
tba ! !
velba ! !

!
!
!!
!
!

lily
indian pipe
thistle
salsify
dandelion

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ba
-pa
-va

-bagi
-pagi
-vagi

-u

-ugi

mppa
two feet

mhu

126

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

sohpa
skis

sohhu

eleba
flower

elebagi

eleu

eleugi

nulva
muskox

nulvagi

nulu

nulugi

-bi/-pi/-vi
These endings are not especially common, but are found in bird names:
!
!
!
!

tsmpi ! !
mibi ! !
mankobi !
polbi ! !

woodpecker
gray jay
red-winged black bird
northern cardinal

Nouns of the form -Vbi/-Vpi have the plural form -Vbi.

!
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-bi
-pi
-vi

-bigi / -bi
-pigi / -bi
-vigi

-umi

-umi

riehpi
wife

riehpigi

riekumi

riekumi

siebi
eagle

siebigi

siehhumi

siehhumi

nalvi / nalbi
husband

nalvigi / nalbigi

nalumi

nalumi

moksabi
ptarmigan

moksabigi /
moksabi

moksaumi

moksaumi

127

-bo/-po/-vo
These endings are not especially common or associated with any particular type of
nouns.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-bo
-po
-vo

-bogi
-pogi
-vogi

-oi

-oi

sambo
maternal
grandfather

smbogi
(irr. --)

smoi

smoi

kembo
paternal
grandfather

kmbogi
(irr. --)

kmoi

kmoi

kuspo
skunk

kuspogi

kusoi

kusoi

subo
fruit

subogi

suoi
suovvi

suoi

guokvo
frog

guokvogi

guokoi

guokoi

-na/-no
These endings are not especially common. They often refer to elongated objects or
sharp or pointy things at one end:
!
!
!

motona !
ehrena !!
nomono !

(sharpened) nail (on men)/claws

sharpened stick used to hunt fish
fang

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-na
-no

-nagi
-nogi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

hmno
midwife

hmnogi

hma

hmagi

128

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

kehno
pine

kehnogi

kehha

kehhagi

atkana
tail

atkanagi

atkavva

atkavvagi

-ni
This ending is somewhat common and often indicates a member/part of a group or
periods of time, especially seasons and many ceremonies (usually in the plural). The
plural unmarked form has either -nhi or -ni after vowels, and -nigi otherwise.
%
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ni

-nigi / -ni / -nhi

-a

-agi

atkini
late winter

atkini

atkia

atkiagi

mhni
wolverine

mhnigi

mhha

mhhagi

peilni
eldest male of
group

peilnigi

peila

peilagi

salinhi
caribou head
sacrifice

saliagi

skanhi
vernal equinox

skaagi

-ta/-to
These endings are common in words denoting one of a pair, especially body parts.
The ending -a is used where illegal clusters would arise with -va, and -vva is used
intervocally as the coda of a stressed syllable.

129

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ta
-to

-tagi
-togi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

kita
eye

kitagi

kivva

kivvagi

liota
bear/large animal
mother

liotagi

liovva

liovvagi

shta
lung, breath

shha

naihto
infectious
disease

naihtogi

naihha

naihhagi

-te/-ti
These endings are uncommon.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-te
-ti

-tegi
-tsi

-ika

-ikagi

muti
finger tip

mutsi

muika

muikagi

otroti
bullfrog

otrotsi

otroika

otroikagi

-sa/-so
These endings are common in words for relative or female relatives. In words
referring to humans, the marked form is -tta, while non-humans get -hi or -i.

130

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-sa
-so

-sagi
-sogi

-hi (-i)
-tta

-higi (-igi)
-ttagi

miniso
common snipe

minisogi

minihi

minihigi

suosa
mother

suosagi

suotta
svotta

suottagi
svottagi

dapsa
younger sister

dapsagi

daa

daagi

karsa
younger brother

karsagi

kartta

karttagi

-si
This ending is not common and is nearly exclusively found in words denoting a
masculine agent.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-si

-sigi
-si

-tta

-ttagi

okkomosi
fellow, poor
fellow

okkomosi

okkomotta

okkomottagi

psi
maternal uncle

psi

ptta

pttagi

tamosi
friend, man

tamosi

tamotta

tamottagi

-i
This ending is not common. It is found with certain agent words, birds, fish and
smaller animals. The marked form is -ohta after consonants or -hta after vowels.

131

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-i

-igi

-hta
-ohta

-htagi
-ohtagi

tnki
attack leader,
general

tnkigi

tnkohta (form.)
tnhta

tnkohtagi
tnhtagi

yi
salmon

yigi

yhta

yhtagi

hpi
purple finch

hpigi

hppohta

hppohtagi

simi
human, person,
Siwa

simigi

simohta

simohtagi

-ro/-ra/-la
These endings are somewhat common and are not associated with any particular
function. Most berries in -ra can be treated as animate nouns, but are more
commonly inanimate.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ro
-ra
-la

-rogi
-ragi
-lagi

-sta

-stagi

sira
fish

siragi

ssta (irr. --)

sstagi

Siura
Siwa

Siuragi

Siusta

Siustagi

tosora
reject, outlaw

tosoragi

tososta

tosostagi

tserogi
sweat lodge
ceremony

tsestagi

132

-ri/-li
These endings are somewhat common in plural nouns denoting ceremonies and
plural agents or groups. The unmarked plural form is -rhi or -lhi after vowels and -rigi
or -ligi after consonants.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ri
-li

-rigi / -rhi
-ligi / -lhi

-ta

-tagi

aumulhi
first menstruation
ceremony

aumutagi

nirhi
adults, parents

nitagi

taulhi
army

tautagi

tauri
soldier

tauta

todli
last summer

todligi
past

todda
tydda

toddagi
tyddagi

-lu
This ending is not especially common, but is found in a few words denoting male
agents and a few words descriptive of bad or strong smelling things and remedies.
The unmarked plural form is in -lhi after vowels and -lugi otherwise.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-lu

-lugi
-lhi

-da

-dagi

133

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

koklu
place where boat
is lowered

koklugi

kohda

kohdagi

holu
spirit, ghost, soul

holhi

hoda

hodagi

lillu
paternal uncle

lillugi

lilda

lildagi

ohlu
death,
decomposition,
smell of death

ohda

aumlu
smell of blood

aumda

aumdagi

!
-ka/-ko
These endings are commonly found in words denoting animals and in proper names.
Many long or forked objects, or animals with tails, end in -ka or -ko.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ka
-ko

-kagi
-kogi

-uni

-unhi

aurko
lake trout

aurkogi

auruni

aurunhi

kuhko
beaver

kuhkogi

kuhhuni

kuhhunhi

naikka
racoon

naikkagi

naikuni

naikunhi

Siskko
thunder deity

Siskuni

134

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

Nlkka
personal name

Nlkuni

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ka
-ko

-kagi
-kogi

-uni

-unhi

aurko
lake trout

aurkogi

auruni

aurunhi

kuhko
beaver

kuhkogi

kuhhuni

kuhhunhi

naikka
racoon

naikkagi

naikuni

naikunhi

Siskko
thunder deity

Siskuni

Nlkka
personal name

Nlkuni

-ki
This ending is not especially common and is associated with animals or things
containing a hardened or protective material:
!
!
!

keigi ! !
nykki ! !
paikki ! !

helmet !
nail ! !
turtle ! !

(cf. keppi head)

(cf. nukli finger)
(cf. pagi backside)

The unmarked plural form is -ki after vowels and -kigi otherwise.
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ki

-kigi / -ki

-ta

-tagi

135

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

kuki
mouth

kuki

kuta

kutagi

milki
fish skin

milkigi

milta

miltagi

ki
tundra

ta

peilki
trout, fish

peilkigi

peilta

peiltagi

-ga/-go/-gi
These endings are not common with nouns but common in names. Generally,
humans have marked forms in -tsa (note that kinagi has kinaubi). A number of male
names end in -go/-o or -ho and are part of this declension:
!
!
!
!
!

Samho !!
Talgo ! !
Menho !!
Sotso !!
Vogo/Uohho !

(GEN Samtsa)
(GEN Taltsa)
(GEN Mentsa)
(GEN Sotsa)
(GEN Votsa/Uohtsa).

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ga
-go
-gi

-gagi
-gogi
-gigi

-ubi
-tsa

-ubigi / -ubi
-tsagi

giga
goose

gigagi

giubi

giubigi
giubi

kinagi
foreigner

kinagigi

kinaubi

kinaubigi
kunaubi

koalgi
paternal aunt

koalgigi

koaltsa

koaltsagi

136

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

rogo
man, character,
he

rogogi

rotsa

rotsagi

Notice that the honorific rogyts has the plural form rogytsi.
-ha/-ho
These endings are common and generally refer to feminine ideas or agents. One can
often assume the feminine form (usually pregnant or adult) of an animal to end in -ha:
!
!

yi !
!
ohha ! !

salmon
female salmon

!
!

salama !!
solha ! !

caribou
female caribou having had a calf before

belha ! !

female/pregnant lobster/crab/spider

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ha
-ho

-hagi
-hogi

-ra

-ragi

hmha
woman,
character, she

hmhagi

hmra

hmragi

kenho
virgin

kenhogi

kenra

kenragi

dailha
pregnant woman

dailhagi

dailra

dailragi

eirha
female animal

eirhagi

eirra

eirragi

-hi/-i

137

These endings are not common. A few words for trees and plants or otherwise other
slow growing things end in -hi or -i. A number of female names ending in -i or -y/-
join this declension:
!
!
!
!
!

Irhi !
!
S !
!
Syly ! !
Temhi ! !
Vengy ! !

(GEN Ihta)
(GEN Syta)
(GEN Sylta)
(GEN Temta)
(GEN Venta)

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-hi
-i/-y

-higi
-igi

-ta

-tagi

maihhi
maple tree

maihhigi

maita

maitagi

minhi
black spruce

minhigi

minta

mintagi

oi
moon light

ota

r
tooth

rgi

rita

ritagi

trhi
sun

thta
(irr. -ht-)

Muihti
god

Muihta

138

4.2.3.1 Overview
Below is a reference table for the declension of animate nouns:
unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-mo

-mogi

-ka or -i (if
stressed o u)

-ma

-magi

-kagi or -igi

-mi

-migi
-mi / -mhi

-ta
-tta

-tagi
-ttagi

-ba
-pa
-va

-bagi
-pagi
-vagi

-u

-ugi

-bi
-pi
-vi

-bigi / -bi
-pigi / -bi
-vigi

-umi

-umi

-bo
-po
-vo

-bogi
-pogi
-vogi

-oi

-oi

-na
-no

-nagi
-nogi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

-ni

-nigi / -ni / -nhi

-a

-agi

-ta
-to

-tagi
-togi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

-te
-ti

-tegi
-tsi

-ika

-ikagi

-sa
-so

-sagi
-sogi

-hi (-i)
-tta

-higi (-igi)
-ttagi

-si

-sigi
-si

-tta

-ttagi

-i

-igi

-hta
-ohta

-htagi
-ohtagi

-ro
-ra
-la

-rogi
-ragi
-lagi

-sta

-stagi

139

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-ri
-li

-rigi / -rhi
-ligi / -lhi

-ta

-tagi

-lu

-lugi
-lhi

-da

-dagi

-ka
-ko

-kagi
-kogi

-uni

-unhi

-ki

-kigi / -ki

-ta

-tagi

-ga
-go
-gi

-gagi
-gogi
-gigi

-ubi
-tsa

-ubigi / -ubi
-tsagi

-ha
-ho

-hagi
-hogi

-ra

-ragi

-hi
-i/-y

-higi
-igi/-ygi

-ta

-tagi

4.2.3.2 Dual Nouns

A handful of nouns referring to pairs (body parts) have special declensions. They do
not have a distinct plural form. Dual nouns are generally found with singular
pronouns. The most common of these nouns are:
unmarked

marked

dual

non-dual

dual

non-dual

ataga
father and son

atagga

ataba
father and
daughter

atabba

bahpa
testicles

bahho
testicle

pa
grandparents

baa

va

140

unmarked

marked

dual

non-dual

dual

non-dual

ilkima
temples

ilkia

kelba
shoulders

ketku
shoulder

kedma

ketkume

kiba
(both) eyes

kita
eye

keubba

kivva

koga
twin brothers

kgga

koba
brother and
sister

kbba

kimpa
pair of boots/
shoes

kitton
shoe/boot

kygua/kbba

kittos

leba
mittens

lahton
mitten

ledma

lahtos

oabi
gums

oadi
palate, tongue

vaubbi/vaubba

vaika

omna
married couple

bba

raba
hips

ranna
hip

raubba

ranka

shpa
lungs

shta
lung

sma

shha

saba
(both) ears

sata
ear

saubba

savva

suoga
mother and son

suogga/svogga

141

unmarked

marked

dual

non-dual

dual

non-dual

suoba
mother and
daughter

suobba/svobba

tiebba
hands

tiemo
hand

tiehba

tieka

toaba
twin sisters

daubba

umpa
(both) knees

uba
knee

ppa

oama

4.2.3.3 Action Nominals

Action nominals are a small set of nouns that are found with a patientive pronoun
coalesced with an animate ending. These are mostly words for older relatives and a
few nouns seen to be common to the whole of the Siwa people or a specific group of
people or of personal importance. The patientive pronouns are:

1P. SG

ka

1P.
PL.INCL

ba

2P. SG

sa

2P. PL

ha

3P. SG

ta
3P. PL

4P.

1P.
PL.EXCL

be

3P. OBV.

no

i/a

!
The most common action nominals are:!
unmarked

marked

action nominal

animate

action nominal

animate

ataka
my father

atri
father

atkaka

adda

ska
my mother

suosa
mother

smaka

suotta/svotta

142

unmarked

marked

action nominal

animate

action nominal

animate

tobika
my older
sister

toabi
older sister

toumika

daumi

kosoka
my older
brother

koi
older brother

kottaka

gasta

kmaka
my paternal
grandfather

kembo
paternal
grandfather

kmaka

kmoi

smaka
my maternal
grandfather

sambo
maternal
grandfather

smaka

smoi

nieaka
my patnernal
grandmother

niebini
paternal
grandmother

nieaka

niega

piddaka
my maternal
grandmother

piddani
maternal
grandmother

piddaka

pidda

kalba
our land,
Siwa land

kalkaba

pappa
our shaman

parpa

saiba
Siwa
language, our
language

sakaba

tmba
our people,
Siwa people

tmmaba

143

Less common nouns include:

!
ikka ! !
(GEN. ikihka) ! !
!
my axe
!
nika ! !
(GEN nmka) !!
!
my knife,
!
selka ! !
(GEN seuska) ! !
!
my herd
!
luika/luhka ! (GEN luukka/luuhka) ! !
my love, my darling.
!
4.3 Irregular Nouns
A number of nouns fall outside of any pattern of declension. The most common
irregular nouns are given here. Note that dual nouns and kinship terms are omitted.
unmarked

marked

animacy

bahhi
day
(WEST)

baski

INA

kili
wood, tree

kidli

INA

ko
summer

koba

INA/ANI

lsi
nostril(s)

lihhet

ANI

misas
stone

misi / miski

INA

oadi
palate, tongue

vaika

INA

nrri (WEST)
nose

nrt

ANI

narri (EAST)
nose

naret

ANI

tyry
son, boy

tolba

ANI

retema
fox

revva

ANI

alo/valo
tea

vlka

INA

144

4.4 Approbation
Siwa nouns, adjectives and even verbs may be marked with one of two markers; the
approbative (emphasizing the positive aspect of the word) and the pejorative
(emphasizing the negative aspect of the word). Their use is quite common and may
be difficult to illustrate fully, as both the markers cover a wide range of functions.

4.4.1 Marking%
The approbative and pejorative are marked through prefixes. The clitics are either
hyphenated to the beginning of words or added directly. Approbation involves
reduplication of either the whole of the first syllable of a word, or only its vowel.
Reduplication takes the initial syllable of a word, copies it (the voiced consonants pt- and k- are reduplicated as -bb- -dd- and -gg-). The reduplicated vowel is
determined by the stressed vowel:
stressed

reduplicated

-a-

ou

-u- or -o-

ei

-e-

-y-

!
All initial consonants become geminate or change in the reduplicated form and no
hyphen is used. The initial vowel clusters ts- and ts- are replaced by -tsk- and -tst-.
Others are unaffected. Words beginning with a vowel have the reduplicated vowel
separated from the initial vowel by -- (always hyphened).
!
The approbative is shown by the clitic h- before vowels. For words starting
with a consonant, both the approbative and the pejorative use reduplication the
approbative reduplicates the whole syllable (including the consonant), whereas the
pejorative reduplicates only the vowel. Stress remains on the original initial syllable.
The reduplicated vowel of the pejorative may not be pronounced in speech, leaving
an initial geminate or otherwise changed consonant or consonant cluster. 1
reduplicated form

initial vowel

examples
approb.

pejo.

a-

ata open mouth a-ata

jaw of an animal, dirty
mouth (PEJ)

1 The ejective pronounciation is common with approbation markings, especially when used as a

vocative with names, e.g. Taddalgo! [tt:alg]

- Talgo!.
145

reduplicated form

initial vowel

examples
approb.

pejo.

u-

bruise u- a bad
bruise (PEJ)

ei

e-

t swampy ground e-t

dangerous/hunted
swamp (PEJ)

y-

yhhy salmon -yhhy

good salmon, Oh
Salmon (APPR)

ou

reduplicated form
initial consonant

examples

approb.

pejo.

benho dog ebbenho

bad dog (PEJ)
p- / b-

pVbb-

Vbb-

benho dog pebbenho

good dog (APPR)

m-

mVmm-

Vmm-

mykyt path following a

river ymmykyt
dangerous path following a
river (PEJ)

v- / - / oa-

vVvv-

Vvv-

oari edge vavvari good/

sharp edge (APPR)

n- / n-

nVnn-

Vnn-

neno pollen enneno

bad pollen, damned
pollen (PEJ)

ts- / ts-

tVtsttVtsk-

VtstVtsk-

tsamma forest
tatstamma (our) forest, Oh
Forest, the good old
forest (APPR)

t- / d-

tVdd-

Vdd-

tiemo hand eddiemo

bad hand, injured
hand (PEJ)
tiemo hand teddiemo
good hand (APPR)

146

reduplicated form

initial vowel

examples
approb.

pejo.

s- / s- / -

sVss-

Vss-

shpa lungs asshpa

bad lungs, old lungs (PEJ)

t- / d-

tVdd-

Vdd-

det a grayhaired man

teddet old man
(respectful) (APPR)

r-

rVrr-

Vrr-

roko hollow urroko

empty-head (PEJ)

l-

lVll-

Vll-

luvv intense heat

ulluvv damned intense
heat (PEJ)

k- / g-

kVgg-

Vgg-

koro sea bird koggoro

good (catch) sea bird,
good old sea bird (APPR)

Vg-

Vg-

okon large caribou herd

ogokon good herd, herd
(polite)'
hingut ghost ehhingut
bad ghost (PEJ)

h- / -

hVhh-

Vhh-

hingut ghost hehhingut

good ghost (APPR)

4.4.2 Approbative
The approbative emphasizes the positive aspect of a noun. It may be used to give
praise, as a vocative, to underline the protagonistic role of the noun in a narrative or
to give an impression of familiarity. It can also be polite to use the approbative when
addressing other peoples belonging or when the speaker wants to emphasize his
inferior/humble position. It is also often used when words are described with a
positive epitaph or are called a positive nickname. The Siwa word for bandleader is
nelli, but when addressing ones bandleader, one would use the form nennelli. When
talking about ones own herd, one may say okon, but when addressing someone
elses, it may be polite to refer to it as ogokon. Ambiguous nouns are most
commonly animate in the approbative.

147

!
!

pendodnani-dat kiggigagi
[pndtnnida ci:igaji]

!
%

pen<nd>-o-dna-nidat kigiga--gi
return.PAST-INFER.ITR.CONCL-REVERS-TRANSLOSENS APPRgoose-AGT-PL

the good old geese have returned, I see

!
%

nta-a gigese -ikid

[i:ntaa ij:ese :ic]

n=taa giges-e iki-d ha

stillASS sharp-COP.INFER APPR-axe-PAT

!
!

(your/the) good old axe is still sharp, I see

!
%

saskuo na toddoronta
[sasku nja tt:rnta]

!
!

sask-uo na to-<dd>oron-ta
wake.up-INFER.OPT.ITR now APPR-big.bear-PAT

wake up, now, Oh Big Bear

!
%

estui mei rurrogo!

[jstui mexi rur:g]

!
!

est-u-i mei ru-<rr>ogo-

succeed-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR fortunately APPR-he-AGT

he fortunately succeeded!

!
%

iue lkiumi rirrikimi

[ixue i:lciumi rir:icimi]

!
!

i-ue lk-i-u--mi ri-<rr>ikimi-

accept-INFER.OPT.TR offer-PAST-PASS.PART-DAT-1P.AG.SG APPR-host-AGT

may the kind host accept my offer

!
!
%

Sassamho rrukita
[ss:amh i:r:ucita]

!
!

sa-<ss>amho- rru=kita-
APPR-Samho-AGT arrow=eye-AGT

Arrow-Eye Samho

148

%
%
%
!

tau nona yhmita memmiebii inoni suvokurita nente

[tju nna hmida mem:bii inni suvkurida nnte]
ta=u n-on-a yhhy-m=ita memmiebi=i- i-non-i suv=oku-ri=ta non-nin nent-e

then PAST.AUGM-tell-ASS.CONCL.TR salmon-ILLAT APPR-fat.neck=old-AGT DIT-swim-ITR

stream=origin-ILLAT !COP.IMP-INFER

then the old fat bear told the salmon to swim to its home stream

The last example illustrates one other use of the approbative to show the theme or
topic of a narration. In the example, the old fat bear (miebii) is obviously the theme
or topic of the story, meaning one can assume that it has been mentioned before. It is
put in the approbative here because it is a nickname and because it shows that the
bear is the protagonist of the phrase/story.
!
A few words were historically in the approbative but became reanalyzed as
otherwise. For example, the word kiddu done had the form kiggiddu as an answer to
a superior when promising to do something. This was shortened to iggidd or gidd
(pronounced [c:it:], or as if it was written *gkidd), meaning yes or affirmative,
especially when answering to a demand or a request.
!
!
!
4.4.3 Pejorative
The pejorative emphasizes the negative aspect of a noun. It may be used to show
anger, as a negative vocative, to underline the antagonistic role of the noun in a
narrative or to show that the noun is bad, worthless, hurt, dangerous or has another
negative connotation. It can also be impolite to use the pejorative when addressing
other peoples belonging or when in an superior position. It may also be used to
show modesty about ones own belonging or actions. It is also often used when
words are described with a negative epitaph or are called a negative nickname. The
Siwa word for a dog is benho, but when addressing a disobedient dog, one would
use the form ebbenho. Below are more examples of the use of the pejorative:

%
%

oa-a agigomadna e-ikid

[aa aij:matna eic ha]

%
!

oaa a-gig-o-ma-dna eiki-d ha

already-ASS TRANSL-be.sharp-INFER.TRANSL-INCONCL-REVERS PEJ-axe-PAT

my damned axe is already becoming dull, I see

'
%

ennikodem
[en:ikdem]

%
!

e-<nn>iko=dem--
PEJ-dead=bone-PL-AGT

deadbones! (insult 1)

Siwa burn their dead, and by insinuating that someones bones are left after death is a powerful insult
to their honor.
1

149

!
%
%

kyha osikka maggita tilutta gaita annaikka

[cya ska mc:ida ilta gida :aka]

%
!
!

ky<h>-a o-sikk-a ma<gg>-ita til-u-tta g-a-ita an-naikka-

try.PAST-ASS.TR SUBJ-sneak-TR meat-ILLAT hang-PAT.PART-GEN
COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-INESS PEJ-racoon-AGT

the damned racoon tried to sneak into the drying meat

!
!
%

gogantsuaka avvama
[ggantsujga w:ma]

%
!

gogantsu-a-ka a-<vv>a-ma
make.limp-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG PEJ-knee-PAT

my damned/bad/injured knee is making me limp

%
%
%

avvakibma!
[w:cbma]

av-oak=ibma
PEJ-home.ADESS

go home! (impolite)

The last example is also found as a shortened expression, aki or agi. It is used to
signify to something to go away, for examples a mosquito or a dog. The word aki
was analyzed as translocative, and the cislocative analogy ani also came to be, and
it means the same as aki, but with movement towards the speaker. An angry mother
might call her child by saying ani. It can also be used in a less impolite matter, for
examples when asking someone to pass something over.

4.5 Cases
Siwa nouns are found in the following cases: agentive, patientive, genitive, dative,
inessive, illative, elative, adessive, allative and ablative. Of these, the inessive, illative,
elative, adessive, allative and ablative are grouped together as locative cases. The
patientive and genitive share their form, as do the agentive and dative cases. That is
to say, the two pairs of cases differ syntactically but not morphologically they have
the same surface form, but different functions. While nouns and adjectives are
identical in the agentive, patientive, genitive and dative, they are not marked for
locative cases when attributive but are instead found in the genitive. Siwa thus has
two cases for the subject (agentive and patientive) and two cases for the object
(dative and genitive). The diagram below shows the relationship between case, word
order and markedness.

150

Subjects can be found as patientive pronouns affixed onto the verb, or in the marked
form (patientive case) or the unmarked form (agentive case) at the end of the phrase.
Objects can be found between the verb and the subject, in either the marked form
(genitive case, or in the case of ditransitive verbs the illative or elative) or the marked
form (dative case). There are four cases with two overt forms distinguished by word
order.

In addition, Siwa makes use of double case marking. A noun may be marked
primarily for one case, and secondarily for another one. Double marking endings are
set and are usually added onto the genitive of a noun. Double case marking is
explained in 4.6.
4.5.1 Agentive Case
The agentive case is the default form of a noun. It is used to show that the noun is an
agentive subject. This means that when ever a noun is performing an action willingly
or with control, it is found in the agentive case (unless the verb requires a patientive
subject). As it was mentioned above, the agentive case shares its form with the
dative. However, it is quite easy to determine whether a noun is in the agentive or the
dative case, given context nouns in the agentive case are not found in the same
slot as nouns in the dative in the Siwa phrase. In other words, word order can help
identify the syntactical function of a noun int he unmarked form. Additionally, the

151

agentive case is used with adjectival verbs and in certain other constructions where
an unagentive subject would be expected, such as with existential copular verbs.

!
%
%

ntta, jlppi!
[nu:ta jlp:i]

n=tta jlppi-
see=SUBIT hare-AGT

look, a hare!

%
%

etsta nodi gaita dida

[tsta ndi gida dida]

!
%

e<sk>-a nod-i g-a-ita dida-

start.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR sing-ITR COP.PAST-ASS-ILLAT young.girl-AGT

the girl started to sing

'
%

sta tamoskita maggika kori

[i:sta tmscida mac:iga kri]

%
%

i-i<st>-a tamos-k=ita ma<gg>-ika kori-

dit-thank.past-ass.concl.tr hunter-illat meat-elat boy-AGT

the boy thanked the hunter for the meat

%
%

da seskora to syhhi-t
[da sskra t syh:]

%
!

d-a seskora me syhhi-t

COP-ASS tree.to.find.ones.way this.ANI.AG bent.tree-AGTDET.PROXI

this bent tree is used to find ones way (lit. this bent tree is a seskora)

%
'

magua kn
[mj:ua cn]

%
!

maga-a kn-
white-COP.ASS milk-AGT

milk is white

%
!

da ataka at
[da tga a]

%
%

d-a ata--ka at-

COP-ASS father-AGT-1P.PAT.SG this.PROXI-AGT

!
!
%
%
%

this is my father
hm mtabe
[hi:mi: mi:dbe]

hmi-i mtabe-
warm-COP.PAST.ASS yesterday-AGT

yesterday was warm

152

Nouns in the agentive are often separated from the rest of the phrase by independent
pronouns (10.1), especially if the object is also a noun. This is prefered to pronouns
marking the object, but it may happen especially with the dative if the subject is
encoded onto the verb. 1
%
!
or!

nega dida to kori'

nega tsi dida! !
nega dida to' '

'
!
'

the boy saw the girl

X saw the girl (dative tsi)
X saw the girl (agentive to)

4.5.2 Patientive Case%

The patientive case is found in the marked form. It is used to show that the noun is an
unagentive subject it is in direct opposition with the agentive case. This means that
when ever a noun is performing an action unwillingly or without control, it is found in
the patientive case. The same form as the patientive case is also used to mark the
partitive object (i.e. only partially affected by the verb) then, however, it is called the
genitive case (see below).

%
%

etsta oui gaita td

[tst:a jui gida i:]

%
!

e<sk>-a ou-i g-a-ita ti<>i-d

start.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR cry-ITR COP.PAST-ASS-ILLAT baby-PAT

the baby started to cry

'
%
%

tsaskka hha tamoskita maggika gaika kohko

[tsask:a i:h:ja tmscida mac:iga giga khk]

tsa<sk>-a i-ihh-a tamos-k=ita ma<gg>-ika g-a-ika kor-ko

forget.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR DIT-thank-TR hunter-ILLAT meat-ELAT COP.PAST-ASS-ELAT boy-PAT

the boy forgot to thank the hunter for the meat

%
!

akuobmu nka unka seskosta

[cpmu j:ka ka ssksta]

%
%

a-kuo<bm>-u n-ka un=ka sesko-sta

TRANSL-bend.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL snow-GEN under-FROM tree.to.find.ones.way-PAT

the seskora became bent under the snow

%
%

maikukkas deigi knma

[mikas deiji cnma]

%
!

maikukk-a-s de-i-gi kn-ma

whiten-ASS.CONCL.TR-HAB bone-GEN-PL milk-PAT

milk whitens the bones (cf. demogi maga strong bones, lit. white bones)

1 Some western dialects have a reduced form of the pronouns to/ta as -t [/t] hyphened to the preceding

word or the noun qualified: nega dida t-kori. Similarly, tsi may be -tsi hyphened to the preceding word:
nega-ts dida.

153

%
%

nikli atkaka
[nkl:i atkga]

%
!

nik-l-i at-ka-ka
die-PERF-ASS.CONCL.ITR father-PAT-1P.PAT.SG

my father has died

%
%
%

sindi mtaid
[sni mi:da ]

si<nd>-i mta<>e-d
last.long.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR yesterday-PAT

yesterday was a long day (lit. lasted for a long time)

4.5.3 Genitive Case

The genitive case has the marked form of a noun. It serves two main functions - that
of a proper genitive, and that of a partitive. Both share the same form and their
distinction is purely a semantic one. In normal speech, the noun in the genitive
follows what it qualifies. However, if the genitive is used with an adjective, it may
precede it.
!
The proper genitive shows that the marked noun is the possessor of
something:
!

rabma skko !

the mans (skko) canoe (rabma).

It may also show other kinds of relationships to other nouns, verbs or adjectives, such
as:
!
composition ! !
rri phra %
an arrow made of yew
!
origin ! !
!
maski obekka % a tribe from the north
!
reference !
!
naipi shhi %
the banks of the river
The genitive noun may come before an adjective if it qualifies it:
!
!
!
!
!
!

mahtsa sise !
kma mu !
kehka hanna !
mhu timo !
keubba mialha'
tiehba ohho'

!
!
!
!
'
'

tall as a bear
half eaten
fair skinned (lit. fair of skin)
stable, strong on feet (lit. standing of feet)
blue eyed
strong handed

These words may also be written in one word; mahtsasise, kmomu, kehkahanna
and mhutimo. Composition and origin usually considered to be part of the functions
of the partitive genitive.
!
The partitive genitive, unlike the proper genitive, is one of the two cases that
mark the object of a verb. A noun in the partitive genitive shows that only a part of it

154

has been affected by the action and is generally associated with the inconclusive.
However, conclusive verbs may also have their object in the partitive genitive, if for
example, the object is uncountable (the phrase he drank milk may be conclusive in
that the agent is done drinking milk, but its object may be partitive because an
unspecified amount of milk was drunk, as opposed to all of it). For a more detailed
explanation on the role of the partitive genitive, see section 5.4.1.

proper genitive
!
%
%

rybmy skid
[rpmy i:sc]

rybmy- ski-d
dress-AGT woman-GEN

the womans dress

%
%

kuti maskka
[cui mask:a]

%
!

kuti- maski-ka
territory-AGT tribe-GEN

the tribes territory

%
%

miedu Samtsa
[mieu samtsa]

%
!

mie<d>-u- Sam-tsa
herd-PAST.PART-AGT Samho-GEN

Samhos [m] herd

!
'
%

nyga Natska iid

[nyj:a natsk:a i]

nygy-a- Natsu-ka ii-d

stanza-PL-AGT Natsu-GEN old-GEN

Old Natsus [f] stanza

partitive genitive
%
%

mi salulka
[e:mi sllka]

%
!

mi- sa<l>ul-ka
smell-AGT tar-GEN

the smell of tar

155

!
%

leren miehdi
[lern mhi]

%
!

leren- mieri-di
pile-AGT moss-GEN

a pile of moss

%
%

kehhe unokkis iid ousta

[ceh:e uncs i jsta]

%
!

kehhe- u-nokk-i-s i<>i-d ou-sta

kehhe-DAT PASS-call-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB bark-PAT white.birch-GEN

the bark of the white birch is called kehhe

!
'

kkiani magga poagga

[kcini mk:a pk:a]

%
!

kk-i-a-ni mavv-ka poavv-ka

bring-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL meat-GEN seal-GEN

they brought seal meat

'
%

kokke diadi dahpika salla metutta

[kce dii dahpiga sl:a mt:xta]

%
!

kokk-e- di<>a-di dahpi-ka salla me<t>-u-tta

like-INFER.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT young.girl-PAT clan-GEN well respect-PAST.PART-GEN

X apparently likes a girl of a well respected clan

A third function of the genitive is restricted to only certain words. It is called the
temporal genitive, and incorporates the -i- of locative cases. It is used with words
commonly found in time expressions, and indicates the time at which or for which
an action was/is.
%
%
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!

enet baski'
'
enehm kendai !!
ymai% '
'
guai% '
'
enohtai% '
'
!
!
!
heetai%%
'
atkiai' '
'
ttai' '
'
lai'
'
'
thhai' '
'
kobai' '
'

one day (cf. hue baska the light of day WEST)

one day (cf. hue kenda the light of day EAST)
early in the fall (cf. ymni early fall, GEN. yma)
late in the fall (cf. guni late fall, GEN. gua)
early in the winter
(cf. eni early winter, GEN. enohta)
in winter (cf. heeri winter, GEN. heeta)
late in the winter (cf. atkini late winter, GEN. atkia)
in spring (cf. tli spring, GEN. tta)
early in spring (cf. lni early spring, GEN. la)
late in spring (cf. thni late spring, GEN. thha)
in the summer (cf. ko summer, GEN. koba)

4.5.4 Dative Case%

The dative case shares its form with the agentive, the unmarked form. Typically,
dative objects correspond to objects found with the determinants the in English.
156

Nouns in the dative case are often preceded by otsi/ats (ani/ina), eksi (pl.) or tsi,
although most speakers simply use the reduced form tsi, though the marking is
preferably found on the subject (to/ta/ki/r) if both participants are nouns. The dative
is found in objects which have some of the three following characteristics:

1.

The noun is completely affected by the action

!
%
'

sahrami (tsi) nokos

[sahrmi (tsi) nks]

%
!

sa<hr>-a-mi (tsi) nokos-

burn.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG (3PRON.INA.DAT) stick-DAT

!
!
%
'

I burnt the (whole) stick

%
!

m-a meihhi- (to) kga-

eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR honeycomb-DAT (3PRON.ANI.AGT) bear.cub-AGT

the bear cub ate the (whole) honeycomb

%
'

kiegia lagas oggori

[cia ljas k:ri]

%
!

kieg-i-a lagas- o-<gg>ori-

steal-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR flour-DAT PEJ-boy-AGT

the damned boy stole (all) the flour

%
'

milktumana sira
[mlkdumna sira]

%
!

milkt-um-a-na sira-
scale-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG fish-DAT

you must scale the (whole) fish

ma meihhi to kga
[ma meih:i (t) kga]

2.

The noun is the object of a conclusive verb, i.e. the action is completed or
done to completion. It may be possible to translate some of the examples
above differently one could change all or whole for completely.
Conclusive verbs with dative objects may also carry a notion of having
completed the action correctly or successfully.

!
'

milktumana sira
[mlkdumna sira]

%
!

milkt-um-a-na sira-
scale-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG fish-DAT

you must scale the fish (completely)

157

%
'

sahrami nokos
[sahrmi nks]

%
!

sa<hr>-a-mi nokos-
burn.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG stick-DAT

I burnt the stick completely

%
'

sauddia kuilis tegma

[sut:ia kuils m:a]

%
!

saudd-i-a kuilis- tegma-

catch.with.hands-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR tadpole-DAT child-AGT

the child (successfully) caught the tadpole

%
'

gkkia kilge tamosi

[i:cia cle tmsi]

%
!

gkk-i-a kilge- tamosi-

sharpen-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR blade-DAT hunter-AGT

!
3.

the hunter sharpened the blade (completely)

The noun goes through a change of state. This includes most causative
and translative verbs.

%
%

sopria pd eita
[spxia pd eida]

%
!

sopr-i-a- pd- ei=ta

split-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG log-DAT two.INA-ILLAT

X split the log in two

%
%

aiga nokos mioldita

[iga nks mlida]

%
!

a-i-g-a- nokos- miol-di=ta

PAST.AUGM-throw-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG stick-DAT flame-ILLAT

X threw a stick into the flames

%
%

sodda kori kigami

[st:a kri cgmi]

%
!

so<dd>-a- kig-a-mi
give.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG boy-DAT pick.up-TR-INFI.AG.TR

the boy made X pick it up1

1 Although the sentence may also be understood to mean X made the boy pick it up, one will most

commonly hear the object preceded by (o)tsi such an ambiguous phrase:

!
!

sodda kori kigami% %

the boy made X pick it up!

sodda tsi kori kigami

X made the boy pick it up

158

4.5.4.1 Dative vs. Genitive%

When a noun can be both in the genitive or the dative, its most salient feature will be
represented by its case. If a conclusive verb has a partitive object, it will generally
correspond to X is/was/will be doing Y to (some) Z while a dative object will
generally correspond to X is/was/will be doing Y to (the/the whole/all the).
!
%

ma mavvu
[ma mw:u]

%
!

m-a mavvu-
eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG meat-DAT

X ate (the/the whole/all the) meat

!
%

ma magga
[ma mk:a]

%
%

m-a mavv-ka
eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG meat-GEN

X ate (some) meat

The difference between a dative and genitive object affects the general meaning of
the phrase greatly (see 9.11 on tense-aspect coalescence)

4.5.5 Locative Cases%

The locative cases are formed by adding regular endings to the marked form. In
certain cases, some changes occur, but generally the locative case endings are
added directly to the marked form of a noun or with the vowel -i-.
!
The locative cases can be separated in two classes - the inessive, illative and
elative show location in or at something, and the adessive, allative and ablative show
location on or at something. The in-locative cases are commonly used with less
concrete spaces or ideas:
!
!
!

tsamia !
nndia !!
shmia !!

in a forest
in a hut
in a berrybush

As a general rule, more concrete surfaces are used with the on-locative cases, as
well as wide open spaces:
!
!
eitsima !
on a wall
!
misahima !
on a rock
!
kima ! !
on the water
!
spimima !
at a winter camp
!
atsiokima !
in a glade.

159

In addition, the illative is used with nouns to show the recipient of a ditransitive verb,
i.e. to mark the indirect object;
!
!
ista diahta eleba kori
%
[sta dahta eleba kri]
%
%

i-s<>t-a di<>a-ri=ta eleba- kori-

DIT-give.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR little.girl-ILLAT flower-DAT boy-AGT

the little boy gave the little girl a flower

!
Below is a table showing the form of the locative cases:

locative cases

inessive

illative

elative

-ia

-ita, -ta

-ika, -ka

adessive

allative

ablative

-ima

-ibma

-iska, -ska

Certain dialects also include an instrumental (meaning with) with the ending -igla or gla (sometimes also -ila/-la or -ira/-ra) and an abessive (meaning without) in -usi.
One may find certain words with the ending -imi/-emi/-ebi/-iu/-eu/-. This is a fairly
new case that has yet to spread to all dialects, but which represents the essive
(showing a state in or as something).
4.5.5.1 Inessive, Illative and Elative
The three interior cases, inessive, illative and elative, all function more or less in the
same way the inessive denotes a static position in or inside, illative shows
movement to or into and elative shows movement from or out of.
!
!
!

-ia!
-ita!
-ika!

!
!
!

in
into
out of

The interior cases shows location in or at something. It generally refers to interiors

and spaces which are not considered surfaces:
!
!
!

dndia ! !
tsamita !
nua ! !

in/on the mountain(s)

into the forest
in the bay, in the water

160

!
!
!
!

koruria !!
mantakia !
kkia ! !
shhika !

in a pot
in the world
in the snow
from the river.

The interior cases also refer to states. Many words (nouns and adjectives) are found
in the inessive as postpositions or adjectival/adverbial phrases:
!
angakia !
(lit. in remains) to be dead, to have passed away (eastern
!
!
!
dialects), to have a rash, to be sick, to have a disease
!
!
!
(western dialects)
!
blisia ! !
(lit. in liver) at the right place, in luck, at stake
!
!
!
(hence blitse lucky)
!
dikma ! !
(lit. in show) on display, obvious, visible
!
elepia !!
in bloom, blooming
!
gaskia ! !
(lit. in moon) during the night time, secretly, in
!
!
!
secret (hence goskka X will betray Y)
!
hda ! !
pregnant
!
kolia ! !
strained, tensed, stretched, tight
!
kia ! !
afloat, floating, going, in a good state
!
letkuika !
(lit. from the paddle) confused, lost, astray.
!
mhua !!
(lit. in feet) winning, superior, ready, steadfast
!
mhkidia !
frosty, covered in frost
!
tamykkia !
happy, joyful
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
The elative and the ablative are used to show possessors in possessive relative
clauses (for a more detailed description of this, see 5.10.1.2.3).
!
4.5.5.2 Adessive, Allative and Ablative
The three surface cases, adessive, allative and ablative, all function more or less in
the same way the adessive denotes a static position on a surface, allative shows
movement onto a surface and ablative means movement off a surface.
!
!
!

-ima! !
-ibma! !
-iska! !

on
onto
off, of

The surface cases shows location on, over, in or at something. They have a more
narrow meaning than the interior cases, and usually refer more precisely to surfaces
or open spaces:
!
!

umima !!
kkiska !

!
!

on the ground
from (off) the tundra
161

!
!
!
!
!

atsiokima !
!
oakima !!
!
bengommeima ! !
rhhima !
!
spimibma !
!

in the glade
at home
on the roof
at the shore (but temmea id.)
to the winter camp

Surface cases are also used to express possession, unalienable genitive relations
Siwa lacks a verb denoting ownership of most possessions, and those close to the
owner or unalienable are usually in the surface cases, as well as with certain
possessive relations where the possessee is perceived to come from or off the
possessor:
!
!
!
!

sappiskua mhrakiska !
tsuma osiska ! !
mi kehkiska % %
hide todattaiska %

the bears paws (lit. the paws off the bear)

your fear (lit. fear off you)
the smell of (your) skin (lit. the smell off the skin)
the heads hair (lit. the hair off the head).

4.5.5.3 Locative Cases for Indirect Objects

The illative and allative paired with the elative and ablative are used with ditransitive
verbs or verbs with an indirect object, recipient or benefactor. The nature of the
exchange with the indirect object is coded in the case usage. These always come
before the direct object:
!

VERB

-ita/-ika D.OBJ SUBJ

!
%
%
!
!
%

ona toatsita oadni!

!
isyvva toatsita toai! !
isota toatsita sto!
!
inita toatsita sauhhahi% !
irahka toatsibma kesku% !
ivia toatsi(s)ka riehpi% !

Illative

!
%

ista diahta eleba kori

[sta dahta eleba kri]

%
%

i-s<>t-a di<>a-ri=ta eleba- kori-

DIT-give.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR little.girl-ILLAT flower-DAT boy-AGT

the little boy gave the little girl a flower

X tells a story to someone

X shows something to someone
X gives someone something
X teaches a language to someone
X gives advice (on)to somsone
X steals someones wife

162

!
%

lkia ntaita gagama paha

[i:lcia n:ida ggma pja]

%
%

i-ilk-i-a n-ta=ita gagama- paha-

DIT-offer-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR widow-ILLAT condolence-DAT healer-AGT

the healer offered his condolences to the widow

!
%

nitanin toatsita kira

[ninn ttsida cira]

%
%

nit-a-nin toa-ts=ita kira-

inform-TR-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ILLAT issue-DAT

to inform someone about the issue

!
%

onnin toatsita
[n:n ttsida]

%
%

on-nin toa-ts=ita
tell.story-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ILLAT

to tell someone a story

Elative

!
%

neskanin toatsika oago

[nsknn ttsiga ag]

%
%

nesk-a-nin toa-ts=ika oapi-ko

ask-TR-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ELAT help-GEN

to ask help from someone

!
%

koaibmanon toatsika nitiama

[kapmnn ttsiga niiwma]

%
%

koaibma-a-non toa-ts=ika nitia-m-a-

tire-TR-INFI.DIT.UNAG someone.KNOWN.ANI-ELAT interest-INCONCL-PRES.PART.UNAG-DAT

to lose interest (lit. to tire from someone the interest)

Usually, when the action is perceived to be benefactive to the object, or the object is
a gift or intended as a service, the indirect object will be in the allative (-ibma/-bma) in
the case of an exchange to/for the benefactive, or the ablative when the exchange is
in the opposite direction. The ablative is especially common with possessions.

Allative

%
%

tonkanin toatsibma tulmu

[tknn ttspma tlmu]

%
%

tonk-a-nin toa-ts=ibma tulmu-

sew-TR-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ALLAT clothing-DAT

!
%

to sew clothes onto someone

163

%
%

onnin toatsibma
[n:n ttspma]

%
%

on-nin toa-ts=ibma
tell.story-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ALLAT

!
!
%
%

to tell a story onto someone (to an audience)

%
%

rahk-a-nin toa-ts=ibma kesku-

send-TR-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ALLAT advice-DAT

to give advice (lit. to send advice onto someone)

%
%

soatskanin ohhistaibma
[satsk:nn h:stapma]

%
%

soatsk-a-nin ohh-ista=ibma
pray-TR-INFI.DIT deity-ALLAT

!
!

to pray onto a deity

Ablative

%
%

kieganin toatsiska n
[cgnn ttsska nj]

%
%

kieg-a-nin toa-ts=iska n-
steal-TR-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ABLAT knife-DAT

to steal the knife from someone

!
%

geunnin toatsiska meigi

[eun:n ttsska mi]

%
%

geun-nin to-ts=iska meigi-

diminish-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ABLAT respect-DAT

to lose respect for someone (lit. to diminish the respect from someone)

!
%

tilnin toatsiska avvi

[lnn ttsska w:i]

%
%

til-nin toa-ts=iska avvi-

hang-INFI.DIT someone.KNOWN.ANI-ABLAT courage-DAT

!
!

to make someone lack the courage to (lit. to hang the courage from
someone [to dry])

rahkanin toatsibma kesku

[rahknn ttspma csku]

164

4.5.5.4 Abessive, Instrumental and Essive

The abessive, instrumental and essive cases are marginally used by certain dialects
or in a few fixed expressions. The most commonly used of these is the instrumental,
which is fairly common in most dialects but not in everyones speech. The essive is
an case with uneven distribution it is most common in the west. In regular speech,
the essive is replaced by the clitic -mi.
!
Abessive (-usi)
The abessive shows the lack of something. It generally forms adverbs, which may
describe both verbs and nouns.
!
!
!
!
!
!

neinkobiusi errisa %
ylkymausi saisa %
piisusi !
!
nnamousi %
%
nongamousi ! !
miteuhiusi !
!

to work carelessly (cf. neinko care)

to speak monotonously (cf. ylky peak)
not at all (cf. pirin nugget)
still, calm (cf. ndna wave)
endless(ly) (cf. nokna end)
unnecessarily (cf. miteus reason)

!
Instrumental (-igla, -gla, -la, -il, -el, -eli)
The instrumental shows with what something is done. It is a shortened form of the
postposition gala with the same meaning (which is often reduced to [kla] or [xla] in
pronunciation). The resulting word is generally considered an adverb. Eastern
dialects often allow -eli to be added to endings in -ma (then -meli) and -d (then tseli).
!
!
ikgla~ikitseli soprami ! !
!
to split X with an axe (cf. iki axe)
!
nylymigla~nylymeli hhami % %
to sniff X with a snout (cf. nyly
!
!
!
!
!
!
snout)
%
kykkymigla~kykkymeli habmaka saa %to speak with a deep voice
!
!
!
!
!
!
(cf. kykky habma deep !voice)
1
!
ioila/oira !
!
!
!
with difficulty (cf. io difficult task)
!
goikoigla~goikoila airsa !
!
to row with oars (cf. gobi oar)

!
Essive (-imi/-emi and -iu/-eu/-)
The essive endings regroup two subcases. The forms in -imi/-emi have a
comparative or semblative meaning (X is similar/like Y). The endings -iu/-eu/- rarer
or not found in the western dialects. The -iu/-eu/- endings have an equative meaning
(X is the same as Y):
!
!
-imi/-emi!
!
like, similar to, reminiscent of
!
-iu/-eu/-!
!
the same as, in the same way as (eastern dialects
!
!
!
!
only)
1 This word shows great variation: oila~oil~oel~oeli

165

The essive endings are added onto the marked form of the noun. Marked forms in a/-e have the -emi or -eu forms (unless the preceding vowel is y or , then -).
Marked forms in -i(d) have the -imi and -iu forms:
%
%
-a/-e% %
!
!
-emi% %
%
%
-eu%
%
%
%
-
!
Equative (eastern dialects only)
%
mairui skidiu% !
!
sahhi moaika mioldiu%
!
osoakiskke tevutsiu-uri'
!
!
!
!
%
nidlumina atkeusa'

Semblative
!
mairui skidimi% '
!
saimnisa lkkm%
!
tsa seskostemi''
!
!
!
!
!
inisa keemi % %
!
!
!
!
!
rarpo remi/r %

-i/-id
-imi
-iu

!
'
'
!
'

X laughs like a woman

the drink burns like fire
we build our houses the same way as our
ancestors
you must do just like your father

'
%
'
!
%
!
%

X laughs like a woman

to run like rapids
to stand like a seskora
(i.e. to be very obvious)
to sneak silently, to be unnoticed
(lit. to sneak like a lynx)
madly furious (lit. furious like a female wolf)

The essive case exists as a hyphened clitic (-mi) commonly used with verbs like
unoksi is called (as a nickname) and tatska considers:
%
!

unokkika on Talgo, unoksika Toggon-mi

my name is Talgo but I called (as) Toggon

4.6 Double Case Marking

Siwa allows for double case marking on nouns, pronouns, adjectives and in certain
cases adverbs. The secondary case markers are not unique to double case marking
as they are found in many indefinite pronouns (see 10.6), and exist for primary
cases, but the locative cases are added onto a single double case marker.
Secondary case markers are added directly onto the genitive form of nouns and
adjectives and to the locative form of pronouns. The table below illustrates the
endings.

166

locative cases
case

ending

-ni

agentive

da onta totonta to mmi saumka-t, atsa katta haidni

[danta ttnta t mjmi samk atsa kata hatni]
d-a onta toton-ta to mmi- saum-kat ad=sa ba hait-ni
COP-ASS ONTA family-GEN this.ANI.AG herder-AGT caribou-GENDET.PROXI
COP.ASS=NEG but this.MEDI-SECOND.AGT

This caribous owner is in my family, but this ones isnt

-a/-va-/-vva

patientive

kti on tyry kottaka, set ka toumikaa

[ki tyry ktga ska tumigwa]
kon--i on tyry- ko=tta-ka set ka tou=mi=ka-a
walk-HABIL-ASS.CONCL.ITR ON son-AGT older.brother.GEN-1P.PAT.SG not KA
older.sister-GEN-1P.PAT.SG-SECOND.PAT

my older brothers son can walk but not my older sisters

-si, -i

dative

saskitu sa, soasmi kh bidiska belra-t te poskitu tevu sa,

kh belrasi-t
[sasciu sa sxasmi c biska blr de psciu
tevu sa c blrs]
sask-i-tu s-a, so-a-s-mi kh bids--ka me ben-rat te posk-i-tu tevu s-a
kh ben-ra-sit
wake-ITR-LINK.TEMP COP.HAB-ASS feed-ASS.CONCL.TR-HAB-1P.AG.SG this.ANI.PL.DAT
puppy-DAT-PL dog-GENdet.PROXI and go.sleep-ITR-LINK.TEMP before COP.HABASS this.ANI.PL.DAT dog-GEN-SECOND.DAT-DET.MEDI

I feed these dogs puppies when I wake up and thoses before

I go to sleep
-h / -r / -u (also -hon/-ron)
da ie bengommea soakka-go te nonia skkoh te
[da ie be:m:eja sakag de nnia skhde]
genitive

d-a ie- bengo<mm>e-ia soak-k=ia-go te non-ia somi-ko-h te

COP-ASS leaking.creack roof-INESS house-GEN-1P.POSS.SG and 3P.INA-INESS manGEN-SECOND.GEN too

there is a leak in the roof of my house and there is one in the

mans [houses roof] as well

167

locative cases

-tsi-tsia, -tsita, -tsika

-tsima, -tsibma, -tsiska
ga on tetsotsi rymymima dikami sopra, aksa ka nonitsima dela
osami
[ga tetstsi rymymima ikmi spxa, aks:aka nnitsima
dela sxmi]

locative cases

g-a on t=ets=o-tsi ry<m>y-m=ima dika-m-i sopra- ak-sa ka non-its=ima del-a

o-sa-mi
COP.PAST-ASS ON some=of.many.INA-LOC dress-ADESS ornament-INCONCLAGT.PART.AG.PL golden-AGT 3P.INA-SECOND.ADESS NEG-COP.PAST-ASS ka wear-TR
REL-COP.PAST.HAB-tr-1P.AG.SG

some dresses had golden ornaments, but the one I used to

wear did not
istana tentsita? Daatsita istami
[stna tntsida? d:tsida stmi]
i-s<>t-a-na ten-ts=ita? da-a-tsi=ta i-s<>t-a-mi
DIT-give.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG who.ILLAT little.sister-GEN-SECOND.ILLAT DITgive.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG

to whose did you give it? I gave it to (my) little sisters

The ending -a and -va are added to consonant clusters and after unstressed
vowels, whereas -vva is added to stressed vowels. The genitive endings -h/-hon
come following vowels, -u after t b s m and -r/-ron after r and h. Many dialects
prefer -u to the other endings. Some pronouns replace -u by -t.
!
Double case marking has two functions to form nouns that stand for a
dropped noun phrase and to create words that carry a meaning of one who/of/like or
that which.
!
For example, the phrase This mushrooms flesh is poisonouns, but this
mushrooms [flesh] is edible would make use of the double case marking onto the
word mushrooms, which is both in the genitive and active (as the argument of the
copula);
!
%

tygyhua on n mine kebsie-t, uhi ka n kebsieh-t sa

[tyyhu n mine cpsi uhi ka n cpsieh sa]

%
!
!

tygyha-a on n mine- kepsi-et ba u-h-i me ke<bs>i-e-hont s-a

poisonous-COP.ASS ON this.ANI.GEN flesh-AGT mushroom-GENDET.PROXI PASS-eat-ITR KA
this.ANI.GEN mushroom-GEN-SECOND.PATDET.MEDI COP.HAB-ASS

This mushrooms flesh is poisonous, but that mushrooms [flesh] is edible

The second function can be seen with first person plural locative stem momiyielding momini one of us, one like us, ours as in:

168

%
!

tsalbi unui momiva

[tsalbi unuji mmiva]

%
!

tsalbi u-nu-i momi-va

rarely PASS-see-ASS.CONCL.ITR 1P.PL-SECOND.PAT

!
people like us are rarely seen
!
Similarly, the fourth person locative stem ni- yields nini ones own;
%
!

sereni nitsia
[serjeni nitsia]

%
!

seren-i ni-tsi=ia
feel.good-ASS.CONCL.ITR 4P-SECOND.INESS

it feels good to be in ones own (privacy/comfort)

Double case markers can be used with postpositions to create words like:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(atta)maggani !
!
!
!
!
!
!
rooni ! !
!
!
!
!
tatsini !!
!
!
!
!
kiani !
!
!
!
!
tevuni ! !
!
!
!
!
ahhani !!
!
!
!
!

the one in this case, this particular

(cf. atta magga in this case or in the case of
this)
the one in the way
(cf. roo in the way)
the additional one
(cf. tatsi in addition)
the one within sight
(cf. kia within sight)
the one before, the former
(cf. tevu before)
the one after, the latter
(cf. ahha after)

These words function either as nouns or as adjectives, in which case only the locative
ending is used with a head noun in one of the locative cases.

'
!

sia hausa maggani

[sia hasxa e: mc:ni]

%
!

si-a hausa - magga-ni

COP.NEG-ASS.CONCL edible plant-AGT in.case-SECOND.AGT

!
!
'
!

the plant in this case is not edible

sikkui toboita rootsi
[skui tbida rxtsi]
169

%
!

sikk-u-i- t<obo>-ita roo-tsi

kick-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG rock-ILLAT in.the.way-SECOND.LOC

!
!

X kicked the rock that was in the way

'
!

mante tatsisi komi

[mante ttsisi km:i]

%
!

mant-e tatsi-si komi-

take-INFER.CONCL.TR in.addition-DAT guest-AGT

the guest shall take the additional one

!
!

tsalbi angitubilua kiani

[tsalbi :idubilua ci:jni]

%
!

tsalbi a<ngit>-u-ila-a kia-ni

rarely desire.PAST-PAT.PART-SUPER-COP.ASS.CONCL within.sight-SECOND.AGT

the most desired one is rarely the one in sight

'
!

pelekkemi on tevusi, oskemi ka ahhasi

[peljcemi tevusi scemika h:si]

%
!
!
!

pelekk-e-mi on tevu-si osk-e-mi ka ahha-si

cook-INFER.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG on former-SECOND.DAT, smoke-INFER.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG ka
latterSECOND.DAT

!
!

I will cook the former but I will smoke the latter

Double case endings are also found in certain words which otherwise have no
primary case endings. These words those formed by adding the double case
markers to pronouns and adverbs, for example vvihni the one (from) around
here (from vvika from around here) or nini ones own (derived from the locative
form of the fourth person). Similar to quantifiers of the type ovva/haivva/ovva (such
as this, such as that) can be formed with double case markers:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

adni ! !
!
PAT. !
!
DAT. !
!
GEN. !
!
LOC. !

like this one, this one(s)

atva
atsi
adu
atsi-

eygni ! !
!
PAT. !
!
DAT. !
!
GEN. !
!
LOC. !

like these one, these ones()

eyhtva
eyhtsi
eyht
eyhtsi-

sgu nuhlami t ad

170

'

[sxj:u nhlmi i:i x]

%
!

sgu nuhl-a-mi =t at-r

never see.PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG nothing.INA.GEN this.PROXI.2D.GEN

Ive never seen anything like this

Compare to the quantifier ovva.

!
'

sgu nuhlami t ovva

[sxj:u nhlmi i:i w:a]

%
!

sgu nuhl-a-mi =t ovva

never see.PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG nothing.INA.GEN such.PROXI

Ive never seen such a thing

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

haidna !!
!
PAT. !
!
DAT. !
!
GEN. !
!
LOC. !

like that one, that ones

haitva
haitsi
haidu
haitsi-

kvagni ! !
!
PAT. !
!
DAT. !
!
GEN. !
!
LOC. !

like those one, those ones

kvahtva
kvahtsi
kvaht
kvahtsi-

%
'

siduma kvahtsi
[siduma kvahtsi]

%
!

sid-um-a kvaht=si
understand-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR that.MED.PL-SECOND.GEN

one must be understanding of these things

!
!
!
!
!

iodna ! !
!
PAT. !
!
DAT. !
!
GEN. !
!
LOC. !

like that one there, that ones there

iotva
iotsi
iodu
iotsi-

!
!
!
!
!

gaugni !!
!
PAT. !
!
DAT. !
!
GEN. !
!
LOC. !

like those one there, those ones() there

gauhtva
gauhtsi
gauht
gauhtsi-

171

%
'

tsaupri iotva
[tsapxi tw:a]

%
!

tsaupr-i iot-va
happen.rarely-ASS.CONCL.ITR that.DIST-SECOND.PAT

things like that happen rarely

4.7 Indeclinable and foreign words

A small number of words are not declined. This includes foreign words and a handful
of words, of which most are adverbs that may be used as nouns. These words are
not declined in so far as they lack any endings. However, many are found in the
marked form with an inverted final vowel polarity. This is especially true of foreign
words and names in modernized vocabulary. Such foreign words generally have an
unmarked form in -()i (if the word ends in a consonant or diphthong) and a marked
form in -()u. Some speakers may chose to decline foreign words as though they
were normal inanimate nouns.
!
%
!

unmarked form! !
!
mt% %
%
%
yesterday night (no or adv)!

%
!

atkenka%%
%
%
atkenki
day after tomorrow (no or adv)!

%
!

aimra% %
%
%
the wrong way (no or adv)!

aimri

%
!

Lontoni~Lonton%%
London

Lontonu~Lontonta

!
!

Leo~Leoi%
Leo! !

Leo~Leou~Leue/Leobi

marked form
mt~mtai
(mtita [until] yesterday night)

172

5 Adjectives
Adjectives in Siwa are morphologically similar to both verbs and nouns. Most
adjectives have predominantly a verbal form, an adjectival form (also called true
attributive) or both. Adjectives differ greatly depending on their grammatical function
- whether they are attributive or predicative.
!
Essentially, verbal forms (predicatively only) are used for impersonal
constructions or temporary and/or unagentive states for animate nouns, while
adjectival forms can be used with both animate and inanimate nouns and usually
have a more general meaning. In addition, the verbal form can also have a participial
form to be used attributively.
Compare the following forms of the adjective:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!

Verbal form
!
-m- inconclusive marker
!
patientive topic
!
temporary/temporal meaning
!
Participial form
!
!
attributive function of verbal form
!
!
-otim- inconclusive and complementized markers
!
!
agrees in number
!
Adjectival form
!
non-verbal form
!
uses copula
!
non-temporal meaning

!
Verbal form: ! !
hehmi it is cold (root her-, impersonal verb)
!
!
!
!
hehmika I am cold (temporary state)
!
Participial form: !!
tamosi herotima a cold hunter (i.e. a hunter who is
!
!
!
!
cold)
!
Adjectival form: !!
hee cold (cf. tamosi hee a cold hunter, i.e. a
!
!
!
!
hunter with a cold nature)
!
An essential notion to have in mind when looking at adjectives is whether it is
predicative or attributive. A predicative adjective is usually linked to what it describes
by the copula. For example, in the phrase this foreign language is difficult, the
adjective difficult is predicative. The adjective foreign, on the other hand, is attributive,
meaning that it is part of the noun phrase.
!
Many adjectives have two basic forms - the adjectival form, and the verbal
form. The verbal form is closely related to impersonal verbs, and in most regards, can
be considered to be exactly that. The two main forms of adjectives are not entirely
regularly predictable changes in the form of an adjective from verbal to adjectival
are often irregular. All adjectives having a verbal form also have a participial form.

173

The verbal form is used when the adjective is predicative, and the participial form is
used when the adjective is attributive.
!
The adjectival form is the default form of adjectives. When predicative, the
adjectival form is called copular, because it fuses with the copula. Thus, the various
forms of adjectives are as follow;
predicative
copular
(adjectival + copula)
(hee)

verbal
(her-)
hehmi
it is cold

heia ede
the air is cold

so hehmisa-a?
are you feeling cold?
attributive

adjectival

participial
(verbal + complementizer)

ede hee
cold air

somi herotima~herven
a man (who is) cold

5.1 Function of Verbal and Participial Forms

The verbal form has two main functions.
!
Firstly, it is mostly used with animate nouns whose predicative adjective
denotes a temporary and/or involuntary state, and it is used in impersonal
constructions, such as its cold or its late. Impersonal constructions use impersonal
verbs (see section 5.3.4 for a complete look at impersonal verbs).
!
Secondly, the verbal form is used to create the participial form, which is used
attributively and always found with a complementizer and as present inconclusive
participle. It has the form -(t)otima, -(t)otimi or corresponding short forms -(t)oima/(t)ima/-(t)vima or -en/-in~-ven/-vin. The participial form is the only form of an
adjective which agrees in number with the head noun. However, because participial
adjectives are in fact relative clauses, they do not agree in case with the head noun,
e.g.:
!
!

!
!

somi atetotima ! !
a sick man
(or somi atetoima or somi ateen)

somigi atetotimi !

sick men
174

(or somigi atetoimi or somigi atein)

skkita atetotima !

to a sick man

!
!
skkita atetotimi !
to sick men
!
!
When used with a predicative adjective denoting the temporary and/or involuntary
state of an animate noun (X is as/in the state of being Y), the verbal form differs from
an impersonal verb in that it may in fact take person markings. The subject of these
temporary adjectival verbs is usually in the patientive, both for pronouns and nouns,
and it is always in the inconclusive. Thus, these adjectives are in fact very similar to
actual verbs. Compare the table below showing predicative verbal adjectives and the
attributive participial adjectives:
predicative

attributive

verbal with pronoun

verbal with noun

participial

gosmika
[smiga]

gosmi kohko
[smi khk]

kori gosotima
[kri sima]

gos-m-i-ka
tired-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-1P.PAT.SG

gos-m-i kori-ko
tired-INCONCL-ASS.ITR boy-PAT

I am tired

the boy is tired

kori- gos-ot-i-m-a
boy-AGT tired-COMPLE-ASS.ITRINCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG.SG

a tired boy
Not all adjectives have verbal forms, although they might describe a temporary or
involuntary state. And similarly, not all verbal adjectives actually have a
corresponding adjectival form. In the latter case, these verbal adjectives differ from
verbs in their use of the inconclusive (because regular verbs, except impersonal
verbs, usually do not use the inconclusive marker -m-). Typically, adjectives that
apply to humans or animate things or that refer to weather and topological features
have both verbal and adjectival forms.
!
Often, verbal adjectives have both corresponding adjectival and participial
forms. When both exist, the participial form usually bears an underlying affective or
temporary meaning, while the adjectival form is more or less neutral with respect to
duration, or may be taken to have a broader, more general meaning:

!
%

!
%

VERBAL!

!
(temporal)!

!
!

!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

dapmi~dappima (dapp-)%%
alone! !
!
!

dappo
alone, lonely, lonesome

hokami (hoka-)%%

hoku

ADJECTIVAL

(general)

%
175

blinded!

!
!
!
%
%

!
!

blind

motommi (moton-)%
feeling sad!
!

%
!

moton
sad, unhappy

%
%

submi% (sut-)% %
hungry!!
!

%
!

sudna
hungry, gluttonous

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

hoatsmi (hoats-)%%
taken a back! !

%
!

hoadna
surprised

kmmi (km-)! !
feeling happy! !

!
!

kmes
happy

!
!

nubmi% (nup-)! !
feeling angry! !

!
!

nunna
angry, hostile

!
!

!
!

stromi% (stro-)!!
feeling frustrated!

!
!

str
frustrated, annoyed, stuck

!
!

!
!

thmi (thh-)! !
feeling anxious!!

!
!

thna
anxious, stressed

!
!

!
!

voammi (voavv-)!
afraid! !
!

!
!

voakna
fearful

The formation of adjectives is described in 5.5.

%

5.1.1 Translative Verbal and Adjectival Forms

Both verbal and adjectival forms can take on a translative meaning. Because not all
adjectives exist in either forms, and not all who do can be used to derive a translative
verb, this forms a fairly small group of adjective roots. However, adjectival forms can
fairly freely become translatives if they do not have a corresponding verbal forms.
!
The distinction between a general state (adjectival forms like kmes happy)
and a more temporal form (verbal adjectives like kmmi feeling happy) allows for
two different derived translative forms.
!
The adjectival translative is formed from the the adjectival form by adding the
preverbal a- and the translative postverbal -u/-. These forms may correspond to a
slow change of state, not placed in a specific time or the adjectival form become
more like what it describes. Such adjectival forms often loose final vowels, and in
some cases final endings may also be deleted (-na, -la, -es, -us, -ot, e.g.: giges
sharp becomes agigu):

176

!
!

dappo ! lonely !
atana % big ! !

adappu %
anatanu %

become isolated
become bigger

Because of their translative nature however, their agent is always unagentive.

!
The structure of the translative verbal and adjectival forms can be illustrated
as such:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Form
%
General
!
!
adjectival form! !
!
!

!
!
translative adjectival verb!
!
a--u
!
Temporal!
!
!
verbal adjective!!
!
!
-mi
!
!
translative verbal adjective!
!
-u
Few adjectives display all of these forms. Some common adjective roots are shown
here to illustrate the differences in meaning that arise between four forms.

General

Temporal

Adjectival form

Translative
adjectival verb

Verbal adjective

Translative verbal
adjective

kmesata

takmesu

kmmi

takm

X is happy

X becomes
happy/happier
(slow change)

X is feeling happy

X gets happy
(i.e. mood change)

motonata

tamotonu

motommi

tamotonu

X is unhappy

X becomes
unhappy/
unhappier
(slow change)

X is feeling sad

X gets sad
(i.e. mood change)

voaknuata

tavoaknu

voammi

tvoavvu

X is fearful

X becomes fearful
(slow change)

X is scared

X gets scared

nunnuata

tanunnu

nubmi

tanupu

X is angry

X becomes angry
(slow change)

X is angry

X gets mad

177

atanuata

tanatanu

atahmi

tataru

X is big

X becomes
bigger
(slow change)

X is pregnant

X gets pregnant

pieginuata

tapiegin(adn)u

pigima

tapigu

X is in good
health

X regains good
health
(slow change)

X is feeling
healthy

X gets healthy
(sudden change)

dappuata

tadappu

dapmi

tadappu

X is alone

X becomes
isolated
(slow change)

X is lonely

X becomes lonely

laipinata

talaipinu

laibmi

dlaipu

X is bitter

X becomes
embittered

X is feeling
jealous

X becomes
jealous

ndnuata

tandnu

nolttima

tanolttu

X is ill

X becomes ill
(slow change)

X is feeling unwell

X becomes ill
(sudden change)

struta

tastr

stromi

tstr

X is frustrated

X grows
frustrated

X is feeling
annoyed

X becomes
annoyed

Defunct translatives

mybiata

X is silent

178

osmi

tosu

X is feeling
ashamed

X is embarrassed

mybmi

tamyb

X is calm

X calms down

aymi

X is feeling
disgusted

X is disgusted

5.2 Function of Adjectival and Copular Forms

Adjectival forms are used attributively with all inanimate nouns and in some cases
with animate nouns. In contrast to verbal forms, adjectival forms usually do not bear a
meaning of temporary or involuntary state. They do not have a nuance of duration or
state, but rather (often) simply state something more general about the thing they
describe, e.g. nlttima sick (participial) has an underlying meaning of X is afflicted
by disease, whereas ndna (adjectival) simply means sick or unhealthy. However,
because the primary meaning of the adjective is mostly stative, one can use ndna
without it having an inherent or permanent quality.
The adjectival form follows the head noun and agrees with its head noun in case but
cannot take locative case markings. If the head noun is in a locative case, the
adjective is found in the genitive. The adjectival form is only ever found in locative
cases if the head noun is not present and the adjectival form functions as a nominal,
e.g.:
!
istami ndnamoita !
!
I gave it to the sick one
but !
istami kohkoita ndnamo !
I gave it to the sick boy.
!
The adjectival form is used to create the copular form, simply by adding the copula to
the adjective. The copular form is used with animate and inanimate nouns alike when
the quality of the adjective is inherent, and with inanimate nouns for temporary
qualities as well. Moreover, the copular form is used when the adjective is
predicative, except for participial adjectives which are derived from verbal adjectives
(verbal form used instead of a predicative phrase). Pronouns, complementizers and
other parts of the verbal phrase are added directly to the adjective, though pronouns
are commonly found standing independently. The copular form has a special
negative form using the copular verb si- (or emphatically hed-) (see defective
copular verbs 9.16.2.2).
!
%
%

gosina somi % %
sia gosin somi ! !
heda gosin somi !

the man is tired

the man isnt tired
the man is in no way tired/not tired at all/not tired

5.2.1 Copular coalescence

The copula, when added to adjectives, coalesce with final vowels in specific ways.
The table below illustrates these changes (adjective endings vertically, copula
horizontally).
!

179

copula
adjective

-a-

-a
back

-o-

-u-

-ua-

-e-

-i-ai-

-o

-ua-

--

-ui-

-u
-e

--ia- / -a-

front

-io- / -o-

-iu- / -u-

-i
rounded

-y/-

-(-a-)

-u-

--

!
hee cold !
!
heia X is cold !!
heg X was cold
!
piegino healthy!
pieginua X is healthy! pieginoi X was healthy
!
seuvvi sweet! !
seuvvia X is sweet!
seuvv X was sweet
!
See section 9.17.2 for a description of the dependent copula and 9.17.2.1 for a
description of copula-adjective coalescence.
5.3 Predicative Adjectives
Predicative adjectives are those which are typically found as the argument of the
copula, such as X is big.
!
!
atanua t !
!
the rock is big (atana big)
'
ononua kyi ' '
the squirrel is small (onona small)
!
hmia leba !
!
the mittens are warm (hmi warm)
When describing an animate noun, predicative adjectives can be found either in their
adjectival or verbal form. Respectively, these correspond to inherent and temporary
qualities. When describing an inanimate noun, however, predicative adjectives are
found in their adjectival form. Certain inanimate nouns may be found in the patientive
as the object of an impersonal verbal adjective. This is often the case with adjectives
describing topological features:
!
!
ohkia kia
%
[hcia u:ia]
%
!

ohki-a =k-ia
deep-COP.ASS water-INESS

the water is deep (lit. it is deep in the water)

180

!
%
%
!
!

khlua sehmeiska
[c:hlua shmska]
khlo-a se<h>-me=iska
high-COP.ASS cliff-ABLAT

the cliff is high (lit. it is high from the cliffs - said from the top of the cliff)
!
The table below illustrates predicative adjectives, their form and function.

predicative

animate

inherent

temporary

copular

verbal

atanua saigi
[tnua siji]

atahmi kansika
[tahmi kansiga]

atana-a saigi-
big-COP.ASS moose-AGT

atar-m-i kansi-
big-INCONCL-ASS.ITR female.moose-PAT

the moose is big

the moose is pregnant

ndnua saigi
[:tnua siji]

nolttima saitsa
[lt:ima satsa]

ndna-a saigi-
sick-COP.ASS l moose-AGT

the moose is sick (or it is not a

healthy moose)

hoku-a teddet-
blind-COP.ASS l old.man-AGT

the old man is blind

inanimate

the moose is sick (right now)

hokami teddedda
[hcmi ::a]

hok teddet
[hcu: :]

inherent

nolt-i-ma saigi-
sick-ASS.ITR-INCONCL moose-PAT

temporary

hoka-m-i tedde-dda
blind-INCONCL-ASS.ITR old.man-PAT

the old man is blinded/cannot

see
impersonal

copular

verbal

atanua misas

atahmi hha ines kika

[tahmi h:ja ins cika]

[tnua misas]
atana-a misas-
big-COP.ASS rock-AGT

atar-m-i hha i<n>e-s kika

big-INCONCL-ASS.ITR here lake-GEN
over.ADESS

the rock is big

the lake is big here (lit. here is

big over/across the lake)

181

predicative
inanimate

taite leymai moaundi

[tide lmai mxni]

taite katsa leymuima

[tide ktsa lmuima]

tai=te leyma-i moaundi-

then=too warm-COP.PAST.ASS sip-AGT

tai=te katsa leym-u-i-ma

then=too outside-ADV warm-PAST-ASS.ITR-

(his/her) sip was still warm

outside was still warm

pilai mavvu
[pilai mw:u]

katsa pidlmi
[ktsa ptm:i]

pila-i mavvu-
red-COP.PAST.ASS meat-AGT

katsa pi<dl>-m-i
outside=ADV red.PAST-INCONCL -ASS.ITR

the meat was red

outside, it was red

INCONCL

5.3.1 Object Predicative

When the object of a verb has a predicative adjective, it is called an object
predicative. An example of this in English could be I ate it raw.
!
When a predicative adjective refers to the object of a verb, it comes before
the noun it qualifies, in the appropriate case. This is also the case with predicative
adjectives referring to nouns modified by a post- or preposition.
!
If the object to which the predicative adjective refers is a pronoun, the
adjective will follow the verb (in the case of verbal pronouns) and may be found with
the clitic -mi or found in the essive (see 4.5.5.4) if the object is in the genitive,
otherwise unmarked if the object is in the dative.
%
%

ohkama mami
[hkma mmi]

%
%

ohkama- m-a--mi
raw-DAT eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG

I ate it raw (also ohkama-mi mami, ohkamemi mami)

!
%

ililimatta uluvvi
[iljilimata uluw:i]

%
%

ilil-i-m-a-tta u-lu<vv>-i-
live-ITR-INCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG-PAT PASS-boil.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.PAT

it was boiled alive (also ililimatta-mi uluvvi, ililimattemi uluvvi)

%
%

gigari tvonna mavvu

[igri tvn:a mw:u]

%
%

g<ig>-a-ri tvonna- mavvu-

share.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL equal-DAT meat-DAT

they shared the meat equally (lit. equal)

182

%
%

sapohhis rekkotsta atra gala

[sph:js rktst:a atxakla]

%
%

sa-pohh-i-s rekkot-sta at-ra gala

2P.UNAG-sleep-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB-3P.ACT open-GEN mouth-GEN WITH

!
!

you sleep with your mouth open

!
%

omestari pila ndlie-nen

[mstri pila ni:tienn]

%
%

o-me<st>-a-ri pila- ndli--enen

SUBJ-paint.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL red-DAT face-DAT-PL-4P.POSS

they painted their faces red

but
!
%

omestari ndlie-nen pila

[mstri ni:tienn pila]

%
%

o-me<st>-a-ri ndli--enen pila-

SUBJ-paint.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL face-DAT-PL-4P.POSS red-DAT

they painted their red faces

5.3.2 Subject Predicative

Like object predicatives, subject predicatives are a predicative adjective describing
the subject of a verb.
!
When predicative adjectives refer to the subject of the verb, they generally
precede the subject, or the verb in the case of pronominal subjects. The adjective
agrees in case with the subject. In more formal speech however, it is preferable to
use the adverbial form of the adjective.
%
%

sisedi tvahsaiu
[sisei tvahsju]

%
%

sise-di t-vahs-ai-u
tall-PAT 3P.UNAG-grow-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL

!
or
!
%

X grew tall
sis(v)en tvahsaiu
[sisn tvahsju]

%
%

sis-ven t-vahs-ai-u
tall-ADV 3P.UNAG-grow-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL

X grew tall

%
%

nidotita mahri
[nidida mahri]

%
%

nidot-ita ma<hr>-i-
masterful-ILLAT hunt-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X hunted (until X became) masterful

183

or
%
%

niden mahri
[nidn mahri]

%
%

nid-en ma<hr>-i-
masterful-ADV hunt-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X hunted masterfully

A third and more common way of forming such subject predicative adjectives is to
add the inessive -ita (for subjects perceived to be in or go into a state) and the elative
-ika (for subjects perceived to leave a state) directly onto the unmarked form of the
adjective.
!
%

siseita tvahsaiu
[siseida tvahsju]

%
%

sise-ita t-vahs-ai-u
tall-ILLAT 3P.UNAG-grow-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL

X grew tall

A number of fixed expressions use this construction;

!
!

tsikimaika saitkisa !
to disappear from view (lit. from being visible, tsiki-)

!
!

obrkimaita lomsa
to run very fast (lit. to run oneself drowned, obrki-)

%
!

tsengita ssa !
to realize, to finally understand (lit. to understand clear)

!
'

uinoita onami
to admit, to recognize (cf. to tell (in)to true)

5.4 Attributive Adjectives

Attributives adjectives are those which are typically found as part of the noun phrase,
such as a big X. In Siwa, all attributive adjectives are found after the head noun.
Postpositions are usually found after the adjective though they also appear between
the noun and the adjective, whereas possessives are more often found on the noun.
!
!
!
'
!

t atana%%
%
kyi onona !
!
leba hmi %
%
ines tebi ra% '
soakkia-go atakka'

a big rock
a small squirrel
warm mittens
close to the small lake
in my big house

184

Attributive adjectives are generally in the adjectival form, but participial forms are also
used to place emphasis on the temporary/stative/essive meaning of the adjective (X
is as/in the state of being Y) when a corresponding verbal form exists. Certain
adjectives meaning changes significantly whether participial or adjectival. Animacy
does not affect attributive adjectives. Attributive adjectives do not agree in number
with the head noun.
!
Attributive adjectives in the adjectival form do not agree in number but agree
in case with their head noun, but do not use any of the locative case markings. Thus,
if a noun is in the inessive, its attributive adjective will simply be in the genitive.
!
!
!
and
!
%
!

tka atana !
kyigi onona !
lehton hmi !

!
!
!

toboima atakka !!
kytima onommo !
lemaia hmid ! !

the big rocks

the small squirrels
a warm mitten
on a big rock
on a small squirrel
in warm mittens

Adjectives do not have their own set of declensions they behave like nouns, but are
generally more regular and less prone to certain sound changes. Thus, adjectives
follow the same declensions as nouns, although they are less subject to irregularities.
Adjectives, however, do not go through lenition:
!
!

gegin lammon ! !
geisika lammonta !

a bold mouth
from a bold mouth

The form *geisika lamrika, where *lamrika has both lenition and a locative ending is
ungrammatical.
!
Attributive adjectives in the participial form agree only in number (-ma for
singular and -mi or sometimes -me for plural).
!
!

ski atarotima % %
skigi atarotimi % %

a pregnant woman
pregnant women!

When an adjective which would normally be attributive lacks a head noun, it

becomes a nominal adjective. Nominal adjectives behave like nouns, and differ from
regular attributive adjectives in that they take locative endings and can be found in
the plural. However, they may or may not go through lenition. Lenition of nominal
adjectives is considered poor language, but it is somewhat used. It should be
considered vulgar.
!
!
!
!

atakkia !!
onommoima !
hmihta !!
lammrika !

!
!
!
!

in the big one

on the big one
into the warm one
from the bold one
185

!
Attributive adjectives are not affected by animacy. However, a few adjectives can
only be used with one animacy. For example, old is expressed by the Siwa word
eila for inanimate nouns, but ii for animate nouns. Similarly, siehhin long is only
used with inanimate nouns, and sise with animate nouns, then meaning long or also
tall.
!
The table below illustrates attributive adjectives, their form and function.

attributive
inherent

temporary

adjectival

adjectival / participial

saigi atana
[siji tna]

saigi atarotima
[siji trima]
saigi- atar-ot-i-m-a
moose-AGT big-COMPLE-ITR-INCONCLAGT.PART.UNAG.AGT

saigi- atana-
moose-AGT big-AGT

a/the big moose

a/the pregnant moose

oabi pigotimi
[bi pij:imi]

oabi piegino
[bi piej:in]
animate/
inanimate

oabi- pig-ot-i-m-i
gums-AGT healthy-COMPLE-ITR-INCONCLAGT.PART.UNAG.AGT.PL

oabi- piegino-
gums-AGT healthy-AGT

healthy gums

healthy looking/feeling gums

eni ohhotima
[xweni h:jima]

thma ohho
[t:hma h:j]
thma- ohho-
heart-AGT strong-AGT

a/the strong/powerful heart

eni- ohh-ot-i-m-a
wind-AGT strong-ITR-INCONCLAGT.PART.UNAG.AGT

a/the strong/powerful wind

totomma nolttotima
[ttm:a lt:ima]

totomma ndna
[ttm:a :tna]
totomma- ndna-
family.member-AGT sick-AGT

a/the sick/unhealthy relative

!

186

totomma- nolt-ot-i-m-a
family.member-AGT sick-COMPLE-ITRINCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG.AGT

a/the sick relative

5.5 Adjective Formation

There are about 20 derivatives from which most adjectival forms are created. Certain
derivational endings may only or mostly be used with one class of words, e.g. the
derivative -bmot is generally only added to verb stems, while -ra to noun stems.
!
A few types may be formed with either polarization or vowel lengthening. As
a general rule, lengthening is used with less concrete and more abstract qualities, or
to form adjectives from abstract nouns. Not all adjectival forms are listed here. Note
that many other endings are characteristic of adjectives those presented below are
productive derivational endings. Note that most derivative adjectives lack verbal
forms all together.The types of derivatives are as follows:

type/function

formation

example

material

polarization + -ra
(-hta GEN)

kili wood kilura wooden

polarization + -ka/-ko
(-hta GEN)
essential relation to

lengthening + -na/-no

talta clay taltira made of

clay
somi man somuka
masculine
notsomo shaman
notsomiko shamanic
avvi courage ainno
courageous
l sweat liha sweaty

possessive

polarization + -ha/-ho
lma leaf liha leafy
lokna intense cold longiu
icy

evocative

polarization + -V
sira fish siriu fishy

loosely
characterizing

heeri winter heomi winterlike

polarization + -m- + -V

187

kodma auk bird kodmimu

auk bird-like

type/function

formation

example
pitta X pays attention to Y
pittabmot attentive

animate participle

-bmot
toa X is dexterous enough to
do Y toabmot dexterous

inanimate participle

-bmis
(-mha GEN)

koahi X is enough koahibmis

sufficient

origin

-mma or -ppa

Kuoimin kuomimma
someone from Kuomin

inessive -tse

ua water uitse aquatic

adessive -us(e)

kelta ground keltaus

terrestrial

-nihta

ko summer konihta one

summer long/old/

location

time / length

avvi courage evviskon

coward
abessive

shortening + -skon

pitta X pays attention to Y

patskon inconsiderate

polarization + -dna

mavvu meat mavvedna

meaty

lengthening + -na

iba X has enough energy for

Y iabuna energetic

abundance

tulvi nutrient tulvulen

lacking in nutrient
lack

polarization + -len

hego salt hegilen unsalted,

sweat (of water)
kori boy garike boyish

similarity or shape

lengthening + -ke(na)

188

ri stump vrke stumpy

similarity or shape
type/function

lengthening + -ke(na)
formation

example
rdni thorn reinkena thorny,
shaped like a thorn
yly night vellu nightly

distributive

lengthening + -lu

kengi day keundlu daily

keppi head keullu per
person
tama many taintsi
numerous

abstract implication
of abundance

lengthening + -(s)i/-i

lma leaf vili verdant

piusti X thrives piuti
thriving
tuvi X bends deusa
bendable/flexible

descriptive of verbs
facility/rapidity

lengthening + -(s)a/ha

airi X rows oairha easy to

row in
ha X eats Y hausa edible
sahhi X burns soaa which
burns well
tuvi X bends tauson
unbendable/inflexible/rigid

descriptive verbs
lack of facility/
rapidity

shortening + -(s)on

ha X eats Y hoson
inedible

sahhi X burns soon which

does not burns well

189

type/function

formation

soaki house soakubmi

homely/cozy

descriptive of typical
quality

moderative

example

polarization + -bmi

tegma child tengibmi

childish
huvvi comfortable cold
huvvuhma cool

polarization + -hma or
-htsa

bieluha fat bieluhma quite

fat/plump
rapa small hill rapuppa hilly

polarization + -ppa/ppi

descriptive

iuri sap ieppi sticky

tr fur trippi/trpp fluffy

In addition to these, many adjectives are non-derived, i.e. they do not have any
corresponding forms from which they have been derived. Common endings for nonderived adjectival forms are:
!
!
!
!
!

-la%
!
!
!
!

%
irela !
nevala%
oala !
tuvala !

%
!
%
!
!

%
%
beautiful !
nifty, diligent !
wide ! !
heavy !!

%
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!

(-ldi, -lle, -lmo)

GEN. ireldi
GEN. nevalle
GEN. oalmo
GEN. tuvalmo

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-na !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
atana ! !
heona ! !
tina ! !
kisina ! !
kymina !!
mrana !
nunna ! !
onona ! !
opona ! !
sarana !!
sumana !

!
!
big ! !
weak! !
late ! !
quick! !
nice! !
difficult!
angry! !
small! !
alive! !
narrow!!
irritated, sore!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(-kka, -di, -mmo)

GEN. atakka
GEN. heodi
GEN. tindi
GEN. kisindi
GEN. kymimmo
GEN. mradi
GEN. nunnamo
GEN. onommo
GEN. opommo
GEN. sarakka
GEN. sumammo

190

!
!
!

!
!
!

temyna !!
tsusina !!
voanna !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-ot (pronounced [()] or [h]. In the west, sometimes [] or [w] , then

written -uo/o) ! !
!
!
!
!
(-otta, -otsta)
!
aipiot ! !
enormous!
!
!
GEN. aipiotta
!
horiot ! !
tender!!
!
!
GEN. horiotta
!
galmot ! !
soft, pregnant (with eggs) !
GEN. galmotta
!
konkot ! !
horrible !
!
!
GEN. konkotta
!
miohhot !
slender!
!
!
GEN. miohhotsta
!
sonnot !!
lukewarm!
!
!
GEN. sonnotta
!
tohhot ! !
young !!
!
!
GEN. tohhotta

!
!
!
!
!

-on (sometimes -)!

!
likion ! !
!
lammon !
!
sogon ! !
!
sopon ! !

!
awful!
bold !
dry !
evil !

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

-in !
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
crisp! !
bitter! !
stiff ! !
long! !
straight!

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-e/-ve !
!
!
aye ! !
!
daie ! !
!
kalve ! !
!
kokve ! !
!
osve ! !
!
sehhe !
!
ilve ! !

!
!
!
shrill! !
!
moist! !
!
stringent, tight !!
light! !
!
sour! !
!
fervent!!
!
pungent!
!

(-eka, -ie, -emo)

!
GEN. ayeka
!
GEN. daieka
!
GEN. kalveka
!
GEN. kokvemo
!
GEN. osvemo
!
GEN. sehhie
!
GEN. ilvemo

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-(p)po/-pp !
!
!
daippo ! !
!
hppo ! !
!
holpo ! !
!
haimpo !
!
loippo ! !
!
rarpo ! !
!
sompo ! !
!
keheppo !

!
!
!
damp! !
!
broad, ample! !
dull ! !
!
strong, spicy, stinging!
flat!
!
!
aggressive, mad!
swift ! !
!
sulky! !
!

(-ppoka, -ppoma, -ppue)

!
GEN. daippoka
!
GEN. hppoka
!
GEN. holpoma
!
GEN. haimpoka
!
GEN. loippomo
!
GEN. rarpoka
!
GEN. sompoma
!
GEN. kehheppue

!
aurin !
laipin !
min !
siehhin
sukin !

!
!
!
!
!!
!

joyful! !
!
fresh ! !
!
strange, scary !!

191

!
!
!

GEN. temydi
GEN. tsusimmo
GEN. voakka

(-os, -onta)
GEN. likios
GEN. lammonta
GEN. sogonta
GEN. soponta
(-is, -inta)
GEN. aurinta
GEN. laipinta
GEN. minta
GEN. siehhis
GEN. sukinta

tpp ! !

clumsy !

GEN. tppma

!
-i/-hi ! !
!
!
!
!
(-iko, -ika, -id, -ie)
!
!
nohi ! !
smart! !
!
!
GEN. nohiko
!
!
pohi ! !
chubby!
!
!
GEN. pohiko
!
!
roahi ! !
simple, normal!!
!
GEN. roahika
!
!
sipoi ! !
entangled, confused! !
GEN. sipoid
!
!
sehi ! !
thin! !
!
!
GEN. sehie
!
!
tihi ! !
tiny! !
!
!
GEN. tihid
!
!
aui ! !
gullible!
!
!
GEN. auika
%
!
utoi ! !
mellow!!
!
!
GEN. utoid
%
!
nuii ! !
spiteful, mean, nasty! !
GEN. nuiid
!
!
Of these, the endings -na and -ot are the most common. Many western dialects
usually replace -ot by -us, and -on by -. Central dialects have merged both -ot and on to -.
Adjectives can be made negative by simply adding the prefix si- or sem-, or more
emphatically h- or ht-.
!
!
!
!
!

kvisot! !
sikvisot!

regular
irregular

uino! !
htuino!!

true
(completely) untrue

5.6 Declension
As it was mentioned before, adjectives do not have a separate set of declension
endings from inanimate nouns. Of the four types of adjectives (adjectival and
copular, verbal and participial), only the adjectival form has a declension. They
behave identically to nouns, with the exception that adjectives never undergo lenition
(only inanimate nouns do). In addition, adjectival forms are not found in locative
cases, unless they stand alone as nominal adjectives. See section 4.2.1 for a
complete description of declensions.
!
5.7 Formation of Verbal Forms from Non-Derived Adjectival Forms
Verbal forms can be regularly derived from non-derived adjectival forms. Adjectival
forms in -la and -on which have the stressed vowel -o- and -u- often see it become -yin the verbal form (including -au- changing to -ay- or -ey-):
!
!

tuvala ! !
moron ! !

heavy! !
thick! !

!
!

tymmi
myhmi

Other types of adjectives are usually not found in their verbal form, and no special
derivation strategies exist for them. It can be impossible to tell what corresponding
192

adjectival form a verbal form may have. It is thus preferable to learn the adjectival
form first.

adjectival

verbal

example
atana big atahmi X is big/pregnant
opona alive opohmi X is (still) alive

-na/-no

-r(-h- before -m-)

heona weak heohmi X is (feeling)

weak
sarana narrow sarahmi it is/becomes
narrow

-la

-- (+ fronting of
-o/u- to -y-)

tuvala heavy tymmi X is heavy

oala wide mmi X is/becomes wide
horiot tender horimi X is tender/sore
aipiot enormous aipimi X is bloated,
very full

-ot

-i-/--

galmot soft, pregnant (with eggs)

galmimi X carrying eggs
holot thin holmi X is malnourished/
sickly
sogon dry simi X is dry

-on

-- (+ fronting of
-o/u- to -y-)

tauson rigid taysima X has muscle

aches/sore muscles
umeskon depressed ymeskima X is
depressed
min stiff mmi X is stiff, reluctant

-in

--

laipin bitter laibmi X is/feels resentful

siehhin long siehmi it is long/elongated
aye shrill aymi X shudders/is
disgusted

-e/-ve

-- (+
gemination of
consonant if
193

adjectival

verbal

example

-e/-ve

-- (+
gemination of
consonant if
possible)

sehhe fervent sehmi X is sexually

aroused/horny
kokve light kokmi X is relieved
osve sour osmi X has heartburn/X feels
guilty
keheppo sulky kehebmi X is sulky
rarpo mad rarpima X is mad/furious

-(p)po

-(p)p-

daippo damp daibmi X is (very) sweaty

(from work)
loippo flat loibmi it is flat
holpo dull holpima X is bored
sipohi confused sipobmi X is confused

-hi

-h- ( or -bbefore -m-)

hihi slanted hibmi it is slanted/there is

a slope or X is leaning towards/favorable
to
mohi slippery, elusive, evasive mobmi
X cannot understand/wrap ones head
around

5.8 Degrees of Comparison

5.8.1 Comparative
Adjectival forms can be found in the comparative. The comparative is regularly
formed by applying vowel polarization to vowel-final adjectives and adding the
ending -ta. Adjectives ending in -na, -la, -e/-ve and -i/hi have respectively -nta, -lta,
-a and -tta, unless their adjectival endings form a consonant cluster, in which case
polarization is used.
!
Adjectives ending in -on, -in and -ot have respectively -onta (or -ta/-dda), inta and -oa. All comparative adjectives have the genitive form -tanna in the east
and -tammo in the west. Note that adjectives in -Cve may also have the form -Cotta in
the comparative, not -Cvuta.

194

adjectival form

comparative

comparative genitive

garike
boyish

garikota
more boyish

garikotanna /
garikotammo

somuka
manly

somukita
more manly

somukitanna /
somukitammo

taintsi
numerous

taintsuta
more numerous

taitsutanna /
taintsutammo

irela
beautiful

irelta
more beautiful

ireltanna / ireltammo

atana
big

atanta
bigger

atantanna / atantammo

daie
moist

daia
moister

daianna / daiamo

kokve
light

kokvuta / kokotta
lighter

kokvutanna /
kokvutammo
kokottanna / kokottammo

sehi
thin

setta
thinner

settanna / settammo

sogon
dry

sogonta / sogta /
sogdda
drier

sogontanna /
sogontammo
sogtanna / sogtammo
sogddanna /
sogddammo

siehhin
long

siehhinta
longer

siehhintanna /
siehhintammo

galmot
soft

galmoa
softer

galmoanna /
galmoammo

A few adjectives have an irregular comparative form. These include:

adjectival form

comparative

comparative genitive

sara
good

sohta / saista / sairta

better

sohtanna / sohtammo
saistanna / saistammo
sairtanna / sairtammo

195

adjectival form

comparative

comparative genitive

seba
bad

seutta / stta / baitta

worse

seuttanna / seuttammo
sttanna / sttammo
baittanna / baittammo

To compare something to another, Siwa uses two constructions; the most common
one is X savi Y or X-er than Y, and the more uncommon construction is Y.ELATIVE X,
e.g.

%
!
%

atantua to sira-t savi hait

[tantua t sir svi ha]

atan-ta-a to- sira-t savi hait-

big-COMP-COP.ASS 3P.ANI.SG.AGT fish-AGTDET.PROXI than that.MEDI-AGT

this fish is bigger than that one

%
!
%

haittaika atantua to sira-t

[hatiga tantua t sir]

hait=ta-ika atan-ta-a to sira-t

that.MEDI-ELAT big-COMP-COP.ASS 3P.ANI.SG.AGT fish-AGTDET.PROXI

this fish is bigger than that one

To make a negative comparative, such as in English less X, Siwa generally simply

uses the word onna (short form of ondanna less GEN.) before the word. However, in
more elevated language, one might replace the comparative ending -ta by -tonda
(GEN. -tondat~-tondatta), e.g. onna taintsi less numerous or taintsutonda (GEN.
taintsutondat). In negative comparative constructions, onna does not decline:
!
%
!

tshmoibma onna kuohhidnamo

tshmoibma kuohhidnitondat
to a less noisy spot (cf. kuohhidna noisy)

5.8.1.1 Comparative constructions

The comparative is used in a few special constructions involving verbs or adjectival
phrases. There are four such constructions:
!
!
VERB!
teu--uita-
!
VERB ! tsav--uita-
!
teu-NOUN
!
tsav-NOUN!
!

196

The form teu--uita- (where -uita- is in fact a form of the past patientive participle in
-u, and teu- is from tevu before) is commonly used in phrases equivalent to English
more than ever before and is added onto verbs (teu-VERB-uita-PRONOUN). The prefix
teu- usually changes to tem- before vowels (like keu- and kem- with).
!
!
!

mami teumuitami !
!
negami teuneguitami !!
ekkimi teuekkuitami !!

I ate more than I ever ate before

I saw more than I ever saw before
I ran more than I ever ran before

This construction is quite common in Siwa and may also simply be understood to be
very emphatic. A similar construction involves adding teu- to the comparative form of
the adjective to mean more X than ever:
!
!
!

temirelta !
teusetta !
teukvolda !

!
!
!

!
!
!

more beautiful than ever

thinner than ever
bigger than ever

Parallel to these two constructions is tsav--uita- (or tsaC-, where -C is a

geminated consonant), having the meaning of as VERB as possible.
!
!
!

mami tsammuitami ! !
negami tsanneguitami !
ekkimi tsagekkuitami !

I ate as much as I could eat

!
I saw as much as I could saw
!
I ran as much as I could run

A similar construction involves adding tsav- to the comparative form of the adjective
to mean as X as ever/possible or very/extremely/so/typically. A few adverbs can be
found ending in -(n)tsavven as an intensifier.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tsavirelta !
!
tsassehi !
!
tsakkolla !
!
tsavatanta1'
'
tsassiikita%
%
hymmintsavven'
kisintsavven' '

as beautiful as ever, ever so beautiful

as thin as possible
as much as possible
as big as possible, ever so big, enormous
purely/typically Siwa
completely quietly
very quickly

5.8.2 Superlative
Adjectival forms can be found in the superlative. The superlative is regularly formed
by applying vowel polarization to vowel-final adjectives and adding the ending -ila or
-ela after -i. Adjectives ending in -a polarize to -e. Adjectives in -Ce or -Cve get -Cla,
and those in -in, -on and -ot respectively change to -illa, -olla and -olla. The genitive
form of the superlative is -Vlda.

1 Some dialects even have tsavatantsavven unbelievably, incredibly, very.

197

adjectival form

superlative

superlative genitive

garike
boyish

garikoila
most boyish

garikoilda

somuka
manly

somukeila
most manly

somukeilda

taintsi
numerous

taintsuila
most numerous

taintsuilda

irela
beautiful

ireleila
most beautiful

ireleilda

atana
big

ataneila
biggest

ataneilda

daie
moist

daioila
moistest

daioilda

kokve
light

kokla
lightest

kokkulda

sehi
thin

sehuila
thinnest

sehuilda

sogon
dry

sogolla
driest

sogolda

siehhin
long

siehhilla
longest

siehhilda

galmot
soft

galmolla
softest

galmolda

A few adjectives have an irregular comparative form. These include:

adjectival form

superlative

superlative genitive

sara
good

saisla~saihla~sohla
best

saisilda~saitsilda~sairilda
~sorulda

198

adjectival form

superlative

superlative genitive

seba
bad

baidla
worse

bailda

!
To make a superlative comparison, one can use the construction t of anything
(inani.), mu of anyone (ani.), ebu of all (out of many) and oi or ou~uu
of everyone (out of all.).
%
!
%

oi ataneilua to sira-t
[:i tneilua t sir]

oi atan<e>-ila-a me sira-t
all-GEN big-SUPER-COP.ASS 3P.ANI.SG.AGT fish-AGTDET.PROXI

this fish is the biggest one of all

!
!
%

eb ataneilua tsato sira-t

[p tneilua tst sir]

!
!

eb- atan<e>-ila-a tsa-to sira-t

all.OUT.OF.MANY-GEN big-SUPER-COP.ASS OF.MANY.3P.ANI.SG.AGT fish-AGTDET.PROXI

this fish is the biggest one of all (of/in a known group of fish)

These words can also be found as the prefix ro- (rob-/rom- before vowels) with
certain adjectival forms, the meaning the very X-est, e.g.
!
!
!
!

romestot%
robireleila !
romataneila !

%
!
!

%
!
!

the very first

the very beautifulest
the very biggest

To make a negative superlative, such as in English least X, Siwa generally simply

uses the word volda/lda (cf. olla least) before the adjective. However, in more
elevated language, one might replace the superlative ending -(i/e)la by -(i/e)lolla (GEN.
-(i/e)luhla), e.g.:
!
!
!

lda taintsi ! !
!
least numerous
or
taintsuilolla (GEN. taintsuiluhla)! least numerous

199

5.8.3 Equative
Siwa does not have a specific marking for equative comparisons, i.e. X is as Y as Z.
Instead, it uses various constructions. The most common of them are tavvi X te Y, or
alternatively totta X te Y. Another way to show that two adjectives are equal is to
place the compared item in the elative followed by either tavvi or totta, i.e. Y.ELATIVE
tavvi/totta Y.
%
!
%

tavvi/totta atanua to sira-t te hait

[tw:i/tta tnua t sir de ha]

tavvi/totta atana-a to sira-t te hait-

as big-COP.ASS 3P.ANI.SG.AGT fish-AGTDET.PROXI and that.MEDI.AGT

this fish is as big as that one

'
%
%

haittaika tavvi/totta atanua to sira-t

[hatga tw:i/tta tnua t sir]

hait=ta-ka tavvi/totta atana-a to sira-t

that.MEDI-ELAT big-COMP-COP.ASS 3P.ANI.SG.AG fish-AGTDET.PROXI

this fish is as big as that one

!
This same construction can see the word te combined with other words, most
commonly tavvi/totta X site Y Y as much as X;
!

%
!
%
!
!

tavvi ohhuata site holpua

[tw:i oh:juda side hlpua]
tavvi ohho-a-ta site holpo-a
as strong-COP.ASS-3P.AG.SG by.as stupid-COP.ASS

X is as strong as X is dumb

!
5.8.4 Comparative and Superlative of Non-Adjectives
Like adjectives, participles and postpositions as well as adverbs can be found in the
comparative and superlative. However, neither the comparative nor the superlative
cause polarization to participles, postpositions/adverbs or subject predicative
adjectives. Instead, they coalesce much like the u- of the passive. Because
postpositions and adverbs show a wide range of endings, it is worth pointing out that
the comparative and superlative endings -ita and -ila coalesce with the final vowel of
the word as if they were their geminate forms (see 3.1.5.1), or:
!
-i
-a

-gi

-o

-obi

-u

-ubi

200

-e

-egi

-i

-igi / -iddi

-y

-ybi

-bi

Patientive participles:
%
-u + ita %%
%
-u + ila %%

%
%

!
!
%
!

desired!
eaten! !
famous!
respected!

angitu' '
mu !
!
sodlu !!
metu ! !

-ubita
-ubila

Active participles:
%
-o + ita %%
%
-o + ila %%

!
!

%
!
%

koahlimo %
maivvimo!
inimo% !

noisy! !
smiling!!
sneaky!!

%
%

-i + ita % %
-i + ila % %

%
%

%
!
%

rodlimi% %
belmimi''
koahlimi!

adorned!
working!
noisy! !

%
%

-e + ita %%
-e + ila %%

%
%

%
!
!

time% %
gakvame'

victorious!
friendly!

!
!
!
!

angitubila !
mubita' '
sodlubila'
metubila'

most desired
more eaten
most famous
most respected

!
!
!

koahlimobita'
maivvimobila'
inimobila'

noisier
most smiling
most sneaky

!
!
!

rodlimiddila'
most adorn
belmimiddita' more working
koahlimiddila' most noisy

!
!

timegila'
most victorious
gakvamegita' friendlier

-obita
-obila

-iddita
-iddila

-egita
-egila

Locative postpositions or subject predicative:

%
-a + ita %%
%
-gita or -amda
%
-a + ila %%
%
-gila or -amla

201

The -amda and -amla forms are more common with subject predicatives. Some
dialects use -ta and -la instead.
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!

henda%
tvunda%
kihta%
tata%
kata%
l%
ra%
suta%
loalta'
siseita'
!

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
'
'
!

up!
!
down! !
over! !
inside! !
outside!
in front!!
near! !
far!
!
behind!!
(grow) tall!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

hendgita'
tvundgita'
kihtgita'
tatgila'
katgila'
lgila' '
rgila%'
sutgita'
loaltgila'
siseitgita'
siseitamda'

higher up
further down
higher over
innermost
outermost
foremost
nearest
farther
from farthest back
(grow) taller
id.

5.9 Compound Adjectives

Adjectives can be compounded with a noun, verb or an other adjective. Generally,
the compound will have the adjective first, then the noun/verb/other, followed by an
adjectival formant (most commonly -ha/-ho or -bmot). Some compound adjectives will
lose their derivative and non-derivative endings, especially -na, -la (-on, -ot and -in
lose their final consonant), -ha/-ho, -hma and sometimes -ka/-ko. Most other endings
and usually all derivative endings causing vowel lengthening remain. The vowel of
the last constituent of the compound is polarized before adding the adjective marker.
Nouns are generally polarized when they are the first part of the compound. When
endings are added to verb, the typical vowel marker (-a for transitive, -i for intransitive
and -u for translative) are generally reduced to their shortened form, respectively -o/, -a/- and -a/-o/-y.
ADJECTIVE + NOUN%

most commonly -ha

siehhin long + hide hair!

!
!
huvvuhma cool + kemi morning!
!
ieppi sticky + tiemo hand!
!
!
deusa flexible + gama character!

siehhihidoha !

huvvukemua ! cool-morninged

ieppitiekiha !

deusagamiha !flexible-minded

liha sweaty + liello palm!

!
ohho strong + thma heart!
!
taa much + myry fly ! !
!

lilielliha !

ohhothmiha ! strong-hearted

taamyroiha !

202

long haired

sticky-handed

sweaty-palmed

with a lot of flies

hppokelbiha ! broad-shouldered

%
%
!
kisina quick + nupu X gets angry!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!

kisinupubmot% quick-tempered
!
!
(quick-angry)

atana big + erri X works!

!
!
!
!
!
nin self + ti X stands! !
!
taa much + ahma X wants Y!
!
mybi silent + d X steps!
!
kalve tight + geiga X shares!

!
!

!
!

ata-erribmot !
!
!

hard-working
(lit. big-working)

nintbmot !

independent

taa-ahmabmot %greedy

mybidibmot !

kalvegeigabmot cheap

onikeltuha !

npi dwarf birch + tsamma forest!

nputsammiha ! birch-forested

sivi honey + tabbi kidney!

!
!
!
!

sivutabbubmi ! nice, goodhearted

!
!
pure/innocent

salama antlers + koahi is enough!

!
!
!
!
!

salekoahibmis ! which has enough

!
!
heads (of a herd)

kehhe birch bark + koka X weaves!

!
!
!
!
!

kehhokokabmot birch bark

!
!
weaving

hppo broad + kelba shoulders!

!

ADJECTIVE + VERB!

most commonly -bmot

sneaky, stealthy

NOUN + NOUN

ono lichen + kelta ground!

!
!

lichen-bottomed

NOUN + VERB

5.10 Nominalization of Adjectives

Adjectives can be nominalized (made into nouns). The derivation process depends
on the ending of the adjectival form. The general rule, however, is that the last vowel
of the word is polarized and lengthened (by adding ) or followed by -l (in the east).
The result is a noun with a genitive in either (a o u)-ri or (e i y )-la, depending on the
vowel:

203

!
!

somuka !
somuk !

masculine!
mascuilinity (GEN. somukeri)

!
!

atana%
at%

!
!

big!
size (GEN. ateri)

!
!

k !
k%

new!
newness, novelty (GEN. kula)

Note that the vowel -a- is always polarized to -e-, not -i-, in this case.
adjectival

adverbal

example

-na

polarization +
lengthening of final
vowel

atana big at size

-la

polarization +
lengthening of final
vowel

tuvala heavy tuv

weight

-ot

horiot tender hor

tenderness

-on

sogon dry sog

dryness

-in

min stiff m
stiffness

-e/-ve

-(v/)

ilve pungent il
pungency

-(p)po

-(p)p

keheppo sulky
kehepp sulkiness

-hi

-h

sipohi confused
sipoh confusion

-ra

-r

kilura wooden kilur

woodenness

-ka/-ko

-k/-k

somuka masculine
somuk masculinity

-na/-no

-n/-n

ainno courageous
ainn courageousness

204

adjectival

adverbal

example

-ha/-ho

-h/-h

liha sweaty lih

sweatiness

-V
-m- + -V

polarization +
lengthening of final
vowel

longiu icy longi

iciness

-bmot

-m

pittabmot attentive
pittam attentiveness

-bmis

-m

koahibmis sufficient
koahim sufficiency

-mma or -ppa

-mm / -pp

kuomimma someone
from Kuomin
kuomimm Kuominness.

-tse

-ts

uitse aquatic uits

aquaticness

-us(e)

-us

keltaus terrestrial
keltaus terrestriality

-nihta

-niht

konihta one summer

long/old koniht one
summer length/age

-dna

-dn

kiludna woody kiludn

woodiness

-len

-l

tulvulen lacking in
nutrients tulvul lack
of nutrients

-ke

-k

garike boyish garik

boyishness

-lu

-l

boahlu daily boahl

dailiness

-(s)i

-(s)

taintsi numerous
taints numerousness

205

adjectival

adverbal

example

-(s)a

-(s)

deusa flexible
deus flexibility

-bmi

-bm

soakubmi cozy
soakubm coziness

-hma or -htsa

-hm / -hts

huvvuhma cool
huvvuhm coolness

-ppa/-ppi

-pp / -pp

ieppi sticky iepp

stickiness

5.11 Non-Numeral Quantifiers

Non-numeral quantifiers are words like much, little, few. They have two functions in
Siwa. They can be used adverbially (in the genitive) or as adjectives:
!
!
kolla omi!
a lot of snow! (adjective)
%
komma hee! very cold!
(adverb)
Unlike true attributive adjectives, which always follow their head noun, non-numeral
quantifiers usually precede their head noun. In most respects however, they behave
like adjectives, in that they cannot take locative case markings when attributive:
!
!

komma kkia! !
tammi soakkika! !

in a lot of snow
from many houses

Non-numeral quantifiers may not be used adverbially with intransitive verbs (see
6.3).
!
Non-numeral quantifiers have three forms:
!
ADJ!
quantifier:!
!
!
kolla b%!
a lot of food
!
+GEN!
adjectival quantifying adverb:! komma sara! very good
!
-en/-il!
verbal quantifying adverb:!
kommen sihmi% it is raining a lot
Non-numeral quantifiers do not show pluralization, but the head noun may do so. The
most common non-numeral quantifiers are:

206

taa !

(GEN. taba~tava~tova) ! much (uncountable)

%
%
%

ma iohha taa omi

[ma ih:ja tja mi]

m-a iohh=a ta-a omi-

COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS there.DIST much-AGT snow-AGT

there was much/a lot of snow there

%
!
%

negami taba kko

[negmi tba k]

n<eg>-a-mi ta-ba om-ko

see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG much-GEN snow-GEN

I saw much/a lot of snow

tama ! (GEN. tammi) !

!
%
%

many (countable)

ma soakkia tama tegma/tegmua

[ma sacia tma m:a/m:ua]

m-a soak-k=ia ta-ma tegma-/tegma--a

COP.PAST.INCONCL.ASS house-INESS many-AGT child-AGT/child-AGT-PL

there were many children in the house

!
%
%

negami tammi tegmari

[negmi tm:i m:ri]

n<eg>-a-mi ta-mmi tegma-ri

see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG many-GEN child-GEN

I saw many/a lot of children

euma ! (GEN. eukka1) !

%
%
%

little, few (uncountable)

da todattaima-ha euma hirigi

[da tdatimaw euma hiriji]

d-a to<datta>=imaho euma- hi-ri-gi

COP.ASS.CONCL head-ADESSPOSS.3P.SG.ANI little-AGT hair-AGT-PL

there are few hairs on Xs head

!
%
%

nka tavvi eukka site lmolkei

[i:ka tw:i ka siha i:lmlcei]

nk-a- tavvi eu-kka site l-molk-e-i-

know.how-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AGT.SG as little-GEN by.as accomplish-INFER.CONCL.TR-!HABI-3P.AGT.SG

one will accomplish as little as one knows

The forms kka and kk are also common for the genitive of euma.

207

eura ! (GEN. eumo 1) !

!
%
%

few (countable)

tavvi kisil ei eura somi

[tw:i cisl je:i eura smi]

tavvi kisi-il e-i eura- somi-

as quick-ADV run-ASS.CONCL.ITR few-AGT man-AGT

few a man runs as quickly

%
%
%

nuhlami eumo skko tavvi kisil eotiimo

[nhlmi eum sk tw:i cisl je:iim]

!
!

n<uhl>-a-mi eu-mo som-ko tavvi kisi-il e-ot-i-i-m-o

see.PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG few-GEN man-GEN as quick-ADV run-COMPLE-ITR-!
HABIL-INCONCL-AGT.PART.AGT

Ive seen few a man able to run as quickly

kolla ! (GEN. komma) ! much, a lot

'
!
%

kolla hama sara

[kl:a hma sra]

kolla- h-a-m-a sara-

much-AGT eat-TR-INCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG.AG good-AGT

eating much is good (saying)

%
%

komma irela
[km:a irela]

%
!

ko=mma irela-
much-GEN beautiful-AGT

very beautiful

ms !

(GEN. mhhi or mhko) slight

%
%
%

mhhi sogon
[m:h:i sj:n]

m-hhi sogon-
slight-GEN dry-AGT

slightly dry

%
%

nami mhhi oummia

[nmi m:h:i um:ia]

%
!

n-a-mi m-hhi=i ou<mm>a

COP.INCONCL.ASS-1P.AG.SG slight-GEN hook-INESS

I have a slight problem (lit. Im in a slight hook)

Similarly, eura also has the genitive forms mmo and mm.

208

ten or tuon (GEN. tes or tuonta) little

'
%
%
!
!

tes istaki
[x:s sti]
te-s i-s<>t-a-ki-
little-GEN ASS.PART DIT-give.PAST-ASS.TR-1P.RECI.SG-3P.AG.SG

X gave me a little

edlen ! (GEN. edles) !

%
%
%

quite

edles atana
[ets tna]

edle-s atana-
quite-GEN big-AGT

quite big

seppi ! (GEN. seppen) very, exceedingly, quite (the)

!
'
%

seppi sira
[spi sira]

seppi- sira-
quite-AGT fish-AGT

quite the fish

!
'
%

sira seppen atana

[sira spn tna]

sira- sepp-en atana-

fish-AGT quite-GEN big-AGT

quite a big fish

koahi ! (GEN. koakka) !

!
%
%

enough, well

negami koahi
[negmi ki]

n<eg>-a-mi koahi-
see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG enough-DAT

I saw enough

'
%
%

koakka negami
[kaka negmi]

koa-kka n<eg>-a-mi
enough-GEN see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG

I saw enough
209

!
%
%

koakka atana
[kaka tna]

koa-kka atana-
enough-GEN big-AGT

big enough

kekki ! (GEN. kekken)!

!
'
%
!
!

too

kekken atana
[ccn tna]
kekk-en atana-
too-GEN big-AGT

too big

5.11.1 Comparative and Superlative

Non-numeral quantifiers have comparative and superlative forms that are irregularly
derived. Note that ten/tuon and ms have a common comparative and
superlative form.

quantifier

comparative

superlative

taa
much

tata (GEN. tadna/tabmo)

more

talla (GEN. tahla)

most

tama
many

tonda (GEN. tondanna/

tondammo)
more

tabba (GEN. tahpa)

most

euma
little

onda (GEN. ondanna/

ondammo)
less

olla (GEN. uhla)

less

eura
few

ohta (GEN. ohtanna/

ohtammo)
fewer

olra (GEN. ouhra)

fewest

kolla
much, a lot

kvolda (GEN. kvoldanna/

kvoldammo)
more

kvobba (GEN. kvohpa or

kvolra )
most

210

quantifier
ms
slight
ten / tuon
slight, little
koahi
well, enough

comparative

superlative

miudna (GEN. miudnanna/

miudnammo)
a little less

miudla (GEN. miuhla)

least

koatta (GEN. koattanna/

koattammo)
better, more enough

kodla (GEN. kuhla)

best, most enough

The form koatta is generally only found in comparisons and usually means even
more, while kodla similarly is usually translated as the very most.
!
%
%
%
!
!

negami on koahi, nega ka koatta ataka te nega taga kodla kmaka

[negmi ki negaka kata tga de negadga kta c:mga]
n<eg>-a-mi on koahi-, n<eg>-a ka koa-tta ata--ka te n<eg>-a taga kodla- kma--ka
see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG ON enough-DAT see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR KA enough-COMP fatherAG-1P.PAT.SG and see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR TAGA enough-SUP paternal.grandfather-AG-1P.PAT.SG

while I saw enough/a lot, my father saw even more and my grandfather saw
the most

211

6 Adverbs
Adverbs in Siwa can be found with various endings. They can be formed from
preexisting stems or words, most commonly adjectives, verbs and least commonly
nouns. The main marker for adverbs of manner is -en or -il, with variation in surface
form. Other types of adverb include spacial/directional adverbs, temporal adverbs,
quantitative adverbs as well as other types.
!
Adverbs come before the adjective or verb they describe. Adverbial phrases
have the same order as nominal phrases, but the adverbs always come last.
%
'

nuhhi koba nbma oakima tuvavven aiteilotima

[uh:i kbani:pma ima tuvw:n ideilima]

%
%
!

nuhhi- ko-ba nbma oaki=ma tuva-vven aiteil-ot-i-m-a

old.woman-AGT summer-GEN over home-ADESS heavy-ADV be.severely.sick-COMPLE-ITRINCONCL-ACT.PART.UNAG

the old woman (who has been) at home heavily sick over the summer

6.1 Adverbial Form of Adjectives

All adjectival forms can be turned into adverbs. The process is regular for adjectives
of the types described above. The basic adverbial marker is -en or in certain cases
and widely in eastern dialects, -il (variants: -el, -ilda, -elda, -ir, -is) which may polarize
the preceding vowel. Certain adjective endings are deleted completely before -il.
Below is a table illustrating the most common adjectival endings and their
corresponding adverbial forms. Both -il and -en forms are equally common, though -il
forms may be considered to belong to a higher language register. Adjectives in -e/u/-i lack -il endings
!
Certain adjectives can be used as adverbs by using locative endings directly
onto the stem without using the marked form:
!
!

khloita !
khlokita !

high (to grow high)

to the high one (see 5.3.2).

adjectival

adverbal

example

-na

-i or -il

atana big atai largely

-la

-v(v)en

tuvala heavy
tuvavven heavily

-ot/-ut

-en / -(V)en or -il

horiot tender horien/

horil tenderly

-on

-en or -il

sogon dry sogen/

sogil dryly

212

adjectival

adverbal

example

-in

-en or -il

olmin stiff olmen/olmil

stiffly

-e/-ve

-ven/en
or
-l

ilve pungent ilen/

ill pungently

-(p)po

-(p)pen

keheppo sulky
keheppen sullenly

-hi

-hen

sipohi confused
sipohen confusedly

-ra

-ren or -il

kilura wooden kiluren/

kiluril woodenly

-ka/-ko

-ken or -kil

somuka masculine
somuken/somukil
masculinely

-na/-no

-nen or -gil / -il

ainno courageous
ainnen/aigil
courageously

-ha/-ho

-hen or -gil

liha sweaty lihen/

ligil sweatily

-V
-m- + -V

(BV)-vven or -gil

longiu icy longiuvven/

longiugil icily

-bmot

-mmen or -mmil

pittabmot attentive
pittammen/pittammil
attentively

-bmis

-mmen or -mmil

koahibmis sufficient
koahimmen/koahimmil
sufficiently

-mma or -ppa

-mmem / -ppen
or
-mmil / -ppil

kuomimma someone
from Kuomin
kuomimmen in the way
of someone from K.

-tse

-tsven

uitse aquatic uitsven

aquatically

213

adjectival

adverbal

example

-us(e)

-usven

keltaus terrestrial
keltausven terrestrially

-nihta

-nihten

konihta one summer

long/old konihten in
the way of someone
which is one summer
long/old

-dna

-dnen or -dnil

kiludna woody
kiludnen/kiludnil woodily

-len

-lenen or -lil

tulvulen lacking in
nutrients tulvulenen/
tulvulil in a way lacking
nutrients

-ke

-kven

garike boyish
garikven boyishly

-lu

-len

boahlu daily boahlen

daily

-(s)i

-(s)en

taintsi numerous
taintsen numerously

-(s)a

-(s)en or -(s)il

deusa flexible
deusen/deusil flexibly

-bmi

-mmen

soakubmi cozy
soakummen cozily

-hma or -htsa

-hmen / -htsen
or
-hmil / -htsil

huvvuhma cool
huvvuhmen/huvvuhmil
coolly

-ppa/-ppi

-ppen or -ppil

ieppi sticky ieppen/

ieppil stickily

Adjectives which do not fit the types above usually simply get -en, which deletes any
final vowel. Consonant-Final adjectives simply get -i(l).
!
!
!

mybi ! silent! !
ymy ! horrible!
ai !
clear! !

!
!
!

myben !!
ymen ! !
aen ! !
214

silently
horribly
clearly

!
!

hee ! cold! !
giges ! sharp! !

!
!

heen ! !
gigesil !!

coldly
sharply

Adjectives ending in -t (other than -ot) or ending in -dno/-dna have the adverbial form
-ddil/-dden.
!
!
!
!

nut !
neidno
rkt !
!

wet! !
!
!wise! !
!
related, similar!!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

nudden/nuddil !
neidden/neiddil !!
rkdden/rkddil !
!
!
!

wetly
wisely
relatedly,
similarly

Note that adjectives of the subtype -nna have -gil/-gen.

!
!
!

voanna !
hanna ! !
hnna !!

strange!
pretty! !
careful!!

%
!
!

voagen/voagil ! !
hagen/hagil ! !
hgen/hgil ! !

strangely
nicely
carefully

The adverbial form of adjectives is regularly used with certain verb of seeming,
looking or otherwise feeling X. They are particularly prone to having -il instead of -en;
e.g.
!
!
!
!

gosil mageki ' '

hagil sageki'
'
kiludnil hheni ' '

I seem tired (lit. I seem tiredly)

you look/seem pretty (lit. you seem nicely)
X smells like wood (lit. X smells woodenly)

6.2 Adverbial Form of Verbs

6.2.1 Participial Adverbs
Participial adverbs can be regularly formed from verbs. Their ending is - (or - after
vowels). Their negative counter part is -edd. This type of adverb is usually derived
from intransitive verbs and corresponds to the function of adverbial gerunds (such as
those ending in -ingly in English). These participial adverbs are synonymous to
constructions with mi/avvi.
!
!
!
!
!

geki !
heoli !
ivi !
lialsei !
rada '

X will seem!
!
X will shiver! !
X will increase! !
X will drift!
!
X will cease Y! !

!
%
%

kmesil gek pendi

[cmesl ek pnii]

%
%
%
%

kmes-il gek- pe<nd>-i-

215

gek ! !
heol ! !
ivi ! !
lialse !
radedd '

seemingly
shivering(ly)
increasingly
adrift
inceasingly

happy-ADV seem-ADV arrive.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

!
!

X arrived seemingly happy

(same as kmesil geki avvi a pendi)

!
%
%

ivi tsep
[ivi tsepu:]

ivi- tsepu-u
increase-ADV CLEAR.OF.SNOW-COP.ASS.TRANSL

it is becoming increasingly snowless

!
%
%

alahrakima lialse suddu holokkes

[lahrima lalse su:u hlcs]

alahra-k=ima lialse- su<dd>-u holokke-s

floating.log-ADESS drift-ADV move.away.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL dragonfly-PAT

the dragonfly was moving away adrift a floating log

6.2.2 Verbal Adverbs

A second class of adverbs formed from verbs can be found in Siwa called verbal
adverbs. They can be formed from both agentive and patientive participles. Such
adverbs are descriptive of the way with or by which the action is realized (by VERBing). Endings are valency dependent, having three forms.

!
!
!

-ren1! or -enra!
-osen! or -esa!
-edlen! or -elra!

!
!
!

transitive!
intransitive!
translative!

!
!

blka ! X will preserve Y!

hea ! X will feed Y! !

%
%

blkren !
heren !

by preserving
by feeding

!
!

airi ! X will row!

!
kisili ! X will work fast!!

%
%

airosen%
kisilosen !

by rowing
by working fast

!
!
%

tatoairu !
tsadlu% !

%
%

toairedlen%
sadledlen !

by rotting
by burning

%
%
%

kieskren kesao
[cskrn cesj]

X will rot!
X will burn!

kiesk-ren kes-a--o
watch-ADV.TR learn-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-4.AG

one learns by watching

The form -r is also found instead.

216

!
!
!

!
%
%

sihhuita tvtsti tsiaui soprren euka tsiandi skigi

[sih:juida tvtst:i tsxiu:i spxrn euga tsxani i:sciji]

sihhu-ita tvd=tsi tsiau-i sopr-ren euk-a tsiam-di ski--gi

length-ILLAT down=along cedar.wood-GEN split-ADV.TR produce-ASS.CONCL.TR cedar.strip-GEN
woman-AGT-PL

!
!

by splitting cedar wood down along its length, the women produce tsiame
(cedar strips for weaving)

Patientive participles derive their adverbial form by changing -u to -ubil or -uvven.

!
!

aygubil~ayguvven lolnoskui lppi

the hare escaped wounded (lit. woundedly)

6.3 Adverbial Form of Non-Numeral Quantifiers

A number of non-numeral quantifiers have special adverbial forms. These forms are
used to qualify verbs.1

quantifier

adverbial form
tagen or tagil
much

taa
much

tagil koki
[tj:l kci]
ta=gil k<ok>-i-
much-ADV speak.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X spoke a lot
eukken~kken or eukkil or kli
a little

euma
little

eukken huhri gatta

[cn hhri gata]
eu=kken hu<hr>-i ga-tta
little-ADV shine.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR moon-PAT

the moon shone a little

1 t~tu is found parallel to miullen~miullil in lower registers.

217

quantifier

adverbial form
kommen or kommil
much, a lot

kolla
much, a lot

kommen sihhi
[km:n sih:i]
ko=men sihh-i
much-ADV rain-ASS.CONCL.ITR

it is about to rain a lot

ms
slight
ten / tuon
slight, little

miullen, miullil, tut, toa

a little
miullil suimi
[miul:l suimi]
miullil s<u>-i-mi
little-ADV understand.PAST-1P.AG.SG

I understood a little
koakken~kvakken or koakkil
well, enough
koahi
well, enough

koakkil mhkehi
[kacl mi:hcehi]
koa=kkil mhkeh-i
well-ADV be.frosty-ASS.CONCL.ITR

it is quite/well frosty (enough)

6.4 Comparative and Superlative

Like adjectives, adverbs may be found in the comparative or the superlative. These
are very regularly formed from their regular adverbial forms by adding -ne for the
comparative and -oba for the superlative:
adverb

comparative (-ne)

superlative (-oba)

aigil
courageously

agine
more courageously

aigioba
most courageously

tuvavven
heavily

tuvavvine
more heavily

tuvavvioba
most heavily

mrail
with difficulty

mraine
with more difficulty

mraioba / mraoba
with most difficulty

218

adverb

comparative (-ne)

superlative (-oba)

neiddil
wisely

neiddine
more wisely

neiddioba
most wisely

Adverbs derived from verbs through - have the comparative -dne and the
superlative -ba.
adverb

comparative

superlative

bes
peacefully

besdne
more peacefully

besba
most peacefully

el
growingly

eldna
more growingly

elba
most growingly

gek
seemingly

gekdne
more seemingly

gekba
most seemingly

!
Irregular adverbial comparatives and superlatives include (excluding adverbs formed
from the irregular genitive of comparative/superlative adverbs);
adverb

comparative

superlative

salla
well

sahne
better

sagoba / saiba
best

sppi
badly

sdne
worse

siba
worst

Adverbial non-numeric quantifiers are also irregular:

quantifier

comparative

superlative

tagen or tagil
much

tainne
more

taiba
most

eukken~kken or
eukkil~kli
little

kne
less

ihba
least

219

quantifier

comparative

superlative

kommen or kommil
much, a lot

kelme / komne
more

keilba / kuba
most

miullen or miullil
a little

mylne / mlne
a little less

mylba / mlba
least

koakken~kvakken or
koakkil
well, enough

koakne
better, more enough

koaiba
best, most enough

6.5 Locative Adverbs/Postpositions

Locative adverbs may stand on their own or follow a noun. In the latter case, the
adverbs function as/are considered postpositions, and thus follow the noun they
qualify, which is in either the locative for destinal adverbs (those which show a
movement to a destination) and in the genitive for directional adverbs (those which
show a movement to a general direction) and most other postpositions. Postpositions
follow a noun, but if a noun is qualified by an adjective or the noun phrase extends
after the noun, postpositions may intersect the noun phrase by coming directly after
the noun, or they may simply be found at the very end of longer noun phrases:
!
!
!
!
kvylhi sikven ilkadi gala'
with bright yellow little flowers
!
!
kvylhi gala sikven ilkadi'
id.
!
Below is a summary of the most common locative adverbs. Note that adverbs have a
nominal form, which may be used as a common noun then meaning the place X, or
may differ in meaning slightly from other similar forms of the adverb, e.g. katama
(nominal form) and kata are both translated as outside, but katama means
outdoors (i.e. no specific location, then functioning as an adverb) while kata means
outside (of something) and the nominal form in a locative case, e.g. katakkia in the
space outside of X. The nominal form can stand on its own as a noun or a
postposition, then meaning something like the place behind/above/etc., e.g., loalla
behind becomes soakka loalakia in the place behind the house.
!
Most special adverbs exist in three forms for direction to and from, as well as
a static form. The three forms are simple movement (to for direction to, and from for
direction from), an approximate movement (towards) and a movement along. Only
the adverbs up and down have a destinal forms. All other adverbs have one
general form (directional).
!
Postpositions are found after nouns in the genitive or a locative case, but
when a personal pronoun is found with a postposition, either the recipient personal
endings or the hyphened personal endings are found as clitics to the noun (see

220

9.3.2). Possessive personal pronouns are more complete, and for that reason
sometimes preferred over recipient personal endings.

SG.

1P.

recipient

possessive

ki

-go

PL. INCL

-ura
bi

PL. EXCL

-uri

SG.

s(i)

-so

PL.

hi

-i

2P.
SG. ANI

-ho

SG. INA

ti or tsi

-ha

3P.
PL.

-hi

OBV.

4P.

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

ltaki'
ltabi'
kikati'
rasi'

'
'
'
'

or!
or!
or!
or!

(i)

-hon

n(i)

-nen

!
!
!
!

lta-go' '
lta-uri' '
kika-hi' '
ra-so' '

to(wards) me
to(wards) us
over it/them
close to you

Poetic language and the more conservative dialects allow special postpositional
forms. These forms distinguish fewer persons, lacking a clear distinction between the
first and second person singular1, and having only one form for the third person (no
obviative or plural distinction). Postpositions ending in -a often combine with the i- of
these endings to simply form -e-.

!
!

1P.SG! !
1P.PL! !

-is/-i
-iu/-i

The lack of distinction between the first and second person is a typical trait of older or higher language
registers in Siwa.

221

!
!

2P.SG! !
2P.PL! !

-is
-i

3P.!

-id

4P.!

-in

!
!
'
!
!

ltais '
ltaiu%
kikai'
raid'
galain'

'
'
'
'
'

to(wards) me/you !
to(wards) us ! !
over you (pl) ! !
close to it/them!!
with oneself ! !

(also ltes)
(also lteu)
(also kike)
(also red)
(also galen)

The forms for the third and fourth person are more common in normal speech than
the other markers.
6.5.1 Cardinal Directions
Adverbs indicating cardinal directions in Siwa exist for 8 directions (all 4 main
directions and 4 compound directions). Adverbs of cardinal direction have special
compound forms used when the direction is integrated into another word. Like the
other spacial adverbs, cardinal directions are found in 8 other forms;
!
%
%
%
%
%

nominal !
!
static
movement to
movement towards
movement from
movement along

The dialects of the east have an additional form, the combination of the from form as
the stem and the ending -ri of the towards form, meaning then from roughly X.
Cardinal directions are fairly irregular in their patterns, especially in the formation of
the noun nominal and locative forms and the compound form.

222

noun

static

to

towards

along

from

north

sibema
(GEN.
sibekka)

biekkia

biehta

biehteri

benti

biehka

south

siseri
(GEN. sisehdi)

siehdia

siehta

siehteri

siehtsi

siehka

east

takna
(GEN.
takekka)

kkia

keuhta

keuhteri

keuhtsi

keuhka

west

tona
(GEN. tomma)

kia

hta

hteri

htsi

hka

northeast

benka
(GEN. benkari)

benkaa

benkaht
a

benkahte
ri

benkaht
si

benkahk
a

southeast

sehka
(GEN. sehkari)

sehkaa

sehkaht
a

sehkahter
i

sehkaht
si

sehkahk
a

northwest

bgi
(GEN. bima)

bimi

binda

binderi

bintsi

binka

southwest

siari
(GEN. siarid)

siara

siarata

siarateri

siaratsi

siaraka

The western dialects have - where other dialects have - for west.
!
The nominal form of cardinal directions are used quite a lot in daily life to
refer to various locations. Siwa speakers rely heavily on them for spacial orientation.
Most dialects use the sehka south-east to mean left and the siari south-west to
mean right unlike in western culture, Siwa people see the world as facing south,
from the north. Siseri south is thus often used to mean front/ahead or down, and
sibema north is used to mean back or behind/up. People on the eastern dialects
generally adhere to the east-left, west-right, south-ahead and north-back format, but
western dialects also sometimes use siseri south to mean left and tona west to
mean right, as well as sehka south-west to mean front/ahead or down, and
benka north-east to mean back or behind/up.

223

Here is the Siwa compass:

sibema
benka

bgi

tona

takna

siari

sehka
siseri

And here are the eastern and western cardinal orientations;

!

Eastern orientation!

Western Orientation

back
N

sibema
bgi
back
NE

tona
right
W

siari
right
SW

siari

sehka
siseri

front
SW

left
SE

siseri
left
S

front
S

The actual locative forms of cardinal directions are used to refer to literal cardinal
directions, while the nominal forms are used for orientation. Compare the following
phrases;

224

%
%

kodiri siehteri
[kdiri shteri]

%
!

ko<d>-i-ri sieht=eri
walk.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.PL south-TOWARDS

they walked southwards

'
%

tuvviri sisehdita
[tuw:iri sishida]

%
!

tu<vv>-i-ri siser-di=ta
turn.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL south-ILLAT

they turned left (western dialect)

The words for the cardinal directions seem to have originally been descriptive of the
movement or location of the sun. The north-south axis has the prefix si- (perhaps
related to the negation particle s/set/sem and -si-, as the sun does not set in the
north or the south) while the east-west axis has the prefix t- (perhaps originally related
to the illative -ta-).
!
The stem for north (be-/bie-) can also be seen in the adjective biehna
highest (not an actual superlative). Similarly, the stem for south (ser-) can be seen
in the verb sii X lies low and sianta horizon. The stem for east (kk-) is related to
the verb (o)kei X rises, while the stem for west (k-) is related to the verb (o)gahtsi
X lies down.
6.5.2 Up and Down
Siwa has two pairs of adverbs to show location up or down - they are the destinal and
directional forms. Destinal forms point to a specific destination, whereas direction
simply point to a direction. Thus, if the adverb up has a specific destination, for
example up on the table, it will be found in its destinal form, but if up is used to mean
upward or simply up without any specific destination, it will be found in its directional
form. Destinal forms acting as postpositions usually agree in their locative cases with
the head noun, and require the ditransitive with verbs.
!
Another way of describing the difference between destinal and direction is to
imagine that directional adverbs are seen from a static position that only shows
where something is headed, whereas destinal adverbs not only show the direction,
but also where the movement ends, or reaches its destination.
!
Compare the following examples:
%
%

ihbmui boikibma tvunda hemi

[ih:pmui bipma tvnda hemi]

%
!

i-hbm-u-i bo<>i-k=ibma tvun=da hemi-

DIT-fly.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR branch-ALLAT down.to.DEST bird-AGT

the bird flew down onto the branch (destinal)

225

%
%

hbmui tvda hemi

[h:pmui tvda hemi]

%
!

hbm-u-i tv=da hemi-

fly.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR down.to.DIR bird-AGT

the bird flew down (directional)

The table bellow illustrates agreement between postposition and noun;

static
interior

to

inessive

towards

along

from

illative / elative

elative
genitive

surface

adessive

allative / ablative

ablative

Like cardinal directions and other spacial adverbs and/or postpositions, up and
down are found in the nominal and compound forms as well as forms for static
location, movement to, movement along and movement from. Nominal forms do not
differentiate between destinal and directional, and neither do the compound forms.
noun

compound

static

to

towards

along

from

hni

henda

henga
hnga

up
directional

hey

heyta

heytari

heytsti

heyka

down
destinal

tvuni

tvunda

tvunga

tv

tvda

tvdari

tvtsti

tvga

up
destinal

hmma

tvmma

h-

tvu-

down
directional

The directional from forms have come to mean up above and down below.
hni !
henda !
henga'
heyta !
heyka'
!
tvuni'
!
tvunda'

!
!
!
!
'

up in/on!
up (to)!%
from up in/on!
up (to)!%
up above!

%
%
%
%
%

tahhia hni %
tahhita henna%
tahhika henga '
tahhi heyta %
tahhi heyka %

%
%
'
%
'

up in the tree
up into the tree
from up in the tree
up the tree
up above the tree

'
!
'

down in/on!
!
!
down (to)!

%
!
%

tahhia tvuni %
%
!
!
!
tahhita tvunda % %

down in the
tree!
down into the tree

226

tvunga'
!
tvda'
tvga'
!

'
!
'
'
!

from down!
!
!
down (to)!
down below!
!
!

%
!
%
!
!

tahhika tvunga%
!
!
tahhi tvda'
tahhi tvga '
!
!

%
!
'
'
!

from down in the

tree
down the tree
down below the
trees

The destinal forms for static, movement to and from here can be taken to mean up
on (i.e. up on a surface) and under (i.e. under a surface).
%
%
%

peymmibma henda
[pm:pma hnda]

peyma-mi=bma henda
table-ALLAT up.to.DEST

up onto the table

'
!
%

hoahkima tvuni
[hahcima tvuni]

hoari-k=ima tvuni
hull-ADESS down.DEST

under the hull (i.e. on the outside of the hull)

Similarly, the directional forms simply mean up (in the air) and below (the surface):
!

hbmui heyta X flew up1!

The towards form are quite straight-forward. Directional forms tvdari and heytari
mean downward and upward.
!
Note that tvdari (sometimes tvari) is used to mean out to sea/away from
land and heytari mean landward, up land. The special form tvdairi is used to mean
on board, or to ask if everyone is safe in a boat before leaving show, hence the verb
otvdi (tvd-)X embarks and the use of tvmamoa (inessive of tvmma) to mean
safe or in a secure position/state/place.
!
Similarly, the special form heytairi means on land (as in out of a boat/canoe
or home from fishing), the verb oheyti (heyt-) means to disembark or come to
land and hmaria means on land/at home/come back from fishing. Some dialects
also use hmaria to mean at home from hunting. For this reason, Siwa people nearly
always refer to going out to fish or hunt as going down to fish or hunt (sitkista tvda/
mahhanta tvda), and coming home or coming back is come up home (oakibma
heyta).
!
The nominal forms are used to mean the space up/down and may be
equivalent to English the upper/lower part/space/etc., e.g. da hmaria tahhi hemi, lit.

The forms hbmui heyta and hhbmui are nearly identical in meaning. The independent directional
adverb heyta is more emphatic.

227

the bird is in the up of the tree meaning the bird is in the upper part of the tree or
possibly the bird is in the safety of the tree.
Below are more examples:
!
!
%

hmarika tvmimoibma
[hmriga tvmim:pma]

h<m>a-r=ika tvmi-mo=ibma
up-ELAT down-ALLAT

!
!
!
%

'
%
%

raubba heytari
[rjup:a hdri]

ra<ubba>- heytari
hips-ILLAT up.towards

from top to bottom

(water/sand/dirt) up to the hips

tvmimoima
[ tvmimima]

!
%
%

hois tvdari
[his tvdri]

tvmi-mo=ima
down-ADESS

ho<>e-s= tvdari
groin-ILLAT down.towards.DEST

at the bottom

down towards the groin

'
!
%

tahhia hni
[th:ia hni]

'
%
%

kolmo heytsti
[klm htst:i]

tahh-i=a hni
tree-INESS up.DEST

kola-mo heytsti
esker-GEN up.along.DEST

up in a tree

up along the esker

'
!
%

kamokima tvuni
[kmjima tvuni]

!
!
%

gekkos tvtsti
[ks tvtst:i]

ka<m>o-k=ima tvuni
frozen.lake-ADESS down.DEST

down on a frozen lake

'
!
%

tahhita henda
[th:ida hnda]

tahh-i=ta henda
tree-ILLAT up.to.DEST

'
!
%

!
!
'
!
%

gekko-s tvtsti
slope-GEN down.along.DEST

down along the slope

tahhika henga
[t:h:iga he:a]

tahh-i=ka henga
tree-ELAT up.from.DEST

up into the tree

from up in the tree

risoita tvunda
[risida tvnda]

'
!
%

olkoibma tvunga
[xlkpma tvu:a]

riso-i=ta tvun=da
sandy.ground-ILLAT down.to.DEST

down onto the ground/! sand

228

oli-ko=ibma tvunga
hill-ALLAT down.from.DEST

from down on the hill

'
!
%

rekkes hey
[rces h]

rekke-s hey
sky-GEN up.DIRECT

up in the sky

'
'
%
%

'
'
gekkos tv
[ks tv]

'

gekko-s tv
slope-GEN down.DIRECT

%
'
!
%

!
%
%

hmo tvdari
[hsm tvdri]

hhh-mo tvdari
heron-GEN down.towards.DIRECT

down in the slope

down to the heron

tahhi heyta
[th:i hda]

'
!
%

baletta heytsti
[blta htst:i]

tahh-i heyta
tree-GEN up.to.DIRECT

up the tree

!
%
%

ehhakka tvda
[eh:aka tvda]

ehham-ka tvda
seam-GEN down.to.DIRECT

%
'
!
%

!
!
'
!
%

balet-ta heytsti
flank-GEN up.along

up along the flank

eigeri tvtsti
[jeieri tvtst:i]

ei<g>e-ri tvtsti
snow.trench-GEN down.along

down the seam

down along the snow ! trench

ad heytari
[ji: hdri]

'
!
%

tahhi heyka
[th:i hga]

ai<>i-d heytari
old.age-GEN up.towards.DIRECT

up to/until senility

tahh-i heyka
tree-GEN up.from.DIRECT

up above the tree

'
!
%

olko tvga
[xlk tvga]

oli-ko tvga
hill-GEN down.from.DIRECT

down (below) the hill

6.5.3 Over and Under

The words for over and under in Siwa only exist in one form destinal and
directional are not distinguished in this case.
!
Like cardinal directions and other spacial adverbs and/or postpositions,
over and under are found in the nominal forms as well as forms for static location,
movement to, movement along and movement from.
noun

static

to

towards

along

from

over

kikama

kika

kihta

kihtairi

kihtsi

kikka

under

umna

unna

unta

untairi

untsi

unka

229

Neither word especially distinguishes between contact or lack thereof. Thus, ki kika
may mean over the lake (i.e. on the water) or over the lake (up in the air).

'
!
%

tokoma kikandia
[tkma cikania]

'
!
%
!

t<obo> unna
rock-GEN under!

under a rock

v<oav>-ma umna-m=ima
lake-GEN under-ADESS

'
!
%

soakka kihta
[saka chta]

on the lower part of the lake

soaki-ka kihta
house-GEN over.to

over the house

'
!
%

kimpa mhu unta

[cmpa mi:u nta]

to<k>o-ma kikam-di=a
tree.trunk-GEN over-INESS

(in the) upper part of the trunk

'
!
%

voamma umnamima
[vm:a mn:mima]

!
'
'
%
%

tobo unna
[tb u:a]

todatta-so kika
[tdatas cika]

to<da>-ttaso kika
head-GEN=2P.POSS.SG over

over your head

kimpa m=hu unta

boots-AGT feet-GEN under.to

!
!

a pair of boots for (lit. under)

feet

The towards form are more general in meaning, used especially abstractly. The form
kihtairi, for example, is often used to mean over, too much, too far/high, passed a set
goal/location:
!

maskigge kihtairi !

we went over (i.e. too far)

Similarly, untairi means under, not enough, not far enough, too low:
!
!

sksui untairi !
!
!

!
or !

!
!
!

kkko kihtairi ! !
ksui mhraka untairi %
!
!
!

you shot your arrow too close

you missed you target when you shot your arrow.
over the mind (i.e. over the head/not noticed)
X did not shot far enough to hit the bear (lit. X shot
under the bear)

The along forms mean along the top/surface for kihtsi and along the underside/
back for untsi:

230

!
da benne kihtsi nidagan !
there is a stripe along the top of Xs back.
!
tt keppie kihtsi !
!
a crest along the top of the head
!
aki moukkiko untsi '
'
X will cut under along the underside of the
!
!
!
!
!
belly
!
The from form of under, unka, is used to mean from under ones feet or without
permission or unexpectedly
!
!
gidlkui imedi unka !
the ice broke (through) (lit. from under)
!
tanantu gogi unka '
it snapped/broke (in my hands, unexpectedly).
The nominal forms are used to mean the space above/below and may be equivalent
to English the upper/lower part/space/etc.:
!
!

kikandia !
umnamia !

in the sky/heaven
in the bowels of the earth/in the part below something.

6.5.4 In, On and Out

The words for in, on and out in Siwa only exist in one form destinal and
directional are not distinguished in this case.
!
Like cardinal directions and other spacial adverbs and/or postpositions, in,
on and out are found in the nominal form as well as forms for static location,
movement to, movement along and movement from.
noun

static

to

towards

along

from

in

tatama

tatsa/
tata

tadda

taddairi

tatsti

tatka

on

tamima

tama

tanta

tantairi

tantsi

tanka

out

katama

katsa/
kata

kadda

kaddairi

katsti

katka

The from form tatka means out (of the inside of something) but differs from the forms
for out katama in that katama refers to something being out/outside, and thus katka
(from) out implies movement from the outside of something (into or onto something).
'
soakka tata
'
!
[saka ta]
%
soaki-ka tata
!

231

house-GEN in

inside the house

'
!
%

ines tama
[ins tmja]

i<n>e-s tama
lake-GEN on

on the lake

'
%
%

soakka kata
[saka ka]

%
!

'
%
%

ila tadda
[ila tt:a]

i-la tadda
dark-GEN in.to

into the dark

!
!
%

miuhdi tanta
[mhi tanta]

miuki-di tanta
bog-GEN on.to

soaki-ka kata
house-GEN out

on(to) the bog

outside the house

'
!
%

hnamo kadda
[hu:nm kt:a]

h<n>a-mo kadda
steam.hut-GEN out.to

out of the steam hut

The towards form are more general in meaning, used especially in an abstract
meaning. The form tantairi, for example, is often used to describe a movement
headed onto something without necessarily reaching a destination or may also
describe a downward movement towards a surface:
!
!
tilbui ki tantairi siebi !
the eagle glided down over the lake
!
!
!
!
!
(without touching it).
Similarly, taddairi means towards the inside (without however reaching the
destination):
!
!
aiga koruri taddairi !
!
X threw Y at the pot (aiming inside the pot)
The word kaddairi has a similar meaning, but with aim towards the outside.
!
The along forms mean along the inside/surface/outside. The form tantsi is
often synonymous with the form kihtsi given above. While kihtsi emphasizes that
something is over the top surface, the form tantsi emphasizes contact on the surface
and may thus be somewhat more common with things stuck to each other:
!
!
tsiamie hoahka tantsi ! cedar strips along the surface of the hull
Similarly, the form katsti means on the outer/outside surface but untsi means on the
lower/bottom surface.
!
The from form is straightforward. The form tatka means from the inside (out),
tanka means off of something and katka means from the outside (in).

232

The nominal forms are used to mean the space in/on/out and may be equivalent to
English the inner/surface part/outer/etc.:
'
!
!

katakkia/katakkima !
tatakkia !
!
tamikkima !
!

!
!
!

on the outside of
in inside/guts
on the surface of

6.5.5 Before, Behind, In The Middle and Through

!
!
!
!

l-!
loal-!
man-!
irr- !

!
!
!
!

before, forward, against

behind, back, in secret
in the middle
through.

These do not distinguish between destinal or directional. They are found in the
nominal form as well as forms for static location, movement to, movement along and
movement from.

noun

static

to

towards

along

from

before

lama

lta

ltairi

lsi

lka

behind

loalla

loaga/
loala

loalta

loaltairi

loalsi

loalka

middle

manima/
mamna

manna

manta

mantairi

manti/
mantsi

manka

through

irrima

ia

irta

irtairi

irsi

irka

The static form l usually means before (someone/something) or in front. Similarly,

loaga or loala means behind or at the back and manna simply means in the
middle, while ia means through as in having gone through something (usually
implies breaking/piercing through).
'
!
%

soakka l
[saka i:l]

soaki-ka l
house-GEN before

in front of the house

%
!
%

233

tokoma loaga
[tkma lj:a]

to<ko>-ma loaga
tree.drunk-GEN behind

behind the tree trunk

'
!
%

ines manna
[ins m:a]

'
!
%

ine-s manna
lake-GEN middle

!
!

in the middle of the lake

(or between the lakes)

asukka ia
[jska i:a]

asum-ka ia
skin-GEN through

through the skin

!
The movement to forms may have a slightly broader meaning lta means before or
in front but also forward or even to (as in presenting/offering/showing something to
someone). The form loalta can be taken to mean to the back of or behind and
manta means to the middle, especially used to show that something or someone
has come somewhere where they shouldnt be, i.e. it may give the sentence a sense
of meddling. In this case, it may also have a static meaning:
!
!
gaggani mantaki !
!
X will examine my things (without my
!
!
!
!
!
permission, when X shouldnt)
The form irta can mean through (something) or may also give a sense of trying to
complete something (difficult), quite like English:
!
!

ivi irta !!
!
!

!
or !

X will remain (through a trial/difficult situation)

X will pull through

If the action has successfully been completed already, the form irka is preferred:
!
akvi irka !
!
X remained (through a trial/difficult situation)
!
!
!
or !
X pulled through
The towards form are more general in meaning, used especially in an abstract
meaning. The form ltairi, for example, is often used to describe a movement headed
forward necessarily reaching a destination or may also be used to show
encouragement:
!

ltairi benho !

go/thats it/good dog!

The form loaltairi means backwards both in space and time:

!

loaltairi tabmosen !

thinking back

The word loaltairi may also convey a sense of doing something in the wrong way:
!

loaltairi bntiami oi ! !

I weaved everything wrong

The word mantairi can mean towards the middle or it may also be used to mean
roughly half-and-half:
234

!
!
!

gigagge ipp mantairi ! !

!
!
!
!

we shared the ipp (berries and tallows)

equally.

The form irtairi shows a movement through a hole or a passage which is already
there, i.e. requires no piercing or creation of space to get through:
!
!
iddi sorohma atra irtairi ! !
the piece fell out (lit. through) of Xs mouth
!
!
!
!
!
(because it was open)
Similarly, the form irtairi may be used to imply that something was done for nothing,
was unheard or did not create any reactions:
!

koki irtairi !

X spoke (but no one listened/heard)

The along forms mean along the front/back/middle:

%
!

suvvi suingamo lsi niansodi !

!
!
!
!

a creek runs along the front of the ground

(we chose to build a house onto)

The form irsi however is fairly restricted and normally applies to sewing, i.e. the line
along which one sews:
!

de voallami kema irsi !!

I still have (to sew) along the shoulders.

The from form is straightforward. The form lka means from the front, loalka means
from behind and manka means from the middle. The form manka also has the
meaning of barely or by very little. It can also convey a meaning of something
being interrupted:
!
!

iddi tahhi manka !

!
!
!

!
!

a tree fell (in the middle of something else

happening)

As it was mentioned above, the form irka is used with verbs to show that something
difficult was completed successfully. It may also be used to mean through while
talking about the other side of thing:
!
so lykie-a irka? ! !
!
did X pierce through? (asking people on
!
!
!
!
!
the other side of the surface).
!
The nominal forms are used to mean the space in front/behind/in the middle/
through. The form manikkia may also mean stuck between:
!

nama puma manikkia ! !

I am (stuck) between two logs

235

The form loalkita can be used to mean left behind or left alone or abandoned:
!
!

ubodaka loalkita !
!
!
!

!
!

I was forgotten and left behind/I was

abandoned

The form irrindia can also be used to mean stuck, but in relation to a passage or a
hole:
!
!
natsta irrindia ! !
!
X (a needle) is stuck (in leather, for
!
!
!
!
!
example)

6.5.6 At, Near, Away

The Siwa adverbs and/or postpositions in ph-, r- and su- can respectively mean
at (specific place/level), near/towards and far/away. They do not distinguish
between destinal or directional. They are found in the nominal form as well as forms
for static location, movement to, movement along and movement from.
noun

static

to

towards

along

from

at

pbma

pha

ptta

pttairi

ptsti

pkka

near

rma

ra

hta

htairi

htsi

hka

far

suma

suhha

suta

sutairi

sui

suka

The static form pha usually means at (a certain point/level/place). It can also be
found as an adverb meaning at the point of/at the moment of/just about:
!

pha middi !

I was just about to fall

Similarly, ra means near or close to and suhha means away (somewhere) or (in
the) far away. It can be used adverbially to mean passed away:
!

suhha lolli !

'
%
%

sogudle pha
[sj:ute pja]

X passed away.

sog-u-dle pha
break-TRANSL-INFI.TRANSL.UNAG.GEN at.point

on the verge of breaking

236

'
%
%

mkko ra
[mk rja]

moni-ko ra
path-GEN near

close to the path

'
!
%

tomma suhha
[m:a suh:ja]

to<m>-ma suhha
finger-GEN far

not at hand (lit. far from finger)

The movement to forms may are ptta for to (a certain point/level/place) or can be
found as an adverb with certain translative verbs to mean reached the point of:
!
!

ptta tanubua !
!
!
!

!
or !

X reached the point of becoming angry

X burst out in anger

The form hta can be taken to mean near (with movement to) or close (with
movement to) but it can also be taken to mean towards (the speaker):
!

mansi htaki !

X came over to me

The form suta means far (with movement to or away (with movement to):
!

suta hbmiaki hemri ! !

the bird flock flew out into the far away

The towards form are more general in meaning, used especially in an abstract
meaning. The form pttairi, for example, is often used to describe a movement
headed for a point/level/place without necessarily reaching a destination, or more
abstractly especially with verbs of change or translative verbs and the particle mes,
(X is finally) turning into a (real):
!
!

mikista pttairi mes na !

pungittasta mes pttairi %%

(now) its turning into a real feast!

its starting to really pour

The form htairi can mean in the general direction of or more abstractly and in the
diminutive form of the verbs (X is slowly) growing to be/turning out to be:
!
!

htairi obnen mes ela kea su n maihheka-t

this hunt is turning out to be quite a success

The word sutairi can mean away (with movement to) for abstract places and it can
also be used with a negative particle and a noun to show that the thing should leave/
go away:

237

sutairi tei myry !!

out with the fly!

The along form ptsti has taken the specialized meaning of in rotation around X:
!
!

mrsti tadatta ptsti sa !

!
!
!
or !

X is buzzing around Xs head

X has a crush on Y

The form htsi means in the area or somewhere around here:

!
!
da tamosi saisla htsi % %
X is the best fellow around here
Similarly, the form sui means somewhere far away:
'

sui tngi '

'

'

X lives somewhere far away

The from form pkka means from a certain point/level/place or also as an interjection
to wish something away:
!

pkka myry !

woosh, fly!

The form hka means from near or from close by. The form suka also has the
meaning of from far or from far away:
!

pednidni suka !!

X will return from being far away

The nominal forms are used to mean a certain point/at a place near/the far away.
The form pmamia can mean on the verge of, while rmmia means in the vicinity
and sumimia means in the distance.

6.5.7 Amongst, Next To and At The Edge Of

The Siwa adverbs and/or postpositions in mum-, aro- and oahr- can respectively
mean amongst, next to, beside or on the side of and at the edge/tip/end of. They
do not distinguish between destinal or directional. They are found in the nominal and
compound forms as well as forms for static location, movement to, movement along
and movement from, though mumna lacks forms for towards and along. They are;

238

noun

static

to

towards

along

from

amongst

mumna

mumma

mubma

munka

next to

aroma

arrui/
arria

arta

artairi

ai

arka

at edge
of

oahtsuma

oahtsia/
oahtsa

oahtsta

oahtstairi

oahtsti

oahtska

The static form mumma usually means amongst or also in Xs protection or in Xs

fathom/arms. Similarly, arrui or arria mean next to, beside or on the side while
oahtsia or oahtsa means at the edge/tip/end of .
!
The movement to forms may are mubma for amongst (movement to) or into
Xs protection/fathom/arms. The form arta can be taken to mean next to (movement
to) or to the side of. The form oahtsta means to the edge/tip/end of or adverbially,
can also mean to the maximum extend of:
!
vbmi kykkyma oahtsta ! !
X screamed at the top of his/her lungs (lit.
!
!
!
!
!
to the edge of his/her voice)
Note that gekkos arrui means side by side.
'
%
%
!

!
!
'
!
%

tahhi mubma
[th:i mpma]
tahh-i mubma
tree-GEN amongst!

among the trees

soakka arrui
[saka r:ui]

soaki-ka arrui
house-GEN next.to!

next to the house

'
!
%

mana oahtsta
[mnwa ahtst:a]

man-a oahts=ta
world-GEN edge.to!

to the edge of the world

The towards form are more general in meaning, used especially in an abstract
meaning. The word mun- lacks a towards form. The form artaita, for example, is
generally used to compare two things and thus means compared to:
!

239

artaitaki sisutuana !

compared to me, you are taller

The form oahtsti means towards the edge/tip/end of, especially with time periods:
!

koba oahtstairi ! !

towards the end of summer

The along form also lacks from the mun- paradigm, but the others forms are: ai to
mean along X (while being next to it). This can be found adverbially to mean that two
things are in movement next to each other:
'

kodistari ai ! !

X were walking side by side

The form oahtsti means along the edge/tip/end of. It is often used with verbs of
cutting or slicing to underline the precision of the cut:
'

agi bienne oahtsti '

'

X cut right along the back

The from form munka means amongst (movement from) and can also be used with
verbs of movement to mean that the doer has left an X group for the purpose of the
verb:
!
!
munka tandaki !
!
X left us to go and find Y
Similarly, arka means from the side of or from next to and oahtska means from the
edge/point/end of.
!
The nominal forms are used to mean the place amongst/next to/at the edge/
tip/end. The form mumnimia can mean in the embrace of or secure amongst, while
arokkima means on the side of and oahtsukkia means at the very edge/tip/end,
while oahtsukkita or oahtsukkika/oahtsugga means to the limit of or to the end of:
'
!

ekki mieumi oahtsugga '

!
!
!
!

X ran until as much as his/her legs could

take

6.5.8 Across and On The Other Side

The Siwa adverbs and/or postpositions in al-/au- and (bal-)amp-1 can respectively
mean across and on the other side or simply on the side of. They do not
distinguish between destinal or directional. They are found in the nominal and
compound forms as well as forms for static location, movement to, movement along
and movement from.

1 The prefix balamp- is found in many western and far-eastern dialects, where the non-compound form

is rare.
240

noun

static

to

towards

along

from

across

alma

alra

audda

auddairi

alsi

augga

on the
other side

amma

ampo

abmo

abmoiri

amsi

ama

The static form alra usually means across and is different from the static form ampo
on the other side in that alra implies having successfully crossed or gone over/
waded something, while ampo simply implies location on the other side of something
and may place more emphasis on the surface of a location.
!
Similarly, the movement to forms may are audda for across (with movement
to):
!

kodimi ki audda '

'

'

I walked across the lake

It also has the meaning of being safe from a danger:

!
!

tddi on kita, lolli ka audda !

!
!
!
!

!
!

X fell in the water but lived through

it (lit. but left across)

The form abmo means to the other side and can also be taken more abstractly,
sometimes in reference to either a higher state of mind (usually used when talking
about trances) or to be particularly distracted, as can be seen in the compound
abmogamiha absent-minded (or also possibly hypnotized).
!
The towards form are auddairi (towards) across and abmoiri towards the
other side. The form auddairi is generally used more abstractly to describe an
uncontrolled movement into a certain direction:
!
!

tahhrupiki auddairi !
!
!
!

!
!

(a fish) jumped out (away and into a

certain direction)

The along form are alsi is generally only used as an adverb with a postposition,
especially manta and manka to mean diagonally:
'
!

alsi nodi ki manta !

!
!
!

!
!

X swam diagonally across the lake (i.e.

across the middle of the lake)

The form amsi usually means along the side of something, especially rivers, lakes
and other waterways or paths:
!

kehkeigge temme amsi !

we paddled along the side of the shore.

241

The from form augga means from across and the form ama means from the other
side. The word ama is sometimes used as an interjection to call someones
attention back to a subject/situation, especially with young children:
!

te tau...ama! ! !

and then...hey!

The nominal forms are used to mean the place across/on the other side. The form
amia can be used to mean not mentally present, especially of senile people. The
form almakia can be used to mean in a safe place or simply at the place across X.

6.6 Temporal adverbs

Temporal adverbs indicate time. Many temporal adverbs are set forms of nouns
which can be found in the following cases to indicate a set time:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
genitive!!
illative! !
ablative%!
adessive!
allative! !
inessive!!
elative! !

!
!
past! !
future! !
approx! !
set time!!
future' !
!
!
past! !

!
!

genitive
for how much time something happened (used for the past)

!
%
%

'
%
%

t<rr>-i-ma ken-da kil-di

is.sunny.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCL day-GEN whole-GEN

it was sunny (for) the whole day

!
!
!

!
!
!

gaiskka ivvi
[gask:a iw:i]

gais-ka i<vv>-i-
month-GEN stay.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X stayed for a month!

!
!

illative
for how much time something is set to happen (used for the future)

for X! kenda! !
for X! kendaita!
for X! kendaiska!
at X!
kendaima!
in X!
kendaibma!
in X!
kendaa!!
since X!kendaika!

for a day
for a day
for roughly a day
on a day
in a day(s time)
(with)in a day
a day ago

trrima kenda kildi

[ter:ima cnda cli]

242

!
%
%

!
%
%

thmo kendaita kildi

[te:hm cndida cli]

%
!
!
!
%

%
!
!
!
%

muong-o-ri yly-m=ita
stay.overnight-INFER.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.PL night-ILLAT

they will stay for the night

!
!
%

!
!
%

kobaita ibaunomi
[kbida ibunmi]

ko-ba=ita i-baun-o-mi
summer-illat dit-be.in.time-INFER.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG

I will arrive in time for summer

!
!
!

ablative
for roughly how much time something happened/is set to happen (used for
approximate duration, sometimes also used with distances).

!
%
%

'
%
%

sidn-i teu<>ir-re ba-ski=ska t<>-dhi

last-ASS.CONCL.ITR few-GEN day-ABLA mating.period-GEN3P.POSS.PL

their mating period lasts for a few days

!
%
%

!
%
%

geunumo trkimoiska slkehi

[eunum te:rcimska si:lcehi]

geun-um-o tr=kimo<>-i=ska slke-hi

diminish-OBLI-INFER.CONCL.ITR hour-ABLA swelling-PAT

the swelling should diminish in a (few/rough) hour

'
%
%

'
%
%

konian eumo magikiska

[kni:an eum mj:iska]

kon-i-a-n eu-mo ma<g>i-ki=ska

walk-ITR-PERSI-IMPER.2P.SG few-GEN maidi-ABLAT

keep on walking for a few feet

!
!

adessive
at what time something happens (set point in time)

tr-m-o ken-da=ita kil-di

is.sunny-INCONCL-INFER.ITR day-ILLAT whole-GEN

it will be sunny for the whole day

muongori ylymita
[mu:ri ylymida]

sidni teuirre baskiska td-hi

[stni teuir:ska bascska ti:hi]

243

!
%
%

%
%
%

ama pyhli elepita eleu estodna

[i:jma phli elp:ida eleu sttna]

<a>-ma pyhl-i elep-ita ele-u esto-dna

early.summer-ADESS bloom-ASS.CONCL.ITR bloom-ILLAT flower-PAT first-PAT

in early summer, the first flowers burst into bloom

'
%
%

'
%
%

mitvoima estodna kebsie goakumao

[mt:vima sttna cpsie ggumj]

mitvo-<>=ima esto-dna ke<bs>i-e goak-um-a-o

night.frost-ADESS first-GEN mushroom-GEN pick-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-4P.AG

one must pick mushrooms on the first night frost

'
!
%

'
!
%

kendaima tapodna a
[cndima tptna i:ja]

ken-da=ima tapo-dna -a
day-ADESS last-GEN early.summer-GEN

on the last day of early summer (i.e. summer solstice)

!
!

allative
in how much time something is set to happen (used for the future)

!
!
%

!
!
%

ken-da=ibma pedn-o-
day-ALLAT arrive-INFER.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X will arrive in one day

!
%
%

!
%
%

keulemi kmibma gekehi lhi

[ceulemi kmpma ecehi j:lhi]

keul-e-mi k<>-mi=bma geke-hi l--hi

observe-INFER.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG half-ALLAT year-GEN l-DAT-PL

in half a year, I will celebrate lhi (male rite of passage)

!
%
%

!
%
%

kimoibma saskeri
[cimpma sasceri]

%
!
!
!
!

%
they will wake up in a short while
!
inessive
in how much time something happens or at what time something happens
(common with the habitual)

kendaibma pedno
[cndapma ptn]

kimo-<>i=bma sask-e-ri
moment-ALLAT wake.up-INFER.ASS.ITR-3P.AG.PL

244

!
%
%

!
%
%

trkimodia tubohis
[te:rcimoia tubs]

tr=kimod-ia t-ub-oh-i-s
hour-INESS 3P.PAT-PASS-smoke-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB

it is smoked in one hour (i.e. it takes one hour to smoke)

!
%
%

!
%
%

naimi tehterrea kenda

[ju:nimi thter:eja cnda]

n-a-i--mi sehter-re=ia ken-da

finish-ASS.CONCL.TR-HABI-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG couple-INESS day-GEN

I can finish it in a couple of days

!
%
%

!
%
%

oskibis mhraka kadla kmia eudna gaiskka

[scibs m:hrga katw:a k:mia etna gask:a]

!
!

!
!

osk-i-bi-s mhra-ka kadl-a k<>-m=ia eu-dna gais-ka

last-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.RECI.PL-HABI bear-PAT whole-PAT half-INESS second-GEN month
-GEN

a whole bear usually lasts us for two months and a half

!
!
!

elative
how much time since something happened (similar to English ago or since)
!

!
!
!

!
!
!

kendika !
gaiskkika !
sinka ! !

a day ago
a month ago
a long time ago

In addition, the genitive is used with a number of special postpositions. Some of

these may be found in an adjectival phrase. These include:
!

ebi !

for X at a time, for many X

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

kenda ebi !
!
!
biohtsiiri trkimodi ebi ' '
mytimo keilgie ebi '
'
!
!
!
!

eia ! !

!
!

!
!

for days at a time

they can play for hours at a time
since the dawn of time or all the
time (lit. for low and high tides)

going into X, until X

sidne kemie eia '

kenda kadl eia !

'
!

X will last until the morning

(about to last) the whole day

iga or nbma ! within X, before X (runs out)

245

!
!
!
!

!
!
%
!

numimi atkemehi iga ! !

!
!
!
!
nstetta kenda nbma oi !
!
!
!
!

nka or soska ! X ago

!
!

!
!

tammi gekehi nka !

kimodi soska ! !

inni !

having lasted X, over X

!
!

!
!

tammi gekehi inni !

!
kut tammi gekehi inni ! !

!
!
!
!

ubma (negated with s/set/sem and past) or tsoska (perfective) (not) for X
time
!
nuhlami hestie tsoska ! !
I havent seen X in two weeks
!
set ma kenda ubma ! !
I havent eaten for a day

!
!

I have to finish it before the day

after tomorrow
in one day, everyone had heard
about it

many years ago

a moment ago

over many years

war of many years

Common temporal adverbs are as follow.

Declinable adverbs and time expressions:

!
!

kendai/kendaita/kendaika%
kengi-ni '
'
'

%
'

today ! (also akken~akket)

today (noun)

!
%

ta/tita/tika '
tima ! !

'
!

'
!

late
it is late

!
!

kendia/kendita/kendika% %
kendima !
!
!

%
!

early
it is early

!
!
!
!

kenka% %
kenehta !
kenes% %
atkenka%%

%
!
%
%

%
!
%
%

%
!
%
%

tomorrow
for/to/before tomorrow
tomorrow (noun)
the day after tomorrow

!
!
!
!
!

kira% %
kirma/kimra%
kirta% %
kisi% %
kiras ! !

%
%
%
%
!

%
%
%
%
!

%
%
%
%
!

in the mornings
in the morning
for/to/before morning
this morning
morning

'
!

246

kirima%%

!
!
!
!
!

it is morning

kamnia/kamnita/kamnika'
kamnima%
%
%
kangi% %
%
%
kamni ! !
!
!
kammi%
%
%

'
%
%
!
%

at dawn
during dawn, at dawn
today at dawn
dawn
it is dawn

!
!
!

phi%
%
ptta% %
pkka% %

%
%
%

%
%
%

for a short time (in the past)

for a short time (in the future)
a moment ago, just now

!
!
!
!
!

siga/sigita/sigika '
sigima !!
!
singi ! !
!
sigo !
!
!
sigvima %
%

'
!
!
!
%

'
!
!
!
%

at dusk
during dusk, at dusk
today at dusk
dusk
it is dusk

!
!

sindi/sinta/sinka !
sidnima !
!

!
!

!
!

for a long time

it is long

!
!
!
!
'
%

soa/hka !
sohma/hma !
soa/hta !
so(hh)i/(hh)i !
soos/hhi !
sodmi/mi '

!
!
!
!
!
'

!
!
!
!
!
'

in the evenings
in the evening
for/to/before evening
this evening
evening
it is evening (so- and hh-)

%
!
!
!
!
!
!

yla/ul or ya/a !
ylma/ulma !
!
ylta/ulta !
!
g ! !
!
yly/ulu or l'
'
ulmi ! !
!
mt ! !
!

!
!
!
!
'
!
!

!
!
!
!
'
!
!

during the night

at night
for/to/before night
tonight
night
it is night
yesterday night

%
%
%

!
!
!
!
!
'

Note that soos refers to a fixed time, while hhi refers to the earlier part of twilight
(the later part being dusk, or sigo). Thus, hhi is used earlier during the winter days,
and later during summer days. Twilight (both hho/soos and sigo) is called teroma
(a participle of the verb terv-, to twilight).
!
The difference between the illative (-ta) and the inessive (-ia) mainly has to do
with the time of the action (wether it happens in the present/past or will happen in the
future). However, often times there is a correlation between a movement/change of
247

state and the use of the illative. This is especially true of verbs of motion, even though
the motion may not be in time but space. For example, one goes to sleep late, with
the illative;
!
!

postuimi kendita !
!
!
!

I went to sleep late.

(not *kendia)!

The form kendia can be used in contexts where there is no perceived movement or
change of state. Compare the two following sentences:

'
!
%

kendita pendidna muoi

[cnida pntna mui]

kend-ita pe<nd>-i-dna muoi-

late-ILLAT return.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-REVERS group.of.hunters-AGT

the group of hunters arrived late (i.e. later than expected)

%
%
%

kendia pendidna muoi

[cnia pntna mui]

kend-ia pe<nd>-i-dna muoi-

late-INESS return.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-REVERS group.of.hunters-AGT

the group of hunters arrived late (i.e. while it was late)

These examples illustrate that the adverb kendita refers to a change of state or
perceived movement in time relative to the verb, while kendia simply refers to a time
non-relative to the verb, i.e. while it was late. This distinction is lost with indeclinable
adverbs.
!
6.7 Indeclinable Adverbs
Below is a list of other adverbs, all of which are fixed and indeclinable. The list
includes a few quantitative adverbs and adverbs of manner or attitude.
6.7.1 Indeclinable Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree describe how much or how little something is.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

auhka or au()% %
%
eren' '
'
'
eukken~kken~eukkil~kli !
ai(lli) ! !
!
!
hehta ! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
hemora/hemua !
!
ihha ! !
!
!
isi~ien!
!
!
kekken' '
'
'

%
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'

quite, very
so, very
a little
quite, rather
completely, to death (hehta vahta
is a commonly used intensifier)
extremely
only, just
so, very
too (much)

248

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kommen !
ktvil% %
sipi !
!
tagen~tagil!
uote ! !
ugi !
!
lla !
!
vahta ! !
!
!

!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!

much, a lot!
somewhat
just, only, exclusively
a lot, much
really
really, truly
nearly
completely, entirely

6.7.2 Indeclinable Adverbs of Time

The following temporal adverbs do not decline:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!

ihko, higgo !
!
ihkai, higvai ! !
ogu ! !
!
u !
!
!
kss ! !
!
kilbi ! !
!
kidli ! !
!
kinoni, kinoi ! !
kosti, gassen ! !
kit- ! !
!
kit ' '
'
killu ! !
!
kilppi ! !
!
mtka ! !
!
mtabe !
!
moannil!!
!
moanta%%
%
haihku !
!
hku ! !
!
oa/voa !!
!
svoa/s '
'
dni~udni, na, ey!
nitka ! !
!
orirra, orril, oarril !
de ! !
!
si, tsi, ntsi ! !
ska ! !
!
skai ! !
!
oia ! !
!
oku ! !
!
oi nldita !
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
249

sometimes
soon
once, formally, in the past
then (X, then Y)
suddenly
usually, normally
to be customary to
immediately
soon
to be soon, to be about to
soon
always
to happen all the time
yesterday
yesterday (noun)
regularly
every X!
at the time
at this time
already/yet
not yet
now
from now on
always, without exception
still (now)
no longer (now)
often
to happen often
in time
once (one time, also! migu)
ahead of time, in advance

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

sadnu !!
sgu ! !
tau ! !
taite ! !
tatka ! !
teuko ! !
tevu nldita !
tsalbi ! !
tsaupri !!
toa/totska !
tohku ! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

no longer
never
then
still (then)
from then on
ever (before), ever
earlier than expected, before time
rarely
to happen rarely
suddenly
at that time!
!

6.7.3 Other Indeclinable Adverbs

The following adverbs are also indeclinable.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

aiho~aio~aien !
aihhta(iri) !
!
!
!
!
aimra ! !
!
gemi ! !
!
gemmoba/gemba !
genne/genni ! !
hymmi ! !
!
!
!
!
inta/ihna !
!
kka ! !
!
maa !
!
medde !!
!
nunne ! !
!
neksura !
!
nenna ! !
!
netra ! !
!
nette ! !
!
ohia~oia !
!
onnanka/onnika !
salla ! !
!
sene ! !
!
sehta !!
!
sppi ! !
!
tahlanka/tahlika !!
tatkatka !
!
tetteri ! !
!
hkari ! !
!
uora ! !
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

wrong (cf. aih- to be incorrect)

in the wrong direction (aihhka(iri)
from the wrong direction)
wrong, in the wrong way
with pleasure
preferably
rather (than)
quietly (cf. homora quiet and
homott- to be quiet)
certainly, yes
amongst other things
out hunting, away
even
namely, you see
by surprise, unexpectedly
of course
really
to be sure, certainly
suddenly
at least
well
probably
maybe, perhaps
badly
at most
inside out, confused
upside down, the wrong way
on the contrary
right (cf. uo- to be right)
250

!
6.8 Negation Adverbs
Negation is expressed mainly by the main negative adverb, which exists in three
forms, s/set/sem, or alternatively by other types of negation, like pronouns or
negative conjunctions (the negation morpheme is si- or sometimes s-). The negative
adverb also has the emphatic form hayt.
!
The form set is used before m- n- l- t- and k- and forms the clusters [spmstn- st: st sk]. It is also possible to write negation as a clitic, though the
orthography is not recommended.
!
The form s occurs before all other consonants, and sem before vowels.
Note that the sequence s on [s] is more common than sem on.
!
!

oittami' '
sem oittami'

I looked at it
I did not look at it

!
%
!

maki' '
set maki'
!
!

X will go
X wont go !
!
(pron. [spmci], also sebmaki)!

!
%
!

netami' '
set netami'
!
!

I know
I dont know ! !
(pron. [stnetmi], also sednetami)

!
%
!

lemnika''
set lemnika'
!
!

I am thirsty
I am not thirsty !
(pron. [stmn:iga], also sedlemnika)

'

hayt ahtami'

I did not do it

251

7 Conjunctions
Siwa has a rich system of conjunctions. In addition to the most common conjunctions,
it uses split conjunctions called coordinating particles to link various phrases seen to
be connected.
!
Many conjunctions can be used with verbs using link constructions (see
9.16.1.3.5):
!
%
-u %
-uts%
-tu!
!
temporal
!
!
-ke!
!
!
!
goal
!
!
-te!
!
!
!
adverbial
!

The most common conjunctions, excluding the coordinating particles, are:

!
!
!

aska ! !
!
!
siaska ! !

!
'

!
'

derite aska tsiandika ga, set mallia konges jnanteta

[deride aska tsxaniga ga s ml:ia c:s ju:nanteda]

%
%
!

%
%
!

der-i-te aska tsiam-di=ka g-a set m-all-i-a ko<ng>-e-s jn-a-m=ta-ita

roll-ITR-ADV.LINK because cedar.strip-ELAT COP.PAST-ASS.CONCL not
1P.ACT.UNAG-have.time-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR koknen.GEN finish-TR-infi.TR.AG-ILLAT

!
!

!
!

I didnt have time to finish the koknen (cedar strip basket) because
we ran out of cedar strips (lit. it rolled out of cedar strips)

!
!

ba !
!
saba ! !

!
!
%

!
!
%

ba otta=ia sdni-
but that.DIST.INESS nothing-AGT

...but it doesnt matter (lit. nothing in this)

'

bata(vvi) '

!
!
%

!
!
%

!
!
!

!
!
!

!
!

egi~o!
egsen~so!

because (introducing a generally negative reason)

(used with the -te adverbial linking particle or the genitive)
because not

but (usually only used at the beginning of a new sentence)

but not

...ba ottaa sdni

[ba jtja sxtni]

otherwise than, unlike, but (in fact)!

noai ahtote, batavvi sem ahta

[ni ahtde btw:i sm ahta]
n=oa-i- a<ht>-ot-e--, batavvi sem a<ht>-a--
say.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR do.PAST-COMPLE-INFER.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG,
otherwise.than not do.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X said X did Y, but in fact X did not do Y

!
!

or
or not

252

%
%

%
%

at egi hait?
[a ei ha]

%
%

%
!

at- egi hait-

this.PROXI-AGT or that.MEDI-AGT

this or that?

ihho ! !

!
%
%

%
%
%

ihho sa<d>-e-i-o amokvel-u

as.if hear.PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR-HABIL-4P.AG northern.lights-GEN

it was as though one could hear the northern lights

inte (-a) '

!
!
%

!
!
%

!
!

!
!

!
!
!
!

ska !
!
sigska
!

!
!
!
!

%
%

%
%

ivte ska kibma ga iobmubi kisilne alrisa

[ivde i:ska u:pma ga ijpmubi cislne jalrisa]

%
!
!

%
!
!

iv--te ska ki=bma g-a io<bm>-u-bi kisi-il-ne alr-i-sa

freeze-TRANSL-ADV.LINK thanks.to water-ALLAT COP.PAST-ASS
possible.PAST-TRANSL-1P.PL.RECI quick-ADV-COMP cross-ITR-INFI.ITR.AG

!
!

!
!

thanks to the water freezing over, we were able to cross more

quickly

-ka geska !

%
%

%
%

emimattaikami geska...
[emimatigmi ska]

%
!

%
!

em-i-m-a-tta=ika-mi geska
believe-ITR-INCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG-ELAT-1P.AG.SG as.far.as

as far as what I believe/as for my beliefs/as far as Im concerned...

as, as if, like, similar to

ihho sadeio amokvelu

[ih:w saeij mkvelu]

although

inte heia-a
[nte hejiaa]
inte hee-aa
although cold-COP.ASSASS.PART

although it is cold...
thanks to/because (introducing a generally positive
reason)
not thanks to/not because
(used with the -te linking particle)

as far as (+ELAT)

253

!
!

kimi ! !
sikimi ! !

so that (used with the -ke goal linking particle)

so that not

%
%

%
%

nake kimi oia de, okasumigga

[ju:ne cimi ia de csumk:a]

%
%
!

%
%
!

n-a-ke kimi oia d-e o-kas-um-i-gga

finish-TR-LINK.GOAL in.order in.time COP-INFER.INDIC SUBJ-hurry-OBLI
ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.PL.INCL

!
!
!
!

in order to finish in time, we must hurry up

kuka ! !
sikuka !

%
%

%
%

tadnate kuka ootta sohtanna de, tamamiddi kupa-i

[atnde cka ta shtn:a de tmmit:i cpai]

%
%
!

%
!
!

tadn-a-te kuka oot-ta s=oht-anna d-e tama-m-i<dd>-i kus=pai

find-TR-ADV.LINK because fish.stock-GEN good.COMP-GEN COP-INFER
onto-1P.ACT.UNAG-fall.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR territory=ALLAT2P.POSS.PL

we stumbled onto your territory in order to find better fish stock

!
!

ko/kon/k/kk is used at the beginning of emphatic or explanatory

statements

%
%

%
%

ko haivva ukitumao-a!
[k hiw:a ucitumja]

%
%

%
%

ko haivva u-kit-um-a--oa
EXPL.PART this.MEDI.way PASS-do-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-4P.AGASS.PART

now thats how one does it!

komo is used to introduce an explanation, argument

%
%

%
%

komo muhkia atsiokia batsviaen kamnutta nta somigi

[km mhcia atsiia batsxw:ia:n camnta ni:da smiji]

%
%
!

%
%
!

komo mur=kia atsio-kia batsv-i-a-en kamn-u-tta nta somi-gi-

EXPL.PART thick-INESS glade-INESS TR-search-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-PERSIS dawn-PAT.PART
GEN into ! man-PL-AGT

!
!

!
!

so, you see, the men kept on searching wide and large into
dawn (lit. in thick, in glade)

%
!

komona/komo na is used to introduce an explanation or argument which is

assumed to be in accordance with what others also believe/understand

%
%

%
%

komo na sipi maba mra

[km na sipi mba m:ra]

%
%

%
%

komo na sipi m-a-ba mra-

EXPL.PART ASS.PART just COP.PAST-ASS-1P.AG.DUAL 1P.PRON.PL-AGT

so, as you know, there were only us two

because, on the grounds of, for (+GEN or -te link particle)

not because, on the grounds of not

254

%
!
!

kuppi...kippi ! !
!
!
sikuppi~suppi~sppi...sippi ! !
kuppi...sippi % !
!
!

either...or
neither...nor
either...or not

%
%

%
%

kuppi hantui neta kippi nosuimi

[kpi hantui neta cpi suimi]

%
!

%
!

kuppi hanto-i n-e-ta kippi noso-e-mi

either lie-ITR COP.INCONCL-INFER-3P.AG.SG or deaf-COP.INFER-1P.AG.SG

either X is lying, or I am deaf

mega ! !

%
%

%
%

mega s gusseigge sohhinebma

[mega s gus:c:e sh:jinpma]

%
%

%
!

mega s guss-e-i-gge sohhi-ne-bma

thus not ITR-travel-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.PL.EXCL far-COMP.ADV-ALLAT

thus, we travelled no further

!
!

migi !
!

!
!

%
%

%
%

tandagge migi suikna!

[andac:e mii sa]

%
%

%
!

ta<nd>-a-gge migi suikna-

find.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.PL.EXCL PART. suitable.gound-DAT

finally, we found suitable ground for a house!

ot [()]!

%
%

%
%

noai ot...ot...ahtote
[ni ahtde]

%
%

%
%

n=oa-i- ot ot a<ht>-ot-e--
say.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR that that do.PAST-COMPLE-INFER.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X said that...that...that X did it

!
!
!

ome ! !
siome ! !

thus, so (starting a new phrase)

dramatic particle used to express something joyful, a

positive exclamation or a positive vocative

that (used to show hesitation)

in order to, for (used with the -ke goal linking particle)
in order not to, not for

255

%
%

%
%

ibike ome kenehta de, sapohhumi

[ibie me cemhta de sph:jumi]

%
%
!

%
%
!

ib-i-ke ome kemeh=ta d-e sa-pohh-um-i

have.energy-ITR-LINK.GOAL for tomorrow=ILLAT COP.INFER 2P.UNAG.SG-sleep-OBLIASS.CONCL.ITR

if you want to have energy for tomorrow, you must sleep

sahra ! !

%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%

euka on knma sauma, da on tingima salama, sahra dari mosi te

solra
[eug cnma suma d ti:ima slma sahra dri msxi de
slra]

%
%
!

%
%
!

euk-a on kn-ma sauma- d-a on tingi-ma salama- sahra d-a-ri mosi- te solra
produce-ASS.CONCL.TR PART. milk-GEN caribou-AGT COP-ASS PART 3P.PRON.PL-ADESS
antler-AGT, in.other.words COP-ASS-3P.AG.PL mammal-AGT and cervidae-AGT

!
!

!
!

caribous both produce milk and have antlers - that is to say they
are mammals and cervidae

!
!

s or set [s] (before m- n- l- t- k-) or sem (before vowel) or emphatically

hayt not

!
%

'
%

set netami
[stnetmi]

%
%

%
!

set net-a--mi
not know-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG

I dont know

!
%

!
%

hayt ahtami
[hj ahtmi]

%
%

%
!

hayt <aht>-a--mi
not.EMPH do.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG

I did not do it

sedde...X te/medde %

%
%

%
%

sedde ireluata medde tygyhua

[set:e ireluda met:e tygyhua]

%
%

%
%

sedde irela-a-ta medde tygyha-a

not.only beautiful-COP.ASS-3P.AG.SG but.also poisonous-COP.ASS

not only is it beautiful, its also poisonous

that is to say, in other words, well

not only...but also

256

sia~svia !

except, besides (+ELAT)

%
%

%
%

usotsi skidita hami soroko sti mahtsiska, indika sia

[ustsi i:sciida hmi srg xsti mahtsska niga sixa]

%
!
!

%
!
!

u-sot-s-i ski-d=ita h-a-mi soroko- -sti mah-tsi=ska im-di=ka sia

PASS-give-HAB-ASS.CONCL.ITR-woman-ILLAT eat-TR-infi.AG.TR part-DAT any.INA
DAT bear-ABLAT bear.head-ELAT except

women are allowed to eat any part of the bear, except the head

igu~iu !

%
%

%
%

eisen igu konin

[je:isn ij:u knn]

%
%

%
%

e-i-sen igu -kon-i-n

run-ITR-IMPER.NEG.2P.SG rather.than ITR-walk-ITR-IMPER.2P.SG

walk instead of running! (lit. dont run rather, walk!)

ednet~ednt1 ! !

%
%

%
%

megi son ednet

[mei sn tn]

%
%

%
%

megi- son ednet

1P.PRON.SG-AGT 2P.PRON.SG-GEN and

you and me

!
or!
!

taga~toga~toa !
do~da!
!
!
!
!

'
%

'
%

otta na aska ednantia nokkiu Tatasen taga

[jta na aska tnania nciu ttsn tga]

%
%
!
!

%
%
!
!

o=tta na aska ed-nant-i-a nokk-i-u- tatasen taga

that.DIST.GEN ASS.PART because 1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-receive-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR name-

and thus, because of that, I received the name Tatasen

rather than, instead (often with negative)

and (+GEN)

and so, thus, and (to continue a phrase or thought)

or then also (in phrases of the type da-X, taga Y if
X, then !also /then it follows that Y, too)

PAST
PAT.PART-DAT

tatasen thus

1 Many variations exist including enee, ene, eie, eie or en, en, ei and ei

257

tvao~dao~dat 1 !

%
%

%
%

ihko tvao mohigenoa

[hk tv: mhij:enxa]

%
%

%
%

ihko tvao m-o-higen-o-a

sometimes as though 1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-feel.cold-INFER.CONCL.ITR-SEMELF

sometimes its as though I get the chills (lit. I feel cold once)

tavvi !

%
%

%
%

tata tavvi duhma

[tta tw:i dhma]

%
%

%
!

ta-ta tavvi duhma

much.COMP than previously

more than before

!
!
!

te [de] !or -t []! !

and (used especially to link two or more things
!
!
!
of the same type, not verbal phrases)
sete/sede/s/haydde % and not

%
%

%
%

tamosi te nelli
[tmsi de el:i]

%
%

%
%

tamosi- te nelli-
hunter-AGT and chief-AGT

a hunter and a chief

!
!
!
%
%

tr !
!

!
!

%
%

tr tanikli
[tr tnk:li]

%
%

%
%

tr ta-nik-l-i
PART. 3P.ACT.UNAG-die-PERF-ASS.CONCL.ITR

alas, X has died

as though

than, as

dramatic particle used to express something negative, a

sad exclamation or negative vocative.

1 Also exists as the clitic -dat used with many sensive verbs or phrases, e.g. hmi-dat it is hot, it seems.

258

tvori~dori1 !

'
%

%
%

tau noai tvori.

[tju ni tvri]

%
%

%
%

tau n=oa-i- tvori

then say.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG like

then X said like...

tonta(vvi) !

%
%

%
%

tanigi tontavvi gastaita-ho

[tni tntw:i gastidah]

%
%

%
%

ta-ni<g>-i tontavvi <gasta>=itaho

3P.ACT.UNAG-die.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR just.like older.brother-ILLAT-3P.POSS.ANI.SG

X died in the same way as Xs older brother

as, like (used as a hesitation particle)

in the same way as, just like (+ILLAT, pre- or postposition)

7.1 Coordinating Particles

Coordinating particles are particles which are placed in each of the two or more
sentences which are coordinated/conjuncted. These particles act in pairs, with one in
each phrase. The order of the particles may change the meaning of the sentences
drastically. Coordinating particles are placed directly before the verb if the verb is not
the first word of the phrase. They may intersect between nouns and adjectives.
!
!

COORDINATING PARTICLE
COORDINATING PARTICLE VERB
VERB

If the verb is the first word of the phrase, the coordinating particle follows the verb,
without however coming in between a verb and link construction particles.
!
Coordinating particles have two positions; first (in the first sentence), second
(in subsequent sentences). First position particle may mix with second position
particle, so long as their order is respected (i.e. first position particle first, second
position particle second). Below is a table illustrating the particles and their meaning.
They may also be placed next to other parts of the phrase.
!
The most common coordinating particle is on2(ka) and the stronger onta
katta. These link two phrases, of which the first is the thesis (main idea) and the
second is the antithesis (an idea which is either an unexpected addition or something
contrary to the first one, or adds new information). Other coordinating particles show
that a phrase is adverbial (mi/avvi), while a set of four pairs of particles are called
dramatic particles positive or negative. They are used to underline either a positive
or negative aspect of the phrase.

1 May also be found hyphened as -dori.

2Always pronounced [].

259

Coordinating particles are used extensively in Siwa and are ubiquitous in most texts,
stories and narration. Coordinating particles, as given below, may also mix with each
other. The main purpose of the table below is to show the fundamental order of
paired particles.
!
!
!
%
%
%
!
!
%
%
%
%
!

first!
on%
onta%
on%
on%
on%
on%
on%
on%
on%
on%
on%

!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

CONDITIONAL!

second
ka!
!
katta! !
b!
!
o!
!
ne/netta!!
on!
!
de/debmi!
ko(mo)% !
kade/kare!
u!
!
te...taga/toa!
taga/toa%

but, and, while

but, and (emphatic), whereas
although, while PHRASE.1, PHRASE.2 also
or
but, although, however
both PHRASE.1 and PHRASE.2
so, thus, because
because, as, since
even though, despite
then, so, after
as well as, and (after enumeration)
if PHRASE.1, then PHRASE.2

%
!
!
!
%
!
!

katta%

de!

seeing as, since

mi%
avvi%

%
%

on!
on!

!
!

by PHRASE.1
id.

de%

ka!

because PHRASE.1, PHRASE.2

%
!
%

tei%

ari!

unfortunately, alas, dramatic negative

mes%

gi~i~vi!

fortunately, praise, dramatic positive

ari/tr% %

ka!

dramatic negative

mei/i% %

ka!

dramatic positive

Examples:
%
%

umaamsi on tibe sara doima, voavvimi ka kthma-ne

[umxamsi ibe sra dima vaw:imi ka cthm:ane]

%
%
!

u-<agam>-s-i on tibe- sara d-o-i-m-a- voa<vv>-i-mi ka kth=mane

PASS-believe.PAST-HAB-ASS.CONCL.ITR PART. sign-AGT good-AGT COP-COMPLE-ITR-INCONCL
ACT.PART-AGTbe.afraid.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCL PART some.UNKNOWN.-PAT.PLne

!
!

while it was believed to be a good omen, others were

afraid

260

%
%

soarri onta enebemni, set katta oni lado teboatsita-ne

[sr:i nta enebmn:i s kata ni l tebtsidane]

%
%
!

soa<rr>-i onta ene-be=mni set katta oni a<d>-o ka=t-eb-oats-ita

survive.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR PART some.OUT.OF.TWO-AGT not PART so happen.toINFER.CONCL.TRANSL some.OUT.OF.TWO-ILLAT-other

!
!

while on the one hand one survived, the other was supposedly not so lucky
(lit. it apparently didnt appear to be so for the other one)

%
%

tygyhua on to kepsi-t, komuoiekkabmisa b

[tygyhu t cps: kmuowkapmisa be:]

%
%
!

tygyha-a on to kepsi-ni komu=oiekk-a=bmis-a b

poisonous-COP.ASS PART this.ANI.AGT mushroom-AGT-DET.PROXI mind-make.feel.wider-PART.ADJCOP.ASS

!
!

while this mushroom is poisonous, it is also psychoactive (lit. mindwidening)

%
%

lungittia on, heirihta u

[lu:ti heirhta ju]

%
%

lungit-tia on heirih=ta u
steam-INESS PART cool.down-ILLAT PART

first steam, then cooling down

'
%
%
%

pakkima-nen kedahta avvi poannomomia derrotuvven neka ska, oa on

oagiela tsama mema
[pacimann cedahta w:i pn:mmia der:duw:n neka s:ga
jj:iela tsamxa mema]

%
%
%
!
!

pa<kk>=imaha ked-aht-a avvi poav=nomo-mia de<rr>-ot-u-vven n-e-ka s-=ka oa on oagiel-a % tsa<m>-a m-e-ma
back-ADESSPOSS.4P bear-aht-TR ADV.PART seal=pouch-INESS wrap.PAST-COMPLE-PAT.PART.AGADV COP.PAST-INFER-1P.PAT.SG mother-AGT=1P.PAT.AG already PART SUBJ-get.to.know-TR forestGEN COP.INCONCL.PAST-INFER-1P.UNAG.ACT.SG

!
!

as my mother was carrying me wrapped in a sealskin pouch on her back, I

was already getting to know the forest

!
%

euka knma on sauma, on simi

[euga cnma suma smi]

%
!

euk-a kn-ma sauma- on on simi-

produce-ASS.CONCL.TR. milk-GEN PART caribou-AGT PART human-AGT

both caribou and humans produce milk

261

!
%

s on nega, set de nemantia nonkiuma mansodlut

[s nega sde nemania nciuma manst]

%
!
!

s on n<eg>-a-- set de ne-mant-i-a nonkiu-ma ma=ns-ot-l-u-t

not PART. see.pAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG not PART 3P.PROXI.ACT.UNAG-get-PASTASS.CONCL.TR rumor-GEN come.PAST-COMPLE-PERF-INFER.CONCL.ITR-3P.OBVI.AG.SG

X did not see Y, so X didnt find out that Y had come (lit. get the rumor)

!
%

ednantia on savvu, leurrimi komo saukibma luvveima

[tnani sw:u leur:imi km sjupma luw:eima]

%
!
!

ed-nant-i-a on savvu- leu<rr>-i-mi komo sai<>u-k=ibma luvvei-ma

1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-receive.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR PART burn-DAT touch.PAST
ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG PART pot-ALLAT very.hot-GEN

!
%
%

I got a burn because I touched the scolding hot pot

oa on mahhikis, hanni-a kade iia
[ mh:s hn:ia kde iia]

%
!

oa on mahh-i-ki-s- hani-a kade ii-a

still PART hunt-ASS.CONCL.ITR-TRANSLO-HAB-3P.AG.SG so.MEDIASS.PART PART old-COP.ASS

X still goes hunting, despite being so/this old

!
%

tamara tei omuki atkanokkamo, kekken ari ymyra nikimi

[tmra tei mui atknkm ccn ri ymyra nicimi]

%
!
!

tama-ra tei o-m-u-ki- atka=nokka-mo, kekk-en ari ymy-ra nik-i-m-i-

many-COP.PERF.ASS PART. attack-PAST-PAT.PART-PL-AGT tail=call-GEN too-GEN ARI terribleCOP.PERF.ASS die-ITR-INCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG.PL-AGT

alas, the wolf attacks have been many and the deaths too terrible

%
%

soprei sikvihidohaita mes, kiba-ho i itiuai

[spxei sk:vihidhida ms cbah xi itiujai]

%
!
!

sopr<e>-i sikvi=hidoha-i-ta mes, kiba-ho i iti=ua--i

golden-ADV shiny=haired-COP.PAST.ASS-3P.AG.SG PART. eye.DUAL-AGT3P.POSS.SG.ANI PART.
ice=water-AGT-COP.PAST.ASS

X was blonde haired, the eyes like ice-water (lit. goldenly shiny-haired)

%
%

nata i tamosi ata-errobmot rtmmai ari te

[nta xi tmsi taer:pm rtm:ai ri de]

%
%

n-a-ta i tamosi- ata=erro=bmot-, rtmma-i ari te

COP.PAST-ASS-3P.AG.SG PART hunter-AGT hard=working-AGT, fool-COP.PAST.ASS PART and

he was a hardworking man/hunter unfortunately, he was also a fool

'
%

rtmmaita na i tamosi ata-errobmot

[rtm:ida na xi tmsi taer:pm]

%
%

rtmma-i-ta n-a i tamosi- ata=erro=bmot-

fool-COP.PAST.ASS-3P.AG.SG COP.PAST-ASS PART hunter-AGT hard=working-AGT

he was a fool fortunately, he was a hardworking man/hunter

262

!
%

vahta eruloila, nette eruluiata taga

[vahta eruljila nte eruluida tga]

%
!
!

vahta er<u>l-oi-la- nette er<u>l-u-ia-ta taga

completely work.PAST-COND.IRR.INFER-PERF-3P.AG.SG surely work.PAST-! PAT.PART.AGT
COP.COND.IRR.ASS-3P.AG.SG PART

!
!

if X would have worked to completion, then surely (it follows that) Y would
be done

'
%

nantia katta sto koi, nantia debmi karsa te

[nania kata i:st ki nania dpmi karsa de]

%
%
!

nant-i-a katta sto- koi-, nant-i-a debmi karsa- te

receive-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR PART. gift-DAT older.brother-AGT, receive-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR PART.
younger.brother-AGT and

seeing as the older brother received a gift, so did the younger brother too

!
%

iuditagi gielsuao on kolkonta, kolsotta, mhnadi, hiamis te ippdi taga

[iuidji lsuj: klknta klsta mi:hni hims de pi tga]

%
%
!

iu-di=ta-gi giels-u-a-o on kolko-s kolsot-ta mhna-di hiami-s te ipp-di taga

winter.solstice-ILLAT-PL prepare-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-4P.AG PART bread-GEN cheese-GEN
mhna-GEN hiamin-GEN and ipp-GEN PART.

!
!

for the in winter solstice celebration, we prepared bread, cheese, mhna

(pemmican), hiamin (honey and milk brew) and ipp (tallow and berries)

263

8 Postpositions
Siwa makes use of postpositions. Postpositions have their head noun in either the
genitive or a locative case the locative or genitive cases are used for destinal
postpositions (those which show a movement to a destination) and the genitive is
used for directional postpositions (those which show a movement to a general
direction). Postpositions may be found before their head noun (then becoming
prepositions), but this is unusual.
!
Postpositions can be found in a variety of forms. Usually, a single
postposition will have at least three forms (static, movement to and movement from).
Certain postpositions exist in both the internal locative cases (inessive, illative and
elative) and the surface locative cases (adessive, allative and ablative). Another set
of special cases only found with postpositions and adverbs exist, showing movement
towards and along, both with movement to and from.
!
Most spacial postpositions are also used as adverbs. They are listed in 7.3.
Conjunctions are also used as postpositions (see 8.1) Other postpositions include:
!

ahha ! !

!
%

%
%

klda ahha sndi salla besi ma

[clda h:a si:ni sl:a bsxi ma]

%
!

%
!

k-lda ahha sndi sa=lla bes-i m-a

war-GEN after long-GEN good-ADV peace-ITR COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS

after the war, there was a long period of peace

aska !

after +GEN.

because +ELAT/GEN

%
%

%
%

nonientseka aska otrgi

[nnintsega aska tri]

%
%
!
!

%
%
!
!

non-i-en-t=se=ka aska o-t-r<g>-i

swim-ITR-HAB.NEG-INFI.ITR.AG-ELAT because !
SUBJ-3P.ACT.UNAG-! !
drown.past-ASS.CONCL.ITR

X drowned because of his/her not being able to swim

d or tevu !

before +GEN

%
%

%
%

koba tevu
[kba tevu]

%
%

%
%

ko-ba tevu
summer-GEN before

!
gala !

before summer
!
with (instrumental meaning)

'
%

'
%

misahi gala htvia

[mishi gla htw:ia]

misa-hi gala htv-i-a--

264

rock-GEN with hit-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X hit Y with a rock (also misahigla)

!
gagi !

with (comitative meaning) +GEN

ikid gagi boinnia koni mata

[ic gi bin:ia kni mta]

%
%

%
!

iki-d gagi boi<nn>=ia kon-i m-a-ta

axe-GEN with belt-INESS walk-ITR COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS-3P.AG.SG

X was walking with his/her axe in his/her belt

gari !
garita !
garika !

!
!
!

instead of X +GEN
id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

ltottaa sihdi sitkabme gari

[il:ttja shi stkapme gri]

%
%

%
%

l-tott-a-a- sir-di sitk-at=me gari

forward-trade-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG fish-GEN fish-INFI.TR.AG-GEN instead

X bought fish instead of fishing for it

gatta !

along, with, as well +GEN

%
%

%
%

skutai gatta
[i:skuai gata]

%
!

%
!

sku-ta-i gatta
womenfolk-GEN-PL ALONG

with the womenfolk or the womenfolk as well

gattia !
!

!
!

in the presence of, when X is present, in X case, in

the situation of X +GEN

'
%

'
%

iuagi gattia seumi

[iuwji gatia sejumi]

%
%

%
!

iu-a-gi gattia se-um-i

elders-GEN-PL in.the.presence listen-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR

in the presence of elders, one must listen

265

genna/gedna !
!
!
genta ! !
genka ! !
geska ! !
!
!

at Xs place, in (of area), in the area of, on the

subject of +GEN
id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)
as far as X is concerned, concerning X, as
for X, with respect to X +ELAT

%
%

%
%

prrabme genna sohluata

[pi:r:apme en:a shluda]

%
%

%
%

prr-a-t=me genna soh=la-a-ta

heal-ASS.TR-INFI.TR.AG-GEN in best-COP.ASS-3P.AG.SG

in the field of healing, X is the best

%
%

%
%

emitsekami geska...
[emitsegmi ska]

%
%

%
%

em-i-t=sa=ika-mi geska
believe-ITR-INFI.ITR.AG-GEN-ELAT-1P.AG.SG as.far.as

as far as me believing it, ...

halia~halla !
!
!

in the wake of, as a result of, because, following,

after +GEN

%
%

%
%

longamo halia nekettagga kola

[l:m hljia nectak:a klja]

%
%

%
%

lo<ng>a-mo halia neke<tt>-a-gga kola-

intense.cold-GEN in.wake lose.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.PL.INCL crops-DAT

as a reseult of the intense cold, we lost our crops

hokvi ! !
hokoma ! !

all the way to X and back

back and forth

'
%

'
%

kodi temme tvdari hokvi

[kdi tem:e tvdri hkw:i]

%
!

%
!

ko<d>-i- te<mm>=e tvd=airi hokvi

walk.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG shore-GEN down.DIRECT.ALONG to.and.back

X went all the day down to the shore and back

266

ska !

thanks to +ELAT

%
%

%
%

oapigga ska irrinkeimi

[bk:a i:ska ir:ii:ceimi]

%
!

%
!

oapi-ka=ka ska irri-nk-e-i-mi

help-ELAT thanks.to through-be.able-past-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG

thanks to (your) help, I was able to make it through

kehha !
!
kea !
kega !

!
!
!
!

in the form/shape of, as, in Xs skin/position/point of

view +GEN
id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

obmi tatatta kea

[bi:mi ttata ce:a]

%
%

%
%

o-<m>-i- tata-tta kea

SUBJ-change.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG wolf-GEN in.form.ILLAT

X turned into a wolf

kha !

within Xs reach +GEN

%
%

%
%

so da-a sosia kha koknen?

[s() da: ssia ce:ja cn]

%
!

%
!

so d-aa sosi=a kha koknen-

INTERROG COP-ASSINTERROG 2P.SG.INESS at.hand koknen-AGT

do you have a koknen (cedar strip basket) within reach?

kea !
!

!
!

for (directed at someones/somethings memory/

honor/person) +GEN

%
%

%
%

geimuo kalka kea

[eimu cal:ka cea]

%
%

%
%

geimo-o- kala-ka kea

feeling-PL-AGT land-GEN for

(the) feelings for the land

267

ketso ! !
!
!

according to, due to, because (usually implies a

tradition or a custom) +GEN

%
%

%
%

souma eimue ketso keggaska kolottaika

[sxuma eimue ctsx cjk:aska kltiga]

%
%

%
%

so-um-a- eimo-e ketso keggas--ka kolo-tta=ika

feed-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-IMP belief-GEN due.to foetus-DAT-PL womb-ELAT

!
!

!
!

according to our believes, we must feed the foetuses (when taking

them) out of the womb (of a killed animal)

keu or e !
!
!
!

together, with, as well (sometimes pronounced

[-k] or [-x]) +GEN

sankiami kottaka keu

[sacimi ktga ceu] or [ktgak] or [ktgax]

%
!

%
!

sank-i-a--mi ko=tta-ka keu

build-past-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG older.brother-GEN-1P.PAT.SG with

I built X with my older brother

kimi !

for (for a purpose) +ILLAT

%
%

%
%

eskuekkuma tsehmeitagi kimi maha

[skujkuma tshmeidji cimi mja]

%
%

%
!

eskuekk-um-a- tseru-me=ita-gi kimi maha-

empty-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-IMP steam.hut.ceremony-ILLAT-PL for stomach-DAT

!
!

!
!

(we) must empty our stomachs for the tserugi (steam hut
ceremony)

kia !
kita !
kika !

!
!
!

away (static) +GEN

id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

katotsgin oahka kika

[kttsj:n ahka cka]

%
%

%
!

kat-o-tsg-i-n oari-ka kika

from-SUBJ-move-ASS.CONCL.ITR-IMPER.2P.SG edge-GEN away-ELAT

move away from the edge!

268

kia !

within Xs sight +GEN

%
%

%
%

tahopsei oton kia

[thp:sei tn ci:ja]

%
!

%
!

ta-hops-e-i so=ton kia

3P.ACT.UNAG-vomit-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR every-GEN in.sight

X vomited in front of everybody/while everyone saw

kuka ! !
!

because of, on the basis of, based on +ELAT

sekueika kuka
[sekueiga cka]

%
%

%
!

seko-e=ika kuka
law-ELAT because

because of the law/on account of the law

kolo !
!
kolta !
kolka !

!
!
!
!

around (here/there), close to (here), in the vicinity of

+GEN

id. (movement to)

id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

ara unahi kolo tiogi

[wra unhi kl tiji]

%
%

%
%

ar-a u<n>a-hi kolo tiogi-

there.is.somewhere-ASS.CONL.TR widening-GEN around dam-AGT

there is a dam somewhere around where (the river) widens

kua !
kita !
kika !

!
!
!

in Xs distance, at a distance of X +GEN

id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

kengukoamo kua denarika

[c:ukm k:ja denriga]

%
%

%
%

kengu=ko<>a-mo kua de<n>a-ri=ka

day=half-GEN at.distance village-ELAT

at half a days distance from the village

269

kuma ! !
kbma ! !
kska ! !

with X number of people, in a group of X +GEN

id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

'
%

'
%

tahrikiri hanga kuma

[tahriiri h:wa k:ma]

%
%

%
!

ta<hr>-i-ki-ri hang=a kuma

leave.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-TRANSLO-3P.AG.PL five-GEN.ANI in.number

they left as a group of 5

magga ! !

in the case of X, in the event of X, should X be +GEN

%
%

%
%

mhruomatta magga set netiemi nu-a kitami

[m:hrumata ma:ia s netiemi ni:xua citmi]

%
%
!

%
!
!

mhru-o-m-a-tta magga set -net-ie-mi n-ua kita-a-mi

bear-attack-INCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG-GEN what.INA-GENREL NEG
know-COND.IRR.INFER-1P.AG.SG what-GEN do-TR-INFI.AG.TR

I wouldnt know what to do in the case of a bear attack

maiai ! !

the whole X through, the entire X +GEN

%
%

%
%

ki vskitse maiai mata

[k:i vi:scitse miai mta]

%
%

%
!

k-i vsk-i-t=se maiai m-a-ta

talk-ITR travel-ITR-INFI.ITR.AG-GEN through.out COP.PAST-ASS-3P.AG.SG

X was talking the whole trip through

mha !

with the help of, with the power of +GEN

%
%

%
%

hnamo mha piaguasa

[hu:nm mi:ja pij:usa]

%
%

%
!

h<n>a-mo mha piagu-a-sa-

steam.hut-GEN with.help heal-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

!
%

with the help/power of the steam hut, X will heal you

nega !

in the light of, since, because +GEN

%
%

%
%

dlumatta nega
[tumata nea]

%
%

%
%

dl-u-m-a-tta nega
be.a.certain.way-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-INCONCL-AGT.PART.UNAG-GEN in.light

in light of the situation

270

noga !
!
nogita !
nogika !

!
!
!
!

at the end of, depending on (usually implies

something hanging) +GEN
id. (movement to)
id. (movement from) (most commonly used)

%
%

%
%

tilippen sviladi nogika na kves

[ilpn svili nj:iga na kvs]

%
!

%
!

til-i-ppen svi<l>a-di nogi=ka n-a kve-s

HANG-FREQ BRAID-GEN AT.END.ELAT COP.INCONCL-ASS FEATHER-PAT

!
!

!
!

a feather is hanging from the end of Xs

braid

!
%

'
%

harka noga
[harka nj:a]

%
%

%
!

ha<r>a-ka noga
weather-GEN depending.on

depending on the weather

nonga/n(gu) !
'

in X language, in Xs word +GEN

sdi n(gu)
[sy:i n(gu)]

%
%

%
!

s<>-di n(gu)
Sia-GEN in

in Siwa

ortta or ohta !
!
!

for, because (on the occasion of - usually implies

some event or time) +GEN

%
%

%
%

mauhheka tohtamha ortta moigga

[muh:ega thtamha rt:a mxik:a]

%
%

%
%

mau<hh>e-ka tohta=m=ha ortta mo-i-gga

hunt-GEN fruitful-GEN for drink-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.PL.INCL

because/for the fruitful hunt, we will drink

(ni)raima ''
(ni)raibma '
(ni)raiska !

against, in front of, before, to (someones face) +GEN

id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

271

'
%

'
%

raima-i hantoeemmi
[rimai hantjeem:i ]

%
!

%
!

raimai -hanto-ie-=en-mi
before-2P.POSS.PL ITR-lie-COND.IRR-NEG.HABIL-1P.AG.SG

I would not lie to you (lit I would not be able to lie before you)

riki !
!
riehta ! !
riehka or rikka !

at Xs house, in Xs opinion +GEN

id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

'
%

'
%

iivikimi lilda riehta

[iiviimi llda rhta ]

%
!

%
!

i-iv-i-ki-mi lil-da rieh=ta

DITR-stay-ASS.CONCL.ITR-TRANSLO-1P.AG.SG paternal.uncle-GEN to=house

Im going to stay at my paternal uncles house

roo !
rota !
!
roka !

!
!
!
!

in the way +GEN

id., to someone (movement to, implies an event
happening to someone)
id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

katotsgin roka
[kttsj:n rka]

%
%

%
%

kat-o-tsg-i-n ro-ka
from-SUBJ-move-ASS.CONCL.ITR-IMPER.2P.SG in.the.wat-ELAT

move out of the way

saa ! !

within Xs earshot +GEN

%
%

%
%

loaltsovisen g sikengdi saa

[laltsxvisn xj: sice:di s:ja]

%
%

%
%

loal-tsov-i-sen =g sike<ng>-un-di saa

secret-say.about-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.IMP.NEG any.TEMPO enemy-GEN within.earshot

never talk behind your enemys back

272

sesta !

Xs turn +GEN

%
%

%
%

skutai sesta udni

[i:skuai ssta :tni]

%
%

%
%

sku-ta-i sesta udni

womenfolk-GEN-PL turn now

its the womens turn now

sia~svia !

except +ELAT

%
%

%
%

negagge st iihka svia

[negac:e sx ihka svixa]

%
%

%
%

n<eg>-a-gge s=t i<>i--ka svia

see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.PL.EXCL nothing-GEN bark-ELAT except

we didnt see a single thing (lit. we saw nothing except bark)

samna ! !

during +GEN

%
%

%
%

indi katanotsabme samna mgilumi

[ni ktntsapme samn:a mj:ilumi]

%
%

%
%

imi-di kata-nots-a-t=me samna mgil-i-mu

bear.head-GEN from-take-ASS.TR-INFI.AG.TR-GEN while be.silent-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR

while taking the bear head, one must be silent

ssi !
!
ssita ! !
ssika ! !

past, by, close to (over there), at +GEN

id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

konin seskosta ssita

[knn ssksta sy:sxida]

%
%

%
%

kon-i-n sesko-sta ssi-ta

walk-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.IMPER seskora-GEN past-ILLAT!

walk past the seskora (tree used to find ones way)

syga or si !
!
!

by (X amount of time/quantity), by X measure

(comparative) +GEN

'
%

%
%

todatta si sisotuana savi megi

[tdata si sisduna svi mei]

%
%

%
!

toda-tta si sis-ota-a-na savi megi-

head-GEN by tall-COMPAR-COP.ASS-2P.AG.SG than 1p.PRON.AGT

you are taller than me by a head

273

ilu !
!

!
!

X time ago (usually found with a subordinate or

relative clause) +ELAT

%
%

%
%

taba sinka ilu konkonimi

[tba ska ilju kknimi]

%
%

%
%

ta-ba sin=ka ilu konk-on-i-mi

much-GEN long-ELAT ago be.young.boy-REL-COP.PAST.ASS-1P.AG.SG

a long time ago, when I was a young boy

tevu.nldita !

before Xs time, earlier than expected +GEN

%
%

%
%

tanigi tevu iula nldita

[tni tevu iula ni:lida]

%
%

%
%

ta-ni<g>-i tevu iu-la n<ld>-ita

3P.ACT.UNAG-die.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR before age-GEN face-ILLAT

X died before its age

tatsi !

in addition to, plus +GEN

'
%

'
%

tatsi-so
[ttsis]

%
%

%
%

tatsiso
in.addition-2P.SG.POSS

in addition to you or plus you +GEN

tonta !

as, in the same way as +ILLAT

%
%

%
%

ki attaita tonta
[k:i :ida tnta]

%
%

%
%

k-i- a-tta=ita tonta

speak-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG father-ILLAT same.way

X speaks in the same way as his/her father

274

tsodlo !

through (usually implies a complicated path) +GEN

%
%

%
%

riebmii siaakadi tsodlo

[rpmii sijgi tst]

%
%

%
%

riebm-i-i- sia<>aka-di tsodlo

navigate-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HABIL-3P.AG.SG river.system-GEN through

!
!

!
X knows how to navigate through (the maze of) the river !
system/waterways

tshma ! !
tshpa ! !
tsska ! !

at the point of, at, on the verge of +GEN

id. (movement to)
id. (movement from)

%
%

%
%

rarpiri tshma
[rarpiri tsy:hma]

%
%

%
!

rarpi-ri tsih=ma
madness-GEN on.verge

at the edge of madness

tsk !

per, every +GEN

%
%

%
%

m todatta tsk
[m: tdata tsc]

%
%

%
%

m- toda-tta tsk
one-AGT head-GEN per

one per person/head

tuka !

despite +ELAT

%
%

%
%

butamika tuka
[butmiga tk:a]

%
%

%
%

bu<t>a-mi=ka tuka
bad.weather-ELAT despite

despite the bad weather

275

tita !

not until +ILLAT

%
%

%
%

ehr tahsa deitabi kamnikita tita

[jhr tahsa deidbi camniida ita]

%
%
!

%
%
!

ehr- tahh-sa d-e-ita-bi kamni-ki=ta tita

possible-ASST.CONCL.TRANSL leave-INFI.AG.ITR COP-INFER-ILLAT-1P.PL.RECI dawn-ILLAT
not.until

it wont be possible for us to leave until dawn

ubukka % !

for Xs part, on Xs behalf +GEN

%
%

%
%

set-a usotisi ksa ubukka-go

[s:a ustisi k:sa ubkag]

%
%
!

%
%
!

sem u-sot-i-si k-sa ubukkago

NEGASS.PART PASS-give-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.SG.RECI speak-INFI.AG.ITR
on.behalf-1P.POSS.SG

you may not speak on my behalf

vite !
!

!
!

for (the honor of, for the benefit of - usually implies

some sacrifice) +GEN

%
%

%
%

tatantskihi vite
[ttantsihi vt:xe]

%
%

%
%

tatan=tski-hi vite
wolf=guardian-GEN for

in honor of/for the wolves tskis (parent spirit)

%
%

vevi/vevvi !
after, around, in the direction of (when two things
!
!
are in movement) +GEN
vita/veita '
id. (movement to)
vika/veika !
id. (movement from)
!
%
lomi mimkihi vevvi na garis
%
[lmi mimihi vew:i na grs]

%
%

%
%

lom-i mimki-hi vevvi n-a garis-

chase-ITR butterfly-GEN after COP.INCONCL-ASS little.boy-AGT

the little boy is chasing after the butterfly

!
%

!
%

oakibma vita
[abma vida]

%
%

%
!

oak=ibma v-ita
home.ALLAT after.ILLAT

homeward, towards home

276

voaga ! !

for fear of +GEN

%
%

%
%

set ma tykkidne voaga

[s ma tctne vj:a]

%
%
!

%
%
!

set m-a-- tykk-i-t=ne voaga

NEG eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG poison-!
ASS.ITR-INFI.SUBJ.UNAG-GEN for.fear

X didnt eat Y for fear of getting poisoned

277

9 Verbs
Verbs are by far the most complex part of the Siwa grammar a verb stem can be
modified to take on a wide variety of meanings, aspects, moods, persons, etc. Many
Siwa verbs correspond to English adjectives. A verbal root can be taken from nouns
or adjectives and may require very little modification, such that verbs are extremely
productive and an open class. A large set of derivative endings also allow for the
creation of many types of verbs from many word categories.
!
Both prefixes and suffixes are part of Siwa verbal conjugation. Suffixes are
much more common and there can sometimes be seven or more, whereas the most
prefixes there can be on a verb is four. The most basic form a verb can have in any
tense, mood, aspect or otherwise is equivalent to the English X will VERB or X will V,
where V stands for the action. For simplicitys sake, these forms will be translated as
X will VERB Y when there is an object. Verbs are most often listed in this form in
dictionaries, as it shows in most cases the bare stem of the verb, and the addition of a (for transitive verbs) and -i (for intransitive verbs) and preverbal vowels, for
example:
%
!
!

kega % v.at %
%
okegi! v.asubj' '
neni % v.ai %
%

X will hide Y
X will hide (him/herself)
X will sit

This shows the reader that the stems of the verb are keg- to hide and nen- to sit.
9.1 Verb morphology
Verbs can be marked for:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

transitivity
!
transitive
!
intransitive
!
translative
!
subjective
!
ditransitive
!
passive

278

!
!
!

tense
!
!

!
!
!

agentivity
!
agentive
!
unagentive

!
!
!

evidentiality
!
assertive
!
inferential

non-past
past

!
!
!
!
!

aspect
!
!
!
!

conclusive
inconclusive
habitual
perfective 1

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

secondary aspects
!
reversive
!
semelfactive
!
persistive
!
frequentative
!
inchoative
!
subitive
!
habilitive
!
diminutive

!
!
!
!
!
!

location and manner

!
cislocative
!
translocative
!
locative markers
!
preverbal adverbs
!
agentive descriptive

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

mood
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

person
!
first
!
second
!
third animate
!
third inanimate
!
third person obviative
!
fourth person
number
!
singular
!
plural
!
inclusive
!
exclusive

indicative
optative
conditional realis
conditional irrealis
obligative
imperative
imperative obviative

In addition, Siwa has nine absolutive descriptives which can be added to the stem of
verbs. Not all these markings can be present at all times, but transitivity marking as
well as person/number is required for all verb forms. In addition, all pronouns are
marked for agentivity (agentive or unagentive) and role (subject [agent], direct object
[patient] or indirect object [recipient]) in addition to number. Thus, the underlying
form of kega X will hide Y and neni X will sit
%
%
%
kega
%
%
[cega]
%
%
keg-a--
%

hide-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will hide Y

The word perfective here does not refer to an actual perfective aspect (which is marked by
conclusivity), but rather a perfect tense marker, which in Siwa behaves morphologically like an aspect
marker but semantically like a tense marker. The actual marker is called the perfective (aspectual
marker), but the result is simply called the perfect.
1

279

!
%
%

!
%

neni
[neni]

%
!

nen-i-
hide-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X will sit

Siwa is a VOS language with a strict word order. The verb is generally only preceded
by adverbs and coordination particles, and is followed by temporal and locative
adverbs, recipients, objects and finally subjects.
!

ADV!

VERB!

TEMPORAL

LOCATIVE

OBJECT!

RECIPIENT

SUBJECT

Consider the phrase below:

%
%
%

ska iluhha kendia kemra karttaita ki to koi

[ska iluh:a cnia cmra kart:ida u:i t ki]

%
!

ska i-luhh-a kend-ia kem=ra kar-tta=ita =ki to- koi-

often DIT-boil-ASS.CONCL.TR early-INESS in.the.morning younger.brother-ILLAT
water-GEN 3PRON.ANI.AGT.SG older.brother-AGT

!
!

The older brother often boils water for his younger brother early in the
morning
SBJ
OBJ

VERB
RECI

TEMP
AD V

ska

iluhha

kendia kemra

karttaita

ki

to koi

Take a look at the following similar sentences, both VOS but showing independent
and incorporated subjects and objects.
nokkiania
[ncinija]

%
%

%
%

nokk-i-a-ni-ja-
call-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-CISLO-3P.PAT.PL-3P.AG.SG

X called them over

!
'
%

'
%

nokkiani tegmua to kesamo

[ncini egmua t csxm]

nokk-i-a-ni tegma--a to kesamo-

call-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-CISLO child-DAT-PL 3P.PRON.ANI.AG.SG teacher-AGT

The teacher called the children over

280

9.2 Verb Structure

The structure of Siwa verbs can be divided in two types; independent verbs and
copular constructions. Verbs can assume both forms, depending on their syntactical
role and the phrase construction. Independent verbs carry all the information, where
as copular verbs have both the copula and the verb carrying parts of the information,
separated amongst themselves according to specific rules.
!
Verbs are copular in relative clauses and subclauses as well as in the
inconclusive, except impersonal verbs, which have a special inconclusive marker. A
few verbs, such as tat- to think (tabmimi or tabmami I think/I am thinking) and detto feel like, want (debmami I feel like X) are inconclusive but are not impersonal.
Verbal adjectives also use the independent inconclusive.
9.2.1 Independent Verbs
Independent verbs are so called because they are not cleaved like the copular
verbs. Independent verbs are made up of a stem, which is surrounded by affixes,
which are housed in specific slots. Each slot is numbered from the stem, and each
slot houses affixes or classes of endings. The minimal form of the verb always has at
least one used slot (the post verbal vowel is always present) the root is never bare.
!
The three slots that precede the stem, termed prefix slots, are regular.
However, the same cannot be said of the 9 suffix slots. While the majority are fixed
and regular, two slots may switch places with one another according to the ending of
the verbal stem.
!
Below is a description of each slots function in the verb.

9.2.1.1 Prefix slots

Prefix slots are those which come before the stem. There are three such slots,
numbered -3, -2 and -1. Note that prefix slots are always unstressed, and thus follow
the same orthography rules as unstressed prefixes.
preverbal
adverbs

unagentive
pronouns

preverbal vowel

stem

-3

-2

-1

!
9.2.1.1.1 Slot -3
Slot -3 houses all preverbal adverbs. These prefixes are a kind of incorporated form
of spacial, temporal or manner adverbs, which may significantly change the meaning
of the original verb. They resemble prepositional verbs in English, e.g. give in vs. give
up. Compare the verb koni X will walk with utakona X will disobey Y and
arokona X will be loyal to Y.
!
See 9.14 on preverbal adverbs

281

9.2.1.1.2 Slot -2
Slot -2 houses unagentive pronouns. Unagentive pronouns are pronouns used to
show that the doer of an action is not in control, or acts unwillingly or by accident. For
example, the verb stem sahh- to speak may combine with the preverbal adverb aiin slot -3 and the unagentive pronoun ent- (first person singular).
!
See 9.3.5 on unagentive pronouns
aih-

-ent-

--

sasti

-3

-2

-1

aientsasti
[intsasti]
ai-ent-sa<st>-i
wrong-1P.UNAG.SG-speak.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR

I misspoke
!
9.2.1.1.3 Slot -1
Slot -1 houses all preverbal vowels. Preverbal vowels include a- for translative verbs
made from adjectives, o- for subjective verbs and d-/da- or r-/ro- for conditional realis.
The conditional realis prefix always precedes other preverbal vowels. For example,
the verb to break has both slot -2 and -1 filled, and slot -1 can have two morphemes
(conditional realis and subjective preverbal vowel).
%
%
!
%
!

a-!
!
o-!
!
i-!
!
u-!
!
d(a)-, ro-!

agentive (translative from adjectives)

subjective
ditransitive
passive
conditional realis

See 9.5.2, 9.5.4 and 9.5.6 on preverbal vowels.

-

-en-

d-o-

soga

-3

-2

-1

endosoga tiema
[ndsj:a tiema]
en-d-o-sog-a tiema-
1P.UNAG.SG-COND.REAL-SUBJ-breakASS.CONCL.TR hand-DAT

if I break my hand

282

9.2.1.2 Verb Stem

The verb stem is core of the verbal phrase. The stem is the bare verb, as it is given in
dictionaries, but lacking both prefixes and suffixes. The form of the verb stem is an
important factor for the order of slots 3 and 4. Verb stems also carry stress.
!
Certain verb stems contain only consonants and are called consonantal
roots. These verbs are usually preceded by a preverbal vowel. Their number is very
small and include:
!
!
!
-r- !
to bite! !
found as ir!
!
-t-!
to unite!
found as ot!
!
-tk-!
to train!!
found as otk!
!
-h-!
to eat! !
found as h!
!
-ht-!
do (past)!
found as ahtVerb stems may also be vocalic, containing only a vowel. These are often irregular,
and not as common as consonantal stems. They are usually augmented either in the
present or the past form (commonly with an- or n- in the past) or mark their past by
diphthong coalescence (see 3.1.5.1 on diphthong coalescence or 9.10.1.1.3 on
diphthong-final verbs).
!

present!!

past

-e-!
-i-!
--!
-o-!
-oa-!
--!

to bathe!
to throw!
to change!
to attack!
to say! !
to lie! !

!
!
!
!
!
!

gia!
bia!
%
oa!
oai!
i'

anevva
ania
mi
anoa
noai
ani

-!
-'
ay-'
pa-!

to raise!
!
to be disgusted%
to feel sick!
!
to disappear! !

AUGMENTED

!
!
!
!
%
%

!
!
!
!
%
%

!
!
%
!
!
'

COALESCING

!
'
%
'

!
'
%
'

%
%
tb% %
aymi% %
tapau%%

a
tmi
mami
tapey

9.2.1.2.1 Slot 1
Slot 1 houses absolutive descriptives, which are attached directly onto the bare stem.
Absolutive descriptives are not necessary, but they add information about the shape
or appearance of the absolutive participant, which is the subject of an intransitive
verb or the object of a transitive verb. There are nine such descriptives.
!
Absolutive descriptives begin with a vowel, which is deleted if the stem of a
verb ends in the same vowel. For example, the form of the verb sarkkia X broke Y
can be modified by the absolutive descriptive ahp, which describes something long
or pointy, to sarkkahpia X broke Y into a point. See 9.15 on absolutive
descriptives.

283

9.2.1.2.2 Slot 2
Slot 2 houses the complementizer (most commonly -ot- or -tot-), which is a
subordination conjunction, equivalent to the English that, as in I know that you saw
me, or in Siwa: netami negotanga. See 9.16 on complementization.

neg-

--

-ot-

-anga

...

negotanga
[negd:a]
n<eg>-ot-a-n=ga
see.PAST-COMPLEASS.CONCL.TR-1.PAT.SG=2P.AG.SG

that you saw me

9.2.1.2.3 Slot 3 and 4

Slot 3 and 4 are sometimes found in the reverse order 4-3 rather. Their order
depends on how the post verbal vowel and the endings housed in the two slots
combine.
!
Slot 3 contains the markers for the obligative (-um-), the perfective (-l- or -la-)
and habitual aspects (-s- or -sa-). Slot 4 contains the postverbal vowel, which shows :

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

mood
!
indicative
!
optative
!
conditional irrealis
evidentiality
!
assertive
!
inferential
transitivity
!
transitive
!
intransitive
!
translative

There are two rules that determine the order of slots 3 and 4. The order 3-4 is called
rule 1, while the order 4-3 is called rule 2. These rules do not apply to the obligative um-, as it always uses the 3-4 slot order.
!
There are three main criteria that determine which rule applies. The normal
3-4 order (rule 1) is changed to 4-3 (rule 2) if:
284

The verb does not end in one of the consonant clusters

!
given in the table below.
The verb is is in the third person singular, first and second
!
person %plural and in the habitual aspect.
%
%
-as
%
%
-askka
%
%
-askke
%
%
-asta
The verb is in the first and second person plural and the
%
perfective aspect.
!
!
-alkka
%
%
-alkke
%
%
-altta
There are no overtly used slots between slot 4 and the
!
subject pronouns (slot 9).
When there is no personal pronoun used at all, such as in passives, rule
1 is prefered.
!
!

Rule 1 (3-4)%
(-sa-, -la-)!

!
!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

Rule 2 (4-3)
(-as-, -al-)

kegsa!mi!
!
!
I usually hide Y!!
!
(ends in rule 1 consonant)!

!
!
!

ketkasmi
I usually hid Y
(does not end in rule 1 consonant)

!
!
!

kegsari!
!
they usually hide Y!
(3P.PL habitual)! !

!
!
!

!
!
!

kegas%
X usually hides Y
(3P.SG habitual)

!
!
!

keglami!
!
!
I have hidden Y!
!
(1P.SG and perfective)! !

!
!
!

kegalkka
we have hidden Y
(1P.PL and perfective)

!
!
!

keglasagge! !
!
we have hidden you! !
(slot used between 4 and 9)!

!
!
!

kegalkka
we have hidden Y
(1P.PL and perfective)

!
!
!

umaamsi!
!
!
it was onced believed! !
(no pronoun)! !
!

!
!
!

aamis
X used to believe
(3P.SG habitual)
285

All other forms of verbs (the endings not provided in the table below) follow the rule 1,
with the slot order 3-4.
Rule 1
Slot 3-4
Verb stem

habitual
aspect
marker

examples

-m-

-mh-

nemami I will pile Y up nemhami I usually pile Y

up

-bb-pp-p-

-ps-

vappana you will praise Y vapsana you usually

praise Y

-b-

-bs-

oboibina you will arm yourself oboibsina you

usually arm yourself
nonina you will swim ntina you usually swim

-n-

-nt- or -t(or -r-)

munina you will rest mtina you usually rest

nainana you will use Y naintana you usually
use Y

-nt-

-nts- or ts-

bntami I will weave Y bntsami I usually

weave Y (also butsami)

-t-

-ts-

eitari they will build Y eitsari they usually build

Y

-s-

-ss-

saisami I will warn Y saissami I usually warn Y

-r-

-rh-

morana you will grind Y morhana you usually

grind Y

-lt-ltt-ld-

-lts-

suikildiri they will live together suikiltsiri they

usually live together

-l-

-ls- or -lh-

vielami I will snare Y vielsami or vielhami I

usually snare Y

-gg-kk-k-

-ks-

ikkami I will jump over Y iksami I usually

jump over Y

286

Rule 1
Slot 3-4
-g-

-gs-

kegami I will hide Y kegsami I usually hide Y

-h-hh--

-hs-

dohhari they will say goodbye to Y dohsari they

usually say goodbye to Y

-hh-

--

pohhimi I will sleep poimi I usually sleep

Verb stem

perfective
aspect
marker

examples

-t-tt-d-dd-

-dl-

pittami I will pay attention to Y pidlami I have

paid attention to Y

-s-

-sl-

kesana you will pay learn Y keslana you have

paid learned Y

-l-

-ll-

setulari they will push Y setullari they have

pushed Y

-n-

-ndl-

manimi I will come mandlimi I have come

-gg-kk-k-

-kl-

tsuoggami I will hope for Y tsuoklami I have

hoped for Y

-g-

-gl-

geigana you will share Y geiglana you have

shared Y

-h-hh-

-hl-

nyhha you will bend Y nyhla you have bent Y

---

-l-

kiaha there is something big kiala there have

been something big

Because of the form of the obligative marker -um-, it always requires the order 3-4.
Notice that the inconclusive and perfective markers have the following behavior (PV is
the postverbal vowel):
%
%
%
%

-C- +% -m- %
%
%
-C-m-PV %
%
-C-PV-ma%

where -Cm- is allowed

where -Cm- is not allowed
287

%
!
%
!
!

%
-C-PV-m-mi%
!
!
!
-C- +% -l-%
%
%
-C-l-PV% %
%
-C-PV-la%%

with first person -mi

where -Cl- is allowed

where -Cl- is not allowed

Compare the following paradigms for the habitual form of the verb mor- to
grind (predominantly rule 1) and nots- to take (exclusively rule 2):
1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

morhami'
morhana !
moras' '
moraskka !
moraskke !
morasta !
morhari !
morhat '
morhao'

I usually grind Y !
you usually grind Y !
X usually grinds Y!
we usually grind Y!
we usually grind Y!
you usually grind Y!
they usually grind Y!
X usually grinds Y!
one usually grinds Y!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)

1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

notsasami'
notsasana !
notsas' '
notsaskka !
notsaskke !
notsasta !
notsasari !
notsasat'
notsasao'

I usually take Y !
you usually take Y !
X usually takes Y!
we usually take Y!
we usually take Y!
you usually take Y!
they usually take Y!
X usually takes Y!
one usually takes Y!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)

Compare the paradigm with perfective aspect marker and the verb pitt- to pay
attention (predominantly rule 1) and saykl- to protect (exclusively rule 2):
1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

pidlami' '
pidlana !!
pidla' '
pittalkka !
pittalkke !
pittaltta !!
pidlari' !
pidlat' !
pidlao' !

I have paid attention to Y!

you have paid attention to Y!
X have paid attention to Y!
we have paid attention to Y!
we have paid attention to Y!
you have paid attention to Y!
they have paid attention to Y!
X has paid attention to Y!
they have paid attention to Y!

288

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)

1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!
!

sayklalami'
sayklalana !
sayklala 1'
sayklalkka !
sayklalkke !
sayklaltta !
sayklalari !
sayklalat !
sayklalao !

I have protected Y !
you have protected Y !
X has protected Y!
we have protected Y!
we have protected Y!
you have protected Y!
you have protected Y!
X has protected Y!
one has protected Y!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)

If the verb does not fulfill the fourth criterion (the verb does not contain a used slot
between slot 4 and 9), the paradigm reverts to rule 1:
1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

pidlahmi'
pidlanga !
pidlaka' '
pidlasagga !
pidlasagge !
pidlakadda !
pidlakari'
pidlakat' !
pidlakao'

I have paid attention to you!

!
you have paid attention to me! !
X has paid attention to me!
!
we have paid attention to you! !
we have paid attention to you! !
you have paid attention to me! !
they have paid attention to me!!
X has paid attention to me!
!
one has paid attention to me! !

(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)

This means that when no other slot between 4 and 9 is used, the form pittaltta is used
(pitt-a-l-tta), but should the segment -ltta- be intercepted, then the verb reverts to rule
1, i.e. pidlakatta (pitt-l-a-<ka>-tta).
!
Certain verbs can govern both rule 2 for the perfective aspect but rule 1 for
the habitual aspect, as both endings do not behave in the same way. For example,
the verb num- to pick uses rule 1 with the habitual, but rule 2 with the perfective:
!
but
!

numhana !

you usually pick Y !

(-ha-)! !

(rule 1)

numalna !

you have picked Y!

(-al-)!

(rule 2)

9.2.1.2.4 Impersonal Verbs and Verbal Adjectives

Impersonal verbs, verbal adjectives and a very few other verbs also including tat- to
think (tabmimi I am thinking) and det- to feel like, want (debmami I feel like X) use
slot 3 for the markers of the inconclusive (-m- or -ma-). See section 9.9.1.1 for a list
of such verbs. It governs the first rule in all cases if verb stems (augmented or bare)
end in the following consonants:

The combination -lala- is commonly changed to -lola-.

289

Rule 1
Slot 3-4
Verb stem

If the verb stem ends in the following consonants

inconclusive

-p-bb-t-d-dd-

st- to be dark sbmi it is dark

-bmnup- to be angry nubmi X is angry
km- to be happy kmmi X is happy

-m-v--

examples

-mm-

tyv- to be heavy tymmi it is heavy

-l-

-lm-

ul- to be night ulmi it is night

-n-

-mn-

len- to be thirsty lemni X is thirsty

-tt-

-tm-

mott- to go downhill motmi X goes downhill

--

-m-

so- to be evening somi it is evening

-r-

-hm- or -mr-

her- to be cold hehmi it is cold

-s-

-sm-

ks- for light to change ksmi the light is

changing

--

-m-

o- to be strong omi X is strong

-gg-k-

-km-

huok- to be quite huokmi it is quite X

-g-ng-

-gm-

hing- to be dying higmi X is dying

--

-m-

sa- to be alright sami X is alright

-hh-

-hm-

thh- to be anxious thmi X is anxious

In all other cases, the ending will be -ma-. Compare the verbs sut- to be hungry and
noltt- to be sick.
1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !

submika'
submisa !
submi' '

I am hungry ! !
you are hungry !
X is hungry! !

290

!
!
!

!
!
!

(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)

1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

submiba !
submibe !
submiha !
submia !
submin !
submia !

we are hungry! !
we are hungry! !
you are hungry!!
they are hungry!
X is hungry!
!
one is hungry! !

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)
(rule 1)

1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

nolttimaka'
nolttimasa !
nolttima'
nolttimaba !
nolttimabe !
nolttimaha !
nolttimaa !
nolttiman !
nolttimai !

I am sick !
you are sick !
X is sick!
we are sick!
we are sick!
you are sick!
they are sick!
they are sick!
they are sick!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Note that in the eastern dialects, the endings for rule 2 are sometimes found
combined with the inconclusive marker in older speakers or higher registers, if no
other slot is used between them:
!
!
!
!
!

1p. singular!
2p. singular!
1p. plural incl.!
1p. plural excl.!
2p. plural!

!
!
!
!
!

-ma
-mha
-mpa
-mpe
-mha%

For example:
!
!
!
!
!

nolttima'
nolttimha !
nolttimpa !
nolttimpe !
nolttimha !

I am sick !
!
you are sick ! !
we (incl.) are sick!
we (excl.) are sick!
you (pl.) are sick!

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)
(rule 2)

9.2.1.2.5 Slot 5
Slot 5 houses locative markers. These locative markers are most commonly -ni for the
cislocative (towards the speaker) and -ki for the translocative (away from the
speaker). Other locative markers also exist, as well as relative locative markers. See
9.12 on locative markers.
!
Note that -ni and -ki usually combine with the perfective and habitual markers
in rule 2 to form the following clusters.

291

HAB +
CISLO

-sa-ni-

-hni-

kegviasami I usually called Y kegviahnimi I

usually called Y over here

HAB +
TRANSL
O

-sa-ki-

-ski-

kkasari they usually bring Y kkaskiri they

usually bring Y away

PERF +
CISLO

-la-ni-

-lni-

lehkalagga we have floated Y lehkalnigga we

have floated Y to us

PERF +
TRANSL
O

-la-ki-

-lki-

menialami I have lured Y menialkimi I have

lured Y away

Rule 1
svk-

--

--

-l-

-a-

-ki-

-dda

...

svklakidda
[svu:kl:it:a]
svk-l-a-ki--dda
throw-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-TRANSLO-3P.PAT-2.AG.PL

you (pl.) have thrown Y away

Rule 2
htv-

--

--

-a-

-l-

-ni-

-ka-

...

htvalnika
[htw:alciga]
htv-a-l-ni-ka-
hit-ASS.CONCL.TR-PERF-CISLO-1P.PAT.SG-3P.AG.SG

X has hit me here

9.2.1.2.6 Slot 6
Slot 6 contains all the secondary aspect markers; reversive, semelfactive, persistive,
frequentative, inchoative, subitive, habilitive and diminutive. They appear in this
particular row and can be combined. See 9.9.4 on secondary aspectual markers.

292

kig-

--

--

-a-

-sa-

--

-en-

...

kigasaen puma
[cgs:n p:ma]
kig-a-sa-en- p<>-ma
pick-ASS.CONCL.TR-HAB-PERS-3P.AG.SG log-GEN

X is always picking up logs (off the ground)

!
9.2.1.2.7 Slot 7
Slot 7 houses all patientive pronouns, which are equivalent to the objects of verbs.
See 9.3.4 on patientive pronouns.
sed-

--

--

-a-

--

--

--

-a-

-mi

...

sedaami
[sejmi]
se<d>-a-a-mi
hear.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT.PL-1P.AG.SG

I heard them
9.2.1.2.8 Slot 8
Slot 8 houses recipient pronouns, which have two functions; they may work as
indirect objects (then with ditransitive verbs) or may simply show the beneficiary of
the action (without ditransitive markers). See 9.3.3 on recipient pronouns.
i-

-soatsk-

-ot-

--

-a-

--

--

--

-a-

-hi-

-gge

-1

...

...isoatskotaahigge
[isatsk:djhic:e]
i-soatsk-ot-a-a-hi-gge
DIT-offer-ASS.CONCL.TR-COMPLE-3P.PAT.PL-2P.RECI.PL-1P.AG.PL.EXCL

...that we will offer them to you

!
9.2.1.2.9 Slot 9
The last slot houses agentive pronouns. Thus, these are always the very last thing to
be added to the verb. Any subsequent clitic is attached to the verb with a hyphen.
Note that slot 9 also holds the imperative markers, and for that reason they can be
considered to be forms of the agentive pronoun endings. See 9.3.2 on agentive
pronouns.

293

i-

-st-

--

--

-a-

--

--

--

-a-

-si-

-mi

-1

istaasimi
[stjsimi]
i-s<>t-a-a-si-mi
DIT-give.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT.PL-2P.RECI.SG-1P.AG.SG

I gave them to you

With the imperative:

!
i-

-sot-

--

--

-a-

--

--

--

-a-

-bi-

-uri

-1

isotaabiuri
[istjbiuri]
i-sot-a-a-bi-uri
DIT-give-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT.PL-1P.RECI.PL-IMPER.2P.PL

give them to us!

9.2.2 Copular Verbs

Copular verbs are those which require an auxiliary copula in order to be grammatical.
Various things can cause a verb to become copular, and the vast majority of verbs
can become copular. The inconclusive aspect (but not of impersonal verbs), relative
clauses, certain fixed expressions and other types of sentences require the verb to
be copular. See 9.17 on the copula for a more in-depth description.
!
Copular verbs are composed of two parts the verbal stem with certain slots,
called a split-stem, and the copula, with the rest of the slots.
!
The split-stem has 3 prefix slots and 1 or 2 (in the case of the obligative only)
suffix slots, while the copula has one extra prefix slot and the rest of the normal slots.
!
Slot 4 follows the split-stem immediately, but the slots 1 2 3 and 4 5 6 7 8 9
are attached onto the copula. The copula is placed at the end of the verbal phrase,
usually only followed by the agent of the phrase. The copula adds a 10th slot, which
is actually a prefix (o-), used to form relative clauses. It is called slot -1COP.
!
The slot 4 is actually marked twice in the sentence, as it is both found at the
split-stem slot 4 and the copula slot 4. The copula slot is termed slot 4. The functions
of slot 4 are thus split into two:

294

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
mood
!

Slot 4 (Split-stem):
!
transitivity
!
!
transitive !
!
!
intransitive !
!
!
ditransitive !
!
!
objective !
!
!
translative !
!
!
passive !
!
!

(-a) !
!
(-i)
(i--i or i--a)!
(o--i or o--a)!
(-u/-)
(u--i or u--a)

obligative

!
!

Slot 4 (Copula):
!
mood
!
!
!
indicative
!
!
!
optative
!
!
!
conditional irrealis
!
!
evidentiality
!
!
!
assertive
!
!
!
inferential
!
!
!
This means that when a verb is split for a copular construction, the stem only retains
markers for transitivity, while everything else is marked onto the copula, which is
always transitive1.
!
The rest of the verbal phrase is unaffected by this copular split. Adverbs still
precede the verb and the verbal phrase continues within the boundaries of the
Split-stem slots
kat-

--

-o-

-rnta-

-um-

-i

-3

-2

-1

[3]

Copular slots
--

n-

-ohk-

--

-on

-e-

--

--

--

--

--

-1COP

COP

In reality, the copula can be transitive or translative, but because the translative is already marked in slot
4, it is not necessary in slot 4.

295

... katorntaumi sevvue unna nohkone to kinagi

[ktri:ntumi sew:ue u:a nhkne t cinji]
kat-o-rnta-um-i sevvo-e unna n-ohk-on-e to kinagi-
from-SUBJ-scratch-OBLI-ITR shirt-GEN under COP.INCONCL-ohk-COMPLE-INFER 3P.SG.ANI.AG stranger-AGT

...that the stranger must be scratching himself under his shirt

Split-stem slots
ah-

--

--

-kig-

-um-

-i

-3

-2

-1

[3]

Copular slots
--

m-

--

--

--

-e-

-o-

--

--

-ni-

--

-1COP

COP

tat, ahkigumi mtabe meoni pegg

[tte: ahcgumi mi:dbe mejni pec:]
tat-, ah-kig-um-i mtabe me-o-ni pegg-
room-AGT after-clean.up-OBLI-ITR yesterday COP.PAST.INCONCL-REL.INESS-4P.RECI girl-AGT

...the room, (in) which the girl was supposed to clean up after herself
9.3 Verbal Personal Pronouns
Pronouns can be attached to the verb. There are 4 types of personal pronouns
agentive, unagentive, patientive and recipient pronouns. Note that the eastern and
western dialects differ somewhat in the form of their personal pronouns.
!
Agentive pronouns occupy slot 9 and are used with conscious and/or willing
agents, i.e. acting of their own accord or purposefully. Unagentive pronouns, which
occupy slot -2, are used with unconscious and/or unwilling agents, i.e. acting by
accident or driven by an exterior force. Patientive pronouns are used with the objects
of verbs and occupy slot 7, while recipient pronouns serve two roles the indirect
object (to whom) or the beneficiary (for whom), and occupy slot 8.
!
Siwa pronouns exist for the following persons, found in their four types or
roles:
!
I!
!
1p. singular
!
you!
!
2p. singular
!
he/she/it!
3p. (animate and inanimate) singular
!
!
'
we!
!
1p. plural inclusive (1p. plural + 2p. person singular/plural)
!
we!
!
1p. plural exclusive (1p. plural)
'
you!
!
2p. plural
!
they! !
3p. (animate and inanimate) plural
!

he/she/it!

3p. obviative (no number distinction)

296

they/one/we!

4p. (no number distinction)

The third person pronouns are not concerned with animacy, only number and
proximity (obviative vs. proximate).
9.3.1.1 Inclusive vs. Exclusive
The inclusive vs. exclusive distinction is always made in Siwa an inclusive we
assumes the second person, whether singular or plural, to be included, while an
exclusive we assumes that the second person is not part of the group to which the
pronoun refers. Compare the following examples:
!
!
!
makigge taskkita Talgo
%
%
[mcic:e tasc:ida talg]
%
%
mak-i-gge task-ki=ta Talgo-
%

go-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.PL.EXCL woods-ILLAT Talgo-AGT

Talgo and I/us will go into the woods

!
%
%

!
%

makigga taskkita Talgo

[mcik:a tasc:ida talg]

%
%

mak-i-gga taskk-ki=ta Talgo-

go-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.PL.INCL woods-ILLAT Talgo-AGT

we (you and me) will go into the woods with Talgo

Very formal Siwa sometimes requires that the speaker who wishes to be humble
avoid the second person all together and simply use the first person plural inclusive:
!
!
!
!
sytegga neditseta
%
%
[sytu:ek:a nxitseda]
%
%
syty-ue-gga ned-i-t=se=ita
%

wish-INFER.CONCL.OBT-1P.AG.PL.INCL sit.down-ITR-INFI=ILLAT

please sit down! (lit. may we wish to sit down)

In fact, the form sytegga is a very common polite form for asking someone to do
something, or to ask someone to accompany one. It exists in various shortened form,
such as sytka, ti and sytvi, which can commonly found in utterances in order to
make them more like a polite request:
!
!
!
!

deladnauri sytka/ti/sytvi %
katomolkiuri sytegga% '
hagenaunni ti, ot' '
siopuadnakimi sytka'
'

%
'
'
'

please take off your coat

please move out of the way
you will/must notice that
please help me (a little)

297

9.3.1.2 Obviative vs. Proximate

The third person has two forms a normal form, called proximate, and an obviative
form. The proximate form is the default form of the third person, and it distinguishes
between singular and plural. The obviative form however, lacks a number distinction
and has a much more restricted use.
!
The third person obviative is used when more than one third person is
involved in a sentence. The third person obviative is generally found in a subsequent
phrase to an initial statement.
The rules as to when the obviative is used are as follow, illustrated in the table below
and described here:
1. If a subject in phrase is also subject in phrase, it is found in its
regular proximate form.
2. If subject in phrase is not the same as in phrase, subject is in the
obviative.
3. If phrase has both subject and a recipient, and phrase has
subject and an object which is not the same as the recipient, the
subject is in the obviative and the object is found as a proximate
independent pronoun.
4. If a subject in phrase is the object or not longer the subject in
phrase, the subject will be in the obviative, and the object of
phrase (subject) will be found in the fourth person.
phrase

phrase

subject

subject

1
proximate
subject

subject

proximate

obviative

subject

subject

object

proximate

obviative

independent
proximate
pronoun

subject

subject

subject
object

obviative

4p.

recipient

object
proximate

298

1.
!
%
%

!
%
%

!
!

!
!

net-a- n<eg>-ot-a--
know-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG see.PAST-COMPLE-!
ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X knows that X saw Y

2.
!
%
%

!
%
%

neta negotat
[neta negda]

!
!

!
!

net-a- n<eg>-ot-a--t
know-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG see.PAST-COMPLE-!
ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.OBV.AG

X knows that X saw Y

3.
!
%
%

!
%
%

nonati negotat otta

[nni negda ta]

!
!

!
!

n=on-a-ti- n<eg>-ot-a-t o=tta

tell.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.RECI-3P.AG.SG see.PAST-COMPL
ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.OBV.AG 3P.PRON.ANI.SG.PAT

X told Y that X saw Y

4.
!
%
%

!
%
%

neta negotait
[neta negda]

!
!

!
!

net-a- n<eg>-ot-a-i-t
know-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL see.PAST-COMPLEASS.CONCL.TR-4P.PAT-3P.OBV.AG

X knows that X saw X

neta negota
[neta negda]
!

!
9.3.1.3 Fourth Person
The fourth person in Siwa serves three main purposes.
1.
With a plural subject, the fourth person may serve as a reciprocality and/
or reflexivity marker, to indicate that the plural subjects act on each
other.
!
!

2.

negairi! !
dlairi' '

they saw each other

they killed each other

The fourth person serves as an impersonal pronoun referring to an

unnamed agent. It can be equivalent to a first person plural without

299

associating oneself to the group (compared the inclusive and exclusive

first persons, this would be an excluded first person). It can also be
used in a similar fashion to English one. Forms in -gen/-en are most
common for this in the agentive.
!
!

3.

pendigen'
uovoammia'

'
'

we/one arrived
we/one was very afraid

The fourth person refers back to the subject of a previous phrase when
a new subject has been introduced.

!
'

!
'

%
'

ikigutta, ipednidna oakibma deika ini-nen

X couldnt wait for his/her daughter to come back home

!
!

!
!

!
!

idaga klita te ihtvia kepieita-ho kaimka-nen gala

he attacked him and hit him on his head with his stick

When a third person acts upon itself, the fourth or third person is used. When a third
person, similarly, uses the third person proximate (i.e. non-obviative) in a non-verbal
form (usually in the genitive or with double case marking), it carries a simple reflexive
meaning, whereas using the fourth person usually implies ones own:
!
!

ha nsi~tmsi !!
ha nihsi '
'

X eats his/hers
X eats his/her own

The fourth person can be used as a patientive pronoun (-i or -a) to show reflexivity. It
can also be used as an agentive pronoun (-en or -gen), coalesced with the
appropriate plural agentive pronoun, to show reciprocality.
Reciprocal
A reciprocal verb has plural subjects acting upon each other.
Uses -en- or -gen- coalesced with the appropriate plural agentive pronoun:
!
!

1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!

-enka% %
-enke% %

you and me VERB each other

X and I VERB each other

2P.PL!

-enda% %

you VERB each other

3P.PL!

-enri%

they VERB each other

!
!
!

rutraenri'
'
oittaaenri'
'
mra laenka% '

'
'
'

they hate each other

the quickly glanced at each other
we know each other
300

!
%
%

negaenri katvumemia didagi1

[negjn(d)ri katv:memia didji]

%
%

n<eg>-a-en=ri kat=vume-m=ia dida--gi

see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-RECIPRO.3P.PL.AG reflection-INESS girl-AGT-PL

the girls saw each other in the reflection (X and Y saw X and Y)

Another way of marking reciprocality is with the pronoun nin- (see 10.1.5):
%
!

negari katvumemia nigeni didagi

the girls saw each other in the reflection

!
'

imairi nika tegmagi

the children laughed at each other (imairo- -ika laugh at X)

Reflexive
A reflexive verb has a subject acting upon itself.
Uses -i- or -a- as patientive pronouns.
!
!
onegairi katvumemia didagi
%
[negiri katv:memia didji]
%
%

o-n<eg>-a-i-ri kat=vume-m=ia dida--gi

SUBJ-see.pAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-4P.PAT-3P.AG.PL reflection-INESS girl-AGT-PL

The girls saw themselves in the reflection (X saw X, Y saw Y)2

Verbs whose object arguments are not verbal pronouns (like verbs involving ninoneself) use a special set of object forms of the nin- pronouns. For the second and
first person, the former pronoun (normally nigen) may instead be the personal
pronoun (megi, negi).

!
!
!
!

patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!

nigennin, nigennin, niennin

ni nin, nionnin, nih nin, nihonnin
nitsi nin, nitsinin, nitsnin (nihnin)
ni-nin, ni- nin

%
!
!
%
%

imairi nikanin~nika nin tegmagi%

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
ihenni nitanin~nita nin roam'
sailumana nigen ninta% '

%
!
!
'
'

the children laughed at

themselves (X laughed at X, Y
laughed at Y)
each is responsible for himself
you have to trust in yourself

1 These types of sentences sometimes trigger the subjective preverbal vowel o- to appear, such that the

phrase can also be found as onegaenri katvumemia didagi.

2 The use of reflexives will often trigger the subjunctive preverbal vowel o-.

301

or%
!

sailumana neidi ninta% '

'

you have to trust in yourself

Reciprocality is generally not expressed by use of the patientive 4th person -i- or -aif verbs have an inherently reciprocal meaning, such as verbs in o--ld- (see
14.2.2).
!
!
dohraenri
%
%
[dhrjn(d)ri]
%
%
do<hr>-a-en=ri
!

say.goodbye.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-REIPCRO.3P.AG.PL

they said goodbye to each other

!
%
%

!
%

oageleenka%
[jj:elejka]

%
!

SUBJ-get.to.know-INFER.CONCL.TR-RECIPRO.1P.AG.PL.INCL

we will/should get to know each other

!
%

!
%

ogikkiaenri
[j:cijn(d)ri]

%
!

%
!

ogikk-i-a-en=ri
be.enamored-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-RECIPRO.3P.AG.PL

they were enamored with each other

%
%
%

%
%

saibba daumi-nen lugudneka

[sip:a duminn luj:tnega]

%
!

saibb-a <daumi>-nen lugu-t=ne=ika

must.not-ASS.CONCL.TR older.sister.GEN4P.PRON.POSS love-INFI.AG.TR=ELAT

one must not love ones own (older) sister

!
'
!

!
'

oneigenri
[neij:n(d)ri]

!
!

o-n=e-i-gen=ri
SUBJ-bathe.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-RECIPRO.3P.AG.PL

they washed each other

!
!
!

!
!

oneiari
[neijri]

!
!

o-n=e-i-a=ri
SUBJ-bathe.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-4P.PAT-.3P.AG.PL

they washed themselves

!
!

o-agel-e-en=gga

302

oveibmigenri daaita-nen 1
[vpmij:n(d)ri d:idann]

!
!
%

!
!
%

o-vei<bm>-i-gen=ri da<a>-itanen
SUBJ-marry.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-RECIPRO.3P.AG.PL younger.sister-ILLAT4P.POSS

!
!

they married each others younger sisters

9.3.2 Agentive Pronouns

Agentive pronouns are the last thing to be added to the verb stem, and they occupy
slot 9. They are used for conscious, willing agents. The third person has a special
form found with the copula. The first person is sometimes found as -b, especially in
poetry. The fourth person -gen ending is used after -i-, whereas -en is used
elsewhere.
person

1P.

agentive pronoun

example

SG.

-mi/-b (-(i) WEST)

makimi~makib~makii I will go

PL. INCL

-gga (-ko WEST)

makigga~makiko we will go

PL. EXCL

-gge (-k WEST)

makigge~makik we will go

SG.

-na

makina you will go

PL.

-dda (-d WEST)

makidda~makid you will go

SG.

- (-ta/-ra with the

copula)

maki X will go

PL.

-ri (-ts WEST) (-tari/-ddari

with the copular)

makiri~makits they will go

OBV.

-t

makit X will go

-o / -en / -gen

makio~makigen one will go

2P.

3P.

4P.

9.3.3 Recipient Pronouns

Recipient pronouns precede agentive pronouns directly. They are used to show that
the person is the recipient of something, i.e. is the indirect object. Its other role is to
show who benefits from the action. When the recipient pronouns function is that of an
indirect object, the verb is generally found in the ditransitive. However, transitivity is
1

The 4th person possessive -nen here is prefered to the 3rd person animate -ho because the subject of
the phrase (they) is considered as a single person.

303

not a factor when a beneficiary is marked onto the verb by the recipient pronouns.
This means that even intransitive verbs may have a recipient pronoun.
!
RECIPIENT!
!
i--a-ti !!
X will VERB to Y
!
BENIFICIARY!
!
-a-ti! !
X will VERB for Y
!
The recipient pronouns do not distinguish between the first person inclusive or
exclusive, and similarly between the third person plural or singular. The example
below is the verb isot- to give (to)
person

recipient pronoun

example

-ki-

isotaki X will give Y to me

-bi-

isotabi X will give Y to us

SG.

-si-

isotasi X will give Y to you

PL.

-hi-

isotahi X will give Y to you

-ti- (-tsi WEST)

isotati X will give Y to Z

-i-

isotai X will give Y to Z

-ni-

isotani X will give Y to one

SG.

1P.

PL. INCL
PL. EXCL

2P.

SG.

3P.

PL.
OBV.

4P.

Third person recipient pronouns are also commonly found as locative markers (see
4.5.5.3), especially with ditransitive verbs.
9.3.4 Patientive Pronouns
Patientive pronouns are found in slot 6 and they are used for objects, whether their
nominal counterpart is in the dative or the genitive. All object pronouns have a single
form, the patientive form. When the nuance, which normally is expressed through the
object case (genitive vs. dative), is not expressed saliently enough for the speakers
intention, it may be represented both by a verbal pronoun and an independent
pronoun in the appropriate case. The example below is the verb neg- saw (past of
nu-).
!
Personal pronouns exist both in the dative and the patientive. The distinction
between dative and patientive however is not realized with verbal pronouns, and the
independent pronouns thus have two corresponding cases to a single set of verbal
pronouns. Telicity is thus only shown through independent pronouns.

304

!
!

VERBAL PRONOUNS!

%
%

adlmiaka gogi% !
adlma gosi maka%

patientive!

person

1P.

!
!

CORRESPONDING INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS

!
!

X raised me (to be something)

X was raising me

dative or genitive

patientive pronoun

example

SG.

-ka-

negaka X saw me

PL. INCL

-ba-

negaba X saw us

PL. EXCL

-be-

negabe X saw us

SG.

-sa-

negasa X saw you

PL.

-ha-

negaha X saw you

SG.

--

nega X saw Y

PL.

-a-

negaa X saw them (also one saw

Y)

OBV.

-no- or -u

negau X saw Y

-i or -a

negai X saw itself

2P.

3P.

4P.

Should slot 8 be empty, certain patientive pronouns coalesce with the agentive
pronouns:
2P.PAT.SG +
1P.AG.SG

-sa-mi

-hmi

arkiasami I used to babysit Y arkiasahmi I

used to babysit you

2P.PAT.SG +
1P.PL.INCL

-sagga

-skka

dohhagga we will say goodbye to X

dohhaskka we will say goodbye to you

2P.PAT.SG +
1P.PL.EXCL

-sagge

-skke

geilagge we will accuse Y geilaskke we

will accuse you

1P.PAT.SG +
2P.AG.SG

-ka-na

-nga
or kna

goskkana you will betray Y goskkanga you

will betray me

305

9.3.5 Unagentive Pronouns

Unagentive pronouns are those which describe an agent acting as the subject of the
verb, but which acts unwillingly, unconsciously, against his or her will, by accident, or
with various verbs which require an unagentive pronoun. Unlike the three other types
of pronouns, unagentive pronouns are prefixes to the verb and are housed in prefix
slot -2.
!
However, when unagentive pronouns are found attached to the copula (in
copular constructions), the pronoun is found as a suffix in slot 9. The examples below
are with the verb id- to fall in its verbal form and in a past relative copular clause.
!
The third person singular pronoun attached directly to verbs to form clusters
when possible:
!
%
t-v%
%
d-l%
%
t-s%
%
t-sv%
%
t-s%
%
t-sv%
%
t-%
%
t-v!
Dialects that allow complex initial clusters also allow:
!
%
t-m- (sometimes s-m-)
%
%
t-k-!
!
The first person has the following forms:
!
en- before
!
!
en-t%
%
en-d%
%
en-ts%
%
en-t%
%
en-d%
%
en-k%
%
en-g%
em- before
!
!
em-b%
%
em-p%
ed- before
%
%
ed-n!
ent- before
!
!
ent-s%
%
ent-!
!
ent-ma- elsewhere
!
306

There is quite a lot of variation between dialects in the exact forms of the first person
(perhaps due to the convergence of the singular and plural forms). One common
form is simply eC-C or C-C where the initial consonant is geminated according to
the same rules as approbation (see 4.4.1), ei-, m(a)- in all cases (mostly older
western dialect speakers) or even meC- (far eastern dialects). Forms in eC- are
slowly becoming favored over en-.
%
%
%
%
%
%

engidlki'
eggidlki
ggidlki
eigidlki
magidlki
meggidlki

'

I surrender

Not all dialects use en-/em-/ent-. Forms in ei- are also common, and some western
dialects use the pattern eC-C- or e- with gemination of the initial vowel (same rules
as pejorative, see 4.4.3)1. Forms in eC-C or e- are common amongst younger
speakers and males.
unagentive pronoun
person

SG.

1P.

PL. INCL

example
verb

copula

m(a)or
en(t)-/ed-

-ma

-mari

idi gaitoma
in which I fell
middi
I/we fell

idi gaitomari
in which we fell

PL. EXCL

m(e)or
en(t)-

-meri (mri WEST)

SG.

s(a)-

-sa

siddi you fell

idi gaitosa
in which you fell

PL.

s(a)-

-sari
(-si WEST)

siddi you fell

idi gaitosari
in which you fell

SG.

t(a)-

-ta

tiddi X fell

idi gaitota
in which X fell

idi gaitomeri
in which we fell

2P.

1 Examples:
3P.
I fall asleep can be mapiagi, empiagi, eipiagi or ebbiagi.

307

unagentive pronoun
person

example
verb

copula

PL.

ts(e)-

-tari
(-di WEST)

tsiddi they fell

idi gaitotari
in which they
fell

OBV.

n(e)-

-ne

niddi X fell

idi gaitone
in which X fell

(a)-

-a

iddi one fell

idi gaitoa
in which one
fell

3P.

4P.

9.3.6 Overview
unagentive
person

1P.

agentive
verbal

copular

patientive

recipient

-ki

SG.

-mi

m(a)en-

-ma

-ka

PL.
INCL

-gga

m(a)en-

-mari

-ba

PL.
EXCL

-gge

m(e)en-

-meri

-be

SG.

-na

s(a)-

-sa

-sa

-si

PL.

-dda

s(a)-

-sari

-ha

-hi

SG.

t(a)-

-ta

PL.

-ri

ts(e)-

-tari

-a

OBV.

-t

n(e)-

-ne

-no/-u

-i

-o/-en

(a)-

-a

-i/-a

-ni

-bi

2P.

-ti
3P.

4P.

308

9.4 Agentivity
All verbs with an agent in Siwa are found in one of two possible agentivities the
agentive and the unagentive.
!
Verbs may only allow one or the other, or both agentivities, usually with
changes in meaning. How a verbs agentivity behaves can be difficult to predict, but
in the majority of cases, it reflects the Siwa speakers understanding of agentivity or
may simply be the result of the verbs assigned agentivity.
!
Agentivity describes whether the doer of an action, the agent, is conscious or
not. An agentive verb involves a doer who is perceived to be conscious, willing or
personified inanimate nouns. An unagentive verb on the other hand, is the opposite
the agent is perceived to be unconscious, unwilling or a depersonified animate noun.
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

AGENTIVE!

I eat! !
I walk! !
I go to sleep!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

UNAGENTIVE

I vomit
I stumble
I fall asleep

Conscious and/or willing or unconscious and/or unwilling agents are not so much
determined by the actual consciousness or willingness but rather by whether or not
their action is the result of the agents own decision. For example, the form middi I
fell is in its unagentive form, while if it is put in the agentive, iddimi, the meaning
becomes I willingly fell/I made myself fall/I pretended to fall.
!
Certain verbs have assigned agentivity which may or may not reflect the
actual semantic agentivity of the verb. For example, while the verb to like might
actually involve a conscious decision on the agents half, the Siwa verb kokk- to like,
to please is always unagentive. In fact, the English subject of the verb is found in the
patientive in Siwa, and the English object is found in the unagentive. Verbs where the
logical topic of the phrase is not the agent are called patientive verbs (see 9.4.1.1)
!
%
%

%
%

sakokkaka
[skkga]

%
%

sa-kokk-a-ka
2P.UNAG.SG-please-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG

I like you (lit. you please me)

9.4.1 Unagentive Verbs

Unagentive verbs are vast class. Semantically agentive verbs that behave as
unagentive verbs are more common than semantically unagentive verbs that behave
as agentive verbs. For that reason, unagentive verbs may appear slightly more
counterintuitive.
!
Unagentive verbs are easy to recognize as use prefixes for pronouns (in slot
-3), unlike agentive verbs. Common unagentive classes include:
309

1. Verbs denoting an involuntary state:

!
!
maihi ! !
I will be wrong
!
maiteili''
I will be severely sick
!
mamendui'
I will dream
!
empunki'
I will feel remorse
Verbs denoting an involuntary/accidental action:
!
!
!
!
!

maheoli'
maiha' '
ednekeni'
taroahti'
teli'
'

I will shiver
I will do something (wrong)
I will lose
X will chafe
X will grow

3. All verbs in -eni and -uni with a meaning of to seem Y or to feel Y and most other
verbs denoting senses:
!
!
empialeni'
I will seem red/I will flush
!
entsereni'
I will feel good
!
entauttuni'
I will seem hungry
!
gos engeki ' I seem tired
!
moheimeni'
I am hot
!
mohigeni'
I am cold
4. Certain causative verbs:
!
!
tatuukka'
X will make Y sick!
!
tahigekka'
X will make Y cold
5. All translative verbs (in -u or -):
!
!
!
!
!
!

mahing'
maaku'
mamagu'
tananku'
tsadlu' '
tslk' '

I will die (in combat)

I will grow older
I will fade
X will pile up, accumulate
X will burn (in a pot)
X will swell up

A great number of auxiliary verbs (which are also often translative):

!
!
!

mahatru'
mahoma'
mahhu'

I ought to
I had better do Y
I can do Y (because I have enough endurance)
310

!
enkaha%'
!
miomu''
!
!
!
!
7. A small number of
negative form):

I need to (do Y)
I can do Y (because I have enough time/conditions are
favorable)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

I will live
I will be alive
I will shriek
I will come from
I will misbehave
I will recover
I will look forward to Y (cf. gimiaka I am anxious)
I will not have time for Y (cf. allami I will have time for Y)

mngi' '
milili' '
mahirkurui!
miboaki'
morpi' '
emprru'
engimia'
set malla'

semantically ambiguous or agentive verbs (often in their

9.4.1.1 Patientive Verbs

A small group of verbs, often considered to be a subset of unagentive verbs, are
called the patientive verbs. They also have an unagentive subject, but rather than
using unagentive pronouns and have the agent be the subject, patientive verbs have
the subject in the patientive. The actual object is usually an unagentive subject.
Verbal adjectives are also patientive verbs, and many true verbs semantically similar
to adjectival verbs belong to this group:
!
!
!
!
!

gimmika!
!
tahammuaka% !
takokkaka%
!
(ta)koaibmaka% !

I am excited ! (cf. tagimmika X exites me)

I love X
I like X
X is enough for me

9.4.2 Agentive Verbs

Agentive verbs include the majority of verbs whose agent is perceived to be in
control or to be acting willingly. Opposite to unagentive verbs, agentive verbs use
suffixes to mark pronouns in slot 4.
!
Because agentive verbs require self-awareness, will, intent or control, they
will most commonly involve human or personified agents. Because of this, they are
more restricted than unagentive verbs, but include more of the most common verbs.
%
!
!
!
!
!

negami%!
kitami% %
pokimi'
arkami ''
askilami'
eitami' '

I will see Y
I will do Y
I will go to sleep
I will babysit Y
I will control/govern Y
I will build Y
311

!
geigami%
I will share Y
%
gikami% '
I will glance at Y
!
erimi' '
I will be careful
!
hidduami'
I will stack Y up
!
gagemami'
I will feel compassion for Y (as an act of solidarity)
!
!
9.4.3 Ambiguous Agentivity
Verbs whose agentivity is ambiguous may sometimes be found in the unagentive or
in the agentive, and this difference may subtly or greatly affect the verbs meaning or
possible interpretations. A change of assigned agentivity may be used for
personification or depersonification of an agent.
!
Personification is taking a generally inanimate action and conferring it the
qualities of an animate action, thus giving the inanimate agent life, a will and/or a
consciousness this is especially common in storytelling and more poetic language.
!
'
!

kei trhi
(the) Sun will rise
personified the sun is a deity acting consciously

%
'
!

kei thta
the sun will rise
not personified the sun is simply a natural phenomenon

Depersonification is making a generally agentive verb unagentive. This is usually

used:

1. With pejorative nouns:

!
%

nanta eteri-go oddolba

[nanta eterig t:lba]

%
!

na<nt>-a eteri-go od-t<olba>

break.PAST-Ass.CONCL.TR spear-DAT1P.POSS.SG PEJ-son-PAT

'

your (worthless/damn) son broke my spear

2. To belittle the agent of the verb (especially with rhetoric questions in so- -ahte):
!
'

medde vuihlina
[met:e vhlina]

%
!

medde vuihl-i-na
even whistle-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.AG.SG

'

you even whistle

312

%
'

so medde sviuhlo-ahte
[s()met:e svhlahte]

%
!

so medde sa-vuihl-oahte
INTERRO even 2P.UNAG.SG-whistle-INFER.CONCL.ITRINTERRO.RHETO

'
!

heh, so you even whistle! (said to intimidate/bully)

3. To diminish the agents worth:

%
'

tandana revvagegna
[andna rew:an:a]

%
!

ta<nd>-a-na revva=gegna-
find.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG fox=den-DAT

'

you found a fox hole (agentive)

%
'

ihha satanda revvagegna

[ih:a sanda rew:an:a]

%
!

ihha sa-ta<nd>-a revva=gegna-

just 2p.UNAG.SG-find.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG fox=den-DAT

'

you merely found a fox hole (and you were just lucky) (unagentive)

!
Ambiguous agentivity may also simply result from actions that may be performed as
conscious acts (generally by humans) or by other animals or factors.

!
!

euksami detkenma ! I produce quality knives (agentive)

euka geletsta srkdi ! spiders produce silk (unagentive)

9.4.4 Double Agentivity

Double agentivity refers to a grammatical construction where two sets of pronouns
are added onto a verb when both the unagentive and agentive pronoun sets are
present. Such constructions occur with certain verbs, commonly in the obligative or
the optative, and always with the reversive aspect marker (-dna-/-adn-):
!
!
!
%

INTRANSITIVE!

!
sa--um-i-dna-mi%
ma--um-i-dna-na%
ta--um-i-dna-%

sa--um-a-dna-mi!
ma--um-a-dna-na!
ta--um-a-dna- !

I need you to VERB

you need me to VERB
X needs Y to VERB

%
%
!

sa--vi-dna-mi% %
ma--vi-dna-na %
ta--vi-dna-% %

sa--ua-dna-mi%!
ma--ua-dna-na!
ta--ua-dna- % !

I want you to VERB

you want me to VERB
X wants Y to VERB

TRANSITIVE

These constructions correspond to English phrases of the type X wants/needs Y to Z.

The agentive pronoun always refers to the agent acting on the verb (X wants/needs),
313

while the unagentive pronouns refer to the actor of the obligation or the wish (in the
optative). Double agentivity does not affect a verbs valency.
!
%

I need you to go
samakumiadnami

Consider the following phrases:

!
'
%

keknumami sasame
[cunmi ssme]

kekn-um-a-mi sasame-
put.together-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG tipi-DAT

I must to put the tipi together

%
'
%

sakeknumadnami sasame
[scunatnmi ssme]

sa-kekn-um-a-dna-mi sasame-
2P.UNAG.SG-put.together-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-REVERS-1P.AG.SG tipi-DAT

I need you to put the tipi together

%
'
%

makimi
[mkwimi]

mak-i-mi
go-ASS.CONCL.ITR.OPT-1P.AG.SG

I want to go

!
'
%

samakidnami
[smkwtnmi]

sa-mak-i-dna-mi
2P.UNAG.SG-go-ASS.CONCL.ITR.OPT-REVERS-1P.AG.SG

!
I want you to go
!
Such constructions can sometimes contain a pronominal object, which is then found
as a recipient. This type of double agentivity construction does affect valency,
placing verbs in the ditransitive:
!
%
%
!

s-i--ua-dna-ki-mi!
m-i--ua-dna-si-na!
t-i--ua-dna-ti-!
t-i--ua-dna-ni- !

!
!
!
!

%
'

sinokkuadnakimi Sappa
[sinkatnimi sapa]

!
!
!
!

I want you to VERB me

you want me to VERB you
X wants Y to VERB X
X wants Y to VERB Z

314

%
%

s-i-nokk-ua-dna-ki-mi Sappa-
2P.PAT-DIT-call-ASS.CONCL.TR.OPT-REVERS-1P.PAT-1P.AG.SG Sappa-AGT

I want you to call me Sappa (i.e. my name is Sappa)

!
9.5 Valency
Siwa verbs differ greatly depending on their valency, i.e. how and which arguments
of verbs are involved. Siwa has 7 main types of valencies, with three types having
both transitive and intransitive distinctions. Included in this are impersonal verbs,
which are always intransitive. Each valency type has its own infinitive form and postand preverbal vowel qualities.

!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

transitive
intransitive
%
(impersonal verbs)
translative
subjective
!
transitive
!
intransitive
ditransitive
!
transitive
!
intransitive (also called destinal ditransitive)
passive
!
transitive (also called agentive)
!
intransitive

9.5.1 Transitive
Transitive verbs are verbs whose agent acts upon a patient or object. They are a very
large class or verbs whose only specific common trait is having an object.
!
The transitive agentive infinitive marker is -mi and its unagentive form is -mu/m, which deletes the preceding postverbal vowel if a consonant cluster can be
formed, behaving exactly like the inconclusive marker (see 9.2.1.8.1).
infinitive marker

agentive

unagentive

unmarked

-mi

-mu/-m
-bme
or
-nta

marked

315

ala
[la]

alla
[l:a]

al-a--
tan-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

all-a--
have.time-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will tan Y
(inf. almi to tan)

X will have time for Y

(inf. allami to have time)

teukiula
[teuiula]

taheskva
[thskw:a]

t-euk-iul-a-
3P.UNAG-produce-ABS.DESC-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

ta-heskv-a-
3P.UNAG-receive-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

X will secrete Y
(inf. eukiulmu to secret)

X will receive Y (something bad)

(inf. heskvamu to receive)

ha
[ha]

ihha
[ih:ja]

h-a--
eat-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ihh-a--
thank-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will eat Y
(inf. hami to eat)

X will thank Y
(inf. imi to thank)

tandida
[tandida]

tgukka
[ti:j:ka]

tama-t-id-a-
upon-3P.UNAG-fall-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

t-gukk-a-
3P.UNAG-rejuvenate-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

X will stumble upon Y

(inf. tamibmu to stumble upon)

X will rejuvenate Y
(inf. gukkamu to rejuvenate)

iskua
[ska]

keda
[ceda]

isko-a--
clean-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ked-a--
carry-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will clean Y
(inf. iskomi to clean)

X will carry Y
(inf. kebmi to carry)

luhha
[luh:a]

mahha
[mh:a]

luhh-a--
boil-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

mahh-a--
follow-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will boil Y
(inf. luhmi to boil)

X will hunt/follow Y
(inf. mahmi to hunt)

nua
[nuja]

tatsasa
[ttsasxa]

nu-a--
see-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ta-tsas-a-
3p.unag-forget-ass.concl.tr-3p.pat.sg

X will see Y
(inf. nuimi~nugmi to see)

X will forget Y
(inf. tsasamu to forget)

316

tipra
[pxa]

sanka
[saka]

tipr-a--
write-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

sank-a--
scratch-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will write Y
(inf. tiprami to write)

X will scratch Y
(inf. sankami to scratch)

tatiba
[tiba]

tvaika
[tviga]

ta-tb-a-
3P.UNAG-signify-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

t-vaik-a-
3P.UNAG-be.ashamed-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT

X will signify/mean Y
(inf. tibmu to signify/mean)

X will be ashamed of Y
(inf. vaikmu to be ashamed)

9.5.2 Intransitive
Intransitive verbs are verbs which only involve one agent, the subject. Intransitive
verbs cannot have an object, but may also be found with a beneficiary pronoun.
!
The transitive agentive infinitive marker is -sa and its unagentive form is -su,
which deletes the preceding postverbal vowel if a consonant cluster can be formed,
behaving similarly like the habitual marker (see 9.2.1.2.3).
!
infinitive marker

agentive

unagentive

unmarked

-sa

-su/-s
-tse
or
-sta

marked

d
[di:]

eri
[eri]

di-i-
step-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

er-i-
be.careful-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

X will step
(inf. disa to step)

X will be careful
(inf. erha to be careful)

airi
[jri]

kei
[cewi]

air-i-
row-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

ke-i-
rise-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

X will row
(inf. airha to row)

X will stand up/rise

(inf. keisa to rise)

317

hhhi
[hh:i]

tagli
[tdz:li]

hhh-i-
jump-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

ta-gl-i
3P.UNAG-spin-ASS.ITR.CONCL

X will jump
(inf. hhsa to jump)

X will spin
(inf. glsu to spin)

tagihli
[thli]

tagogantsi
[tggantsi]

ta-gihl-i
3P.UNAG-hang-ASS.ITR.CONCL

ta-gogants-i
3P.UNAG-limp-ASS.ITR.CONCL

X will hang
(inf. gihlisu to hang)

X will limp
(inf. gogantsisu to limp)

takylki
[tclci]

mani
[mni]

ta-kylk-i
3P.UNAG-slip-ASS.ITR.CONCL

man-i-
come-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

X will slip
(inf. kylkis to slip)

X will come
(inf. manta to come)

maki
[mci]

tamendui
[tmndui]

mak-i-
go-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

ta-mendo-i
3P.UNAG-dream-ASS.ITR.CONCL

X will go
(inf. maksa to go)

X will dream
(inf. mendosu to limp)

sai or sahhi
[s:i] or [sh:ji]

tahhi
[th:i]

sa/sahh-i-
talk-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

tahh-i-
leave-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

X will talk
(inf. saa to talk)

X will leave
(inf. tahsa to leave)

tuvi
[tuvi]

poki
[pci]

tuv-i-
turn-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

pohh=k-i-
sleep=TRANSLO-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.AG.SG

X will turn
(inf. tussa to turn)

X will go to sleep
(inf. pokisa to go to sleep)

9.5.2.1 Intransitive Syncope

Intransitive verbs are unique in regularly going through syncope, or the loss of the
assertive marker -i- which characterizes all intransitive verbs. Syncope is most
common in specific situations, but it is never required.
!
Syncope of the -i- vowel occurs mostly with the first person plural agentive
markers -gga/-gge, and a handful of verbs may also be found in the singular of the
first and second person singular. The general rule is that a verb of the form -Cigga

318

will become -C(k)ka, although a few geminated clusters also allow for syncope (-and -hts-).
!
However, these are less common possibly due to confusing with infinitive
endings (-mi and -na). For that reason, the syncoped forms are more common in the
past than the present, or in the subjective (which are distinct from their infinitive
counterparts). Most commonly, the syncope will be -CCi-na/-mi to -Cna/-Cmi.
For a complete description of the sound changes, see the section on allophony of
consonants (3.4.1.1).

!
Non-syncoped!
1P.PL.AG
!
saumigga%
!
ltemigga%
!
otigga% %
!
totigga%%
%
biohtsigga%
!
norigga 1%
%
eigga%
!
tsoairigga%
%
erigga% %
%
otiligga%

Syncoped

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

saumkka%
ltemkka!
otka% !
totka% !
biohtska!
noka~norkka%
eka% !
tsoarkka!
erkka% !
otilkka%!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

we will breathe
we will come crawling
we will unite
we will cooperate
we will play
we will sing
we will run
we will go by ski
we will be careful
we will dry ourselves

1P.SG.AG
%
omingimi%
%
odikkimi%

%
%

omigmi% %
odikmi% !

!
!

I will get ready

I will show off!

%
%

sitna% !
toatna% !

!
!

you understood
you came along

2P.SG.AG!
!
siddina% %
!
toaddina%
!

9.5.3 Translative
Translative verbs involve only one participant, an unagentive subject. All translative
verbs are unagentive, and they typically depict a change of state, although the
translative is also used with a great number of auxiliary verbs. Impersonal verbs, as
will be explained below, have no translative form and instead use the conclusive
aspect to express this distinction.
The translative verbs are unique in that many adjectives can be made into a
translative verb by using the preverbal marker a- to create verbs with a meaning of to
become (more) ADJ:

1 The verb to sing has the underlying form nod- but the -d- commonly becomes -r- before vowels.

319

kuomon !
maga ! !
lekna ! !
minga ! !

bent ! !
white !!
snowless !
ready ! !

!
!
!
!

takuomu !
tamagu !
alekn !
taming !

X will become (more) bent

X will become white(r)
it will become snowless
X will become ready

The transitive infinitive marker is -lu/-l, which deletes the preceding postverbal vowel
if a consonant cluster can be formed, behaving exactly like the perfective marker
(see 9.2.1.2.3). If a cluster cannot be formed, the ending becomes -oru or in certain
dialects -ol, -, -ul.
!
infinitive marker

agentive

unagentive

unmarked

-oru(-ol)/-r
or
-lu/-l
-dle
or
-olta/-lta

marked

ent
[nt]

teuvvu
[teuw:u]

ent-
be.unlikely-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

t-euvv-u
3p.UNAG-reach-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

it is unlikely
(inf. entr to be unlikely)

X will be able to reach Y

(inf. euvvoru~euvvol to be able to
reach)

mahhu
[mjh:ju]

taku
[tkwu]

m-ahh-u
1p.UNAG-endure-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

tak-u
be.worth-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

I will be able to endure Y

(inf. ahhoru~ahhol to be able to
endure)

it is worth it
(inf. takoru~takol to be worth)

ttk
[ti:tk]

tamoahnu
[tmahnu]

t-tk-
3P.UNAG-melt-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

ta-moahn-u
3P.UNAG-get.damaged-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

X will melt
(inf. tkoru~tkol to melt)

X will get damaged

(inf. moahnoru~moahnol to get
damaged)

320

tanalu
[tlu]

manoapsu
[m:aps:u]

ta-nal-u
3P.UNAG-taste-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

ma-noaps-u
1P.UNAG-grow.a.beard-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

X will taste (like)

(inf. nallu to taste)

I will grow a beard

(inf. noapsoru~noapsol to grow a
beard)

tohku
[thku]

taphh
[tpy:h:]

t-ohk-u
3P.UNAG-fit-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

ta-phh-
3P.UNAG-menstruate-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

X will fit
(inf. ohkoru~ohkol to fit)

X will become menstruated

(inf. phl to become menstruated)

tsadlu
[tstu]

tatul
[tt:l]

t-sadl-u
3P.UNAG-burn-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

ta-tul-
3P.UNAG-subside-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

X will get burnt (in a pot)

(inf. sadloru~sadlol to burn)

X will subside
(inf. tull to subside)

tatoairu
[tiru]

tvoavvu
[tvw:u]

ta-toair-u
3P.UNAG-rot-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

t-voavv-u
3P.UNAG-get.scared-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL

X will rot
(inf. toairoru~toairol to rot)

X will get scared

(inf. voavvoru~voavvol to get
scared)

9.5.4 Subjective
Subjective verbs are marked by the preverbal vowel o-, and can be found as
agentive, unagentive, transitive or intransitive verbs. Subjective agentive verbs are
verbs whose subject and object are the same or closely related, unalienable
possessions. Subjective agentive verbs are used, for example, when the subject acts
upon itself or its body, for its own benefit or by itself. When the subject and object are
the same, the subjective verb is marked as intransitive. If the object of the verb is a
noun, then the verb will be transitive.
Many transitive verbs may be found as subjective, and only a few verbs are only
found as subjective. Usually, transitive subjective verbs will change to ditransitive if
the object is no longer the same as or related to the subject. However, ditransitivity
yields to subjectivity, such that a verb having both a ditransitive and subjective
meaning will only show the subjective markings. Verbs can freely accept preverbal
vowels for the subjective and ditransitive.
SUBJECTIVE

DITRANSITIVE

321

ometami hide
[metmi hide]

etasimi hide
[jetisimi hide]

o-et-a-mi hide-
SUBJ-cut-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG hair-DAT

I will cut my hair

i-et-a-si-mi hide-
DITR-cut-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT.SG-1P.AG.SG
hair-DAT

obolluhhimi
[bl:uh:imi]

ibolluhhasimi
[ibl:uh:simi]

o-ol=luhh-i-mi
SUBJ-leaf=boil-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG

i-ol=luhh-a-si-mi
DIT-leaf=boilASS.CONCL.TR-2P.RECI.SG-1P.AG.SG

I will cut your hair

(lit. I will cut you the hair)

I will boil tea for myself

I will boil tea for you

The subjectives infinitive markers are the same regardless of their transitivity, but
they have a distinction for agentivity; -(e)na marks subjective agentive and -(e)nu
marks subjective unagentive. Infinitive subjective verbs usually lack the preverbal o-,
but some keep it even in the infinitive.
!
infinitive marker

agentive

unagentive

unmarked

-na

-nu/-n
-dne
or
-nda

marked

!
The subjective agentive verbs may also denote a rough, impolite or rude action,
usually denoting selfishness, greed or a rough action (especially with the
semelfactive):

oma siehhdi
[ma sieh:i]

ma siehhdi
[ma sieh:i]

o-m-a- siehhum-di
SUBJ-eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG
dried.meat- GEN

m-a- siehhum-di
eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG dried.meatGEN

X ate him/her/itself some dried meat

X ate some dried meat

mobiddia
[mbi:t:ixa]

middi
[mit:i]

m-o-i<dd>-i-a
1P.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-fall.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-

m--i<dd>-i
1P.UNAG.SG-ITR-fall.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR

SEMELF

I fell

I took a bad fall

322

More examples:
osyki
[sci]

otiri
[tiri]

o-syk-i-
SUBJ-move.away-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

o-t-i-ri
SUBJ-unite-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.PL

X will move away

(inf. sykena to move away)

they will unite

(inf. otena~odna to unite)

otkimi
[tcimi]

otsovi
[tsxvi]

o-tk-i-mi
SUBJ-train-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG

o-tsov-i-
SUBJ-introduce-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

I will train myself

(inf. otkena to train)

X will introduce itself

(inf. tsonna to introduce oneself)

motipri
[mpxi]

mosavvi
[msaw:i]

m-o-tip<r>-i
1P.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-cut.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR

m-o-sa<vv>-i
1P.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-burn.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR

I cut myself
(inf. timn to cut oneself)

I burnt myself
(inf. sahnu to burn oneself)

ogauldari
[galdri]

ogetildiri
[etliri]

o-gauld-a--ri
SUBJ-discuss-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.PL

o-getild-i-ri
SUBJ-meet-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.PL

they will discuss Y together

(inf. gauldena to discuss)

they will meet each other

(inf. getildena to meet)

tsobbi
[tsbbi]

obkkiri
[bciri]

ts-o-b-i
3P.UNAG.PL-SUBJ-multiply-ASS.CONCL.ITR

o-kk-i-ri
SUBJ-fight-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.PL

they will multiply

(inf. mn to multiply)

they will fight

(inf. kkna to fight, quarrel)

soketsodi
[scetsoi]

torettuvvi
[trtuw:i]

s-o-ket=so<d>-i
2P.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-arm=break.PASTASS.CONCL.ITR

t-o-rev=tu<vv>-i
3P.UNAG-SUBJ-ankle=turn.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR

you broke your arm

(inf. ketsogenu to break ones arm)

X twisted his/her/its ankle

(inf. rettunnu to twist ones ankle)

When a subjective verb becomes ditransitive, it may retain its subjective preverbal
vowel and simply have a recipient in a locative case, or it may become ditransitive
and have the subjective marker instead as a reflexive or self pronoun. Reflexive

323

pronouns and ditransitive pronouns may be perceived to be impolite. Certain

speakers allow subjective verbs to also be ditransitive, though this is not common.
%
%
%
!

otsovimi!
!
otsavimi sosita!!
itsovasimi nitsika!
otsovisimi'
'

I introduce myself
I introduce myself to you
lit. I introduce you myself (impolite, lower register)
I introduce myself to you (uncommon)

9.5.5 Ditransitive
Ditransitive verbs are marked by the preverbal vowel i-, which yields to the passive
marker u- and the subjective marker o-, and can be transitive or intransitive, agentive
or unagentive. Ditransitive verbs are verbs with a patient and a recipient. Ditransitive
verbs are also those of motion with a set destination (with postpositions henda up
and tvunda down and their other destinal forms and with the use of the movement
locative cases). !
!
The recipient in Siwa can be the indirect object but also the beneficiary of an
action. A recipient can also be an agent which stands to gain something from the
action. Siwa has special recipient pronouns, but when the direct object is a noun or
an independent pronoun, it is found in the illative. Benefactive ditransitive verbs are
only commonly made from otherwise transitive verbs, not if the verb is intransitive or
translative.
!
The ditransitive infinitive is -(i)nin when agentive and -(i)non when unagentive.
Unagentive intransitive verbs are rather rare.
!
infinitive marker

agentive

unagentive

unmarked

-nin

-non/-nn
-nidne/-ndne
or
-nita/-nta

marked
!

The ditransitive is used:

1.
When a verb has a precise destination, especially with locative markers in
!
verbs such as -ita-/-ibma- and -ika/-iska
%
!
%

%
!
%

imuoaitasa
[imujidsa]
i-muo-a-ita-sa-
DIT-dress-ASS.CONCL.TR-ILLAT-2P.PAT.SG-3P.AG.SG

X will dress you in it

(inf. muoinin~muoinin to dress in)
324

!
%

!
%

isetaibmam
[ist:xapmm]

%
%

%
%

i-set-a-ibma--mu=n
DIT-place-ASS.CONCL.TR-ALLAT-3P.PAT-OBLI=IMPER.2P.SG

!
!

!
!

you will have to place X onto Y

(inf. setinin to place)

!
'
%

!
'

s-aniaitana-a?
[sniidna:]

%
!

INTERRO-PAST=throw.-ASS.CONCL.TR-ILLAT-3P.PAT-2P.AG.SG

!
!

!
!

did you throw X into Y?

(inf. binin to throw, irr.)

!
%

!
%

mddita
[mi:t:ida]

%
!

%
!

m-i-i<dd>-i-ta
1P.UNAG.SG-DIT-fall.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-ILLAT

!
!

!
!

I fell into it
(inf. idnin to fall [into])

2.!

With the postposition sets of henda up and tvunda down:

!
%

!
%

isetam pumibma henda

[ist:xm p:mpma hnda]

%
!

%
!

i-se-a--mu=n p<>-ma=ibma henda

DIT-place-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-OBLI=IMPER.2P.SG log-ALLAT up.to.DESTI

you will have to place Y up on the log

3.!

With other movements having a specific end point or destination:

!
%
%

!
%

irehraka kalahkika
[irhrga klahciga]

%
!

DIT-pull.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG-3P.AG.SG pit-ELAT

!
!
!

!
!
!

s-an=i-a-ita--naa

i-re<hr>-a-ka- kalari-k=ika

X pulled me out of the hole

(inf. rehnin to pull)

325

4.
4.a!
!
%
%

When a verb has:

A recipient:
!
%

isyvvasimi sindu-go
[isyw:simi sndug]

%
!

DIT-show-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.RECI.SG-1P.AG.SG

!
!

!
!

I will show you my catch

(inf. synnin to show)

4.b!

A beneficiary (only if the verb is generally transitive or translative):

!
'

!
%

ikosasimi
[iksxsimi]

%
!

%
!

i-kos-a--si-mi
DIT-carve-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.RECI-2P.RECI.SG-1P.AG.SG

!
!

!
!

I will carve Y for you

(inf. kosinin to carve [for someone])

!
'
%

!
%

ikosami kohkita
[iksxmi khcida]

%
!

DIT-carve-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.RECI-1P.AG.SG boy-ILLAT

I will carve Y for the boy

!
'

set toskibi
[stscibi]

!
!

NEG 3P.UNAG.SG-last-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.RECI.PL

X wont last us

!
%

!
%

iomubi
[ijmubi]

%
!

%
!

iom-u-bi
be.possible-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-2P.RECI.PL

it will be possible for us (because of good conditions/enough time)

but
!
!
'
!

i-syvv-a-si-mi sindu-go

i-kos-a--mi kori-ko=ita

set t-osk-i-bi

Notice the use of the verb idigga or idiggi which is commonly used with nouns
denoting actions or changes of states (in the illative, sometimes allative).
!
!
!
!

!
%
%
%

idigga klita'
'
idigga oagita% '
tidigga kepieita%'
idagi rereggeita'

X will attack Y
X will come to Ys help
X will go to Ys head
X changed his/her mind
326

!
!
!
!
!

%
%
%
!
!

tidagi keggeita'
tidagi meulleita'
tidagi torrita% '
tidagi sinisibma'

X was boastful, arrogant

X became blue (from not breathing/cold)
X got into danger (lit. into big bear)
X caught a big fish

9.5.5.1 Subjective Directional

Some subjective verbs also have a sense of movement or directionality, and the
preverbals o- and i- would thus both be appropriate. In older speakers or higher
register or poetic language, they may unite as a single preverbal vowel e- (or e- or
vi-), conferring the verb both a subjective and essentially ditransitive meaning,
although it can be ambiguous whether there is a beneficiary or movement/direction.
The ambiguity is caused by the subjective directional being always found in its
transitive form (e--a). The intransitive form does not exist (*e--i)

SUBJ !

!
%
SUBJ.DIT!!
!
!
DIT!

oketki hokonta loalta!

iketka hokonta loalta!
eketka hokonta loalta!
!
!
!

!
!
!
or!

X hid behind a boulder

X hid Y behind a boulder
X hid itself behind a boulder
X hid Y for itself behind a boulder

9.5.6 Passive
Passive verbs are those whose topic (i.e. that which would normally be the subject or
agent of the phrase) is treated like a patient. They have the preverbal vowel u-.
Passive verbs are generally intransitive (then with no syntactical agent), or they may
be transitive when the agent of the verb is expressed, which is either agentive or
unagentive. Most verbs can be found in the passive, which Siwa treats as a valency
type more than a voice. For that reason, passive verbs are very similar to patientive
verbs.
!
The passive has the infinitive endings -mon or -mn.
!
infinitive marker

agentive

unagentive

unmarked

-mon
-mn
-modne/-mdne
or
-mta/-mta

marked

327

uhtvuika
[uhtw:uiga]

uhtviakana
[uhtw:igna]

u-htv-u-i-ka
PASS-hit.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.PAT.SG

u-htv-i-a-ka-na
PASS-hit.PASTASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.PAT.SG-2P.AG.SG

I was hit
(inf. htvimn to be hit)

I was hit by you

utitkika
[uttciga]

utitkakana
[uttkgna]

u-ti<tk>-i-ka
PASS-cured.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.PAT.SG

u-ti<tk>-a-ka-na
PASS-cured.PASTASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG-2P.AG.SG

I was cured
(inf. tigmn to be cured)

I was cured by you

uugisa
[ujujj:isa]

uuahmi
[ujujjahmi]

u-u-<g>-i-sa
rightly-PASS-raise.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.PAT.SG

u-u-<>-e-sa=mi
rightly-PASS-raise.PASTASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT.SG-1P.AG.SG

you were raised well

(inf. uomon to be well raised)

you were raised well by me

cf.
uoahmi
[ujjjahmi]
uo-<>-a-sa=mi
rightly-raise.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT.SG-1P.AG.SG

I raised you well

(inf. uomi to raise well)
9.5.7 Impersonal Verbs
Impersonal verbs form a class of their own. They have zero valency, though they may
incorporate recipient pronouns. Impersonal verbs are made up of two groups:
inconclusive impersonal verbs (generally verbs for natural phenomena) and
conclusive (which simply lack valency but otherwise behave like normal verbs).
Inconclusive impersonal verbs in the conclusive form usually translate as inchoatives,
and inconclusive forms are their default form.
!
Inconclusive verbs generally refer to weather or geographical phenomena:
!
!

sihmi' '
!
siva'

'
'

it rains !
rain

(sihh-)

!
'

sisi'
'

'
'

it thunders (conclusive)!!
thunder'

(sis-)

!
!

kilmi' '
'
!
kuilva' '

it is drizzly!
drizzle

(kil-)

daimmi' '

it is humid!

(daim-)

'
sisi'

'

328

!
!

!
!

daie' '
daiggi' '

!
!

simi' '
'
!
siggi' '

it is dry!
dry weather

(si-)

!
!

auhmi' '
!
aurin'

'
'

it is cool/crisp weather! !
cool

(aur-)

!
!

hmmi' '
!
hmi'

'
'

it is hot/warm! !
warm

(hm-)

!
!

lomi' '
'
!
lova' '

it is sweltering! !
sweltering heat

(lo-)

!
!

hehmi' '
!
hee'

it is cold!
cold

(her-)

!
!

logmi' '
'
!
lokna' '

it is freezing!
intense cold

(long-)

!
!

pugmi' '
'
!
punga''

it is pouring!
pouring rain

(pung-)

!
!

vimmi' '
!
omi'

it is snowing!
snow

(vim-)

!
!

vadlmi' '
'
!
odlna' '

there is a snow storm! !

snow storm

(vadl-)

!
!

gylybmi''
'
!
gylppi' '

it is snowing (wet snow)!

wet snow

(gylyp-)

!
!

huhmi' '
'
!
hei' '

(the sun) shines, it is sunny!

shiny weather

(huhh-)

!
!
!

kvelmi' '
'
!
kolo'
'
!
kvelgi' '

it is cloudy!
!
cloud
cloudy weather

(kvel-)

!
!
!

emmi''
'
!
eni' '
!
etta' '

it is windy!
!
wind
windy weather!

(en-)

utubmi' '

it is still!!

(utut-)

'
'

'
'

'

humid
humid weather!
!

!
329

!
!

!
!

ututa'
veti'

'
'

still
still weather

!
!

nukvemi'
'
!
nukva' '

it is hailing!
hail

(nukve-)

!
!

neyhmi''
'
!
neygi' '

it is misty!
mist

(neyg-)

!
!
!

rummi' '
!
rumu'
!
rtta'

it is foggy!
!
fog
foggy weather

(rum-)

!
!

hoimmi' '
'
!
hoivva' '

it is flooding (of rivers)! !

flooding

(hoivv-)

'
'
'

9.5.8 Prefix Coalescence

The ditransitive, subjective and passive preverbal vowels (i- o- u-) coalesce in a
specific way with the stem they are prefixed to. The changes are generally the
addition of -b- before o u y, -m- before a e and - (for i-) before a e i.
!
%
%
!

SUBJECTIVE!
DITRANSITIVE!
PASSIVE! !

!
!
!
!

a-,e-%
om-%
-%
um-%

%
%
%
%

i-%
obi-%
-, idd-%
ubi-%

!
!

!
!

kk-!
!
obkki!

fight
X will fight (o-)

!
!

!
'

ekk-! !
umekkuika!

bear
I was born (u-)

!
!

!
'

uto-! !
ibutiasimi !

pack
I packed X for you (i-)

330

%
%
%
%

o-, u-, -, yobibub-

9.6 Evidentiality
The postverbal vowel, present in all non-finite forms of the verb shows, along with
valency and transitivity, evidentiality. Evidentiality refers to the source of the
information given by the verb. Siwa distinguishes two types of evidentiality.
!
The assertive is the default type of evidentiality, and its role is to show that the
information given by the verb is known to be true, real or to be a first-hand account.
!
The inferential is the second type of evidentiality, which shows the information
given by the verb to be uncertain, within the realm of possibilities, unconfirmed or
from sensory information.
!
In other words, an assertive verb relays certain information, while an
inferential verb relays less certain information.There are many nuances that can
come about from using either evidentiality marker.
!
Evidentiality must be marked onto verbs, but it also exists as free particles
that follow any phrase element, called evidential particles. They are:
!
!

!
!

Assertive!
Inferential!

na or -a
ne or -e

9.6.1 Assertive
The most basic definition of the assertive is a marking that shows that a statement is
real or certain, often equivalent to the English indicative mood. However, Siwa
speakers use the assertive to show a variety of nuances between certainty and
uncertainty. Generally, if the speaker has acquired the information shared in the
statement first-hand, then it will be in the assertive. The assertive particle may also be
used to underline an agreement or assumed knowledge of the other speaker or to
counter an assumption or to underline the speakers belief in a statement even
thought he information is not first-hand. The assertive is also used in gnomic
statements.
!
atemi
[temi]

negami kita ome

[negmi cita me]

ate-m-i-
sick-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-3P.PAT

n<eg>-a--mi kita-a o-m-e

see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG
do.ASS.TR COMPLE-COP.INCONCL.PASTINFER.INDIC

X is sick (because speaker saw)

I saw X do Y
netami monina ogia
[netmi monina jj:ia]

negahmi sea omeina

[negahmi seja meina]

net-a-mi m<on>-i-na og-ia

know-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG
COP.PAST.INCONCL.COMPLE-ASS.ITR-2P.AG.SG
there.DISTAL.APROX.INESS

-n<eg>-a-sa=mi se-a o-m-e-i-na

see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT.SG-1P.AG.SG
listen.ASS.TR COMPLE-COP.INCONCL.PASTINFER.INDIC-3P.PAT.PL-2P.AG.SG

I know that you were over there

I saw you listening to them

331

9.6.2 Inferential
Inferential in its simplest definition is an evidentiality marker that denotes uncertainty,
indirect information, information acquired through senses or that shows hypothetical
or subjunctival statements. However, the inferential serves many other purposes,
namely one analogical to the subjunctive of many European languages. The
inferential is used in the following cases:
1.!
!
2.!
!
3.!
!
4.!
!
5.!

When the information the speaker is giving has been acquired through a
second or indirect source
When the speaker acquires uncertain information through senses (with
unagentive active pronoun and generally genitive object)
When the speaker wants to show that the information is not a fact but a
possibility (in relative clauses)
When asking questions with intent to verify the verity or validity of
information
In many fixed expressions or in story telling and narrative speech.

A verb marked with inferential may appear with an assertive particle, in which case
the speaker wishes to show his belief (or in jocular or ironic language his disbelief) in
indirectly acquired information.
1.

kisi itahkieni sbi

[csxi itahcieni su:bi]

nonakiri keiddodlot
[nniri ct:t]

kisi i-tahk-i-e-ni subi-

this.morning DIT-leave-PASTINFER.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL winter.camp-DAT

n<non>-a-ki-ri- kei<dd>-ot-l-o-t
tell.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.RECI.SG-3P.AG.PL
3P.AG.SG-OBV.TR-start.fire.PAST-COMPLE-PERFINFER.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.OBV

they apparently left camp this

morning
(i.e. speaker did not see them
leave)
2.

ednege oskos
[tn:ee sks]

entsame kykkyma
[ntssame ccyma]

ed-n<eg>-e osko-s
1P.UNAG.SG-see.PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR
male.moose-GEN

ent-sa<m>-e kykky-ma
1P.UNAG.SG-hear.PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR voice- GEN

I think I saw a male moose

3.

they told me that they had started the

fire.

I think I heard a voice

tabmami atetotoma
[tapmmi teddmxa]

noairi gone retro atana sira

[niri gne rtx tna sira]

tat-m-a-mi ate-tot-o-ma=ka
think-INCONCL-ASS.TR-1P.AG.SG sick-COMPLEINFER.ITR-INCONCL-1P.PAT.SG

n=oa-i-ri- g-on-e retro- atana- sira-

say.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL-3P.PAT
COP.PAST-COMPLE-INFER northern.pike-AGT big-AGT
fish-AGT

I think I could/might be sick

they said that the fish was a big

northern pike

332

4.

negena-a amokvelu
[ neena: mkvelu]

ge-de retro atana sira

[ede rtx tna sira]

n<eg>-e-naa amokvel-u
well see.PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG
INTERR northern.lights-GEN

g-ede retr-o-s--atar-m-u- na sira-

COP.PAST-INFERINTERR northern.pike-AGT BIG-AGT
fish-AGT

so you saw the northern lights, eh

The fish was a big northern pike, you

say

ubme retro atana sira

[pme rtx tna sira]
ubm-e rtro- atana- sira-
COP.OBLI.PAST-INFER northern.pike-AGT big-AGT fish-AGT

The fish must have been a big northern pike (right?)

5.

isohhe momitsita mone somi...

[isoh:je mmitsida mone somi]

atanauta te ohh
[tnuda de oh:ju:]

i-sohh-e-momi-tsita m<on>-e somi-

DIT-is.far-INFER.CONCL.ITR
1P.GEN.PL.INCL-2ND.ILLAT COP.PAST.TEMPCOMPLE-INFER.INDIC man-ACT

atana-o-ta te ohho-o
big-COP.PAST.INFER-3P.AG.SG and strongCOP.PAST.INFER

a long time ago/once upon a time,

there was a man...
(lit. it is far away to ours that there
was a man)

X was (said to be) big and (said to be)

strong

9.7 Mood
Siwa verbs are marked for mood. They are the indicative, optative, conditional realis,
conditional irrealis, obligative, imperative and imperative obviative. Indicative,
optative and conditional irrealis are shown through postverbal vowels, which means
that they also coalesce with transitivity and evidentiality. In addition, the conditional
realis uses both a postverbal vowel and a verbal prefix. The imperative is always the
very last marking on a verb, and so it is not marked through a postverbal vowel. The
imperative obviative is a combination of the obligative and imperative markings. The
obligative is marked through a verbal infix, which follows the postverbal vowel.
!
The moods in Siwa are organized in two groups coalescing moods
(indicative, conditional irrealis and optative) and non-coalescing moods (conditional
realis, obligative, imperative and imperative obviative).
!
Because of the way mood coalesces with evidentiality and valency, a system
of three postverbal vowel emerges: the transitive postverbal vowel, the intransitive
postverbal vowel and the passive postverbal vowel. Each of these three vowels
represent the various valency markers as well as evidentiality, and as it will be
introduced here, mood.
!
!
!
!

transitive postverbal vowel

!
transitive!
!
!
subjective transitive!
!
ditransitive transitive!

!
!
!

-a
o--a
i--a
333

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

passive transitive!

u--a

intransitive postverbal vowel

!
intransitive!
!
!
subjective intransitive!
!
ditransitive intransitive!
!
passive intransitive!

!
!
!
!

-i
o--i
i--i
u--i

translative postverbal vowel

!
translative!
!

-u, -

9.7.1 Indicative
intransitive postverbal
vowel

transitive postverbal vowel

translative postverbal
vowel

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

-a-

-e-

-i-

-o-

-u-/--

-o-

The indicative is the default mood. It shows that an action is within the realm of the
real world (be the verb in assertive or inferential). It is the most common mood. The
obligative usually uses the indicative mood. Note that the indicative is not glossed
here in verbs, only in with the copula. The translative assertive ending is - if directly
preceded by -e- -i- -y- and --, but not by -ai- -oai- -ui- or -oi-.

!
!

!
!

ykami
I will take care of Y

!
!

!
!

timi
I will stand

!
!
!

!
!
!

mavahsu
I will grow stronger

334

9.7.2 Conditional Realis

intransitive postverbal
vowel

transitive postverbal vowel

translative postverbal
vowel

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

da--a-

da--e-

da--i-

da--o-

da--uda---

da--o-

The conditional realis shows that the verb is in a possible but conditional reality. If
used by itself, it is equivalent to the English conjunction if in realistic statements. In
certain cases, the conditional may be used where English would use when or
although (especially with an evidentiality particle). Conditional realis and irrealis
clauses are often linked together with the conjunction u.
There is considerable variation in the form of the conditional realis marker. The most
widespread and standard for is da- or d-, but other forms exist:
!
!
!

!
!
!

ro-/r- ! !
a(a)-! !
e(a)-! !

dnu and Riekka dialects

Sorhi and Neihesko dialects (old Aingo dialect)
Most midwestern dialects

The conditional realis does not affect the postverbal vowel, such that it is the only
mood not to be reflected in the vowel. For this reason, the conditional realis shares its
postverbal vowel with the indicative.

!
!

manimi'
I will come!

'
!

'
!

damanimi
if I come

!
%

midi% %
I will fall!

%
!

%
!

endidi
if I fall

!
'

vanami'
'
I will stretch Y! !

'
!

davanami
if I stretch Y!

It is not uncommon for the da- to form a consonant cluster with the verbs initial
consonant if possible if is preceded by a pronoun. This is especially common of
verbs beginning in m- n- l- - (then becoming -bm- -dn- -dl- and -d- respectively)
and less commonly with verbs in p- b- and k- g- (then becoming -b- and -grespectively). This is called conditional contraction, and it is mostly a trait of relaxed
speech:

335

%
%
%
%
%
%

-da-m-% %
-da-n-% %
-da-l-% %
-da--% %
-da-p-/-b-%
-da-k-/-g-%

!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!

%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%

-bm-dn-dl-d-%
-b-g-

mavoavvu'
'
I will get scared!

'
!

endavoavvu
if I get scared!

ednekeni'
I will lose!

'
!

'
!

madnekeni
if I lose (also endanekeni)

mamyhybmui'
I will moan!

'
!

'
!

mabmyhybmui
if I moan (also endamyhybmui)

!
!

malodni''
I will sink!

'
!

'
!

madlodni
if I sink (also endalodni)

!
!

entemi''
'
I will tremble! !

'
!

mademi
if I tremble (also endaemi)

!
!

empialeni'
I will flush!

'
!

mabialeni
if I flush (more commonly endapialeni)

'
!

Certain speakers have a so-called expended conditional, that includes more forms
that are otherwise expressed by other words. These include the forms dai-/da- if
ever and the more formal sasa-/sas- if (much more reserved possibility).

dasihhi, tahhumikigga u
[dsih:i th:umiik:aju]
da-sihh-i tahh-um-i-ki-gga u
COND.REAL-rain-ASS.CONCL.ITR leave-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR-TRANSLO-1P.AG.PL.INCL U

if it rains, we will have to leave

s on danallana, netaenna u sareta-a
[s dl:na neten:aju sredaa]
s on da-nal-l-a-na -net-a-=en-na sar-e-taa
not ON COND.REAL-taste-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG know-ASS.CONCL.TR-NEG.HABIL-2P.AG.SG U
good-COP.ASS.INFER-3P.AG.SGREL.INTERR

if you havent tasted it, then you cannot know whether it is good

336

daisihhi, tahhumikigga u
[dxisih:i th:umiik:aju]
dai-sihh-i tahh-um-i-ki-gga u
COND.REAL-rain-ASS.CONCL.ITR leave-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR-TRANSLO-1P.AG.PL.INCL U

if ever it rains, we will have to leave

sastanaknu
[sastnau]
sas-ta-nakn-u
COND.REAL-3P.UNAG.SG-break-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL

should X ever break

Conditional realis in indirect clauses is expressed by the verb clitic -a:
!
%

addata sara%
'
if it is good
set negami, sarvata-a! I dont know if/wheather it is good

9.7.3 Conditional Irrealis

transitive postverbal
vowel

intransitive postverbal
vowel

translative postverbal
vowel

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

eastern

-ia-

-ie-

-iu-

-oi-

-ui-i-

-ui-

western

--

-ey-

-i-

-u-

--

-u-

The conditional irrealis mood shows that the verb is in a impossible or unrealistic but
conditional reality. If used by itself, it is equivalent to the English conjunction if in
irrealis statements (i.e. if I were, if I came, if you did). In certain cases, the conditional
may be used where English would use when or although (especially with an
evidentiality particle). There are two sets of endings for the conditional irrealis. One is
primarily used in the eastern dialects, the other in the western dialects.
!
!

nainami'
I will use Y!

'
!

'
!

nainiami~nainmi
if I used Y

!
'

saskimi''
'
I will wake up' '

'
'

saskiumi~saskimi
if I woke up!

!
'

mahingu'
'
I will die in combat'

'
'

mahingui~mahing
if I died in combat
337

The conditional irrealis inferential generally corresponds to the English subjunctive

mood, which Siwa otherwise lacks and generally expressed through the inferential:
!
!

nainiami~nainmi'
if I used Y!
!

'
!

nainiemi~naineymi
I would use Y

!
'

saskiumi~saskimi'
if I woke up'
'

'
'

saskoimi~saskumi
I would wake up!

!
'

mahingui~mahing'
if I died in combat'

'
'

mahingoi~mahingu
I would die in combat

Unlike the conditional realis, the conditional irrealis is not strictly used in phrases with
a clear condition. It may simply be used to show an irrealis situation (then often in the
inferential). Thus, a clause whose main verb is in the conditional irrealis and whose
conjuncted clause is in the same mood (or in the optative) but in the inferential, it is
often equivalent to English if X were to Y, then X would Y.
When two phrases are in the conditional irrealis (counter factual conditional phrases),
and the second phrase is considered to be a possible result of the first phrase, the
first one (protasis) will be found in the inferential, and the second one in the assertive
(apodosis) (see fourth example below).
sihhiu on, tahhumoikigga u
[sih:iu th:umjik:aju]
sihh-iu on tahh-um-oi-ki-gga u
rain-ASS.CONCL.COND.IRREAL.ITR ON leave-OBLI-INFER.CONCL.COND.IRREAL.ITRTRANSLO-1P.AG.PL.INCL U

if it were to rain, we would have to leave

s on nalliana, netieenna u sareta-a
[s l:ina netieen:aju saredaa]
s on nal-l-a-na u net-ie-=en-na sar-e-taa
not ON taste-PERF-ASS.CONCL.COND.IRREAL.TR-2P.AG.SG know-INFER.CONCL.COND.IRREAL.TRNEG.HABIL-2P.AG.SG U good-COP.ASS.INFER-3P.AG.SGREL.INTER

if you wouldnt have tasted it, then you would not know whether it is good
sariata de, naluemi ka
[sriade luemika]
sar-ia-ta de -nal-ue-mi ka
good-COP.COND.IRRREAL.ASS-3P.AG.SG DE taste-INFER.CONCL.OPT.TR-1P.AG.SG KA

If it were good, then I would want to taste it

338

vahta eruloila, nette eruluata taga

[vahta eruljila nte erulujda tga]
vahta er<u>l-oi-la- nette er<u>l-u-ia-ta taga
completely work.PAST-COND.IRR.INFER-PERF-3P.AG.SG surely work.PAST-PAT.PART.ACTCOP.COND.IRR.ASS-3P.AG.SG TAGA

if X would have worked to completion, then surely (it follows that) Y would
be done

Conservative eastern dialects have kept the older versions of the vowels:
intransitive postverbal
vowel

transitive postverbal vowel

translative postverbal
vowel

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

-ia-

-ie-

-iu-

-oi-

-ui-i-

-ui-

9.7.4 Optative
intransitive postverbal
vowel

transitive postverbal vowel

translative postverbal
vowel

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

-ua-a-

-ue-i-

-i-i-

-uo-

-u--

-ueor
-u-

The optative mood shows wish or will it is used to show what the subject wishes to
do or wants to do. The optative is generally not found in the inconclusive. Note that
the endings -i- and -u- often become -vi- and -vu- (or -vo-) when a consonant
cluster is possible. Similarly, -ua-, -ue- and -i- can be found as -a- and -i- if
preceded by i e y.
!
!

sugami' '
I will visit Y!

'
!

'
!

suguami
I want to visit Y

!
'

ivimi' '
I will stay'

'
'

'
'

iviumi
I want to stay!

ednoapsu'

'

'

ednoapsu

339

'

I will grow a beard'

'

I want to grow a beard

!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!

kodi'
'
X walked!

'
!

'
!

kotvi
X wanted to walk (cf. koni X will walk)

nodi' '
'
X swam!
%
!
!
!
beiddi' '
'
X spent the day!
!
!
!

'
%
!
'
!
!

notvi
X wanted to swim (cf. noni X will swim)
beitsvi
X wants to spend the day (cf. beii X will
spend ! the day)

!
'
!

knnlimi'
'
I will settle down'
!
!
!

'
'
!

knnlimi
I want to settle down (also
knnlvimi)!

The inferential optative corresponds to a subjunctive form of the optative:

!
!

suguami'
'
I want to visit Y!!

'
!

suguemi
I would want to visit Y

!
'

iviumi' '
'
I want to stay' '

'
'

ivvimi
I would want to stay!

!
'

ednoapsu'
'
'
I want to grow a beard' '

(or I stayed)

ednoapsue
I would want to grow a beard!

It is also used as a sort of imperative with the third person in the inferential (called the
optative imperative). The first or second persons are also used in this construction,
which can be translated as may X Y, especially if the subjects are unagentive (the
imperative used with an unagentive subject is common, but is considered poor
language).
!
Another optative construction involves a copular construction, which may be
coupled with bahtu o- or (b) ari -tu/-uts...o-, then meaning if only (often with
dramatic coordinating particles). The postverbal vowel is often absent, unlike in
normal -uts/-tu temporal link constructions. Phrases of this construction commonly
have have the form:

340

!
!
-uts/-tu arioduo~ovo1
!
!
!
%
tauts ari inina ovomi% if only I were rich
%
%
hbmuts ari ovoimi' if only I could fly
!
!
b ari netuts ovona' if only you knew
!
!
pednuts ari ovori'
if only they would arrive
!
The optative may reflect the subjects wish upon an object, in which case the
reversive must be used (see section on reversive 9.9.4.1). This is similar to English X
wants Y to Z.
!
The optative is frequently used with the conclusive despite often carrying a
habitual meaning.
otoatimi
[tdwimi]

kesami nori deita

[cesmi nri deida]

o-toat-i-mi
SUBJ-join-ASS.CONCL.OPT.ITR-1P.AG.SG

I want to come along/join in

kes-a-mi nor-i d-e-ita

learn-ASS.CONCL.OPT.TR-1P.AG.SG sing-ITR COPINFER-ILLAT

sotoatuadnami
[stduatnmi]

takessadnarimi nori deita

[tces:atnrimi nri deida]

s-o-toat-ua-dna--mi
2P.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-join-ASS.CONCL.OPT.TRREVERS-3P.PAT.SG-1P.AG.SG

ta-kes-s-ua--dna-ri-mi nor-i d-e-ita

3P.UNAG-learn-HAB-ASS.CONCL.OPT.TRREVERS-3P.PL-1P.AG.SG sing-ITR COP-INFER-ILLAT

I want you to come along/join X

I want them to learn to sing

sihhi nuo
[sih:i nu]

sihhuo
[sih:u]

sihh-i n-uo
rain-ITR COP.INCONCL-INFER.OPT

sihh-uo
rain-INFER.CONCL.ITR.OPT

if only it would rain...

may it rain

tanikuo
[tniku]

hbmuoimi
[h:pmuimi]

ta-nik-uo
3P.UNAG.SG-die-INFER.CONCL.ITR

hbm-uo-i-mi
fly-INFER.CONCL.ITR.OPT-HABIL-1P.AG.SG

may X die

if only I could fly

I want to learn to sing

b ari imanitu mubma oduona

[b: ri imniu mpma duna]
b ari i-ma=n-i-tu m=bma o-d-uo-na
oh ari DIT-come-ITR-LINK.TEMP among.ALLAT COMPLE-COP-INFER.OPT-2P.AG.SG

oh if only you could come to me

Conservative eastern dialects have kept the older versions of the vowels:

1 The form ovo is a short form used mainly in this type of phrases.

341

transitive postverbal
vowel

intransitive postverbal
vowel

translative postverbal
vowel

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

assertive

inferential

-uba-ba-

-ube-be-

-i-bi-

-ubo-

-u-b-

-uboi-

9.7.5 Obligative
Unlike the indicative, conditional irrealis and optative, the obligative is not expressed
through the postverbal vowel. However, it is still considered a mood in Siwa
grammar. The obligative marker is -um-, which is found in slot 3. The obligative is
generally found in the agentive, although translative verbs remain, as always,
unagentive.
!
The general function of the obligative is to show that the agent of the verb
has, must or should (in the inferential) do something. The nature of the obligation or
need can range from strong to much lesser necessity.
!
!
!
!
'

nuidnami'
I will admit Y!

'
!

'
!

nuidnumami
I must admit Y

ontaimi' '
I will dance'

'
'

'
'

ontaumimi
I must dance!

!
'

entul''
'
I will get better' '

'
'

entulumu
I must get better!

Like the optative, the obligative is often found in the conclusive despite having a
mostly habitual meaning. In older language, the obligative may also be found with the
reversive, as the optative (same construction), equivalent to English X needs Y to.
otoatumimi
[tdumimi]

kesumami nori deita

[cesummi nrha deida]

o-toat-um-i-mi
SUBJ-join-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG

kes-um-a-mi nor-sa d-e-ita

learn-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR--1P.AG.SG sing-ITR
COP-INFER-ILLAT

I must come along/join

I must to learn to sing

sotoatumidnami
[stdumtnmi]
s-o-toat-um-i-dna-mi
2P.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-join-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-REVERS-1P.AG.SG

I need you to come along/join in

342

sihhumi hake seigga

[sih:umi hce seik:a]
sihh-um-i h-a-ke s-e-i-gga
rain-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR eat-TR-LINK.GOAL COP.HAB-INFER.INDIC-HABIL-1P.AG.PL.INCL

it must rain for us to eat

9.7.6 Imperative
The imperative mood shows a direct command. It is the very last morpheme that can
be added to a verb, so it appears in slot 9. It is most common with verbs governed
by an agentive subject rather than unagentive, in which case the optative imperative
is used instead.
!
Below are the forms of the imperative mood markers. The negative
imperative is logically prohibitive. A more direct and sometimes impolite imperative
mood can be expressed through the subitive (see 9.9.4.6).
!
The second and third person plural have two forms one in -uri and one in unni. The form in -unni is slightly more polite.

2p.sg

3p.sg.
ani

3p.sg.
ina

1p.pl.incl

1p.pl.excl

2p.pl

3p.pl

positive

-n

-t

-oa

-oe

-uri/-unni

-guri/gunni

negative

-sen

-set

-soa

-soe

-suri/sunni

-suri/sunni

!
!

manina''
'
you will come! !

'
!

manin!
come!

!
'

nonakina'
'
you will tell me' '

'
'

nonakin!
tell me!!

!
'

noridda''
'
you will sing (pl.)'

'
'

noriuri!
sing!!

!
'

notsana''
'
you will take Y' '

'
'

notsasen!
dont take Y!!

%
'

makigga%
we will go!

%
!

makoa
lets go

%
!

343

!
'

nedigga%
%
we will sit down!

%
!

nedoa
lets sit down

!
%

otoatin
[tn]

%
!

o-toat-i-n
SUBJ-join-ASS.CONCL.ITR-IMPER.2P.SG

come along/join !

!
%

kesauri nori daita

[cesuri nri dida]

%
!

kes-a-uri nor-i d-a-ita

learn-ASS.CONCL.TR-IMPER.2P.PL sing-ITR COP-ASS-ILLAT

learn to sing ! (pl.)

nedigunni
[nxiun:i]

nedisuri
[nxsxuri]

ned-i-gunni
sit.down-ASS.CONCL.ITR-IMPER.3P.PL

ned-i-suri
sit.down-ASS.CONCL.ITR-IMPER.3P.PL.NEG

let them sit down

let them not sit down

9.7.6.1 Imperative Obviative

The imperative obviative mood is a variation of the imperative mood. The command
or order of the normal imperative is less urgent and usually refers to something to be
done later. The imperative obviative means something like a delayed imperative, and
it is marked by using both a modified version of the obligative (-mu- instead of -um-)
and the imperative markings, which can combine with the second person singular
imperative ending -n to -m if no other slot is taken up between slot 3 and 9. The
imperative obviative usually requires the order of slot 3 and 4 to be switched as per
rule 1 (see section of slot switch 9.2.1.8) It can also have a meaning similar to
English phrases such as X ought to, especially with 3rd person imperatives and the
inferential.
!
The imperative obviative may also be used to convey that the agent of the
verb will have to to do something at a later point.

344

otoatim
[tim]

kesumet nori deita

[cesum nri deida]

o-toat-i-mu=n
SUBJ-join-ASS.CONCL.ITR-OBLI-IMPER.2P.SG

kes-um-e-t nor-i d-e-ita

learn-OBLI-INFER.CONCL.TR-IMPER.3P.SG.ANI
sing-ITR COP-INFER-ILLAT

come along/join later on

or
you will have to come along (later
on)

345

X ought to learn to sing

or
X will have to learn to sing (later on)

9.8 Postverbal Vowel Coalescence

The sections on valency, evidentiality and mood all concern the postverbal vowel.
The table below combines all these morphemes and shows the conjugation pattern
for the postverbal vowel. Dialectal forms are given in italics.

346

347

inferential

assertive

optative

conditional
irrealis

indicative

optative

conditional
irrealis

indicative

-i
-iu / -i

-a
-ia

-oi

-ie

-ubo

-uo

-ue / -i
-ube / -be

-oi

-ie

-u

-o

-e

-ey

-i / -bi

-i / -i

-ua / -a
-uba / -ba

-iu

-ia

-i

intransitive
subjective
ditransitive
passive

transitive
subjective
ditransitive
passive

intransitive

transitive

postverb vowel

-uboi

-ue or -u

-ui

-u

-ui

-o

-u / -b

-u / -

-ui / -i

-ui

-u / -

translative

Below is an example of a verb conjugated in all of its mood, valency and evidentiality
forms.
!

odena !look at Y

indicative

conditional realis

conditional
irrealis

optative

SG.

odenami
I will look at Y

dodenami
if I look at Y

odeniami
if I looked at Y

odenami
I want to look at
Y

PL.
INCL

odenagga
we will look at
Y

dodenagga
if we look at Y

odeniagga
if we looked at
Y

odenagga
we want to look
at Y

PL.
EXCL

odenagge
we will look at
Y

dodenagge
if we look at Y

odeniagge
if we looked at
Y

odenagge
we want to look
at Y

SG.

odenana
you will look at
Y

dodenana
if you look at Y

odeniana
if you looked at
Y

odenana
you want to
look at Y

PL.

odenadda
you will look at
Y

dodenadda
if you look at Y

odeniadda
if you looked at
Y

odenadda
you want to
look at Y

SG.

odena
X will look at
Y

dodena
if X looks at Y

odenia
if X looked at Y

odena
X wants to look
at Y

PL.

odenari
they will look
at Y

dodenari
if they look at
Y

odeniari
if they looked
at Y

odenari
they want to
look at Y

OBV.

odenat
X will look at
Y

dodenat
if X looks at Y

odeniat
if X looked at Y

odenat
X wants to look
at Y

odenao
one will look
at Y

dodenao
if one looks at
Y

odeniao
if one looked at
Y

odenao
one wants to
look at Y

assertive

1P.

2P.

3P.

4P.

348

indicative

conditional
realis

conditional irrealis

optative

SG.

odenemi
I will look at
Y

dodenemi
if I look at Y

odeniemi
I would look at
Y

odenimi
I would want to
look at Y

PL.
INCL

odenegga
we will look
at Y

dodenegga
if we look at Y

odeniegga
we would look
at Y

odenigga
we would want to
look at Y

PL.
EXCL

odenegge
we will look
at Y

dodenegge
if we look at Y

odeniegge
we would look
at Y

odenigge
we would want to
look at Y

SG.

odenena
you will look
at Y

dodenena
if you look at
Y

odeniena
you would look
at Y

odenina
you would want
to look at Y

PL.

odenedda
you will look
at Y

dodenedda
if you look at
Y

odeniedda
you would look
at Y

odenidda
you would want
to look at Y

SG.

odene
X will look at
Y

dodene
if X looks at Y

odenie
X would look at
Y

odeni
X would want to
look at Y

PL.

odeneri
they will look
at Y

dodeneri
if they look at
Y

odenieri
they would look
at Y

odeniri
they would want
to look at Y

OBV.

odenet
X will look at
Y

dodenet
if X looks at Y

odeniet
X would look at
Y

odenit
X would want to
look at Y

odeneo
one will look
at Y

dodeneo
if one looks at
Y

odenieo
one would look
at Y

odenio
one would want
to look at Y

inferential

1P.

2P.

3P.

4P.

349

poki ! !

assertive

1P.

go to sleep

indicative

conditional realis

conditional irrealis

optative

SG.

pokimi
I will go to
sleep

dapokimi
if I go to sleep

pokiumi
if I went to
sleep

pokvimi
I want to go to
sleep

PL.
INCL

pokigga
we will go to
sleep

dapokigga
if we go to
sleep

pokiugga
if we went to
sleep

pokvigga
we want to go
to sleep

PL.
EXCL

pokigge
we will go to
sleep

dapokigge
if we go to
sleep

pokiugge
if we went to
sleep

pokvigge
we want to go
to sleep

SG.

pokina
you will go to
sleep

dapokina
if you go to
sleep

pokiuna
if you went to
sleep

pokvina
you want to go
to sleep

PL.

pokidda
you will go to
sleep

dapokidda
if you go to
sleep

pokiudda
if you went to
sleep

pokvidda
you want to go
to sleep

SG.

poki
X will go to
sleep

dapoki
if X goes to
sleep

pokiu
if X went to
sleep

pokvi
X wants to go
to sleep

PL.

pokiri
they will go to
sleep

dapokiri
if they go to
sleep

pokiuri
if they went to
sleep

pokviri
they want to go
to sleep

OBV.

pokit
X will go to
sleep

dapokit
if X goes to
sleep

pokiut
if X went to
sleep

pokvit
X wants to go
to sleep

pokio
one will go to
sleep

dapokio
if one goes to
sleep

pokiuo
if one went to
sleep

pokvio
one wants to
go to sleep

2P.

3P.

4P.

350

inferential

1P.

indicative

conditional realis

conditional irrealis

optative

SG.

pokomi
I will go to
sleep

dapokomi
if I go to sleep

pokoimi
I would go to
sleep

pokuomi
I would want to
go to sleep

PL.
INCL

pokogga
we will go to
sleep

dapokogga
if we go to
sleep

pokoigga
we would go to
sleep

pokuogga
we would want
to go to sleep

PL.
EXCL

pokogge
we will go to
sleep

dapokogge
if we go to
sleep

pokoigge
we would go to
sleep

pokuogge
we would want
to go to sleep

SG.

pokona
you will go to
sleep

dapokona
if you go to
sleep

pokoina
you would go
to sleep

pokuona
you would
want to go to
sleep

PL.

pokodda
you will go to
sleep

dapokodda
if you go to
sleep

pokoidda
you would go
to sleep

pokuodda
you would
want to go to
sleep

SG.

poko
X will go to
sleep

dapoko
if X goes to
sleep

pokoi
X would go to
sleep

pokuo
X would want
to go to sleep

PL.

pokori
they will go to
sleep

dapokori
if they go to
sleep

pokoiri
they would go
to sleep

pokuori
they would
want to go to
sleep

OBV.

pokot
X will go to
sleep

dapokot
if X goes to
sleep

pokoit
X would go to
sleep

pokuot
X would want
to go to sleep

pokoo
one will go to
sleep

dapokoo
if one goes to
sleep

pokoio
one would go
to sleep

pokuoo
one would
want to go to
sleep

2P.

3P.

4p.

351

muhu ! !
assertive

1P.

disappear

indicative

conditional realis

conditional irrealis

optative

SG.

mamuhu
I will
disappear

mabmuhu
if I disappear

mamuhui
if I
disappeared

mamuhu
I want to
disappear

PL.
INCL

mamuhu
we will
disappear

mabmuhu
if we
disappear

mamuhui
if we
disappeared

mamuhu
we want to
disappear

PL.
EXCL

memuhu
we will
disappear

mebmuhu
if we
disappear

memuhui
if we
disappeared

memuhu
we want to
disappear

SG.

samuhu
you will
disappear

sabmuhu
if you
disappear

samuhui
if you
disappeared

samuhu
you want to
disappear

PL.

samuhu
you will
disappear

sabmuhu
if you
disappear

samuhui
if you
disappeared

samuhu
you want to
disappear

SG.

tamuhu
X will
disappear

tabmuhu
if X disappears

tamuhui
if X
disappeared

tamuhu
X wants to
disappear

PL.

tsemuhu
they will
disappear

tsebmuhu
if they
disappear

tsemuhui
if they
disappeared

tsemuhu
they want to
disappear

OBV.

nemuhu
X will
disappear

nebmuhu
if X disappears

nemuhui
if X
disappeared

nemuhu
X wants to
disappear

amuhu
one will
disappear

abmuhu
if one
disappears

amuhui
if one
disappeared

amuhu
one wants
disappear

2P.

3P.

4P.

352

inferential

1P.

indicative

conditional realis

conditional irrealis

optative

SG.

mamuho
I will
disappear

mabmuho
if I disappear

mamuhui
I would
disappear

mamuhue
I would want to
disappear

PL.
INCL

mamuho
we will
disappear

mabmuho
if we
disappear

mamuhui
we would
disappear

mamuhue
we would want
to disappear

PL.
EXCL

memuho
we will
disappear

mebmuho
if we
disappear

memuhui
we would
disappear

memuhue
we would want
to disappear

SG.

samuho
you will
disappear

sabmuho
if you
disappear

samuhui
you would
disappear

samuhue
you would
want to
disappear

PL.

samuho
you will
disappear

sabmuho
if you
disappear

samuhui
you would
disappear

samuhue
you would
want to
disappear

SG.

tamuho
X will
disappear

tabmuho
if X disappears

tamuhui
X would
disappear

tamuhue
X would want
to disappear

PL.

tsemuho
they will
disappear

tsebmuho
if they
disappear

tsemuhui
they would
disappear

tsemuhue
they would
want to
disappear

OBV.

nemuho
X will
disappear

nebmuho
if X disappears

nemuhui
X would
disappear

nemuhue
X would want
to disappear

amuho
one will
disappear

abmuho
if one
disappears

amuhui
one would
disappear

amuhue
one would
want to
disappear

2P.

3P.

4P.

353

9.9 Aspect
Siwa has four primary aspects:
!
!
!
!
!
!

conclusive
inconclusive
!
verbal
!
copular
habitual
perfective (the perfect tense)

Moreover, it has 8 secondarily aspects:

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

reversive
semelfactive
persistive
frequentative
inchoative
subitive
habilitive
diminutive

Primary and secondary aspectual markers behave differently. Namely, primary

markers are found in slot 3, while secondary markers are found in slot 6. Both primary
and secondary markers can be combined, and they are found in the order in which
they appear above.
!
Note that the order in which primary aspect markers appear in the verb
depends on the verbs stem. See 9.2.1.8.

9.9.1 Conclusivity
Conclusivity is an aspect of every conjugated verb in Siwa. A verb is either
conclusive or inconclusive. While the conclusive has no overt marking, the
inconclusive has two. Within the verb, it is found as either -ma- or -m- depending on
whether the -m- can form a cluster with the preceding consonant (see 9.2.1.2.4):
!
!

rule 1! !
rule 2! !

-C-m-PV-!
-C-PV-ma-%

and !
and!

-V-m-PV
-PV-ma-C or -PV-m-mi

Only impersonal verbs, participles, a handful of other verbs and verbal adjectives are
found with this inconclusive marker called verbal inconclusive. In fact, the verbal
inconclusive is the most characterizing feature of impersonal verbs and verbal
adjectives, which behave differently than regular verbs in other ways.

354

The second way to show the inconclusive is through the copular construction,
whereby the main verb and the copula are used within the phrase. Impersonal verbs
cannot be found in this form, though they may form split stems.
!
What conclusivity actually shows is whether the verb is perceived to have
reached an end, goal or conclusion. While very similar to the perfect or the telic
aspects found in many other languages, conclusivity has a broader function
whether the goal of the action was achieved or not.
!
The conclusive marking (or rather lack thereof) also carries another important
function. Whereas the inconclusive clearly shows an ongoing action, the conclusive
form is not so limited. The conclusive form is often used for gnomic statement, i.e.
general truths or facts. It is also found with the habilitive, and certain verbs have a
tendency to use the conclusive form rather than the inconclusive, despite having a
rather inconclusive aspect, including verbs such as nu- to see and net- to know.
These verbs include those which cannot or usually do not have a set goal - verbs
with no clear duration, or an inherently short or limited duration. For example, the verb
sa- to hear X is more often in the conclusive, without taking a particularly conclusive
aspect. Thus, while the inconclusive always carries a meaning of X is doing Y, the
conclusive can carry a meaning of X will do Y or X does Y.
9.9.1.1 Verbal Inconclusive
The verbal inconclusive is a marker that is found within the fully conjugated verb. It is
primarily found in verbal adjectives, a number of impersonal verbs (whose conclusive
meaning is actually an inchoative one) and an even smaller number of other verbs.
!
The marker for the verbal inconclusive is -m- or -ma- and is found in slot 3. It
often merges with the verb, causing various sound changes. See section 9.2.1.8.1
on impersonal verbs and verbal adjectives for a detailed description of this.
%
The number of regular verbs that are or can be found in the verbal
inconclusive aspect is small, but varies the eastern and western dialects as a recent
development. However, most of the verbs that do appear in the verbal inconclusive
usually involve some kind of mental or non-concrete action. Below is a nonexhaustive list of the these verbs.
WESTERN

EASTERN

tabmimi
(tat-)
I am thinking/I think
debmami
(det-)
I feel like Y/I want Y
rytamami
(ryt-)
I am anxious about Y

maryta
(ryt-)
I am anxious about Y

355

WESTERN

EASTERN

topmami
(tobb-)
I have a feeling (that)

entobba(a)
(tobb-)
I have a feeling (that)

kerrami
(kerr-)
I suspect (that)

koantami
(koanta-)
I assume

koantammi
(koanta-)
I assume

vmami
(v-)
I seem to remember (that)

mav
(v-)
I seem to remember (that)

iskelmimi or iskelimmi
(iskel-)
I wonder

iskelmi or mskeli
(iskel-)
I wonder

kimnami
(kin-)
I hope

tsuoggami
(tsuogg-)
I hope

9.9.1.2 Copular Inconclusive

The copular inconclusive is a construction which can be used with all verbs other
than impersonal verbs, verbal adjectives and the few verbs given above.
!
Its construction is explained in 9.2.2. Copular inconclusive verbs are split
into a split-stem and the copula, each bearing their respective markers. Compare the
following example:
slots
-1 -3

split-stem

slot 4

phrase

copula

slot 4

slots
256789

subject

ob-

-muo-

-a

kendai

d-

-a-

-a

pegg

domuoa kendai daa pegg

[dmuja cnda dja pec:]
d-o-muo-a kenda=i d-a-a pegg-
today COP-ASS-3P.PAT.PL girl-AGT

COND.REAL-SUBJ-wear-TR

if the girl is wearing them today

356

Below are examples of the copular inconclusive compared to the regular conclusive
forms.
conclusive

inconclusive

independent

copular

nenimi hha
[nenimi h:ja]

neni hha nami

[neni h:ja nmi]

nen-i-mi hh=a
sit-ASS.ITR.CONCL-1P.AG.SG here

nen-i hh=a n-a-mi

sit-ITR here COP-ASS-1P.AG.SG

I (will) sit here

I am sitting here

mottu thta
[mtu te:ha]

mottu thta na
[mtu te:ha na]

mott-u tr=ta
set-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL sun.PAT

the sun (will) set(s)

mott-u tr=ta n-a

set-ASS.TRANSL.INCONCL sun.PAT
COP.INCONCL-ASS

soaksa tiogi kuhkua

[saksa tiji chkua]

soaka tioid ma kuhkua

[sga tiw ma chkua]

soak-s-a tiogi- kuhko-a-

build-HAB-ASS.CONCL.TR dam-DAT beaver-PL-AGT

beavers build dams

soak-a to<>i-d m-a kuhko-a

build-ASS.TR.INCONCL dam-GEN
COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS beaver-PL-AGT

mahhakini kenka koadderi saroska

[mh:ini cka k:eri
srska]

mahha kenka koasia saroska nani

[mh: cka kasxia srska
neni]

mahh-a-ki-ni kenka koadderi saro-s-ka

hunt-ASS.CONCL.TR-TRANSLO-3P.AG.PL tomorrow
south.east=towards deer-GEN-PL

-mahh-a kenka koasia-ia saro-s-ka n-e-kini

hunt-ASS.TR.INCONCL tomorrow
south.east=INESS deer-GEN-PL COP.INCONCLINFER-3P.AG.PL

the sun is setting

the beavers were building a dam

tomorrow they are going towards the

south-east to hunt deer

tomorrow they are going to be in

the south-east hunting deer

9.9.1.3 Telicity
Conclusivity, in addition to being overtly marked by an infix or through a copular
construction, is also marked through the cases of the objects of a verb. This is called
telicity in the context of Siwa grammar to distinguish it from verbal conclusivity. The
conclusive is equivalent to the telic aspect while the inconclusive corresponds to the
atelic aspect. A dative object shows a telic aspect and a genitive object shows an
atelic aspect. A verb can have a conclusive aspect but still have an atelic object. In
the context of telicity, an genitive object is atelic and the genitive case may be
refered to as the partitive (the action only affects part of the object), and a dative

357

object is telic and the case may be referred to as the translative (the action changes
the state of the object). This leads to a complex combination of verb-marked
conclusivity and object-marked telicity.
!
!
!
!
!
!

conclusivity (verbs)
!
inconclusive!
!
conclusive!
telicity (nouns)
!
atelic ! !
!
telic ! !

!
!

!
!

-m-!
--!

!
!

!
!

genitive (partitive)!
dative (translative)!

X is doing Y
X does/will do Y
some Y
all Y, the whole Y

Telicity effects the definiteness of the object. The translative nearly always adds
definiteness to the object (often translated with a definite article in English or all of or
a whole, etc. especially with an inconclusive verb). The partitive may indicate lack of
definiteness of the object (often translated with an indefinite article for countable
nouns or some for uncountable nouns). However, in the future inconclusive, the
partitive may indicate both definiteness or lack thereof. Compare the table below (a
more complete version of this table is found in the section 9.11 on tense-aspect
coalescence).
!
marked
conclusivity

conclusive

inconclusive

telicity

non-past

past

genitive
(partitive)

hami kelhobi
I (will) eat (some)
dried meat

mami kelhobi
I ate (some) dried meat

dative
(translative)

hami kelho
I (will) eat (the whole)
dried meat

mama kelho
I ate (the whole) dried
meat

genitive
(partitive)

ha kelhobi nami
I am eating (some)
dried meat

ha kelhobi mami
I was eating (some)
dried meat

dative
(translative)

ha kelho nami
I am eating (the
whole) dried meat

ha kelho mami
I was eating (the whole)
dried meat

358

9.9.2 Habitual
The habitual aspect shows that an action happens repeatedly or is reoccurring,
familiar, or customary. It is also used in gnomic statements, although the conclusive
also suffices for that function in many cases as well.
!
The habitual aspect marker has the form -s- or -sa-, but because of the way it
attaches directly to certain verb types, its actual shape varies in accordance to the
slot order of the verbal vowel (VP):
!
!
%
%
%
%

!
!
%
%
%
%

RULE 1!

!
-V-s-VP-%%
-C-s-VP-%%
-C-t-VP-C-h-VP-%
---VP-

!
%

RULE 2

C-VP-sa-

For how the habitual and verb stems combine, see 9.2.1.8.
!
Below are examples of the use of the habitual aspect:
killu aakus
[cil:ju jjaks]
killu a-ak-u-s
always 4P.ACT.UNAG-age-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-HAB

one always gets older

tagil imnis ki
[tj:l mn:s ki]
tagil imn-i-s o<n>-ki
MUCH.ADV MAKE.SMOKE-ITR.ASS-HAB TINDER.MOSS-PAT

tinder moss (dried moss) makes a lot of smoke

nti kia yhha
[ni u:ia yh:a]
non-s-i <k>-ia yhhy--a
swim-HAB-ASS.ITR water-INESS salmon-AGT-PL

the salmons swim in the water

kendita saskisami
[cnida sascismi]
kend=ita sask-i-sa-mi
early wake.up-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB-1P.AG.SG

I (usually) wake up early

temis guaa nolbagi
[tmxs gujja nlbji]
tem-i-s gu-a=ia nolba--gi
lay.egg-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB late.fall-INESS eel-AGT-PL

eels lay their eggs in the late autumn

359

elulis aa tahpa eleu

[eluls i:jja tahpa eleu]
elul-i-s -a=ia ta=hpa ele-u
bloom-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB early.summer-INESS most-PAT flower-PAT

most flowers bloom in early summer

9.9.3 Perfective
The perfective aspect shows that an action is over or completed by the time of the
utterance. In the non-past, it corresponds to the perfect tense in English (I have
eaten) and in the past to the pluperfect tense (I had eaten). However, it is less
commonly used in Siwa than the perfect and pluperfect tenses, because it usually
implies a before or already.
The perfective marker occurs in slot 3 and has the shape -l- or -la-.
!
!
%
%

!
!
%

RULE 1!

!
-V-l-VP% %
-C-l-VP

RULE 2

-C-VP-la

For how the perfective and verb stems combine, see 9.2.1.8.
The perfective and habitual can appear together as -ls-/-lsa- (then equivalent to has
had/had had the habit of X, i.e. perfective habitual) or as -hl-/-hla- (the equivalent to
has usually X, i.e. a habitual perfective):
%
%
-l-sa%
%
%
%
!
kendita kirha saskilsari! !
!
!
they have had the habit !
!
!
of waking up early in the morning!
!
More examples:%!

%
-h-la
kendita kirha saskihlari
they have usually awoken early in
the morning

keslana ola tmme daita

[cslna jla m:e dida]

s-nallana-a mhnadi?
[sl:na: mi:hni]

kes-la-na ol-a tmme- d-a-ita

learn-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR -2P.AG.SG read-TR
animal.trace-DAT COP.CONCL-ASS-ILLAT

snal-l-a-naa mhna-di
INTERRtaste-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SGINTERR mhna-GEN

you have learned to read animal

traces (already/before)

have you tasted mhna (before/

ever)?

kelana ola tmme daita

[cxlna jla m:e dida]

dni tkla kko

[:tni i:tcla ko]

ke<>-l-a-na ol-a tmme- d-a-ita

learn.PAST-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.AG.SG read-TR
animal.trace-DAT COP.CONCL-ASS-ILLAT

dna tk--la om-ko

NOW MELT-ASS.TRANSL-PERF SNOW-PAT

you had learned to read animal

traces (already/before)

360

now the snow has melted

soa dlari sitru pednitu gana?

[sa ju:tri stxu ptniu gna]
s-oa <tt>-l-a-ri sitru- pedn-i-tu g-a-na
INTERR-already finish.PAST-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL soup-DAT arrive-ITR-LINK.TEMP COP.PASTASS-2P.AG.SG

had they already finished the soup when you arrived (back)?
oa ipendlina oakibma sihhitu tevu gatta
[ ipntina pma sih:iu tevu: gata]
oa i-pe<nd>-l-i-na oa-k=ibma sihh-i-tu tevu d-a- tta%
already DIT-return.PAST-PERF-ASS.ITR-2P.AG.SG home-ALLAT rain-ITR-TEMP.LINK before COP.PASTASS-SUBIT

you had already returned home before it started raining

ivi md heerre mumma-uri ora hmha

[ivi mi: hejer:e mum:ari ra hi:mha]
iv-i m-d heer-re mu=mma-uri or-a hmha-
stay-TR one.INA.GEN winter-GEN fathom.INESS-1P.POSS.PL.EXCL COP.PERF.INCONCL-ASS 3P.PRON.FEM

she/the woman has been staying with us for one winter

trkearita saskihlami
[te:rcewrida saschlmi]
tr=ke<>a-ri=ta sask-i-h=la-mi
sunrise-ILLAT wake.up-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB=PERF-1P.AG.SG

I have usually awakened by sunrise

trkearita saskilsami
[te:rcewrida sasclsmi]
tr=ke<>a-ri=ta sask-i-l=sa-mi
sunrise-ILLAT wake.up-ASS.CONCL.ITR-PERF=HAB-1P.AG.SG

I have had the habit of waking up before sunrise

9.9.4 Secondary Aspectual Markers
Secondary aspectual markers are found in slot 6. They do not coalesce with primary
aspectual markers and are not necessary for a verb to be complete. Secondary
aspectual markers also differ from primary markers in that they are found on the splitstem in copular constructions.
!
They are reversive, semelfactive, persistive, frequentative, inchoative,
subitive, habilitive and diminutive. They can be stringed one after the other,
although using even three consecutive aspectual markers is highly unusual.
reversive

semelfactive

persistive

frequentive

inchoative

subitve

habilitive

diminutive

-dna-

-a-

-a-en

-ppa-ppen

-dla-

-tta-

-i(neg. en-)

-nun-

361

9.9.4.1 Reversive
The reversive is a secondary aspectual marker with the form -dna-. The reversive
plays two important syntactic roles. Its most common role is to reverse the action of
the verb, similar the English prefix de- (derail, deflate, decapitate, etc.) and un(undo, unravel, unstick, etc.). It is, by semantic extrapolation, also used to show
movement down or off things with verbs which normally show the opposite
movement. The reversive comes first after the other primary aspectual markers.
itidla imi tahhita henda
[iita imi th:ida hnda]
i-ti<dl>-a- imi- tahh-ita hen=da
DIT-hang.PAST-ASS.TR-3P.AG.SG bear.head-DAT tree-ILLAT Up=ILLAT.DESTI

X hung the bearhead up in the tree

cf. itidladna imi tahhika henga

[iitatna imi th:iga he:a]

i-ti<dl>-a-dna- imi- tahh-ika hen=ga
DIT-hang.PAST-ASS.TR-REVERS-3P.AG.SG bear.head-DAT tree-ELAT UP=ELAT.DESTI

X took the bearhead down from the tree

kki misahibma henda
[i:ci mishpma hnda]
i-i<kk>-i- misa-hi=ibma hen=da
DIT-get.PAST-ASS.ITR-3P.AG.SG stone-ILLAT up=ILLAT.DESTI

X got up on the stone

cf. sem uadna misahiska henga

[sem i::uatna mishska he:a]
sem i-i-ua-dna- misa-h=iska hen=ga
not DIT-get-ASS.ITR.OPT-REVERS-3P..AG.SG stone-ABLA up=ELAT.DESTI

X does not want to get off the stone

Reversive may also be used to confer a negative aspect to a verb.
!
!

vappa ! !
vappadna !

!
!

X praises/adores Y (cf. vappi X kneels)

X insults Y

!
!

koni ! !
konidna !

!
!

X walks
X limps or X walks (with difficulty)

It can also confer a more vulgar or violent meaning to verbs.

!
!

nakna ! !
naknadna!

!
!

X breaks Y
X breaks Y (vulgar)

362

!
!

tsyka ! !
tsykadna !

!
!

X hits Y
X hits Y (violently/vulgar)

The reversive is used with the movement verbs man- and mak- come and go as
well as tahh-, pedn- leave and arrive and other similar verbs to mean back, e.g.
manidna- come back, makidna- go back, tahhidna- leave (to go back) and
pednidna- arrive (back).
Finally, the reversive is used in double agentivity verbs (see 9.4.4).

9.9.4.2 Semelfactive
The semelfactive is a secondary aspectual marker with the form -a which comes
after the reversive. It denotes that an action takes place quickly and/or only once; a
momentary or punctual action. It is also commonly used to show that the verb
happens suddenly, unexpectedly, with much force or violently.

oddi
[jt:i]
o<dd>-i-
scream.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X screamed
cf.

oddia
[j:tixa]
o<dd>-i--a
scream.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG-SEMELF

X let out a scream

(also odui)
mavuou
[mvu:u]
ma-vuo<>-u
1P.PAT.SG-get.scared.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL

I got scared
cf.

mavuoua
[mvu:uxa]
ma-vuo<>-u-a
1P.PAT.SG-get.scared.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-SEMELF

I (suddenly) got scared

udli
[uti]
u<dl>-i
night.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR

night was falling

363

cf.

udlia
[utixa]
u<dl>-i-a
night.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELF

night fell all of a sudden/quickly (also udlui)

tatsatskohki
[tatsxatsk:hci]
ta-tsa<tsk>-ohk-i
3P.UNAG.SG-tear.PAST-OHK-ASS.CONCL.ITR

(the rope/leather) tore

cf.

tatsatskohkia
[tatsxatsk:hcixa]
ta-tsa<tsk>-ohk-i-a
3P.UNAG.SG-tear.PAST-OHK-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELF

(the rope/leather) tore (violently, suddenly)

%
Some verbs cannot exist in the semelfactive, but they can be found with an inherent
semelfactive meaning, having a root-bound ending which is historically the same as a but may appear as -r-, -k- or -g-. For example, the verb od- to scream exists in
the semelfactive odia X will [suddenly/violently] scream but also has the rootbound semelfactive form odi X will let out a scream.
'
Opposite to this, the verb tatm(i)a 1 X will sneeze is always found in the
semelfactive (the form *tatmi is not found).
!
The semelfactive is not usually found in the inconclusive, as it carries a
perfective aspect which is incompatible with an inconclusive aspect. The
semelfactive can transform the meaning of the verb and is sometimes unpredictably
equivalent to a separate English expression:

!
%
!

toda or tioda
[da] or [tia]

tod/tiod-a--
contain/close-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X contains Y/holds Y closed

!
!
%

todaa or tiodaa
[dxa] or [tixa]

tod-a-a--
contain/close-ASS.CONCL.TR-SEMELF-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X closes Y

The form tatma is common in the present, but the vowel-final stem reappears in the past as
tatmuia.

364

Note that the form totra X slams Y closed is another example of the root-bound
semelfactive.
!
An other use of the semelfactive, with usually inherently perfective verbs, is to
underline how sudden and/or violent the action is:
middi
[mit:i]

mobiddia
[mbit:ixa]

m-i<dd>-i
1P.UNAG.SG-fall.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR

m-o-i<dd>-i-a
1P.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-fall.past-ASS.CONCL.ITR-

I fell

SEMELF

ma siehhdi
[ma sieh:i]

omaa siehhdi
[mxa sieh:i]

<m>-a- siehhum-di
eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG dried.meat-

o-<m>-a-a- siehhum-di
SUBJ-eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-SEMELF-3P.AG.SG
dried.meat-GEN

I took a bad fall (with SUBJ)

GEN

X had himself a small piece of dried

meat

X ate/devoured him/her/itself a
piece of dried meat (with SUBJ)

The semelfactive may also be used to emphasize a verb or to make it more intense:
!
%
%

hhri giandid kihta

[hhri an chta]

h<hr>-i- giandi-d kih=ta

jump.past-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG fallen.tree-GEN over-ILLAT

X jumped over the fallen tree

!
%
%

hhria giandid kihta

[hhrixa an chta]

h<hr>-i--a giandi-d kih=ta

jump.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG fallen.tree-GEN over-ILLAT

X leaped over the fallen tree

!
Finally, the semelfactive is used with verbs such as neni X will sit, ti X will stand
and i X will lie to form the verbs to sit down, to stand up and to lie down. The
verbs have two forms in free variation - one with an analyzed root-bound semelfactive
and the other with a normal semelfactive marker.
!
!

365

no semelfactive

free semelfactive

root-bound
semelfactive

present

past

present

past

present

past

stand

ti
stand

tgi
stood

tia
stand up

tgia
stood up

ti
stand up

tsti
stood up

sit

neni
sit

edi
sat

nenia
sit down

edia
sat down

nedi
sit down

edi
sat down

lie

i
lie

ani
lay

ia
lie down

ania
lay down

i
lie down

ani
lay down

9.9.4.3 Persistive
The persistive is a secondary aspectual marker that denotes an action which goes on
for a long time or is repeated over and over again. It has the form -a- or -en
word-finally and comes after the reversive and the semelfactive. It is often translated
in English by phrases such as over and over again and keep on.
cf.

sihrima
[shrima]
si<hr>-i-ma
rain.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCL

it was raining
sihrimaen
[shrim:n]
si<hr>-i-ma-en
rain.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCL-PERSIST

it kept on raining (over and over again)

cf.

ki nata
[k:i nta]
k-i n-a-ta
talk-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS-3P.AG.SG

X was talking
ki naata
[k:i n:da]
k-i n-a-a-ta
talk-ITR- COP.INCONCL-ASS-PERSIS-3P.AG.SG

X kept on talking (on and on)

366

atymmen tva td-het!

[tym::n tva i:h]
a-tyv-m--en tva ti<>i-dhet
TRANSL-fat-INCONL-ASS.TRANSL-PERS this.PAT baby.PATDET.MEDI

this baby just keeps on getting fatter!

9.9.4.4 Frequentative
The frequentative is a secondary aspectual marker that denotes that an action
happens a few times or frequently/often. Its form is -ppa-/-ppen and is added after the
reversive, semelfactive and the persistive. It is a a very common aspectual marker
with certain verbs of motion, to the point where certain verbs show a root-bound suffix
which is then part of the root, e.g. tappa [ti:apa] X shakes Y a few times cf. ta
[ti:a] X takes Y in Xs hand. In certain cases, especially with intransitive verbs, the
frequentative may be translated as a little. Sometimes, especially with the
inconclusive, it translates as again or often.
!
!

moippan
[mxpan]

%
!

mo-i-ppa-n
drink-ASS.CONCL.ITR-FREQ-IMPER.2P.SG

!
!

have a few sips

(lit. drink a few times)

!
%
%

oa nuhlappami n mhraka-ut
[ nhlapmi n m:hrga]

oa n<uhl>-a-ppa-mi n mhra-kaut
already see.PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-FREQ-1P.AG.SG this.ANI.GEN bear-GENDET.DIST

I have already seen that bear a couple of times

'
!

kodippaki va ai
[kdpi vja :i]

%
%

-ko<d>-i-ppa-ki- v<a> av=i

walk.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-FREQ-TRANSLOC-3P.AG.SG LAKE.GEN next.to-along

!
!

X went for a little walk along the lake (shore)

(lit. walked a few times)

!
%
%

huhmippen thta
[hhmpn teha]

huh-m-i-ppen tr-ta
shine-INCONCL.ASS.TR-FREQ sun-PAT

the sun is shining again

367

9.9.4.5 Inchoative
The inchoative is a secondary aspectual marker with the form -dla- that denotes an
action which is about to happen or begin. It is only used with unagentive subjects, as
it cannot apply to agentive subjects. Impersonal verbs already have an inchoativelike form in the conclusive, such that they are never found in the inchoative. The
inchoative cannot be used with the copula, as it too already has a translative form.
The inchoative comes after the frequentative, persistive, semelfactive and reversive.
!
!
!

verba inchoative!
!
copular inchoative!
!
impersonal inchoative! !

takaudla!
iiata' '
sihhi' '

X started to get old

X got/became old
it is about to rain

When used with animate unagentive subjects and adjectival verbs denoting
temporary states, the inchoative shows that the action is not temporary but gradual.
takudla
[akta]

entsibmidla
[ntspmta]

t-ak-u-dla
3P.PAT.SG-get.old-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-

ent-sid-m-i-dla
1P.PAT.SG-grab-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-INCHOA

INCHOA

I am beginning to understand

X is starting to get old

horhaidla benhue
[hrhjta bnhue]

agosmudla nuhmo
[smta hmo]

horh-ai-i-dla benho-e
bark-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-INCHOA dog-PAT

a-gos-m-u-dla nuhhi-mo
TRANSL-tired-INCONCL-ASS.TRANSL-INCHOA
old.woman-PAT

the dog started

barking!

the old woman is beginning to be

tired (in general)
[animate unagentive subject - gradual
inchoative]

gos ta onga-t
[su: ta :]
goso-u ta onga-t
tired-COP.TRANSL.PRES this.INA.AGT bridge-AGTDET.PROXI

this bridge is starting to be/get old (lit. tired)

[copular no inchoative marker]

9.9.4.6 Subitive
The subitive is a secondary aspectual marker with he form -tta- (usually -tto- in the
west) that serves two purposes. Its primary purpose it to show that an action takes
place suddenly or rapidly. Its second purpose is to form imperatives or interjections
based on nouns, adjectives, adverbs or postpositions. These are often more informal
than regular imperatives. The subitive marker is added after the inchoative,
frequentative, persistive, semelfactive and reversive. The subitive ending -tta- can
even be attached to titles or names to form a sort of familiar or rude vocative.

368

uhustitta tahhi httamo

[uhstta th:i htm]

kokitta
[kcta]

u-hu<st>-i-tta tahh-i htta-mo

PASS-blow.down.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SUBIT
tree-GEN gust.PAT

<kok>-i-tta-
speak.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SUBIT-3P.AG.SG

the tree was suddenly blown down/

over by a gust of wind

suddenly, X spoke

sihritta
[sihrta]

kitta !
[k:ta]

-si<hr>-i-tta
rain.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SUBIT

k-i-tta
speak-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SUBIT

it suddenly started raining

speak !!

Sappatta !
[sapata]
Sappa--tta
Sappa-AGT-SUBIT

Sappa ! / Hey Sappa!

The interjections that use the subitive endings can be formed from all classes of
words. They are very productive, and when attached to something else than a verb,
they are not considered overly impolite but simply informal. Below are some common
subitive interjections/imperatives:

katta ! !

go outside ! / outside ! (cf. -ika elative)

karakatta !

close the door ! (cf. karaka door)

matta ! !

come on ! / hop on ! (cf. -ibma allative)

!
!

mtta ! !
!
!

come ! / come on ! / lets go ! / go ! / please ! (cf. manin

come here)

!
!
!

gosutta !

calm down ! (cf. gosulhita more calm)

rtta, ratta !

stop it ! (cf. rada X will stop Y)

tsetsotta !

quickly ! (cf. tsetsot quick)

itatta ! !

ahead ! / lets go ! / continue ! / yes ! (cf. ita ahead)

stta !

of course ! / yes ! / eureka ! (cf. sidi/s X will understand Y)

369

siehhutta !

get up ! / get on your feet !

!
!
!

suhuinetta !

more quietly ! (cf. suhuine more quietly)

tatta !

come inside ! / inside ! (cf. -ita illative)

!
!

ttta ! !
!
!

come on ! (to group) / lets go ! (to group) / keep on going !

(to a group) (cf. toutigge we are working together)

ntta ! !

look ! / look out ! / be careful ! / ahead ! (cf. nua X sees Y)

9.9.4.7 Habilitive
The habilitive is a secondary aspectual with the for -i- marker that shows that the
subject of the verb is able, can or has the knowledge required to perform the action
or simply implies a possibility. It follows the subitive, inchoative, frequentative,
persistive, semelfactive and reversive. It often requires an agentive subject, even with
otherwise unagentive verbs and in its negative form.
!
It can be added to the stem of certain nouns to form verbs which are
otherwise defunct. The habilitive is the only aspectual marker that incorporates
negation, in which case the habilitive (sometimes called habilitive negative) has the
form -en- (assimilated to -m- and -n- as -emm- and -enn-) or -sii- (sometimes also
-ddi-) and also requires an agentive subject, despite the verb having an unagentive
meaning.
!
The habilitive is most often found in the present or imperfect tense. It is
usually not found in the habitual. In a few instances, the habilitive may delete the
postverbal vowel -i-, in which case it attaches directly to the stem, if the resulting
cluster is allowed.

Siaimi
[siwimi]

saimi Sdi
[s:imi sy:i]

Sia-i-mi
Siwa-HABI-1P.AG.SG

sahh-<>-i-mi S<>-di
speak-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HABI-1P.AG.SG Siwa-

I know how to/can speak Siwa

GEN

(defunct verb)

I know how to/can speak Siwa

noniemmi
[nniem:i]

emaddimi
[em:imi]

non-i-=en-mi
swim-ASS.CONCL-ITR-HABI=NEG-1P.AG.SG

em-a-ddi--mi
believe-ASS.CONCL-TRHABI=NEG-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG

I dont know how to swim / cant

swim
(also ntsiimi)

I cant believe it (also

emaemmi)

370

gykynii
[ycynii]

bntai gykyn
[bu:nti ycn]

gykyn-i-i-
snow.shoes-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HABI-3P.AG.SG

bu:nt-a-- gyky-n
weave-ASS.CONCL.TR-HABI-3P.AG.SG
snow.shoe-DAT

X knows (how to make)

snowshoes

X knows how to make/weave

snowshoes

9.9.4.8 Diminutive
The diminutive is the last of the secondary aspectual markers and is thus added at
the very end of the chain of aspectual markers. Its form is -nun- (usually pronounced
[n:] [nn], [:] or [n:]. not closing the preceding syllable) or -(n)unda- if followed by
something.
!
Only personal pronouns, location markers and certain evidential markers
follow the diminutive. Its function is varied and can be hard to pinpoint. The most
common use of the diminutive is to make the verb softer or to show that the action
happened only a little or so.
!
tspianun
[ti:spin:]

keilminun
[cwlmin:]

t-sp=i-a-nun-
3P.UNAG.SG-pinch-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRDIMIN-3P.PAT

keil-m-i-nun
drizzle-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-DIMI

X pinched Y a little/slightly

it is drizzling a little (also geilminun)

haundan
[han:dan]

tsovvaundagga
[tsxw:andk:a]

ha-unda-n
eat-DIMI-IMP.2P.SG

tso<vv>-a--unda-gga
discuss.PAST-ASS.TR-3P.PAT-DIMI-1P.AG.PL.EXCL

eat a little!

we talked about X a little

371

9.10 Tense
Siwa verbs have two real tenses: non-past and past. Only the past tense is overtly
marked. The combination of tense and aspect yields 12 primary tenses;
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

future~present
present (non-past)
!
present inconclusive ! !
!
(copular)
!
present habitual conclusive
!
present habitual inconclusive ! (copular)
!
prefect conclusive
!
prefect inconclusive in the non-past (copular)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

past
!
!
!
!
!
!

past conclusive
past inconclusive !
!
past habitual conclusive
past habitual inconclusive !
past pluperfect conclusive
past pluperfect inconclusive !

(copular)

(copular)

(copular)

In addition to these 12 primary tenses, the copula combines with the perfect and
inconclusive to form the perfect inconclusive non-past or past. Copular constructions
are also used to show an immediate past by using the subitive on the non-finite verb,
and a distant past which is used in certain narrative styles, realized by using the
habitual on the non-finite verb.
!
The chart below shows how tense and aspect combine to produce the 14
verb-marked tenses of Siwa.

conclusive

non-past

past

future~present

past conclusive

keda
[ceda]

kedda
[cet:a]

ked-a--
carryASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ke<dd>-a--
carry.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will carry/carries Y
present inconclusive

inconclusive

372

X carried Y
past inconclusive

non-past

inconclusive

past

keda nata
[ceda nta]

keda mata
[ceda mta]

ked-a n-a--ta
carry-TR COP.INCCONCL-ASSINDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ked-a m-a--ta
carry-TR COP.PAST.INCCONCL-ASSINDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X is carrying Y

X was carrying Y

present habitual conclusive

habitual
conclusive

past habitual conclusive

ketas
[cetas]

keddas
[cet:as]

ked-a---s
carry-ASS.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG-HAB

ke<dd>-a---s
carry.PAST-ASS.TR.-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG-HAB

X (usually) carries Y

X (usually) carried Y

present habitual inconclusive

habitual
inconclusive

past habitual inconclusive

keda sata
[ceda sta]

keda sata
[ceda sxta]

ked-a s-a--ta
carry-TR COP.HAB.INCCONCL-ASSINDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ked-a s-a--ta
carry-TR COP.PAST.HAB.INCCONCL-ASSINDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X is (usually) carrying Y

X was (usually) carrying Y

perfect conclusive
perfect
conclusive

pluperfect conclusive

kedla
[ceta]

keddala
[ct:la]

ked-l-a--
carry-PERF-ASS.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ke<dd>-a-la--
carry.PAST-ASS.TR.-PERF-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X has carried Y

X had carried Y

perfect inconclusive

perfect
inconclusive

pluperfect inconclusive

keda orata
[ceda rda]

keda odlata
[ceda tda]

ked-a or-a--ta
carry-TR COP.PERF.INCCONCL-ASSINDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

ked-a odl-a--ta
carry-TR COP.PAST.PERF.INCCONCL-ASSINDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X has been carrying Y

X had been carrying Y

past

immediate

kedatta gata
[cedata gta]
ked-a-tta g-a--ta
carry-TR-SUBIT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X just carried Y

373

non-past

distant

past

kedas gata
[cedas gta]
ked-a-s g-a--ta
carry-TR-HAB COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X carried Y (a long time ago)

9.10.1 Past Form

The past form is the only overtly marked tense. Its marking separates all verbs into
three categories:
!
!
vowel-final
%
strong consonant-final
%
weak consonant-final
Vowel-final verbs are verbs whose final root-bound vowel changes in the past.
Similarly, verbs whose roots end in a consonant which is changed in the past are
called strong consonant-final verbs. Weak consonant-final verbs are those whose
roots end in a consonant which cannot change in the past, and instead are
augmented by a suffix.
present
!
vowel-fonal!
!
!
!
strong consonant-final ! !
!
weak consonant-final! !

ontai! !
etsa! !
radlva! !

past
!
!
!
!
!
!

ontei! !
X danced
onta- onteetsta! !
X startedY
ets- etstradlvia!!
X disturbed Y
radlv- -radlvi-

vowel-fonal!
!
!
!
!
strong consonant-final
!
!
!
weak consonant-final!
!
!
!

!
!
!!
!
!
!

X will dance
X will start Y
X will disturb Y

9.10.1.1 Past Marking on Vowel-Final Verbs

Vowel-Final verbs are those whose stem ends in a vowel and those whose stem ends
in a consonant not part of the strong past consonants.
!
When the final vowel of a vowel-final verb happens to be identical to the
postverbal vowel (most commonly -a- or -i-), only the postverbal vowel appears,

374

deleting the identical preceding vowel1. This means that a number of verbs whose
stems are not obviously vowel-final in the present, or the past in the case of vowel
polarization resulting in two identical vowels. Only when the conditions change does
the stem vowel appear (sometimes not in its true form). For example:
!
!
!

stem! !
present!!
past! !

ivi- !
tivi'
tivui'

!
'
'

to increase
X will increase !(< *tivii)
X increased ! (appears after polarization)

This makes knowing whether a verb has a vowel-final or consonant-final past form
more difficult. Such verbs are called weak vowel-final verbs (as their vowel only
appear in certain cases, whether in the present, past or otherwise). Weak vowel-final
verbs are not common.
!
The past is marked by applying vowel polarization to the last vowel of the
stem. Although the underlying form of the vowel is polarized, its surface form may be
different due to impossible diphthongs being altered, e.g. verbs in -o- have the
polarized version -y-, but because -y- cannot form a diphthong with any other
vowels, it will change to -- or -u-, or the whole diphthong may change to --, -- or uo-, depending on the following sound. The table below shows polarization:

final vowel

polarized

-a

-i-e-

-e

-u-

-i

-u-y- (-V-)

-o

-i-y- (-V-)

-u

-e-ai- / -a-

-y

-oi- / -o--

-i-ei- / -e-

Note however that di- to step has the form d.

375

Verbs ending in -a- have the vowel -e- in the past before -i- or --, but have -ielsewhere. Those ending in -e- always have -u-, never -o- (as -e- can sometimes be
polarized to -o-).
!
The vowels -i-, -o- and -y- have a front-rounded and unrounded polarized
version for the past. The front-rounded version is only used in a verb with a stressed
front-rounded vowel:
!
!
nria ! !
X will load Y
!
nra ! !
X loaded Y ! !
(-i- --)
but
!
tulpia ! !
X will turn Y over
!
tulpua ! !
X turned Y over !
(-i- -u-)
Vowel-Final verbs are few in number. In 9.10.1.1.2 are some of the most common
verbs (with their present and past forms). The vowel-final verbs in -i- or -a- (pastvowel-final) are listed separately.
!
9.10.1.1.1 Vowel-final Stem Coalescence
Because verbs whose stems end in a vowel must also receive the postverbal vowel,
these two will coalesce in sometimes irregular ways.
!
As it was mentioned above, if the stem-final vowel is a single vowel identical
to the postverbal vowel, only the postverbal vowel appears.
!
Verbs whose stems end in a different vowel than the postverbal vowel
behave to avoid triphthongs and tetraphthongs by usually lengthening one of the
component of the following diphthong. See section 3.1.5.1 on diphthong
coalescence.
!
!
!

-a!
!

-aua-% > -avva-!

-aue-% > -avve-!

nunavva'
nunavve'

X wants to close Y
X would want to close Y

!
!
!
!
!
!

-e!
!
!
!
!

-eua-%
-eue-%
!
-eui- %
-euo- %

> -evva-!
> -evve-!
!
!
> -evvi-!!
> -evvo-!

saiskevva !
derevve !
!
!
gevvi' '
noksevvo '

X wants to cause Y
X would want to rotate
Y!
if X reached its peak
X would want to sneak

!
!
!
!

-i!
!
!

-iia-%
-iie-%
-iiu-%

> -iga-! !
> -ige-! !
> -igu-! !

riekiga' '
riekige' '
oriekigu'

if X relaxed Y
X would relax Y
if X relaxed

!
!

-o!

-oua-% > -a-, -ovva-! iska ! !

376

X wants to clean Y

!
!

!
!

-oue-% > -e-, -ovve-! kete' '

-ouo-% > -o-, -ovvo-! hanto' '

X would want to look for Y

X would want to lie

!
!
!
!
!

-u!
!
!
!

-uua-%
-uue-%
-uuo-%
!

X wants to snatch Y
X would want to snatch Y
X would have wanted to
work

> -a-! !
> -e-% !
> -o- ! !
!
!

nuppa''
nuppe''
belmo''
!
!

!
-- (includes -y-)
!
!
-ua-! > -vva-, -ua-! kkvva'
!
!
-e-! > -me-, -i-! kkme%'
!
!
-ue-! > -bi-!!
sytbi' '
!
!
-u-! > --! !
tsyr' '
!
!
-uo-! > -vvo-!
obkkvvo'
!
!
-ui-! > -bi-!!
tsyrbi''
!
!
-o-! > -vvo-!
tsyrvvo'
!
!
-ai-/-ei-/-oi!
!
-Viia-! > -Vddia-!
lugaddia'
!
!
-Viua-! > -Vua-!
sytoua' '
!
!
-Viie-! > -Vddie-!
lugaddie'
!
!
-Viue-! > -Vue-!
nuppaue'
snatch Y
!
!
-Vii-! > -Vgi-!!
upiagagi'
!
!
-Viiu- ! > -Vddiu-!
ukkeddiu'
!
!
-Vioi- ! > -Vgoi-!
takyhhogoi'
!
!
-Viuo-! > -Vuo-!
obkkeuo'
quarrel
!
!
-Viui-! > -Vui-!!
tagalmaui'
!
!
-Viui- ! > -Vgui-!
tagalmagui'
!
pregnant

X wants to bring Y
X will bring Y
X would want to thank Y
X will blister
X would want to quarrel
if X would blister
X will blister

if X had loved Y
X wanted to thank Y
X would have loved Y
X would have wanted to
X was treated
if X had been brought
X would have gotten torn
X would have wanted to
if X had gotten pregnant
X would have gotten

!
9.10.1.1.2 Vowel-Final Verbs
Most verbs describing sounds share the ending -ro-/-o (infinitive -hsu). These verbs
have nominal counterparts ending in -us (GEN. -uhi):

tagvirui''
tagviri

X will make sound in liquid/wet grass

X made sound in liquid/wet grass

geggurui'
gegguri

X will quack
X quacked

377

gekvorrui'
gekvorri

X will croak
X croaked

goglurui''
gogluri

X will gibber/ramble/mumble
X gibbered/rambled/mumbled

guui' '
gui' '

X will growl/bark
X growled/barked

hirkurui' '
hirkuri' '

X will squawk/shriek
X squawked/shrieked

tahhtsui'
tahhtsi'

X will whizz/squeal
X whizzed/squealed

hunrui' '
hunri' '

X will snort
X snorted

hyhhyrui'
hyhhyri'

X will mumble
X mumbled

hoorui''
hoori' '

X will roar/howl
X roared/howled

(ta)homorui'
(ta)homori'

X will hum/purr/vibrate
X hummed/purred/vibrated

kprirui' '
kpriri' '

X will chirp/tweet
X chirped/tweeted

koairui' '
koairi' '

X will howl/shout
X howled/shouted

(ta)kohurui'
(ta)kohuri'

X will snap/rupture/fracture/get angry

X snapped/ruptured/fractured/got angry

takoklorui'
takoklori'

X will click/pop/tick (also tapoklorui)

X clicked/popped/ticked (also tapoklori)

taksirui'
taksiri'

X will cough dryly

X coughed dryly

talepserui!
talepseri'

X will drip/leak/dribble/trickle
X dripped/leaked/dribbled/trickled

378

tamairui!
tamairi' '

X will laugh
X laughed

tamoorui !
tamoori'

X will rumble/thunder/echo/be very hungry

X rumbled/thundered/echoed/was very hungry

motrui ! !
motri' '

X will moo (of caribou)

X mooed

nehnui !!
nehni' '

X will murmur/whisper
X murmured/whispered

tanohrui !
tanohri''

X will grunt/complain
X grunted/complained

tanuonui !
tanuoni'

X will creak
X creaked

tsinrui ! !
tsinri' '

X will buzz/drone/be deep inside

X buzzed/droned/was deep inside

tsihkurui !
tsihkuri''

X will make a dry sound

X made a dry sound

syrrui ! !
syrri' '

X will gnaw/chew/munch/crunch
X gnawed/chewed/munched/crunched

'

tdui !
tdi' '

X will hiss/froth/fizz (do-)

X hissed/frothed/fizzed

tuui ! !
tui' '

X will purl/swirl/stream/smart (uo-)

X purled/swirled/streamed/smarted

tsentsui !
tsentsi''

X will murmur/mutter (usually groups)

X murmured/muttered

Similarly, vowel-final verbs include many verbs descriptive of movement in -e, -kle, kne, -kse, -lse, -dlo, -bmo, -pso and -pre:
!

bbmua'
bbmia''

X will pound/beat Y
X pound/beat Y

379

tadodlui !
tadodlia'

X will hobble/hesitate/be clumsy

X hobbled/hesitated/was clumsy

gaksei' !
gaksui' '

X will gallop/do something assuredly

X galloped/did something assuredly

tahauksei !
tahauksui'

X will explode/burst/go through pollination

X exploded/burst/went through pollination

huoibmui !
huoibmi%'

X will lurk/hide/lie low

X lurked/hid/lay low

taholei !
taholui''

X will loom/appear
X loomed/appeared

kaiksia !!
kaiksua''

X will dodge/escape Y
X dodged/escaped Y

takiedlei !
takiedlui'

X will shatter/break
X shattered/broke

takuknei'
takuknui'

X will coil/not work/fail/curl up

X coiled/did not work/failed/curled up

takiruprei !
takiruprui'

X will shiver
X shivered

kpsia ! !
kpsua' '

X will thump/strike/batter Y
X thumped/stroke/battered Y

kksei ! !
kksui' '

X will stride/march/do something with ease

X strode/marched/did something with ease

dlalsei !!
dlalsui' '

X will drift/leave/pass
X drifted/left/passed

mingipsui !
mingipsi'

X will tiptoe/sneak/make its way

X tiptoed/snuck/made its way

mabmui !
mabmi'

X will moan
X moaned

tamuodlui !
tamuodli'

X will slide/trickle/sink/drop
X slid/trickled/sank/dropped

380

tanoklei !
tanoklui'

X will stagger/stumble
X staggered/stumbled

(ta)naklia'
(ta)naklua'

X will knock Y out/bump into/smash Y

X knocked Y out/bumped into/smashed Y

noei ! !
noua' '

X will sneak/move silently

X snuck/moved silently

tanoprei !
tanoprui'

X will crumple/crush/be too much for Y

X crumpled/crushed/was too much for Y

nohabmui !
nohabmi'

X will haul/pull
X hauled/pulled

tapbmui !
tapbmi'

X will bounce/spring/reflect/echo
X bounced/sprang/reflected/echoed

taruoiknei !
taruoiknui'

X will wake up a little

X woke up a little

tsipsui !!
tsipsi' '

X will spurt/surge/eject
X spurt/surged/ejected

tsiuksei !
tsiuksua'

X will dribble/ooze/seep/go very slowly

X dribbled/oozed/seeped/went very slowly

tsei ! !
tsui' '

X will flash/gleam/glint/blink
X flashed/gleamed/glinted/blinked

soklia ! !
soklua' '

X will hoist/raise/winch Y
X hoisted/raised/winched Y

tihhiksei !
tihhiksui'

X will whistle/whizz (stem ihhikse-)

X whistled/whizzed

tugei !!
tugui' '

X will swoop/swoosh/dive/plunge (stem uge-)

X swooped/swooshes/dove/plunged

tsipsei !
tsipsui''

X will tap/knock
X tapped/knocked

tatyklei !
tatyklui''

X will twirl/swivel/rotate
X twirled/swiveled/rotated

381

tatuulsei !
tatuulsui'

'X will twinkle/sparkle/glimmer'

X twinkled/sparkled/glimmered

tsuoknia !
tsuoknua'

X will snatch/grab/pluck/steal Y
X snatched/grabbed/plucked/stole Y

tvipsui !!
tvipsi' '

X will flinch/react
X flinched/reacted

Other vowel-final verbs:

gielsia' '
gielsua' '
giels' '

X will prepare Y
X prepared Y
prepared

hantui' '
hanti' '

X will lie (stem hanto-)

X lied

halvua' '
halvia' '
halviu' '

X will forge/melt Y (stem halvo-)

X forged/melted Y
forged/melted

!
!

iskua' '
iskia' '
iskiu' '

X will clean Y (stem isko-)

X cleaned Y
cleaned

kekia' '
kekua' '
kek' '

X will place Y
X placed Y
placed

ketua' '
keta/ketia'
ketiu' '

X will look for Y (stem keto-)

X looked for Y
looked for

takikui''
takikei''

X will jerk/move
X jerked/moved

kegvia''
kegvua'
kegv' '

X will call Y (animal)

X called y
called

nuppua''

X will snatch/steal/grab Y
382

nuppaa''
nuppau%'

X snatched/stole/grabbed Y
snatched/stolen/grabbed

nria' '
nra' '
nr' '

X will load/pack/stuff Y
X loaded/packed/stuffed Y
loaded/packed/stuffed

ontai' '
onti/ti''

X will dance
X danced

!
!

pugua' '
pugia' '
pugiu' '

X will pour/share Y (stem pugo-)

X poured/shared Y
poured/shared

puoua'
puoia''
puoiu%'

X will squeeze/hold Y (stem puoo-)

X squeezed/held Y
squeezed/held

tsaiskia '
tsaiskua'
saisk' '

X will cause/lead to Y (stem saiske-)

X caused/lead to Y
caused

tseiskia '
tseiskua'
seisk' '

X will follow/come after Y

X followed/came after Y
followed

seitua' '
seitaia' '
seitaiu' '

X will threaten Y
X threatened Y
threatened

sepsei' '
sepsui' '

X will flap its wings

X flapped its wings

soa'
sia'
siu'

X will feed Y (stem so-)

X fed Y
fed

viua, vivva ' X will sever/amputate Y (stem vio-)

va' '
X severed/amputated Y
vu% '
severed/amputated

tvelpia' '
tvelpua' '
tvelp' '

'
'
'

X will turn Y over/flip Y (stem tvelpe-)

X turned Y over/flipped Y
overturned/flipped

383

utua' '
utia' '
utiu' '

X will pack for/prepare for Y (stem uto-)

X packed for/prepared for Y
packed for/prepared for

ovuksui '
ovuksia'
vuksiu' '

X comb his/her hair (stem vukso-)

X combed his/her hair
combed

The most common weak vowel-final verbs:

!

omeini' '
omeinui'
ein' '

X will propel itself (using a long stick on logs) (stem eini-)

X propelled itself
propelled

tioka' '
tiokia' '
iokiu' '

X will surround Y (stem ioka-)

X surrounded Y
surrounded

tivi'
tivui'

X will increase (stem ivi-)

X increased

meha% %
mehia' '
mehiu' '

X smear/paint/decorate Y (stem meha-)

X smeared/painted/decorated Y (also mesta)
smeared/painted/decorated (also mestu)

nuna' '
nunia' '
nuniu' '

X will close Y (stem nuna-)

X closed Y
closed

suma' '
sumia' '
sumiu' '

X will cover Y (stem suma-)

X covered Y
covered

oaiga' '
oaigia' '
oaigiu' '

X will hook Y (stem oaiga1-)

X hooked Y
hooked

orieki' '
oriekui' '
riek' '

X will relax (stem rieki-)

X relaxed
relaxed

'
'

Found as vaia- in western dialects.

384

9.10.1.1.3 Diphthong-Final Verbs

A small number of verb roots end in diphthongs or long vowels. The past of such
verbs is formed by using the rules of diphthong coalescence in 3.1.5.1 for the past
form. There are only a handful of such verbs:
!

ti'
tgi'

'

X will stand !
X stood

'
a'
u'

'

X will raise Y ! !
X raised Y
raised

aymi' '
mami''

X is feel sick, be nauseous !

X felt sick/nauseous

tapau''
tapey' '

X will disappear
X disappeared

'
a'
u'

'

'
'

'
'
'

X will fuck Y ! !
X fucked Y
fucked

9.10.1.2 Past Marking on Consonant-Final Verbs

Consonant-Final verbs are those whose roots end in a specific consonant or
consonant cluster. A set number of final consonants and consonant clusters change
unpredictably and form the strong consonant-final verbs. Verbs whose roots end in
other consonants or more commonly consonant clusters cannot change like their
strong counterparts and are thus called the weak consonant-final verbs.

9.10.1.2.1 Strong Consonant-Final Verbs

Strong consonant-final verbs are those whose roots end in one of the 44 consonants
or consonant clusters listed in the table below.
!
The exact form of the consonant or consonant cluster is often changed when
the postverbal vowel is -oi-/-ui- (conditional irrealis intransitive inferential/conditional
irrealis translative inferential) and -i-/-u- (optative intransitive assertive/optative
translative assertive). See 9.7.2 and 9.7.4. Special forms are given in the tables
below.
!
Originally, the strong verb form was the result of a suffix added to the stem of
verbs (thought to have been *--). This was an infix, sometimes coming before the
last consonant, sometimes attaching itself as a suffix to the stem.

385

!
This is most apparent when comparing verbs whose stems end in -k-, which
have their past form in -g- (originally *-k-), and those ending in -rr-, which have the
past form -rt- (originally *-r-):
!
!

taprru' '
taprtu' '

X will recover
X recovered

aka'
aga'

X will cut Y
X cut Y

'
'

Here are the consonants affected by the consonant-final past marker (in consonant
groups). Some verbs in ivv- uvv- and evv- may have a rounded vowel in the past in
some dialects, to become y-, - and u-.
-a/-e/-o/-u/-/-y
-m-

-bm-

-p- and -b-

-b-

-pp- and -bb-

-pr-

-mm- or -m-

-mm-

-bb-

-bb-

--

--

-psi-

-v- and --

-vv-

-vv-

--

-n-

-i

-tt-

-di- or -ri-

-dd-tv-

-dn- and -bm-

-nd-

-nn-

-n-

-dd-

-tsv-

-dd-

-ng-

-nd-

-nd-

-nd-

-nk-

-ht-

-htv-

-hd-

-kn-

-nt-

-tv-

-nt-

-t- and -d-

-dd- or -tt-

-tv-

-dd-

-ts- and -hts-

-(h)tst-

-(h)tst-

-(h)tst-

-ts- and hts-

-(h)tsk-

-(h)tskv-

-(h)tsk-

-s-

--

--

--

-s-

-skk-

-skv-

-skk-

386

-a/-e/-o/-u/-/-y

-i

-dd-

-ddior
-tsi-

-tsv-

-dd-

--t-d-r-

-rr- or -hr- or -dd-

-rv-

-rr-

-rr-

-rt

-rtv-

-rd-

-l- and -dl-

-dl- or -ll-

-lv-

-ll-

-lv-

-g-

-l-

-llior
-gi-

-ll-

-k-

-g-

-g-

-g-

-g- and -gg-

-tk-

-tkv-

-tk-

-tsv-

-dd-

-ht- or -d-

-ht- or -dd-

-h-

-h-

-st- / -v-

--

-g- and --- and --

-d- or -ts-

-gi- or -ts-

-st- (or -d-)

-h- and -hh-

-hr-/-or
-vv(u)-

-h-

-st-/-t-

-vvior
-hri-sti-/-i-

-b-

-kk-

-kv-

-kk-

--

-kk- or -t-

-gv- or -tkv-

-gg- or -tk-

-g-

-t-

-bb-

-bb-

numa' '
nubma' '

X will pick Y
X picked Y!

otomi' '
otobmi'
otommi%

tiba'
'
tiba' '

(-m- -bm-)

X will unite
X united!
!
X wanted to unite!

!
!

(-m- -bm-)
(-m-- -mm-)

X will mean Y ! !
X meant Y!
!

!
!

(-b- -b-)

387

kmmi' '
kebmima'
kmmima'

X is happy
X was happy! !
!
X wanted to be happy! !

(-m- -bm-)
(-m-- -mm-)

teupa' '
teuba' '

X will predict Y
X predicted Y! !

(-p- -b-)

tanyppi''
tanypsi''
nybbi' '

X will stand out (stem nypp-)

X stood out ! !
!
X wanted to stand out! !

(-p- -psi-)
(-p-- -bb-)

ivva'
ia'

X will climb Y
X climbed Y (also ya)!

ivi'
'
ivvi' '
ii' '

X will stay
X stayed!
!
!
!
X wanted to stay (also yi)! !

(-v- -vv-)
(-v-- --)

kei'
'
kevvi' '
kei' '

X will rise
X rose! !
!
!
!
X wanted to rise (also kui)! !

(-- -vv-)
(--- --)

tsuvvi' '
tsui' '
sui' '

X will flow
X flowed (also tsi)! !
!
X wanted to flow (also si)! !

(-vv- --)
(-vv-- --)

tini'
tidi'
titvi'

X will leave traces

X left traces! !
!
X wanted to leave traces!

!
!

(-n- -di-)
(-n-- -tv-)

gaggana'
gaggatta'

X will examine Y !
X examined Y! !

!
!

!
!

(-n- -tta-)

koni%
'
kodi~kori%

X will walk !
X walked!

(-n- -di-/-ri-)

hbmi' '
hndi' '
htvi' '

X will fly
X flew (less commonly hbmui)!!
(-bm- -nd-)
X wanted to fly (less commonly hbmi) (-bm-- -tv-)

hmmi' '
hbmi' '

it is windy (stem hn-) ! !

!
it was windy (from < *hd-m-i)! !

'
'

'
'
'

!
!

388

(-vv- --)

(-n- -d-)

nuidna' '
nuinda' '
onuitvi' '

X will identify Y
X identified Y! !
!
!
X wanted to identify himself/herself!

(-dn- -nd-)
(-dn-- -tv-)

ini'
iddi'
itsvi'

X will sneak
X snuck!
!
X wanted to sneak!

'

!
!

!
!

(-n- -dd-)
(-n-- -tsv-)

omingi' '
omindi' '
omindi'

X will get ready !

!
X got ready! !
!
X wanted to get ready! !

!
!

(-ng- -nd-)
(-ng-- -nd-)

nanka' '
nahta' '

X will pile Y up
X piled Y up! !

(-nk- -ht-)

kekna' '
kenta' '

X will organize/be responsible for Y !

X organized/was responsible for Y!

(-kn- -nt-)

tadati' '
tadaddi'
datvi' '

X will mourn
X mourned!
!
X wanted to mourn!

!
!

!
!

(-t- -dd-)
(-t-- -tv-)

keda' '
kedda/ketta'

X will carry Y
X carried Y!

(-d- -dd-/-tt-)

etsa'
etsta'

X will begin Y
X began Y!
!

(-ts- -tst-)

tsuodu' '
tsuoddu'
suotvi' '

X will bloom ! !
X bloomed!
!
X wants to bloom!

!
!
!

!
!

(-d- -dd-)
(-d-- -tv-)

kautsa''
kautska''

X will make jam out of Y

X made jam out of Y

!
!

tolasi' '
tolahi' '

X will cut itself deeply ! !

X cut itself deeply!
!

(-s- -h-)

sisi'
'
siskki' '

there is thunder
there was thunder!

(-s- -skk-)

kya'
kyha'

X will try Y
X tried Y!

(-- -h-)

nita'

'
'

'
'

'
'
'

X will teach Y
389

nidda' '

(-t- -dd-)

airi'
aihri'
airvi'

X will row
X rowed!
!
!
X wants/wanted to row! !

!
!

(-r- -hr-)
(-r-- -rv-)

taprru' '
taprtu' '
taprvu''

X will recover
X recovered! !
!
X wants/wanted to recover!

!
!

(-rr- -rt-)
(-rr-- -rv-)

kidli'
killi'

'

it is customary !
it was customary!

(-dl- -ll-)

la'
dla'

'

X will know Y
X knew Y!
!

(-l- -dl-)

ila'
illa'

'

X will grow Y
X grew Y!

(-l- -ll-)

giki'
'
gigi' '
gigi' '

X will glance
X glanced!
!
X wanted to glance!

!
!

!
!

(-k- -g-)
(-k-- -g-)

kega' '
ketka' '

X will hide Y
X hid Y!!

(-g- -tk-)

tapiagi' '
tapiatki''
piatkvi' '

X will fall asleep

X fell asleep! !
!
X wanted to fall asleep! !

!
!

(-g- -tk-)
(-g-- -tkv-)

ruikima' '
ruigima'

X will be anxious !
X was anxious! !

!
!

(-k- -g-)

oga'
'
oda/otsa'

X will remember Y
X remembered Y!

(-g- -d-/-ts-)

omei' '
omedi''
omedi'

X will shake itself

X shook itself! !
!
X wanted to shake itself!

!
!

(-- -d-)
(--- -d-)

pha' '
psta' '

X will scold Y
X scolded Y! !

(-h- -st-)

sahha' '

X will burn Y

X taught Y!

'
'
'

'

'

'

390

sahra' '
usavvi' '
savvu' '

X burnt Y!
X was burnt!
burnt! !

!
!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!

(-hh- -hr-)
(-hh- -vvi-)
(-hh- -vvu-)

dluhhi' '
dluvvi' '

X will boil
X boiled!

(-hh- -vvi-)

sahhi' '
sai' '
savi' '

X will speak
X spoke!
!
X wanted to speak!

!
!

!
!

(-hh- --)
(-hh-- -v-)

ihha'
ista'

'

X will thank Y
X thanked Y! !

(-hh- -st-)

ei'
ekki'
ekvi'

'
'

X will run
X ran! !
!
X wanted to run!

!
!

!
!

(-- -kk-)
(--- -kv-)

daa' '
dakka' '

X will ask Y
X asked Y!

(-- -kk-)

kiga' '
kigga/kita'

X will pick Y up
X picked Y up! !

(-g- -gg-/-t-)

dabi' '
dabbi/datvi'

X will drum !
X drummed!

(-b- -bb-/-tv-)

'

'

!
!

9.10.1.2.2 Weak Consonant-Final Verbs

Weak consonant-final verbs are those whose roots end in consonants or consonant
clusters other than those listed above. The markings for these verbs are valency
dependent the root is augmented by an ending which depends on whether ther
verb is transitive (including subjective, passive and ditransitive), intransitive
(including subjective, passive and ditransitive) or translative. In other words, the past
of weak consonant-final verbs depends on which postverbal vowel it will precede.
!
!
!
!

!
!
transitive!
intransitive!
translative!

ASSERTIVE!

-a%
-i%
-u/-%

%
%
%

!
%
%
%

INFERENTIAL

-e
-o
-o

The ending for such verbs is the polarized version of the valency vowel preceding
the correct postverbal vowel:

391

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
transitive!
intransitive!
translative!

PRESENT!!

-a%
-i%
-u/-%

%
%
%

!
%
%
%

PAST

-i-u-ai-/-ei-

postverb vowel

ASS.

INF.

transitive

intransitive

transitive
subjective
ditransitive
passive

intransitive
subjective
ditransitive
passive

translative

Present

Past

Present

Past

Present

Past

indicative

-a

-ia

-i

-ui

-u / -

-au / -e

conditional
irrealis

-ia

-iga

-iu / -i

-uu

-ui

-aui

optative

-ua / -a

-ivva

-i / -i

-uvvi

-u / -

-aiu

indicative

-e

-ie

-o

-o

-ao

conditional
irrealis

-ie

-ige

-oi

-uoi

-ui

-ago

optative

-ue / -i

-ivve

-uo

-o

-ue or u

-aue /
-eu

PASS

-iu

-au

When confusion may arise due to the merging of the past indicative and present
conditional irrealis for transitive verbs (both -ia-), the older forms of the conditional
may be used instead (-ia-). The same goes for the inferential, where they merge as ie- but may be found as -ie- for clarity.
Common consonant clusters for such verbs include -sk- -ld- and -kk-:
!
!

!
!
aiska' '
aiskia% '
aiskiu' '

!
!
!
X will fix/sew Y !
X fixed/sewed Y!
fixed/sewn!
!

392

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

stem
aiskaiskiaiski-

belmi' '
belmui' '

X will work !
X worked!

ogaulda'
ogauldia'
gauldiu' '

!
!

belmbelmu-

X will discuss Y together !

X discussed Y together!!
discussed!
!
!

!
!
!

gauldgauldigauldi-

ogauldi''
ogauldui'

X will discuss ! !
X discussed! !

!
!

!
!

gauldi
gauldu-

!
!

gaykka' '
gaykkia''
gaykkiu%'

X will satisfy Y !!
X satisfied Y! !
satisfied!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!

gaykkgaykkigaykki-

oppa' '
oppia' '
oppiu' '

X will knock on Y !
X knocked on Y!
knocked, exhausted!

!
!
!

!
!
!

oppoppioppi-

uoppi' '
uoppui''

X is knocked (on) !
X was knocked (on)!

!
!

!
!

uoppi
uoppu-

esta'
estia'
estiu%

X will succeed at Y ! !
X succeeded at Y!
!
succeeded/successful! !

!
!
!

estestiesti-

piegukka'
piegukkia'
piegukkiu'

X will greet Y ! !
X greeted Y! !
greeted!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!

piegukkpiegukkipiegukki-

tatreisk'
tatreiske'

X will shed fur! !

X shed Y!
!

!
!

!
!

treisktreiske-

tabeulusku'
X will lose weight !
tabeuluskau' X lost weight! !

!
!

!
!

beuluskbeuluska-

taneinnu%
taneinnau'

!
!

!
!

neinnneinna-

'
'
'

!
!

!
!

X will get dirty !!

X gort dirty!
!

9.10.1.3 Irregular verbs

A number of verbs in Siwa follow no regular pattern to form their past. There are four
types of irregular verbs; present augmented verbs, past augmented verbs, irregular
verbs and syncopic verbs. Present and past augmented verbs are those which either
gain or lose an augment (vowel or consonant). Present augments have their
393

augments in the present, and past augmented verbs in the past. Proper irregular
verbs are those that simply do not follow any pattern, and syncopic verbs are those
that lose a vowel in the past (or with a handful of verbs, gain a vowel in the past).
Sometimes, having or losing an augment is enough to mark the past, such that actual
past markings are not present.

9.10.1.3.1 Augmented Verbs

Augmented verbs are verbs whose present form has an extra prefix which
disappears or changes in the past. Another subclass is that of vowel-final verbs
ending in diphthongs. The diphthongs have their complex form in the present, but a
simple (past marked) form in the past (for the special behavior of monosyllabic words
ending in diphthongs, see 3.1.5.1). There is a handful of verbs who have the pattern
-/n- or b-/n- for present/past.
Present augment:!
!
!
!
oa'
'

anoa, hoa'

stem

X will attack Y !!
X attacked Y! !

!
!

!
!

o-

i'
'
(a)ni' '

X will lie !
X lay! !

!
!

!
!

!
!

gia, eha '

eha% '

X will bathe Y ! !
X bathed Y

e(h)-

oei, oehi '

omehi' '

X will bathe itself !

X bathed itself

e(h)-

muni' '
udi~uri' '

X will rest !
X rested

un-

neni'
'
edi~eri' '

X will sit !
X sat

en-

neska' '
aiska' '

X will ask about Y !

X asked about Y

esk-

vana' '
(a)nadda%

X will stretch Y !
X stretched Y

an-

omana''
onadda'

X will stretch itself !

X stretched itself

an-

seta/seta '

X will put Y (somewhere) !

et-, et-

394

teta/teta'

X put Y (somewhere)

saila' '
taila' '

X will trust Y ! !
X trusted Y

ail-!

bia'
'
(a)nia' '

X will throw Y ! !
X threw Y

i-

bei' '
(a)nei'

there is a path !
there was a path

e-

9.10.1.3.2 Syncoped Verbs

Syncoped verbs are those whose present or past form goes through syncope, i.e.
loses a vowel between two consonants, thus creating a consonant cluster. The
following verbs are examples of this type of irregular verbs:
!
!

Past Syncope
setula' '
sedla' '

X will push Y
X pushed Y

Present Syncope
!
erri'
'

eruli'
'

X will work
X worked

moa' '
ama' '

X will drink Y
X drank Y

X will sweat
X sweated

geiga' '
giga' '

X will share Y
X shared Y

tdli'
'
theli' '

9.10.1.3.3 Proper Irregular Verbs

Proper irregular verbs are those whose stem changes in unpredictable ways from
non-past to past. Many of them involve the addition of -- or -d- in the past. The
following verbs are examples of this type of irregular verbs:
!
!

!
!
ira'
'
ahra, dla'

!
!
X will kill Y !
X killed Y!

!
!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!

stem
irahr-, dl-

nodi/nori '
nenodi' '

X will sing !
X sang!!

!
!

!
!

!
!

nodnenod-

oai'
noai'

'

X will say !
X said! !

!
!

!
!

!
!

oanoa-

ona'

'

X will tell Y !

on-

'

395

nona'

'

X told Y!

non-

maki'
'
maski, magi'

X will go !
X went!!

!
!

!
!

!
!

makmask-, mag-

!
!

mani'
'
mansi, matsi'

X will come !
X came!

!
!

!
!

!
!

manmans-, mats-

dieggi, diggi '

dagi, % '

X will go (and come back)!

X went (and came back) !

!
!

diegg-, diggdag-

gea' '
gaba' '

X will dig (for) Y !

X dug (for) Y ! !

!
!

!
!

gegab-

'
mi'

'
'

X will change ! !
X changed ! !

!
!

!
!

m-

sota1'
isotati'
sodda'
istati'

'
'
'
'

X will give Y ! !
X give Y to Z ! !
X gave Y!
!
X gave Y to Z ! !

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

sotisotsoddist-

dolla'
'
dalda' '

X will hold Y ! !
X held Y!
!

!
!

!
!

dolldald-

ridda' '
rea' '

X will propose to Y !
X proposed to Y!

!
!

!
!

riddre-

talli'
'
tvedli' '

X will run (of animals)! !

X ran (of animals)!
!

!
!

talltvedl-

naba' '
niba' '

X will use Y !
X used Y !

!
!

!
!

nabnib-

rehmi' '
rami' '

X will go by boat!
X went by boat!!

!
!

!
!

rehmram-

ha'
ma'

X will eat Y !
X ate Y !

!
!

!
!

hm-

'
'

!
!

!
!

1 Compare to the declension for usot- allow:

usoti'
'
usoddi' '

X is allowed
X was allowed

396

peva'
ba'

'

kita'
'
ahta, tka'

X will eat1 Y !
X ate Y !

!
!

!
!

pevb-

!
!

!
!

kitaht-, tk-

koka' '
X will weave Y !!
kuhka, keygga'X wove Y !
!

!
!

!
!

kokkuhk-, keygg-

komi'
'
it is summer ! !
koabmi/gabmi' it was summer !

!
!

!
!

kokoab-, gab-

miea' '
meba% '

X will want Y ! !
X wanted Y ! !

!
!

!
!

miemeb-

roahti' '
rddi' '

X will chafe, irritate, annoy (-a) !!

X chafed !
!
!
!

roahtrdd-

mora' '
myrra' '

X will grind Y ! !
X ground Y!
!

!
!

!
!

mormyrr-

nua'
'
nega' '
nuhla' '

X will see Y ! !
X saw Y !
!
X has seen Y! !

!
!
!

!
!
!

nunegnuhl-

notsa' '
oa'
'

X will take Y ! !
X took Y!
!

!
!

!
!

notso-

ema' '
aama/oma'

X will believe Y !
X believed Y! !

!
!

!
!

emaam-, om-

tata'
'
X will think about Y !
taia, daia' X thought about Y!

!
!

!
!

tattai-, dai-

uora/ra/vora ' X will worship/serve Y ! !

dla' '
X worshiped/served Y! !

!
!

uor-, r-, vordl-

okaiki% '
okgi' '

!
!

kaikkg-

'

!
!

X will do/make Y !
X did/made Y ! !

X will kneel !
X kneeled Y!

!
!

!
!

The verb peva used to be more commonly used about animals, while ha was restricted to humans.
The distinction is not as rigorously held as before.
1

397

9.11 Tense-Aspect Coalescence

The results of combining tense, verbal conclusivity (conclusive vs. inconclusive) and
telicity (genitive vs. dative) is illustrated in the table below.

present

conclusive

telic

atelic

future~present telic

future~present atelic

ikeda oakibma kili

[iceda pma cili]

ikeda oakibma kidli

[iceda pma cti]

i-ked-a- oak=ibma kili-

DIT-carry-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG
home-ALLAT wood-DAT

i-ked-a- oak=ibma ki<d>li

DIT-carry-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG
home-ALLAT wood.GEN

X will carry the wood

home
or
X carries the wood home

X will carry (some) wood

home
or
X carries (some of the) wood
home

past telic

past

present

past atelic

ikedda oakibma kili

[icet:a pma cili]

ikedda oakibma kidli

[icet:a pma cti]

i-ke<dd>-a- oak=ibma kili-

DIT-carry.PASTASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG homeALLAT wood-DAT

i-ke<dd>-a- oak=ibma ki<d>li

DIT-carry.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG
home-ALLAT wood.GEN

X carried the wood home

X carried (some of the) wood

home

telic

atelic

present telic inconclusive

present atelic inconclusive

ikeda oakibma kili nata

[iceda pma cili
nta]
i-ked-a- oak=ibma kili n-a-ta
DIT-carry-TR home-ALLAT woodGEN COP.INCONCL-ASS-3P.AG.SG

X is carrying (the/all the)

wood home
inconclusive

past telic inconclusive

past

398

ikeda oakibma kidli nata

[iceda pma cti nta]
i-ked-a- oak=ibma ki<d>li n-a-ta
DIT-carry-TR home-ALLAT wood.GEN
COP.INCONCL-ASS-3P.AG.SG

X is carrying (some) wood

home
past atelic inconclusive

inconclusive

telic

past

atelic

ikeda oakibma kili mata

[iceda pma cili
mta]
i-ked-a- oak=ibma kili m-a-ta
DIT-carry-TR home-ALLAT woodGEN COP.PAST.INCONCLASS-3P.AG.SG

X was carrying (all) the

wood home

ikeda oakibma kidli mata

[iceda pma cti mta]
i-ked-a- oak=ibma ki<d>li m-a-ta
DIT-carry-TR home-ALLAT wood.GEN
COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS-3P.AG.SG

X was carrying (some) wood

home

9.12 Location and Movement

Siwa verbs can house markers that relate information about the location or movement
of its constituents, called locative markers. These markers are all housed in slot 5.
Locative markers are separated into two groups: primary and secondary locative
markers. The primary markers are the cislocative and translocative, which
respectively show movement toward the speaker and away from the speaker.
!
The secondary markers are identical to the locative markers for nouns
inessive, illative, ellative, adessive, allative and ablative. These exist in two sets definite and relative. The definite markers refer to a 3rd person object, while relative
markers are used to form locative and genitive relative phrases (..in which/whose X).
Definite markers generally require the ditransitive.
!
The primary markers coalesce, when possible, with the habitual and perfect
markers (see section 9.2.1.9).

primary markers
cislocative

-ni-

translocative

-ki-

secondary
markers

definite

relative

inessive

-a- or -iga-

-o-or -igo-

illative

-ita-

-ito-

elative

-ika-

-iko-

adessive

-ima-

-imo-

allative

-ibma-

-ibmo-

ablative

-iska-

-isko-

399

9.12.1 Primary Locative Markers

The primary locative markers are simply used to show motion away or towards the
agent of the verb.
!
The translocative shows movement away from the speaker, or simply
movement towards something. It is very commonly used to mean go and X, e.g.;
!
!

mahhami '
mahhakimi '

'
'

I will hunt Y
I will go and hunt Y

The cislocative shows the opposite, or movement towards the speaker, or often also
come and X.
!
!

opanikan'
dohhanikan'

'
'

come and help me

come and say good bye to me

Their use is fairly loose and quite common. In copular constructions, the primary
locative markers may be marked onto the verb instead of the copula. Newer
generations tend to group all markers onto the copula, such that having the locative
markers on the main verb may be considered older or more formal language. Note
that combining the translocative and cislocative (-kini- or sometimes -kni-) shows a
movement without any particular destination, similar to English -ing around/about. It
can also be used with verbs not denoting movement, then placing emphasis on the
idleness of the action.
biakin
[bin]

bianin
[binn]

bi-a-ki-n
throw-ASS.CONCL.TR-TRANSLO-IMP.2P.SG

bi-a-ni-n
throw-ASS.CONCL.TR-CISLO-IMP.2P.SG

throw it away/there

throw it here/over here

koni maknita
[kni maida]

tiknisen
[t:isn]

kon-i m-a-ki=ni-ta
walk-ITR COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASSTRANSLO=CISLO-3P.AG.SG

t-i-ki=ni-se=n
stand-ITR-TRANSLO=CISLO-IMPER.2P.SG.NEG

dont just stand there

X was walking about

400

usdliki ohkihi-go
[usi:tii hcihig]

sem usdlinika ylihma

[sm usi:tiniga ylhma]

u-s<dl>-i-ki ohki=higo
PASS-blow.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-TRANSLO
birch.bark.box-PAT1P.POSS.SG

sem u-s<dl>-i-ni-ka yli-hi=ma

not PASS-blow.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRCISLO-1P.PAT.SG little.leaf-ADESS

my ohkis (birch bark box) got

blown away

I wasnt blown here on a leaflet (i.e.

I wasnt born yesterday)

9.12.2 Definite Secondary Locative Markers

The definite secondary locative markers are used to show location in (inessive) or on
(adessive), motion into (illative) or onto (allative) or out of (elative) and off of (ablative)
a third person object. This triggers the verb to be in the ditransitive. Secondary
locative markers are also used with destinal locative adverbs up and down (see
6.5.2).
tinodiga
[tindij:a]

tinodika
[tindiga]

t-i-no<d>-i-ia
3P.UNAG-DIT-swim.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-INESS

t-i-no<d>-i-ka
3P.UNAG-DIT-swim.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-ELAT

X swam/floated into Y

X swam/floated out of Y

henda isetaibman
[hnda isetaman]

henga inotsaiskan
[he:a intsaskan]

hen=da i-set>-a-ibma-n
up.ILLAT.DESTI DIT-place-ASS.CONCL.TRALLAT-1P.AG.SG

hen=ga i-not-a-iska-n
up.ELAT.DESTI DIT-take-ASS.CONCL.TR-ALLATIMPER.2P.SG

put X up on Y

take X off of Y

ipuguaitappatta
[ipuj:uidapata]

ibutuaitami
[ibuuidmi]

i-pugo-a-ita-pp-tta
DIT-pour-ASS.CONCL.TR-ILLAT-FREQ-SUBIT

i-uto-a-ita--mi
DIT-pack-ASS.CONCL.TR-ILLAT-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG

poor some into it

I will pack Y into Z

Mahhuts s ha sappiskua deiskogge

[mh:jt:s: ha sapskua dskc:e]
mahh=uts- s h-a sappiska--a d-e-isko-gge
fallenbear.VOC-AGT VOC.PART eat-TR paw-DAT-PL COP-INFER-ABLAT.REL-1P.AG.PL.EXCL

oh Bear, whose paws we will eat

The secondary locative markers can be exchanged for primary locative markers if the
person is no longer a third person:
!
!
!

gagitotraita'
gagitotraki'
gagototriri'

'
'
'

X is related to Y
X is related to me
they are related to eachother

401

9.12.3 Relative Secondary Locative Markers

Relative secondary locative markers are used to form locative relative clauses. In
addition, the elative and ablative are used to form genitive relative clauses. This
triggers the copular construction. The markers are always and only found inside the
copula, which then lacks the regular relative prefix o-. Just like definite locative
markers, relative ones also trigger the ditransitive when possible.
su, da gaitori
[s: iia gidori]
su- i-id-a g-a-ito-ri
river-AGT DIT-fall-TR COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-ILLAT.REL-3P.AG.PL

the river into which they fell

nidna, iavva bengomu gaibmogga
[ntna iww:a b:mu gapmk:a]
nidna- i-avv-a bengomu- g-a-ibmo-ka
hut-AGT DIT-spread.out-TR roof-DAT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-ALLAT.REL-1P.AG.PL.EXCL

the hut over which we spread (i.e. placed) a roof (of leather)
seumi, ukedi gaitoka
[seumi ucedi gidga]
seumi- u-ked-i g-a-ito-ka
land-ACT PASS-bear-ITR COP.PAST-ASS-ILLAT.REL-1P.PAT.SG

the land in(to) which I was born

togo, ikosa toai gaitomi
[tg iksxa t:i gidmi]
togo- i-kos-a toa-i g-a-ito-mi
tree.trunk-AGT DIT-engrave-TR some.INA-DAT COP.PAST-ASS-ILLAT.REL-1P.AG.SG

the tree trunk into which I engraved something

makidnan, ioka saikona
[mctnan ika sxigna]
ma=k-i-dna-n i-oka-a s-a-iko-na
go-ASS.CONCL.ITR-REVERS-IMP.2P.SG DIT-originate-TR COP.HAB.PAST-ASS-ELAT.REL-2P.AG.SG

go back to where you came from

genitive relative
somi, la kohko saikomi
[smi i:la khk sigmi]
somi- l-a kori-ko s-a-iko-mi
man-AGT know-TR boy-GEN COP.HAB.CONCL-ASS-ELAT.REL-1P.AG.SG

the man whose boy I know

nidna, gaikomi eiddu bengomu
[ntna gigmi eit:u b:mu]
nidna- g-a-iko-mi ei<dd>-u bengomu-
hut-AGT COP.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-ELAT.REL-1P.AG.SG build.PAST-PAT.PART roof-AGT

the hut whose roof I built/was built by me

402

maski, kesa sauhhaha naikomi

[masci cesa suh:jha nigmi]
maski- kes-a sauhha-ha n-a-iko-mi
people-AGT learn-TR language-GEN COP.INCONCL-ASS-ELAT.REL-1P.AG.SG

the people whose language I am learning

!
9.13 Preverbal Adverbs
Certain verbs may be found with an adverbial clitic showing space, time or manner.
Preverbal adverbs can be separated into two groups concrete and abstract.
!
The preverbal adverbs h- up, t- down, tat- into, tam- onto and katfrom/about are more abstract than the other preverbal adverbs, and although they
are more common, they generally change the meaning of the verb they modify
significantly. In their more concrete meaning, these adverbs are rarer and usually
found with regular adverbs instead.
!
The other preverbal adverbs are more freely used and have a more concrete
function than abstract adverbs.
!
Each preverbal adverb has a vowel-final and consonant-final form. Preverbal
spacial adverbs are always the very first element of the verb and are housed in slot -3
(see 9.2.1.2).

9.13.1 Locative Preverbal Adverbs

Locative preverbal adverbs correspond to both an existing free-standing adverb and
three forms corresponding to the six locative cases. However, as clitics, these
adverbs only distinguish between location in/into, on/onto and off/from:
!
!
!

inessive and illative!

adessive and allative!
elative and ablative!

!
!
!

tattamkat-

In addition to these three prefixes, locative preverbal adverbs also include h- up

and t- down.
Locative preverbal adverbs serve three main functions:

403

1.!
!
2.!
!
3.!

They are found with transitive verbs which cannot have an object in a
locative case.
They are found with semantically passive verbs whose topic (subject) would
normally be found in a locative case.
They are found with patientive and agentive participles.

In addition to these three functions, locative preverbal adverbs can also modify the
meaning of a verb entirely.
!
The locative preverbal adverbs sometimes appear with verbs which already
carry a preverbal adverb in slot -3. Locative preverbal adverbs are found after the
pre-existing preverbal adverb.
!
!

gagisyvvaita% '
gatatusyi' '

X will show explain Y to Z

Y was explained (to Z)

9.13.1.1 With Transitive Verbs

Preverbal adverbs are commonly found with transitive verbs which cannot be found
with an object in any of the locative cases or with postpositions/adverbs. Typically,
these verbs have an underlying movement into, onto or out of something, which is
generally left out of the phrase.
!
Thus, this function of preverbal adverbs is to allow a dropped locative in the
verb phrase of transitive verbs. These verbs typically contain only one object. This
creates two ways for verbs to behave and express the same idea in two different
ways, sometimes allowing for similar constructions to those found in English. The
preverbal adverbs are similar in their evolution to the incorporating verbs something
known or unimportant (because easily inferred) is more likely to be found with a
preverbal adverb.
In other words, the difference between secondary locative markers (after the stem)
and locative preverbal adverbs (before the stem) is whether the location refers to a
specific third person (movement in relation to a thing) or if only the movement is
specified:
!
!
!
!

Secondary locative markers (movement in relation to a specific object)

!
!
-ia!
!
VERB in X!
!
!
-ita! !
VERB into X
!
!
-ika! !
VERB out of X

!
!
!
!

Locative preverbal adverbs (movement without specific object)

!
!
tat-! !
VERB in/into
!
!
tam-! !
VERB on/onto
!
!
kat-! !
VERB out/off

Consider the examples below:

404

!
!
!

eskuekkami ples'
'
eskuekkaikami utudas%
kateskuekkami utudas%

I will empty the stomach

I will empty the content out of Y
I will empty the content out

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

aispa !ata!
!
aispaika lri% %
kataaispa lri! !

!
%
!

X will rinse the bowl

X will rinse the dirt out of Y
X will rinse the dirt out

osetaibma% '
'
tamosetan liabmis!% '
isetan liabmis osibma!' '

X will put X on (itself)

put your tuque on!
put your tuque on yourself!

9.13.1.2 With Semantically Passive Verbs

When a verb which usually has an argument in a locative case is found in the
passive, preverbal adverbs are used.
%
!

igikibma '
tamugigi'

'
'

'
'

X will glance at Y (gik)

X was glanced at (lit. was at-glanced)

%
%

iddksita'
tatubksui'

'
'

'
'

X will shoot it (lit. into it)

X was shot (lit. in-shot)

%
!

imiggibma%
'
tamumiggui% '

'
'

X will infect Y (lit. onto Y)

X was infected

!
!

irita ' '

taturui''

'
'

'
'

X will bite into Y (r)

X was bit into (lit. was into-bit)

!
!

imuoaita'
tatumuotsi%

'
'

'
'

X will dress Y into Z

used

!
igaihtsakina' '
'
you owe me X
!
tatugaihtstiki% '
'
owed to me, in debt to me
!
9.13.1.3 With Paritciples
Verbs whose argument is found in a locative case will also be found with a preverbal
adverb in their patientive participal forms. This includes a number of verbs which
commonly govern an infinitive clause with the copula in a locative case. The resulting
participles may be difficult to translate into English.

!
%

imiggibma'
'
tamumiggui' '

'
'

X will infect Y (lit. onto Y)

X was infected
405

!
!
%
!
!
!
!

tamamigg%

'

'

(the) infected

ikahaika'
katukahi'
katakastu%
kastu' '
'

'
'
'
'

'
'
'
'

X will need Y (lit. of Y)

X is needed
(the) needed
needed, necessary

'

9.13.1.4 Modifying the Verb

A number of verbs are found with preverbal adverbs which modify their meaning.

TAT- ! in(to)
This preverb has the form tat-/tata- (sometimes merging as tad- or tat-, tatata merge
as tadda/tadd) and has the meaning in on into. It also modifies a number of verbs
by changing their meaning:
!
%

tidi !
!
taddidi %%

X will fall
X will happened to

!
%

kei ! !
tatokei %

X will rise
X will join/participate/grow/mature

!
%

kka ! !
tatkka %

X will bring Y
X will involve

!
%

manta ! !
tatumanti %

X will accept Y
X will be accepted

!
%

nua ! !
tadnua %

X will see Y
X will guess Y

!
%

piegukka !
X will greet Y
tatapiegukka % X will welcome/host Y

!
%

pugua !!
tatapugomi %

X will pour Y
it is flooding

suga%

X will visit Y

406

%
!
!
%

tatsuga %

X will interfere with/obstruct/block/disrupt Y

otoati ! !
tatatoata %

X will join Y
X will include/integrate/assimilate/blend/mix/mingle with Y

!
%

ri ! !
tatrmi %

X will approach
it is imminent/near/impending/approaching

!
%

omani !!
tatomana %

X will stretch
X will get used to X/be enough for X

!
%

tvietku !!
tatatvietku %

X will cave/slant
X will cave in/collapse/give in

TAM- ! on(to)
This preverb has the form tam-/tama- (sometimes merging as tav-/taC-, tamatamerge as tanda/tand or tamda/tamd) and has the meaning on on onto. It also
modifies a number of verbs by changing their meaning:
!
%

ogahhi !
tamogahha %

X will lean
X will tend to/be prone to/prefer/favour Y

!
%

tidi !
!
tandidi %%

X will fall
X will stumble upon/find out (by accident)

!
%

ei ! !
tandei %

X will run/flow/go
X will turn out to/be found to/happen to

!
%

tigiri ! !
tandigira %

X will seep
X will affect Y

!
%

oa !
!
tamoa 1 %

X will attack Y
X will confront/tackle/oppress Y

!
%

okaiki ! !
tamokaiki %

X will kneel
X will swear

tamakua %

X will trespass/infringe upon/threaten2

kka ! !

X will bring

The form tamoa also exists, usually meaning exclusively to confront.

(*kua does not exist)

407

tandakka %

X will cause Y (to happen)

!
%

dlaugi !!
tamalaua %

X will hesitate
X will stall/distract/hinder/stop Y

!
%

dlodni ! !
tamadlodni %

X will sink
X will sink to the bottom/become forgotten/go into oblivion

!
%
!

manta ! !
tammanta %
!
!

X will receive Y
X will take it upon itself to/take responsibility/assume/play
the role of Y

!
%
!
%

raa ! !
tamaraa %
tamoragi %
tamara %

X will push Y
X will emphasize/accentuate/focus on Y
X will flow/advance (of tide)
especially

!
%

suma !!
X will cover Y
tam(a)suma % X will give shelter to/preserve/shield Y

KAT- ! out/from
This preverb has the form kat-/kata- (sometimes merging as kad-/kad-) and has the
meaning out, off form or about. It also modifies a number of verbs by changing
their meaning:
!
%

daa ! !
katadaa %

X will answer Y
X will turn Y down/decline/dismiss/reject Y

!
%

gea ! !
katagea%

X will dig (for) Y

X will empty Y (by scooping out water from a boat), dig out

!
%

teli !
!
katateli %

X will grow
X will mature (grow into an adult)

!
%

hideti ! !
kata(hid)eti !

X will cut ones hair

X will shave ones head

%
%

tagedli' '
katagedla'

X will function
X will work/figure Y out, know how to Y

!
%

tagimia !
katagimia %

X will look forward to Y

X will expect/presume/figure Y

katagoa %

X will push (on) Y (cf. tekigoa X will pull (on) Y)

408

!
%

hagena !
X will notice Y
katihagena % X will point Y out to Z

!
%
!
!
%

ia !
!
katia % %

!
%

kekia ! !
katakekia %

X will place Y
X will displace/elliminate/destroy/ruin Y

!
%

kosa ! !
katakosa %

X will engrave Y
X will scrape Y off

!
%

kuoni ! !
katakuona %

X will ague
X will claim/maintain Y

!
%

mitia ! !
katamitia %

X will explain Y
X will clarify/reason for/define Y

!
%

molka ! !
katomolki %

X will slide Y
X will move out of the way/make way/yield/submit

!
%

neska ! !
kataneska %

X will ask Y
X will beg Y

!
%
!

notsa ! !
katanotsa %
!
!

X will take Y
X will capture/abduct/run off with/be influenced by/look like
(relative) Y

!
%
!

oga ! !
katoboga %
katibogi %

X will remember Y
X will reminisce/recall/reflect (on) Y
X will correspond/be silimar (to) Y

!
%
%

raa ! !
kataraa %
katoragi %

X will move
X will put Y aside (for later)/retract
X will withdraw/retreat/recede/ebb (of tide)

katorntai %

X will scratch (an itch) (*rntai does not exist)

!
%

ivi !
!
kataivi %

X will stay
X will stay behind

X will receive Y
X will inherit Y

ola !
!
X will read Y
katola %X will interprete/assume Y

409

!
%

tatska ! !
katatatstka %

X will consider/think about Y

X will reject Y

!
%

tsasa ! !
katatsaskku %

X will forget Y
desolate/deserted/forgotten/abandonned

!
%

tsova ! !
katatsova %

X will discuss Y
X will describe Y

9.13.2 Simlpe Preverbal Adverbs

Simple preverbal adverbs have a simpler function than their locative counterparts.
They can be freely added to almost any verb, or can also modify the verbs meaning.
This is especially true of the prefixes h- up and t- down.
!
Like their locative counterparts, simple preverbal adverbs give extra
information about the movement or manner of the verb, often refering to a dropped
argument.

H- ! up
This preverb has the form h-/hi- or hen- and has the general meaning up.
%
%
%

hsuvvis sma
[hsuw:s sma]

h-suvv-i-s se<>i-hhi
up-flow-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB river-PAT

the river flows up

%
%

henia segme
[heni:a sm:e]

%
!

hen-i<>-a- seky-me
up-climb.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR cliff-GEN

!
X climbed up the cliff
!
It also modifies a number of verbs by changing their meaning:

auga ! !
henauga %

X will tie Y into a knot

X will trick/deceit/catch Y (doing something)

baulla% %

X will wade Y

410

hbaulla %

X will face/encounter Y

!
%

bnta% %
hbnta%

X will weave Y
X will charm/fascinate Y

!
%

gea ! !
hgea%

X will dig for Y

X will dig Y up/discover/uncover Y

!
%

delpia ! !
hdelpia%

X will flip Y over

X will expose Y

!
!
!
!
%

d'
hdia'
!
etsa !
hietsi %

'
'

X will step
X will count Y

!
%

X will start Y
X will take to the air (of birds)

!
%

goga! !
hgoga%

X will adze Y
X will excite/stimulate Y

!
%

airi%
%
henairi %

X will row
X will resist

!
%

tidi !
!
htidi% %

X will fall
X will realize/wake up suddenly

!
%

ehtsi ! !
henehtsa %

X will walk (slowly)

X will stalk Y

!
%

tei% %
htei%

X will run/flow/go
X will run/flow/go up, become excited/upset/enflamed

!
%

tigiri ! !
htigiri %

X will seep
X will slowly happen/(X) little by little (especially htigir)

!
%

ihha ! !
henihha%

X will climb Y
X will climb Y/conquer Y

!
%

ksi%
%
henksi %

X will shoot (an arrow)

X will concede/admit (defeat)/grant/accept

!
%

la%
%
henla% %

X will know Y
X will recognize Y

lka !

X will present/offer Y

411

henlka %

X will sacrifice Y

!
%

i ! !
heni %

X will get (somewhere)

X will get up

!
%

ola !
!
henoli %%

X will read Y
X will conclude/judge/assess (that)

!
%

kaikni ! !
hkaikna %

X will stare
X will contemplate/consider/imagine Y

!
%

kekna ! !
hkekni %

X will organize Y
X will set up camp/settle down

!
%

komi% %
hkomi %

it is summer
it is (the first part of) summer

!
%

munta ! !
hmunti %

X will tread Y
X will walk/go up hill

!
%

tanyppi%%
hnypmi %

X will stand out

it is obvious

!
%

rehha ! !
hrehha %

X will pull Y
X will find/invent/lie/come up with/say/claim Y

!
%

ruodla ! !
htruodla %

X will fold Y
X will shrink/wrinkle/contract/react

!
%

tsadlu ! !
htsadlu %

X will burn (in a pot)

X will burn up/consume/use up

!
%
!
!
%

saiskia !!
htsaiskia %

X will lead to Y
X will influence Y

sidi !
!
hsida %%

X will understand
X will recognize/admit Y

!
%

ivi !
!
hiva %%

X will stay
X will win/be superior/better than Y

T- ! down
This preverb has the form t-/tym- and has the meaning down.
412

!
%

tsomnui tppma
[tsmn:ui tpma]

%
!

t-somn-u-i tpp-ma
down-fall-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR cone-PAT

the cone fell down (something)

%
%

tymukilli kehha
[tymucil:ji ceh:wa]

%
!

tym-u-ki<ll>-i kehh-a
down-PASS-cut.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR pine.tree-PAT

the pine tree was cut down (somewhere)

It also modifies a number of verbs by changing their meaning:

!
%

aka ! !
tymaka %

X will cut Y
X will cut Y down/eliminate Y

!
%

dabi ! !
ttadabi %

X will drum
X will subside/ease up

!
%

maivvi% !
tmaivvi%

X will smile
X will frown

!
%

ei ! !
tymei %

X will run/flow/go
X will run smoothly/go well/go according to plan

!
%

luhha ! !
tluhha %

X will boil Y
X will make a broth/soup (out of Y)

!
%

moa! !
tymomoa %

X will drink Y
X will gorge itself on/absorb Y

!
%
!
!
%

oga ! !
tymoga %

X will remember Y
X will make note/inscribe/write down/record Y

utua ! !
tymutua %

X will pack Y
X will compact/compress/press Y

AH-!
after
This preverb has the form ah-/ahha- and shows that something is done after or late(r).
!

kiga' '

X will pick Y up

413

!
!
!
!

ahkiga'

X will clean Y up

kita'
'
ahkita' '

X will do Y
X will put Y off/back/postpone Y

!
!
!
!
!

koairui' '
ahtakoairui'

X will howl
X will jump the gun/react prematurely

s'
'
ahts' '

X will understand
X will grasp/realize Y

AUR-! mis-
This preverb has the form aur-/auh- and shows that something fails, goes by or is
side-by-side. This prefix is also found as ai-/aio- in certain dialects.
!
!

d'
'
auhtad'

X will step
X will misstep/make a mistake

!
!

ei' '
aurea'

X will run/go/flow
X will miss out on/pass up/reject/refuse Y

!
!

ksi'
'
auhtksi'

X will shoot (an arrow)

X will fail/backfire/misfire/miss

!
!
!
!
!

neni' '
auhneni'

X will sit
X will sit side-by-side

sahhi' '
auhtsahhi'

X will speak
X will misspeak

!
!
!

seta' '
aurseta'
auhtseta'

X will place Y
X will compare Y
X will misplace Y

!
!

s'
'
auhts''

X will understand
X will misunderstand (also commonly aiotsi)

!
GA- ! with
This preverb has the form ga-/gag- and shows that something is done with someone
else. It has a reciprocally comitative meaning (with each other).
414

gagemi'!

X will feel compassion/grief (with someone)

!
!

ei' '
gatei'

X will run/go/flow
X will converge/meet/unite

!
!

oa'
'
gaoa 1' '

X will attack Y
X will combat Y

!
!
!
!

syvva' '
gasyvva'

X will show Y
X will explain Y

gatemna'

X will be congratulate Y

'
GAT-! along
This preverb has the form gat-/gata- and means along. It is an accompanying
comitative. It may also have a meaning of doing something accordingly or as a
reaction to something (thus often equivalent to the adverb back in English).
!
!

askila' '
gataskila'

X will control Y
X will handle Y

!
!

gedli' '
gatagedli'

X will behave
X will react

!
!

keda' '
gatkeda'

X will carry Y
X will bring Y along

!
!

koni'
'
gatkoni''

X will walk
X will follow along/obey

!
!

kosu' '
gatkosu'

X will be carried (sound)

X will resound/echo (sound)

!
!

sai'
'
gatsai''

X will speak
X will reply/talk back

!
!

obkki'
gatobkki'

X will fight
X will fight back

!
1

Also exists as gagoa.

415

L-!
forward
This preverb has the form l-/la- and shows that something goes forward, ahead, or
that something is done/given/offered to someone.
!
!

d'
ld'

ltan' '

X will unwind/develop

!
!

oai'
loai'

X will say
X will claim

syvva' '
lsyvva''

X will show Y
X will present/offer Y

lotieki'

X will crawl forward

!
!
!
!

'
'

'
'

X will step
X will step forward/volunteer

RR-! through
This preverb has the form r(r)-/rra- and shows that something goes through
something or that is done with great success. Some dialects have er- or eh- instead
of rr-.
!
!

kohha' '
rkohha'

X will rip Y
X will rip apart Y

!
!

lukka' '
rralukka'

X will pierce Y
X will succeed at Y

KEM- ! with
This preverb has the form keu-/kem- (sometimes merging as k-) and shows that
something is done together or as a group. It is generally found with plural subjects.

belmi ! !
keubelmiri%

X will work
they will cooperate

!
!

neni' '
keuneni'

X will sit
X will be correct/will compare/contrast

416

nodi ! !
keunodiri%

X will sing
they will sing together

!
%

notsa ! !
keunotsari%

X will take Y
they will agree on Y

!
KL-! again
This preverb has the form kl-/kld(a)- and shows that something is done again or one
more time.
!
!

teluli' '
klteluli''

X will bloom
X will recover/get revitalized

!
!

ksi'
'
klksi' '

X will shoot
X will give another try

!
!

ona'
'
klona' '

X will tell Y
X will repeat Y

!
!

tadna' '
kltadna'

X will find Y
X will recover Y

LOL-! back
This preverb has the form lol-/lola- and shows that something is goes back, behind or
happens secretly or hidden from view.
!
!
!

mahha' '
lolmahha'

X will hunt Y
X will stalk Y

!
!

mega' '
X will respect Y
lolmegadna' X will betray/be unfaithful to Y

noski' '
lolnoski%'

X will get somewhere

X will escape

!
!

oga' '
lologa' '

X will remember Y
X will regret Y

417

!
!

tahhi' '
loltahhi''

X will leave
X will flee

RAH-! against
This preverb has the form rah-/rog(a)- and shows that something is done against
someones will or in the opposite direction.
!
!

guki' '
ragguki'

X will stride
X will persevere/continue

!
!

airi'
'
rogairi' '

X will row
X will row (at the opposite rhythm as someone else)

!
!

oa'
'
ragoa 1''

X will attack Y
X will counter attack

!
!
!
!
!
!

neni' '
X will sit
rahneni'X will sit against each other/be parallel
rahnen'
in a row, consecutively
notsa' '
rahnotsa'

X will take Y
X will rape/steal/rob Y

!
!

oai'
'
rogoai2''

X will say
X will reply

!
!

raa'
'
rahraa''

X will push Y
X will resist/protest/endure Y

!
!

belmi' '
rahbelmi'

X will work
X will work in shifts

TEKI- ! towards
This preverb has the form tek-/teki- (sometimes merging as teg-) and has the
meaning towards or closer. It tends to form transitive verbs from intransitive ones. It
can also be used to mean roughly or imprecisely.

Also found as rahoa.

Also found as rogvai in the present.

418

tekigoa %

X will pull (on) Y (cf. katagoa X will push (on) Y)

!
%
!
!
!

koni ! !
tekikona %

X will walk
X will approach Y

oai'
'
tekoai' '

X will say
X will continue (to say), to estimate

!
%

saimni ! !
teksaimna %

X will run
X will charge at Y

!
%
!
!
!

osali ! !
teksala %

X will head (to)

X will aim for Y

tapakva''
tekitapakva'

X will use a knife on Y

X will (roughly/imprecisely) use a knife on Y

TEM-! before
This preverb has the form tem-/teu- (sometimes also t-) and shows that something is
done before or in advance.
!
!

aiska' '
temaiska'

X will sew Y
X will prevent Y

!
!
!

pedni' '
teu(ta)pedni'
tpednotima'

X will arrive
X will precede
preceding

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

nua% %
teunua%'

X will see Y
X will predict Y

saisa' '
temsaisa'

X will warn Y
X will forewarn Y

tvipsui' '
ttvipsui'

X will flinch
X will anticipate/preempt Y

TVE-!

in disorder

419

This preverb has the form tv-/tve- and shows that something is done in the wrong
order, in disorder, loosely, clumsily or with a certain level of freedom or at random.
!
!

goaka' '
tvegoaka'

X will choose Y
X will choose Y at random

!
!

takoasa'
X will do Y regularly
tvetakoasa' X will be unpredictable/will happen unpredictably

!
!

lola'
'
tvelola' '

X will leave Y
X will leave Y in disorder

!
!

losta% %
tvelosta'

X will take care of Y

X will neglect Y

!
!

oga' '
tvoga' '

X will remember Y
X will remember Y incorrectly/confuse Y

UNG-! very/well
This preverb has the form ung-/uo- (sometimes also found as as un-) and shows that
something is done in the right, correct way or may simply be translated as very.
!
!

gaggana'
uogaggana'

X will look at Y
X will examine/scrutiny Y

!
!

kya' '
ungokyi'

X will try Y
X will make an effort/apply itself

!
!

sahhi' '
uosahha'

X will speak
X will pronounce/enunciate Y

!
!

tayhha' '
uotayhha'

X will beat Y (at something)

X will vanquish/defeat Y

!
!

tegi'
'
X will be able to see
ungitegibma' X will (be able to) distinguish Y

!
!
!

tatihheni'
uotatihheni'

X will seem fresh

X will seem very fresh

420

UT- ! around
This preverb has the form ut-/uta- (sometimes merging as ud-) and gives a meaning
of going around or about. It also implies a circumvention or acting without
permission or not according to the rules.

%
!

auga ! !
utauga %
utautu%!

X will tie Y into a knot

X will noose Y, have Y under control
OK, yes, alright

!
%

d !
!
utad% %

X will step
X will ignore Y

kiga ! !
utakiga %

X will pick Y up
X will be busy with Y

koni ! !
utakona %

X will walk
X will disobey/avoid Y

noski ! !
udnoski %

X will get somewhere

X will use another way/way around

%
!
%
!
!
%
!

L-!
nearly
This preverb has the form l-/l- (sometimes also found as as u-) and shows
something nearly or just about happens. In negative verbs, it may also mean hardly.
In some dialects, namely dnu and Riekka, the negation and preverb merge as
seml og sml/smr meaning hardly.
!
!

tidi'
'
ltidi' '

X will fall
X will nearly fall

!
!

sem ikahaika' X will not need Y

sem likahaika'X will hardly need Y

!
!

set kva''
sem lkva'

X will not feel Y

X will hardly feel Y

Some less common preverbal adverbs include:

KE-! helping
This preverb has the form ke-/keo- and shows that someone is doing something in
order to help, as a favor or replacing something else.

421

!
!

aiska' '
keaiska'

X will sew Y
X will assist at sewing Y

!
!

koni'
'
kekona'

X will walk
X will help Y walk

!
SO- ! from a distance
This preverb has the form so-/soh- and shows that someone is doing something
from afar. It is most commonly used with the following verbs:
!
!
!
!
!

thhenika' '
sohthhenika '

X will smell like Y

X will smell like Y from far away

gagitotruita' '
soagagitotruita'

X is related to Y
X is loosely related to Y

!
!

tegi'
'
sotega'

'
'

X will be able to see

X will be able to see Y from a distance

!
!

sea' '
sohsea'

'
'

X will hear Y
X will hear Y from afar

!
!

tri' '
sotri'

'
'

X will approach
X will approach from afar

!
!

oina' '
sooina'

'
'

X will look at Y
X will spy on Y

R- ! from up close
This preverb has the form r-/h- and shows that someone is doing something from
up close. It is most commonly used with the following verbs:
!
!
!

koka' '
rkuhku'
rkok''

X will weave Y
involved/related
speaking of which, propos

!
!

koni'
'
rkona%'

X will walk
X will be close/closely tied to Y

!
!

oina' '
roina' '

X will look at Y
X will examine/wonder about/reflect upon Y

422

V- ! after
This preverb has the form v-/vvv- and shows that something is happening following
something else, as a result. It is also found as ve-/vevv-.
!
!

lomi'
'
vloma%'

X will run around

X will pursue/chase Y

!
!

rehha' '
vvvurehh'

X will drag Y
as a result

423

9.14 Absolutive Descriptives

Absolutive descriptives are suffixes which can be added directly to the stem of verbs
and the copula. They are housed in the slot 1 of verbs. They are called absolutive
descriptives because their main function is to describe the shape, state, form or
nature of the absolutive arguments, that is to say the subjects of intransitive verbs
and the objects of transitive verbs. There are 9 such markers and each describes a
category of characteristics, usually descriptive of the shape or form of the arguments.
Absolutive descriptives have 4 main functions.
They describe the shape/state/form/nature of:
1.!

The subject of an intransitive verb

2.!

The object of a transitive verb

3.!
!

The change of state of the subject of translative or passive intransitive verbs

or the object of causal transitive verbs

They can also act as adverbs, generally describing the way in which the action is
performed.
Some descriptives may combine to form a more specific derivative and some extra
descriptives exist but are very restricted in use (dialectally or in certain fixed
expressions).
!
Absolutive Descriptives are attached directly to the verb stem. Verb stems
ending in a consonant see no change, whereas verb stems ending in a vowel have
vowel coalescence. The absolutive descriptive markers lose their initial vowel after an
identical one.
!
For the formation of the past, the stem vowel is re-used after the absolutive
descriptive. Consonant-Final verbs use regular postverbal vowels:
!
!
!

soklia !!
soklua !
soklohkua !

X will hoist Y
X hoisted Y
X hoisted (a heavy thing/container)

!
!
!

keda ! !
kedda' !
keddohka !

X will carry Y
X carried Y
X carried (something heavy)

Absolutive Descriptives are not required for any verb, but are common in story telling
and more vivid or expressive speech. They may also be found with the copula of
there-existential sentences (or other there-existential verbs). In this case, the
absolutive descriptives refer to the argument of the copula.
!
Siwa allows its speaker to state where or what something is by referring to it
indirectly, only giving information about the shape or nature of the argument.

424

!
Syntactically, absolutive descriptives often occur once the object of the verb
has already been mentioned, then generally being descriptive of the argument. New
objects however can be introduced with a descriptive, then generally being
adverbial. And as stated above, the descriptives may also give information about the
state of the argument as induced by the verb:
!
!

nubmahta elepri !
sarkkahpia ! !

X gathered flowers (into a bouquet)

X broke Y into a point or a flake

Compare the basic verb form iruita X bit into Y when used with absolutive
descriptive:
!
!
!
'
'
'
!

iribuita' '
'
!
!
or!
iriuluita' '
'
irebuita~irubuita'
irohnuita'
'
irohkuita'
'
!
!
or!

X bit into (something small)

a child/boy/girl bit into it
X bit into (something ripe)
X bit into (something fresh/new)
X bit into (something dry)
X bit into (something big)
X took a big bite of X

9.14.1 -AHPThis absolutive descriptive is generally associated with long, flat, pointy or sharp
objects, although large open spaces (skies, rivers, fields) may also be found with ahp- then accentuating the openness, flatness or emptiness of the space. Below are
examples of words which may trigger the use of absolutive descriptive -ahp- or may
be refered to implicitely by it.
pointy / sharp / horned / hoofed / hard
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

hpi%
%
usas' '
eteri ' '
ennu ' '
rri '
'
tapaki ' '
n ' '
sira!
!
aihha ' '
okhi ' '
rdni ' '
r '
'
salama''
goi '
'

arrow head, point

flake
spear
pole
arrow
knife
knife
fish
needle, thorn (and by extension all thorny plants)
pine needle (and by extension all trees with needles)
itch (and by extension most pains)
tooth
antler/caribou (and by extension all livestock)
point, edge
425

!
!
!

nyly'
'
ts '
'
mokkuo%'

!
%
!
!
!
!

gkkahpuma! !
usarkkahpui%
'
tsuoknahpua to hemi'
ahrahpa teddet!
nantahpu rita% '

knirahpippen ma benho!!
!
!
!
!

nose, snout
nose
beak

!
'
'
!
'

X must sharpen (a knife/spear)

X was broken into an arrow/point
the bird snatched (a fish/bone)
the old man killed (a caribou/fish)
a (sharp/pointy) tooth broke
the dog was sniffing around with its
(long) snout

long / flat, open / straight /

%
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
'
!
!

gaukama %
kven% %
alahra' '
birgo' '
kili'
'
tini'
'
givo' '
ehrana' '
nomono'
deumu' '
demo% %
ndla' '
su'
'
dn'
'
eulhi' '
atsio ' '

%
!
%
%

buikkahpuma hemi%
!
!
!
dlehhahpini vvita%
setahpan adda'
so solukkahpui?%
!
!
!
suahpi sb% %
idedlahpabi (nomono)%
tatilahpippen! !

!
%
!
!

down, feathers
feather
floating log
beam, log
wood
fire wood (by extension also fires)
nail
stick to hunt fish
fang
bone (tissue)
(single) bone
face, surface
river
barren field
grassy field
glade (and by extension other landscape features)

!
!
%
'
'
!
'
'
!

one needs to pluck the bird (of its

feathers)
a log/beam floated over here
put it (wood, logs) right here
did you prick yourself (with something
sharp)?
the river (narrowly, flatly) flowed
X showed us its (pointy fangs)
(bone, knife) hangs

426

!
!
%
!
!

neynrahpi ennea eutaagi%

!
!
!
!
rekkahpau rekkes!
!
!
!
!
!
nenahpin!'
'
'

the (flat, long) grassy fields are billowing in

the wind
the sky opened (widely) up
or the sky opened up (in a narrow band)
sit straight

oa on misas, sarkkahpia u
[x misas sark:ahpiaju]
<o>-a- on misas-, sarkk-ahp-i-a-- u
take.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG ON rock-DAT, break-ahp-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG
U

X took the rock and broke it (into a point or flake)

tanda on demo, digahpia u
[and dem, gahpiaju]
ta<nd>-a- on demo-, di<g>-ahp-i-a-- u
find.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG ON bone-DAT, carve-ahp-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.SG U

X found a bone and carved it (into something long and sharp)

9.14.2 -AHTThis absolutive descriptive is used for things bound, packed, contained, containing
but also for things that are scattered around or large and/or formless (skins, things
that have to be spread out). The words below are likely to trigger or be found with the
absolutive descriptive -aht-. It may also confer an idea of tight or full to verbs such
as utua pack, seta/seta put, nria load, stuff and hiddua stack and ha to
eat (especially ohahti to eat oneself full).
large / formless / scattered / stuffed / packed
%
%
nomo% !
bag, pouch
!
bename'
pouch, leather pouch
!
ples' '
stuffed stomach, belly
!
keggas''
baby, foetus
!
bengomu'
roof, skins
!
damu' '
skin with fur
!
asuma''
animal skin
!
iri'
'
skin, bark
'
kehma' '
(human) skin
!
rhko' '
(human) skin
!
nuobmo'
stretched skin, window
!
puna' '
deer skin (and by extension living deer)
!
pbme' '
seal skin (and by extension living seals)
!
!

isetahtaitan% !
tymutuahtan kki'

put X into y (by stuffing it, pushing it, packing it)

compress the snow (tightly together)
427

'
omahtimi'
'
I ate too much/until I was full
!
kedahti na!
!
she is with child
!
iavvahtumagga'
we have to spread (the skin, something that was
!
!
!
!
packed) out
!
vanahta nuomoma!
X will stretch the skin out (after having been
!
!
!
!
packed)
!
The absolutive descriptive -aht- is also used with things after falling to the ground
and scattering or to allude to complex/complicated objects/tasks.
enclosed / contained / bound / dead
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

nnnu% !
ohkis' '
saiu' '
kolra' '
kor' '
ailme' '
tulmu' '
amoi' '
horet' '
amora' '
thma' '
blin' '
toadun'
shpa' '
mahhi' '
helba' '
!
!
ipro'
'
rohtot' '
!
!
ata'
'
tsli' '
nut' '
hide' '
vebo' '

box, container
birch bark box
pot, safe place
large container/pot/tub
pot
tanned skin
clothing (and by extention all clothes)
blood (inside the body)
body, torso
vein
heart
liver
intestines, guts
lungs
fallen bear
[pregnant] female moose (and by extension liota female
bear)
carcass
hollow tree (by extension, old/abandoned/long dead
structures/animals)
bowl
skull (and by extension, all animal heads)
package, parcel, bundle
hair (when tied)
knot

%
!
%
!
!
%

utodahti%
'
'
luhhahti% nata% '
'
iruollahtaki tulmuma tobika%
!
!
!
!
bbmuahtai thma'
'
nerterahtaka! !
!

X is held (in a box)

(a pot) is boiling
my older sister folded me clothes (into a
container)
the heart beats (in the chest)
I have chest pains

428

%
!
%
!
%
%

konahti ma helba'
!
!
!
oia rihnahtui iprua'
!
!
!
medahta tsldi%
omaugahtas hide'

'
!
'
!
%
'

the female moose was walking (heavily due

to pregnancy)
there were carcasses scattered on the
ground everywhere
X shook the (empty) skull
X usually ties her hair into a bun!

kiggahtaa on, ttatiellia de suvo

[cik:ahtj tttiel:ia de suv]
ki<gg>-aht-a-a- on t-ta-tiell-i-a- de suvo-
pick.up.PAST-ahta-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT.PL-3P.AG.SG ON down-3P.ACT.UNAG-miss-PASTASS.COCNL.TR DE berry-DAT

X missed the berries down and picked them up (from being scattered/
into a container/gathered together)
asuma kedahta kepsi-ho gao
[jsuma cedahta cps:ih gj]
asuma- ked-aht-a kepsi-ho g-a-io-
tanned.skin-AGT carry-aht-TR mushroom-DAT-3P.ANI.POSS COP.PAST-ASS-INESS.REL-3P.AG.SG

the skin in which X carried mushrooms (as a bag)

9.14.3 -ATST- or -ADDThis absolutive descriptive is similar to -ahp- but usually also entails some sort of
fragility, breakability or flexibility which -ahp- lacks. In opposition to -aht-, -atst- can
also imply loose, not bound. -atst- is also sometimes used when talking about women
and children to underline their fragility. The difference between -ahp- and -atst- is that
the former refers to long, solid or hard things (like a spear, large branch, pole, big
stick) while the latter refers to long, fragile or thin things (like a branch, blade, a stick).
thin / long / narrow / fragile
%
%
hide% !
hair (when loose)
!
hiri'
'
hair (on body)
!
kppa' '
arm (of women or children)
!
miebi' '
leg
!
nai' '
waist
!
tsiame%'
cedar strip
!
nidagan'
stripe
!
aihha' '
needle (for sewing)
!
aihhabi' '
coniferous branch
!
baa' '
branch
!
letse' '
stick/pole
!
kaibmu''
stick, walking stick, support
!
tvela' '
blade

429

!
!
!
!
!
!

holi'
eigge'
moni'
mykyt'
rodlot'

'
'
'
'
'

stem
path (in snow)
path, way
way along a river
wrinkle (and by extension old faces)

!
%
!
!
!
!
'
!
cf.!
!
!
%
!
!
!

suatsti hiedi% '

isyvvatstakin tieka%
de u sopratstaagen%
nantatstu aihka%'
agatstami letseita'
katamakatsti rhta'
oahkurtatsti%
'
!
!
!
oahkurrahpi'
'
!
!
!
konatsti nata' '
katagatsta!
!
gakoditstiri'
'
nuntaddia kiba'
mahhaddoa' '

'
!
'
'
'
'
'
!
'
!
'
!
'
'
'

Xs hair flowed (unbound)

show me your hand (to a child/woman)
then we split them (into long thin strips)
the (thin) sewing needle broke
I cut X into sticks
the skin is peeling off in flakes
X tested the snows depth (with a blade,
stick)
X tested the snowst depth (with a long
branch, spear)
X is walking (with a walking stick/cane)
X cut (a branch/stem/strip) off
they walked in a queue/path
X closed its (wrinkly/thin) eyes
lets follow (the river, path)

akatstake omi deiko oami tsiauhdi

[katst:e mi deig xmi tsxahi]
ak-atst-a-ke omi d-e-iko <o>-a-mi tsiaug-di
cut-atst-TR-LINK.GOAL for COP-INFER-ELAT.REL take.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG cedar.woodGEN

I took cedar wood in order to cut out of it (tsiame cedar stripes)

tetatsta sviladi nogita
[tetatst:a svili nj:ida]
<tet>-a-atst-a-- svi<l>a-di nog-ita
place.PAST-atst-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG braid-GEN at.end.ILLAT

X placed Y (a hair needle) at the end of Xs braid

9.14.4 -IB- (also -IB-)

This absolutive descriptive is generally descriptive is small and young things and can
carry a diminutive conotation as well. It is commonly used in speech with children.
The form -ib- is especially common for round things or things that roll. Unlike other
absolutive descriptives, it is often used to describe the ergative argument of the
phrase (in the case of children). With the verb nunta closes, the form nuntib- is
understood to refer to closing ones eyes.
430

round / fat / little / small / fine / young / ripe

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%

hogi' '
bieli!
!
tibi'
'
no'
'
hylys! !
kydly' '
kori'
'
dida' '
tegma''
kgini' '
nunni' '
suvo' '
pivi'
'
!

ball, pearl
fat!
baby, toddler
little bay
little/thin person
bell, little girl
boy
girl
child
youngest child
little child
berry (and by extension all berries and fruits)
cheek (and by extension young/healthy faces)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

manibin''
mairibi' '
titibi' '
tiddibi' '
biaibakin'
edibi' '
hibaundan'
!
!
nuntiban'

'
'
'
'
'
'
'
or!
'

come here (to a child)

X giggled, X laughed (of something small, cutely)
X crawls around (of a child)
X fell (and rolled around)
throw X at me (by rolling it on the ground)
the boy/girl/child sat down
eat a few (berries)
eat a few (to a child)
close (your eyes)

kediba nata
[cediba nta]
ked-ib-a n-a--ta
carry-ib-TR COP.INCONCL-ASS-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X is carrying a baby/is pregnant

sittiba oia nunnie
[sxtiba ia un:ie]
gi<tt>-ib-a o=ia nunni--e
there.is.little.PAST-ib-ASS every.INESS child-AGT-PL

there were little children everywhere

431

9.14.5 -IKSThis absolutived descriptive is often used in pair with the pejorative or things
perceived to be old, broken, no good or bad. It can also be found to refer to tools
and stones. In combination with the pejorative, the preverb ai- wrongly, -iks- can be
added to verbs to confer a sense of performing the action in a completely wrong
way:
!
!

gkka nma nana'

'
aieggkkiksa nma nana '

you are sharpening your knife

you are sharpening your knife all wrong.

crooked / broken / cold / old / tools / pieces / arrows / projectiles

%
!
boi' '
deciduous branch
!
nuhhi' '
old woman
!
teddet''
old man
!
iu'
'
older relative
!
davva' '
past, old times
!
eo' '
old tree
!
kene' '
broken/dead tree
!
kvispi' '
scraper
!
eibi' '
cutter, carving tool
!
eirpi' '
tool
!
soroko' '
piece
!
kidut' '
part, room (and by extension most rooms)
!
rri'
'
arrow
!
t'
'
stone
!
!
!
!
!
%

mansiksa teddet'
kokiksien'
'
iddiksi eue% '
delpiksumagga kene!
gkkiksa nami% !
ani(a)ksa!
!

'
'
'
!
!
!

the old man came

(an old person) kept on talking
an old tree fell
we must flip the (old) dead tree over
I am sharpening (the tool)
X threw (a stone)

rostiksa oddobmua-ho
[rstk:sa :pmuah]
ro<st>-iks-a od=tobmu--aho
lies.there.PAST-iks-TR PEJ-finger-AGT-PL3P.POSS.ANI

Xs old (crooked) fingers were lying there

432

katakostiksa httamo
[ktkstk:sa htm]
kata-ko<st>-iks-a- htta-mo
from-rip.PAST-iks-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT gust.of.wind-PAT

the gust of wind ripped it away (branch/arrow/piece of wood)

9.14.6 -IPR-/-IUL- or -IBThese absolutive descriptives refer to things that are alive, moving, wet and may
confer vigor to an absolutive argument or the verb. The -iul- is especially common
with liquids and wet things. Certain speakers add -ib- to underline the animacy of
the absolutive argument. The verb ivibi or ivipri is often used with bad weather
(patientive).
lively / living / fresh / pretty / vivid / spry / plants / happy / bright / colored / intense /
warm / clear
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

lma' '
eleba' '
%
%
kepsi' '
homot' '
tsammi' '
tasko' '
elet'
'
miuki' '
nelsi' '
phba' '
dlu'
'
gilra' '
igmo' '
butta! !
rtta! !
uo'
'
!
!
omautaka'

leaf (and by extension all leaves or vegetation)

flower (and by extension all flowers)
plant (and by extension all plants)
mushroom (and by extension all fungi)
insect (and by extension all insects)
forest
woods
meadow
bog
sprig
sapling
sprout
drizzly weather
rapidly changing/unpredictable weather
bad weather
foggy weather
(fresh/clear) water (and by extension all fresh water
bodies)
fall colors

!
!
!
!

abibui ennea lkagi'

!
!
!
!
edlibi ludi%
'
'
negipra tekigi% '
'

'
!
'
'

the leaves swayed spryly in the

wind
a sprout grew
X saw children (moving, playing)
433

%
!
%
!
%
%

homottibuima tsamia% !
!
!
!
!
kodiuligga irta% '
'
!
!
!
!
ivvibi gilradi% !
!
amibi''
'
'

!
!
'
!
!
'

it was quiet (but teeming with life) in

the forest
we walked through (a bog, a wet
place)
there was (lit. stayed) wet weather
X drank (fresh water)

nubmipra s
[npmpxa su:]
nu<bm>-ipr-a- su<v>o
pick.PAST-ipr-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG ON berry-GEN

X picked (brightly colored/ripe) berries

rekkiulu nata
[rciulu nta]
rekk-iul-u n-a-ta
open.up-iul-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL COP.INCONCL-ASS-3P.AG.SG

(a flower) is opening up
iriuliaita
[iriuliida]
i-r-iul-i-a-ita-
DIT-bite-iul-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-ILLAT-3P.AG.SG

X bit into (something ripe)

9.14.7 -UP/-YP-/-EBSimilar to -ipr-/-ib-/-iul-, this absolutive descriptive is used to infer a sense of

something wet, humid or fresh. However, -up- is also used heavily with smells. While
the previous descriptive denoted a certain vitality, this descriptive also invokes
freshness or the idea of something ephemeral. Thicker liquids also usually appear
with -up-, such as honey, resin, sap. The descriptive can be found as -up- or -ub-, yp- or -yb- or -b- after rounded vowels, and -eb- in other cases.
Compare the two examples contrasting the idea of wet or living with -ib- and the
idea of fresh (previously unexposed) or wet (but not alive) with -up-.
%
!
%
!

rekkubia korkedi!
!
!
!
rekkibia korkedi'
!
!
!

X opened up the rotten fallen tree (which had not

been exposed before)
X opened up the rotten fallen tree (which was wet or
teeming with life)

!
%

iddibui lkagi% '

iddupi lmamo% '

the (wet/living) leaves fell off (animate)

the (wet) leaves fell off (inanimate)

434

wet / humid / fresh / new(ly born) / smells

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

siva' '
nieugi' '
ut'
'
sira'
'
sitru' '
kikin' '
sivi'
'
l'
'
iuri'
'
maudli' '
palis' '
temmi' '
akna' '
mi' '
mieri' '
kori'
'
kelta' '
seuma' '
m' '

rain
mist
newly fallen snow
fish (and by extension all fish)
soup !
soup, meal
honey
resin
pitch (and by extension glues and sticky things)
maple sap
urine
animal tracks
traces
smell (and by extension all smells)
moss
rotten wood
ground
soil
earth

!
!
%
!
%
%
%
!
!
!
!
%
!
!

saslebi miehhie ma mhra'

!
!
!
!
ykbis nuhhi-go%
'
!
!
!
!
katabiebuma (palihi)% '
tandupagga temme% '
htandupeba% '
'
hkeebi keltaribma ma nibid%
!
!
!
!
ekkubi uttaita bidiska' '
!
!
!
!
knirreba mma!!
!

'
!
'
!
'
'
'
'
!
'
!
!

the bear was licking (the honey out

of) the honeycomb
my grandma usually goes around
collecting (resin/honey/pitch)
X must go (urinate)
we found (fresh) animal tracks
X will find us out (by our smell)
ground mist was rising up from the
(fresh/wet) ground
the puppies ran into the newly fallen
snow
X smelled (the fresh) earth

sinda on retro, miaddupa u

[snd rtx ma:ubaju]
si<nd>-a- on retro- mia<att>-ub-a- u
catch.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG ON northern.pike-DAT, gut.PAST-ubASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X caught a northern pike and then gutted it (still fresh)

435

kvgupake on kimi atseba oskon, keidigga ka

[kvi:j:ube cimi tseba skn ceiik:aka]
kv-up-a-ke on kimi at=s-e-ba oskon- keid-i-gga ka
feel-up-TR-LINK.ADV ON for NEG=COP-INFER-1P.PAT.PL male.moose-AGT, light.fireASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.PL.INCL KA

so the moose does not feel us (our smell), we will light a fire
iddupi lmamo
[i:ubi :lmm]
i<dd>-ub-i lma-mo
fall.PAST-ub-ASS.CONCL.ITR leaf-PAT

the (wet) leaves fell

9.14.8 -OHN/-HNThis absolutive descriptive is opposite to -ib- and -up- in that it invokes something
dry, powdery and also refers to dry smells and fire.
powder / dirt / sand smells (dry/fire/wood)
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

neyri! !
vihi'
'
lri'
'
lagas' '
rento' '
kelho' '
siehhumi'
skhi' '
oni'
'
tinin' '
sog' '

powder, dust
dust, dirt
dirt, scum
flour
grain, seed
hung meat
dried meat
dried needle bed
dried moss, tinder (and by extension inflammable things)
fire wood
drought

!
!
!
!
!
!

llohni noimmika'
isdlohniki'
'
sarkkohnia tinis' '
tamaduohni'
'
irohnuita'
'
tsaundohni'
'

'
'
'
'
'
'

the fire was cracking (dryly)

I got dirt/sand/smoke (in my eyes)!
X broke (dry) firewood
X stepped (on something dry)
X bit into (something dry)
X caught on fire (from being too dry)

436

myrrohna pni
[myr:hna pi:ni]
m<yrr>-ohn-a- pni-
grind.PAST-ohn-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG corn-DAT

X ground the corn (into a flour)

tsahhhni
[tsh:hni]
t-sahh-hn-i
3P.UNAG-burn-hn-ASS.CONCL.ITR

(dry wood/tinder) will burn

hepohni na nnamo
[hephni na nnm]
hep-ohn-i n-a n<n>a-mo
break-ohn-ITR COP.INCONCL-ass wave-PAT

the waves are breaking (on the sand)

luhhhna
[luh:hna]
luhh-hn-a--
boil-hn-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG

X will boil (a tea/treatment/grounded leaves)

iavvohnaibma
[iww:hnapma]
i-avv-ohn-a-ibma-
DIT-spread-ohn-ASS.CONCL.TR-ALLAT-3P.AG.SG

X spread/add (flour/sand/dirt/dried ingredients) on it

9.14.9 -OHKThe absolutive descriptive -ohk- generally refers to large, heavy, male or difficult
things. It is also used with the verbs sea listen, odena look, kya try, pitta pay
attention to in the imperative to make a more emphatic demand:
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

seohkan'
'
odnohkan~oinohkan'
kyohkan'
'
pittohkan'
'

listen well!
look well!
try (your best)
pay all your attention to X

In addition, it also refers to long things such as neck/throat/tongue, heads, geese and
swans and even canoes.

437

large / round / cylindrical / long / heavy / male / big / difficult

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tahha! !
sukno' '
pd' '
sikvut' '
tmkki ! !
hokon' '
oskon' '
okon' '
toron' '
peilini' '
nelli' '
sappiska'
selo' '
sinin' '
ata'
'
gegin' '
kvoga' '
oadi' '
niman' '
totami' '
giga' '
gme' '
tonkua' '
kehko' '
mavvu' '

tree (and by extension all large trees)

large conifer
log
bonfire
boulder
big rock
male moose (and by extension all [large] male animals)
big man
big bear/guy
eldest
chief
paw, big hand
large river
big fish
(open) mouth
(animal) mouth
throat
tongue
neck
head
goose (and by extension all long-necked birds)
rope
sinew
canoe
meat

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

iddohki eue' '

'
kedohkan at' '
'
mairiohki'
'
'
!
!
!
or!
maiohki'
'
'
nh sindohkami keppi' '
rekkohkin'
'
'
sarkkohkia mekvi'
'
katagiohka kohdaika' '
!
!
!
!

the big old tree fell (heavily)

carry this (heavy thing)
X laughed (loudly)
(a large man) laughed
X smiled from ear to ear
wow, I caught a big one
open wide (your mouth)
X broke the swan(s neck)
X pushed (the canoe) from the its anchor on
the shore

438

tamokevvohki toron
[tmcew:hci trn]
tam-o-kevv-ohk-i toron-
tam-SUBJ-rise-ohk-ASS.CONCL.ITR big.bear-AGT

the big bear (heavily) stood up (on its two legs)

tatsatskohki
[tatsxatsk:hci]
ta-tsa<tsk>-ohk-i
3P.UNAG.SG-tear.PAST-OHK-ASS.CONCL.ITR

(the rope/leather) tore

tiddohki
[tt:hci]
t-i<dd>-ohk-i
3P.UNAG-fall.PAST-ohk-ASS.CONCL.ITR

(A tree/rock) fell
katagohkaika soroko
[kaghkiga srg]
kat-i-a<g>-ohk-a-ika- soroko-
from-DIT-cut.PAST-ohk-ASS.CONCL.TR-ELAT-3P.AG.SG piece-DAT

X cut (a large) piece from it

hohkas
[hhkas]
h-ohk-a---s
eat-ohk-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.AG.SG-HAB

X eats (meat/a lot)

9.15 Complementization
To form subordinate conjunctions, Siwa uses an infixed complementizer, hosted in
slot 2. The complementizers function is that of the English word that as in I know that
you saw me the complementizer, or subordination conjunction, relates a main
clause to a subordinate clause. It is added directly after the root of a verb, but
following absolutive descriptives. In addition, the complementizer carries negation,
such that negative subordinate phrases are not negated by the regular s/set/sem
particle. The complementizer differs slightly when used with the copula, whether
dependent or independent. Some speakers do not make use of the dependent
complementization infix but rather use the independent copula instead (some have a
special short form in --.
!
Another role of the complementizer is to act as a relative marker for
participles. Below are the different forms of the complementizer, which vary
according to whether it is added to a vowel-final or consonant-final stem of a copula
or a verb.

439

!
The vowel-final forms -tot- and -tont- are also found as -rot- and -ront-, and a
shorter form of the complementizer exists for verbs. Alternative negative forms in ents- also exist, typically used in the western dialects.
!
positive

negative

vowel-final

-tot-rot-

-tont-ront-

-rents-

consonant-final

-ot-

-ont-

-ents-

copular vowel-final

-non-

-nont-

-nents-

copular consonantfinal

-on-

-ont-

-ents-

!
!
!
!
!

makimi' '
makotimi'

'
'

I will come
...that I will come

utua' '
utotota'

'
'

X will pack Y
...that X will pack Y

!
!
!
!
!

nuppuami'
'
nuppurontami' '

I will snatch Y
...that I wont snatch Y

dabahti nata' '

dabahti nonata'

(the heart) is beating

...that (the heart) is beating

!
!
or!
!

uinuata''
uinonontata'
donata uino'
data uino'

X is true
...that X isnt true
...that X isnt true
...that X isnt true (short form)

'
'
'
'

noairi sihrotoi
[niri shri]

ogan herenonas komyly

[j:an herennas kmyly]

<n>oa-i-ri si<hr>-ot-oi
PAST.say-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.PL rain.PASTCOMPLE-INFER.ITR.COND.IRREAL

og-a-n here-non-a-s kom=yly-

remember-TR-IMP.2P.SG cold-COMPLECOP.ASS-HAB summer=night-AGT

they said that it would rain

remember that summer nights are

cold

440

tabmami gonteta negi

[tapmmi gnteda nei]
tat-m-a--mi g-ont-e-ta negi-
think-INCONL-ASS.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG COP.PAST.CONCL-COMPL.NEG-INFER-3P.PAT 2P.SG.PRON-AGT
3P.INA-AGT

I think that it wasnt you

nonaki hunimo orpotiohna
[nnai hunim rphna]
n-on-a-ki hun-i-mo- orp-ot-i-o-h-na
PAST-tell-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.RECI.SG wind-ITR-ACT.PART.AG-AGT misbehave-COMPLE-PAST-INFER.ITRHAB-2P.AG.SG

the wind told me you are misbehaving yourself (i.e. a little someone told
me)
9.15.1 Short Forms
The complementizer for verbs has short forms sometimes found in attributive forms of
adjectival verbs. They are more common with nouns with a certain familiarity, and for
that reason are more epithetic than the regular forms (used in titles).
positive

negative

vowel-final

-t-

-ts-

consonant-final

-o- / -- / -v-

-(t)s-

Short forms are also typically found with participles. The most common forms are as
follow. Note that short forms lack the distinction between agentive and unagentive
forms. These doubly short forms (both the complementizer and the participle are
shortened) are common in the eastern dialects.
!
!
!
long! !
short
!
singular!!
-otima !!
-en/-ven
!
!
!
-otimo !!
-en/-ven
!
plural! !
-otimi ! !
-in/-vin

!
!
or!
!

omi' '
'
somi ovima' '
somi oven
somi ohhtsima'

strong
(the) strong man (also ohhotima)

!
!
or!
!

tomi' '
'
kori tovima' '
kori toven
kori tohhsima'

young
(the) young boy (also tohhotima)

(the) man who is not strong (also ohhontima)

(the) boy that is not young (also tohhontima)

441

!
!
!

pigima' '
dida pigomi'

!
!
or!

atemi' '
'
nuhhi atevima''
nuhhi ateen

'
'

healthy
(the) healthy young girl (also pigotima)
sick
(the) sick old woman (also atetotima)

9.15.1.1 Short Forms in Direct Speech

Short forms are very commonly found after a quote or direct speech. This is
especially true of the Siwa narrative style. The most common forms are:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

dakka ''
noati' '
bialtta' '
aiska' '
magua'
!
!
oddi' '
daddi' '

...X asked (cf. dakka X asked Y)

...X said (also noavvi, cf. noai X said Y)
...X said (bialla X said Y)
...X answered (cf. aiska X answered Y)
...X exclaimed (also magutva, cf. magua X exclaimed
Y)
...X screamed (also otvi, cf. oddi X screamed)
...X thought (also datva, cf. dadda X thought Y)

9.16 Copula
Siwa has a copula whose infinitive is tami to be (split stem has many dialectal forms
including t, t, d, d, most commonly t then identical to tsa to stand). The They
behave differently and perform various functions in the phrase, namely to form
copular constructions, which are used to form relative and infinitive clauses and
more. The copula has two forms the independent copula and the clitical copula.
The independent copula stands on its own and serves many purposes, whereas the
clitical copula is only found as the verb to be with adjectives. The copula has most
of the regular constituents of a verb but behaves different. Both copulas
conjugations are irregular.
!
The copula can be found in three main roles:
%
!
!

Independent copula
!
the verb to be with nouns
!
copular constructions

'
!

Clitical copula
!
As a clitical form of the verb to be with adjectives

442

9.16.1 Independent Copula

The independent copula is used for the following purposes:
!
!
1. To form there-existential phrases
!
2. As the verb tami to be whose argument is not an adjective
!
3. To form the inconclusive of all verbs except adjectival and impersonal !
!
verbs
!
4. To form relative clauses
!
5. In various other constructions (link constructions)
The independent copula consists of a root, augmented by a postverbal vowel. As
such, it behaves exactly like regular verbs, having the same number of slots with the
addition of the slot COP -1 (see 9.2.2). This extra slot houses the relative marker o-/
on- (in non-locative relative phrases).
!
The copula has 9 distinct stems.
!
non-past
!
!
indicative
!
!
!
conclusive!
!
da (or short form a)
!
!
!
inconclusive! !
na (or short form -n)
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
sa (or short form -s)
!
!
perfective!
!
!
ola (or also ora)
!
!
!
past
!
!
indicative
!
!
!
conclusive!
!
ga
!
!
!
inconclusive! !
ma
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
sa
!
!
perfective!
!
!
odla
!
imperative%
%
%
%
nenta
%
%
The copula is negated internally. These are its negative forms:
!
non-past
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
past
!
!
!
!
!
!

indicative
!
conclusive!
!
inconclusive!
habitual!!
!
perfective!
!

!
!
!
!

atsa
anta
assa
olta

indicative
!
conclusive!
!
inconclusive!

!
!

aksa
ahma
443

!
!
!

!
habitual!!
!
perfective!
imperative%
%

!
!
%

!
!
%

askka
otsa, oltsa
neista

When in the indicative optative assertive (-ua-) or inferential (-ue-) and the translative
conditional realis assertive (-ui-) and optative inferential (-ue-), certain forms of the
copula may have a v- instead of a diphthong, which in turn may modify the copula
(sometimes only with the relative prefix):
!
'
'

!
'
'

odua' '
odue' '
odui' '

or !
or !
or!

(o)tva
(o)tve
(o)tvi

'
'
'

'
'
'

sua'
sue'
sui'

or!
or!
or!

sva
sve
svi

'
%
'

'
%
'

olua/orua'
olue/orue'
olui/orui'or!

or!
olva/orva
or!
olve/orve
olvi/orvi

'
%
'

'
%
'

ogua' '
ogue% '
ogui% '

or!
or!
or!

'
'
'

(o)kva
(o)kve
(o)kvi

These forms are more formal than the regular ones.

!
In copular constructions, the split-stem is much less commonly preceded by
adverbial phrases, unlike regular constructions which may favor adverbs appearing
before the verb. Adverbs preceding split-stems are very emphatic:
%
!
'
'
'
!
!
'

ska neniehmi tamiemi ! !

I often want to sit alone
netasa, neni ska tamiemi osuami
you know that I often want to sit alone
netasa, ska neni tamiemi osuami'
you know that I often want to sit alone

9.16.1.1 There-Existential Phrases

There-existential phrases state that something is or exists. All there-existential
phrases have an agentive subject and a transitive (or possibly translative) form. The

444

most basic there-existential verb is the copula, da. The inconclusive forms na and ma
are usually only used with clearly temporary phenomena.
%
%
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
!
%
%

da tahha'
'
dohka tahha% '
!
!
!
da soakkia kekila'
sa soakkia kekila'
se somi'
'
se somigi%
'
nenta siva%
'
neista sog!%
'
na siva'
'
ma taa omi'
'
ora io% '
'
oltsa suikildas% '
atsa havva'
'
sa moni''
'

there is a tree
there is a (big) tree (with -ohk- absolutive
descriptive)
there is a hearth in the house
there used to be a hearth in the house
there once was a man
there once were men
let there be rain!
let there not be drought!
there is rain (right now)
there was a lot of snow (at that moment)
theres been trouble
there hasnt been inhabitation
there is no such thing
there is usually a way

%
!

as=s-a miola- sahh-ont-a-ma

NEG=COP.HAB-ASS flame-AGT burn-COMPLE.NEG-ASS.CONCL.TR-HAB-ACT.PART.UNAG

there is no flame that does not burn

!
%

da tsamia tahha
[da tsamia thha]

%
%

d-a tsa<m>-=ia tahha-

COP.-ASS forest-INESS tree-AGT

there is a tree in the forest

!
%

na bengommeima kekki kko

[na be:m:eima cci k]

%
!

n-a bengo<mme>-ima kekki- omi-ko

COP.INCONCL-ASS roof-ADESS too-AGT snow-GEN

there is too much snow on the roof

assa miola sahhontama

[s:a mila sh:ntma]

However, even the copula can be found in a reduced form, especially in the present,
then simply a (sometimes this short version has a more aoristic meaning)
!
!
da tahha'
there is a tree
!
a t'
'
theres a rock (in general)
!
'
In fact, the copula can be replaced in specific cases with other copula-like verbs.
They are used in specific cases and often say something about their arguments size
445

or distribution. A few of these verbs have a stronger form, more or less created
through reduplication. They behave much like the copula, even in relative clauses.
!
!
!

inda ' '

there are a few (scattered around)

ininda' '

there are very few (scattered everywhere)

tekla' !

there are many/is much

tehila' !

there are very many/is very much

reppa, rappa' there is (in water)

ara, ara'

there is (often used with locatives)

!
!
%

kiaha' '

there is (something big/large number)

kiahaa'

there is something (huge/very large number)

%
!
!

sina, sigga'

there are few/is little/is (something little)

sikina%'

there are very few/is very little/is (something tiny)

tmpa%'

there is (something formless, disgusting or scary)

!
!
!

rohha, rihna' there is (something lying/resting/stuck)

inda ogia utra

[nda jj:ia txa]
ind-a og=ia utra-
is.few-ASS.CONCL.ITR there-DIST.INESS.APROX crowberry-AGT

there are a few scattered (bunches of) crowberries over there

ininda hiedia-so u
[innda hieias :]
inind-a hi<>e-d=iaso u-
is.very.few-ASS.CONCL.ITR hair-INESS-2P.POSS.SG sand-AGT

there is sand (everywhere) in your hair

tekla tahhia saimnenka
[k:la th:ia samn:ka]
tekla-a tahh-ia saimnen--ka
is.many-ASS.CONCL.ITR tree-INESS starling-AGT-PL

there are many starlings in the tree

446

reppa nnumea kuiliska

[rpa nnumeja kuilska]
reppa-a n<n>u-me=ia kuilis--ka
is.in.water-ASS.CONCL.ITR container-INESS tadpole-AGT-PL

there are tadpoles (swimming) in the container (filled with water)

ara rapuka arrui srk
[wra rpuga ar:ui si:r]
ar-a rapu-ka arrui srk-
is.somewhere.-ASS.CONCL.ITR door-GEN next.to.STATIC spider-AGT

there is a spider somewhere by the door

sina srk
[sxina si:r]
sin-a srk-
is.small-ASS.CONCL.ITR spider-AGT

there is a small (number of) spider

kiaha srk
[ciaa si:r]
kiah-a srk-
there.is.big-ASS.CONCL.ITR spider-AGT

there is a big (number of) spider

tmpa hiedia-go toadni
[tmpa hieiag tatni]
tmp-a hi<>e-d=iago toa-dni
is.formless-ASS.CONCL.ITR hair-INESS-1P.SG.POSS some.INA-AGT

there is something in my hair

rosta kvohmia nokos
[rsta kvhmia nks]
ro<st>-a kvog-m=ia nokos-
is.resting.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR throat-INESS stick-AGT

there was a stick (stuck) in the throat

9.16.1.2 To Be
The independent copula tami serves as the verb to be in cases where the argument
of the verb is a noun or a pronoun. For inherent qualities and aorist statements, the
conclusive is used rather than the habitual. The case of both the object and subject
of the copula is normally the agentive, although the partitive-genitive is allowed for
uncountable nouns. It is also very common to use a relative construction, usually
leaving out the main copula to form such phrases. In relaxed speech, the relative
marker o- may also be dropped all together. This is perhaps due to the fact that the
copula is often found after its argument (in all copular constructions), unlike regular
verbs.

447

'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

dami'
dana'
data'
dagga
dagge
dadda
dari'
dat'
dao'

'
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!

I am
you are
X is
we are
we are
you are
they are
X is
one is

The third person singular has the ending -ta with the copula, which differs from the
normal - ending found in verbs. This happens to be identical to the unagentive and
patientive endings of the third person. Thus, one can have the following form:
!

datata' '

X is Y

However, to avoid this redundancy, Siwa speakers will generally replace the
sequence -ta-ta- by - -det- or -et- or -ret-.
!

dadet or daet or daret' '

X is Y or yes

Another unique feature of the copula is the so-called short relative form in the present
oa or alternatively a/va/ra instead of the regular oda. The inferential and the relative
form combine as ue to form a more polite or modest statement.
!
!

nalbi ue at '
soaki ue at'

'
'

this is (my) husband

this is (my) house

In addition, the form ueta is a more polite yes.

!
In copular constructions, the copula is commonly found in a locative case
(deita, deika, gaika). These forms have corresponding shorter forms which do not
distinguish evidentiality. Short forms are more common in younger males. They vary
greatly across dialects:
!
%
%
!
%
%

LONG! !
-eita, -aita %
-eika, -aika%

!
%
%

kesami nori deita'

kesab nori det' '

!
%
%

SHORT!
-et, -e
-e, -et

'
'

I want to learn to sing (standard)

id. (relaxed, familiar)

The copula can only be found in the transitive or translative. The translative form of
the copula is common with passive verbs in copular constructions. It is not, however,

448

found with translative verbs (the translative is either marked exclusively on the splitstem or the copula, but not both).
!
!
or
!

ukiekvui'
ukiekvi ogu'

'
'

X was stolen
(X) which was (got) stolen (lit. became stolen)

ukiekvi oga'

'

(X) which was stolen (already)

Below are more examples of the verb tami to be:

%
%

da oula to tahha-t
[da jula t th:]

%
!

d-a oula- to tahha-t

COP-ASS birch.tree-AGT this.ANI.AGT tree-AGTDET.PROXI

this tree is a birch

%
%

oula oa to tahha-t
[jula o t th:]

%
!

oula- o-d-a to tahha-t

birch.tree-AGT (REL)-COP-ASS this.ANI.AGT tree-AGTDET.PROXI

this tree is a birch (lit. [it is] a birch that this tree is)

%
%

gata oula
[gta jula]

%
!

g-a-ta oula-
COP.PAST-ASS-3P.AG.SG birch-AGT

it was a birch

%
%

dami somi
[dmi smi]

%
!

d-a-mi somi-
COP-ASS-1P.AG.SG man-AGT

!
!
%
%
%

I am a man
(or somi oami / ami / rami )

%
!

d-a somi- megi-

COP-ASS man-AGT 1P.PRON.SG.AGT

me, I am a man

da somi megi
[da smi mei]

449

9.16.1.3 Relative Clauses

The copula is necessary to create relative clauses. There are various types of relative
clauses:

subjective
Subject in main clause is subject in relative clause

!
!
!

objective
Argument in the main clause is a patientive or recipient object in the relative
clause

!
!

possessive relative clause

Argument in the main clause possesses the argument in the relative clause

!
!

locative relative clauses

Relative clause argument is in a locative case

In all of these cases, relative clauses are formed by splitting the verb into the splitstem and the copula. The details of this split are found in 9.2.2.
!
All relative causes, unless they contain a relative locative marker (see section
9.12.2), are found with the relative marker o- (or on- before a vowel) prefixed to slot
COP -1.
The copula is found in the following forms with the relative prefix.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
non-past
!
indicative
!
!
conclusive!
!
!
inconclusive!
!
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
!
past
!
indicative
!
!
conclusive!
!
!
inconclusive!
!
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
imperative%
%
%

!
!
!
!

oda (or short form oa)

ona
osa
onora

!
!
!
!
%

oga
oma
osa
onodla
onenta

450

Similarly, the negated forms are:

!
non-past
!
!
indicative
!
!
!
conclusive!
!
!
!
inconclusive!
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
!
perfective!
!
!
!
!
past
!
!
indicative
!
!
!
conclusive!
!
!
!
inconclusive!
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
!
perfective!
!
!
imperative%
%
%

!
!
!
!

otsa
onta
ossa
onolta

!
!
!
!
%

oksa
ohma
oskka
onotsa
oneista

When the copula itself is the main verb of the relative clause, it is found in its normal
first position with the appropriate relative marker (this includes the copula-like thereexistential verbs, though not in all dialects).
!
!

selga, koni ssita-go oga'

selga, oga hda'
'

the young woman who walked past me

the young woman who was pregnant

More examples:
'
!

nalbi, oda tairsi elusara

[nalbi da tarsi elusra]

%
!

nalbi- o-d-a tairsi- elu=sara-

husband-AGT, REL-COP-ASS worker-AGT excellent-AGT

a husband who is an excellent worker

'
!

riehpi, osa suosa isi hoaikna'

[rhpi sxa susa isi hjaa]

%
!

riehpi-, o-s-a suosa- isi hoaikna-

wife-AGT, REL-COP.PAST.HAB mother-AGT so caring-AGT

a wife who used to be/was once such a caring mother

%
!

soaki, odo kit lolsoka

[si d ctx llsga]

%
!

soaki-, o-d-o kit= lolsoka-

house-AGT, REL-COP.INFER.TRANSL soon abandoned.house-AGT

!
'
!

a house which will soon become abandoned (lit. a lolsoka)

'
kistamo, odo kesamo
451

[cstm d csxm]

%
!

kista=mo- o-d-o kesa=mo-

student-AGT REL-COP.INFER.TRANSL teacher-AGT

a student who will become a teacher

!
!

garoko, ohma takeulmo

[grg hma tclm]

%
!

garoko- o=s=m-a takeulmo-

boy-AGT REL-COP.NEG.INCONCL righteous=man-AGT

'
%
!

the little boy who was being naughty (lit. not a righteous man)
opo, oa iu'
[p a iu]

%
!

opo- o-a iu-

person-AGT REL-COP.ASS older=relative-AGT

'

a person who is an older relative

%
%

tahha, otsa pio

[th:a tsa pix]

%
!

tahha- o=t=s-a pio-

tree-AGT REL-COP.NEG.ASS conifer-AGT%

a tree which is not an conifer

%
!

u, onininda kyguaa%
[: ninnda cyj:uja]

%
!

u- on-inind-a ky=ua=a
sand-AGT REL-be.scattered-ASS boots-INESS'

'

sand which is (scattered around) in (my) boots

%
!

kuiliska, orappa intadia''

[kuilska rapa ntia]

%
!

kuilis--ka o-rapp-a inta-d=ia

tadpole-PL-AGT REL-be.in.water-ASS pond-INESS'

the tadpoles which (swim) in the pond

The imperative is used in relative clauses in a way which has no equivalent in

English, often similar to vocative expressions.
%
!

viekna, onenta viekke!

[va nenta vce]

%
!

viekna- o-nent-a viekke-

thief-AGT REL-COP.IMPER-ASS bruised-AGT!

(you) thief, curse you! (lit. thief, which may be a bruised person)

!
!

tarilni-go, oneistu nuhhi!'

[trlnig nstu uh:i]

tarilni-go o-neist-u nuhhi-

452

beautiful.person-AGT-1P.POSS.SG REL-COP.IMPER.NEG-ASS old.woman-AGT!

!
!

my beauty, may you not turn into an old woman! (lit. my beautiful woman,
which may not become an old woman !)

Below are more examples of phrases and equivalent relative clauses:

PHRASE

RELATIVE CLAUSE

INDEPENDENT

COPULAR

ivis nndia somi

[ivs ni:nia smi]

somi, ivi nndia osa

[smi ivi ni:nia sa]

iv-i-s n<>n=di=a somi-

stay-ASS.ITR.CONCL-HAB hut=INESS man-AGT

somi- iv-i n<>n=di=a o-s-a

man-AGT stay-ITR hut=INESS REL-COP.HAB-ASS

the man stays in a hut

the man who stays in a hut

ukeddika nonia nndia-t

[ucet:iga nnia ni:ni]

nidna, ukedi gaoka

[ntna ucedi gjga]

u-ke<dd>-i-ka non=ia n<>n=di=at

PASS-bear.PAST-ITR-1P.PAT.SG this.INA.INESS
huT=INESSDET.PROXI

nidna- u-ket-i g-a-o-ka

hut-AGT PASS-bear-ITR COP.PAST.CONCL-ASSINESS.REL-1P.PAT.SG

I was born in this hut

the hut I was born in

sunnumi sakkia na ski

[sun:umi sacia na i:sci]

ski, sunnumi ona

[i:sci sun:umi na]

suv=num-i sa<kk>=ia n-a ski-

berry=gather-INCONCL.ITR berry.field-INESS
COP.INCONCL-ASS woman-AGT

ski- sun=num-i o-n-a

woman-AGT berry=gather-ITR COMPLECOP.INCONCL-ASS

the woman is gathering berries in the

field

the woman gathering berries

or
the woman who is gathering berries

numi sakkia s pildi ma ski

[numi sac:ia su: pli ma i:sci]

ski, kautsa suvuo pila gaikomi

[i:sci katsha suvu pila gigmi]

num-i sa<kk>=ia s= pil-di m-a ski-

gather-ITR.INCONCL berry.field-INESS berry.gen
red.gen COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS woman-AGT

ski- kauts-a suvo--o pila- g-a-iko-mi

woman-AGT make.jam-TR berry-DAT-PL red-DAT
COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-ELAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.SG

the woman was gathering red berries in

the field

the woman whose red berries I

turned into jam

9.16.1.3.1 Subjective Relative Clauses

The subject relative clause construction has the subject or argument of the main
clause as the subject of the relative clause.

453

relative clause
main
clause

main
verb

verbal phrase

somi
[smi]

soaka
[sga]

dappen dauka
[dapn daka]

somi-
man-AGT

soak-a
build-TR

dappen dau=ka
alone last.year-GEN

atsi sbi-t
[tsi su:b]
at=si sbi-ni
this.INA.DAT winter.campDATDET.PROXI

copula

oga
[ga]
o-g-a
RELCOP.PAST.CON
CL-ASS

somi, soaka dappen dauka atsi sbi-t oga

the man who build this camp by himself last year
Siwa allows reduction of relative clauses in certain cases. The whole of the relative
clause may be moved before the noun and using a participle with a relative marker
(which, in participles, is the same as a complementizer) instead. This is usually only
found with subject relative clauses.
relative clause
main clause
verbal phrase

main verb

dappen dauka atsi sbi-t

[dapn daka tsi su:b]

soagotamo
[sagdam]

dappen dau-ka at=si sbi-ni

alone last.year-GEN this.INA.DAT
winter.camp-DATDET.PROXI

soag-ot-a-mo
build.PAST-COMPLE-ASS.CONCL.TRPRES.PART.AG

dappen dauka atsi sbi-t soagotamo somi

the man who build this camp
More examples:
'
!
%

suvo, nalu osven oda

[suv lu svn da]

suvo- nal-u os=ven o-d-a

berry-AGT taste-TRANSL sour-ADV REL-COP-ASS

'

a berry which tastes sour

454

somi
[smi]
somi-
man-AGT

!
!
%

tmo, iki hemtaitagi odei%

[t:m ik:i hmtidji dei]
tmo- i-k-i hem-ta=ida-gi o-d-e-i

tribe-AGT DIT-speak-ITR bird-ILLAT-PL REL-COP-INFER-HABIL'

'

a tribe who can apparently speak with birds

%
!
%

maihhi oa ta tahha, eukiula maulika oda

[mih:i a ta th:a euiula muliga da]

%
!

'
%
!
%

maihhi- o-a ta tahha- euk-iul-a mau<l>i-ka o-d-a

mapple-AGT REL-(COP)-ASS 3P.PRON.INA.AGT tree-AGT produce-IUL-TR maple.sap-GEN RELCOP-ASS'
the tree which produces maudli (maple sap) is the maple

lolkkiami malma, oahrukka ogaka

[llccimi malma ahrjka gka]

lol=kk-i-a-mi malma- oahrukk-a o-g-a-ka

back=bring-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG jelly.fish-DAT sting-TR REL-COP.PAST-ASS-1P.PAT.SG

'

I brought back the jelly fish that stung me

'
!
%

eu, amagu sgu osibma ode

[eu mj:u sxj:u spma de]

eu- a-mag-u sgu os-ibma o-d-e

scar-AGT TRANSL-white-TRANSL never 2P.PRON.SG-ABLA REL-COP-INFER

a scar which will never fade (from you[r face])

%
!
%

isyvvakin gobi, mihnu saigia onora

[isyw:n gbi mwhnu saia nra]

%
!

i-syvv-a-ki-n gobi- mihn-u saip-k=ia on-or-a

DIT-show-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.RECI.SG-IMP.2P.SG oar-DAT damage-TRANSL race-INESS REL-COP.PERFASS

'

show me the oar which has been damaged in the race

%
!
%

skhi, oninda keingaria

[sy:hi nnda cei:ria]

needle.bed-AGT REL-be.scattered-TR floor-INESS'

the dried needle bed, which lies scattered around the floor

'

skhi- on-ind-a kei<ng>a-r=ia

9.16.1.3.2 Objective Relative Clauses

The objective relative clause construction is when the subject or argument of a main
clause is the object of the relative clause. Pronouns are not repeated in the relative
copula.

455

There are two types of object relative clauses: patientive and recipient. Patientive
agents are more similar to normal subject relative clauses, in that the object marker is
left out. Recipient relative clauses mark their ditransitivity on the main verb and use
the illative relative marker in the copula, which lacks its normal relative marker o-.
relative clause

copula

main clause
main verb

verbal phrase

copula

OBJECTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

somi
[smi]

nua
[nuja]

somi-
man-AGT

nu-a
see-TR

ogami
[gmi]
o-g-a-mi
REL-COP.PAST.CONCLASS-1P.AG.SG

somi, nua ogami

the man I saw
RECIPIENT RELATIVE CLAUSE

somi
[smi]

isota
[sta]

stu
[i:stu]

somi-
man-AGT

i-sot-a
DIT-give-TR

stu-
gift-DAT

somi, isota stu gaitomi

the man to whom I gave a gift
More examples:
'
!
%

eusko, %peha neskami ogana

[sk pea nskmi gna]
eusko- peh-a nesk-a=mi o-g-a-na

question-AGT dare-TR ask-TR-INFI.AG.TR REL-COP.PAST-ASS-2P.AG.SG'

'

the question which you dared to ask

%
!
%

vihla, mosta ona somigi

[vhla mjsta na smiji]

vihla- most-a o-n-a somi--gi

meat-AGT chew-TR REL-COP.INCONCL-ass man-AGT-PL

'

the meat that the men are chewing

456

gaitomi
[gidmi]
g-a-ito-mi
COP.PAST.CONCL-ASSILLAT.REL-1P.AG.SG

%
!
%

sauhhas, kista onami

[suh:jas csta nmi]

sauhhas- kist-a o-n-a-mi

language-AGT learn-TR REL-COP.INCLONCL-ASS-1P.AG.SG

'

the language I am learning

%
!
%

iu, la otsa tyry-go

[iu i:la tsa tyryg]

iu- l-a o-t=s-a tyry-go

relative-AGT know-TR REL-COP.NEG-ASS son-AGT-1P.POSS.SG

'

a relative that my son does not know

%
!
%

kira, ahma tg osatari

[cira ahma tj: stri]

kira- ahm-a tg o-s-a-tari

thing-AGT want-TR strong=ly REL-COP.HAB-ASS-3P.AG.PL

'

the thing that they yearn for

%
!
%

lunu, aiska mtka ogaki ska

[luu aska mi:tka gci s:ga]

lunu- aisk-a mtka o-g-a-ki s--ka

winter.dress-AGT sew-TR yesterday REL-COP.PAST-ASS-1P.RECI.SG mother-AGT-1P.PAT.SG

'

the winter dress that my mother fixed/sewed for me yesterday

%
!
%

pd, svkaa ltaki ogana

[pd svu:gxa i:lti gna]

pd- svk-a-a l=ta-ki o-g-a-na

log-AGT throw-TR-SEMELF towards-1P.RECI.SG REL-COP.PAST-ASS-2P.AG.SG

'

the log you threw at me

Objective relative clauses can also be reduced, with the whole of the relative clause
being moved after the noun. However, unlike subjective relative clauses, the verb in
this construction is a patientive participle, with the agent of the passive found as an
agentive or unagentive pronoun, or in the case of a noun, in the genitive:

%
'
%

kira tg mebutari
[cira tj: mbudri]

kira- tg me<b>-u--tari
thing-AGT strong=ly want.PAST-PAT.PART-AGT-3P.AG.PL

'

the thing that they yearn for (lit. their yearned-for thing)

%
'
%

lunu mtka aiskiuki smaka

[luu mi:tka asciui s:mga]

lunu- mtka aisk-i-u--ki s=ma-ka

winter.dress-AGT yesterday sew-PAST-PAT.PART-AGT-1P.RECI.SG mother.GEN1P.PAT.SG

457

'

the winter dress that my mother fixed/sewed for me yesterday

%
!
%

pd ltaki svguna
[pd i:lti svu:guna]

pd- l-ta-ki sv<g>-u--na

log-AGT towards-ILLAT-1P.RECI.SG throw.PAST-PAT.PART-AGT-2P.AG.SG

the log you threw at me

9.16.1.3.3 Possessive Relative Clauses

The possessive relative clause construction is used when the argument of a main
clause is the possessor of either the subject or the object of the relative clause. There
are two ways of marking possession and both involve the relative locative markers.
!
Unalienable possessions are usually marked with the ablative relative marker
in the copula (-isko-). Alienable possessions are usually marked with the elative (iko-).
!
The relative marker o- is not used onto the copula, as it is already present in
the relative elative or ablative markers.

relative clause

copula

main clause
main verb

verbal phrase

copula

possessive relative clause

hmha
[hi:mha]

la
[i:la]

hmha-
she-AGT

l-a
know-TR

ii nelta
[ii la]

daiko toabi
[dig tbi]

i-i nel-ta
daughter-GEN chief-

COP-ASS-ELAT.REL

GEN

d-a-iko toabi-
older.sister-AGT

hmha, la ii nelta daiko toabi

she, whose older sister knows the chiefs daughter

More examples:
%
!
%

mmi, svoa tkka daiko helva

[mjmi sva tka dig hlva]

mmi- sv=oa tkk-a d-a-iko helva-

herder-AGT not=yet give.birth-TR COP-ASS-ILLAT.REL female.caribou-AGT

the herder whose female caribou hasnt given birth yet

458

%
'
%

kori, idai euskueita aksaikomi

[kri id:i skueida aks:igmi]

kori- i-da-i eusko-e=ita ak=s-a-iko-mi

boy-AGT DIT-answer-ITR question-ILLAT NEG.COP.PAST-ASS-ELAT.REL-1P.AG.SG

'

the boy, whose question I did not answer

!
'
%

hialkko, gela ildi atseiskoi hmi

[halk: elja li tsiski i:hmi]

'
!
%
'
%
%

'
!
%
'
%

hialkko- gel-a i<l>-di at=s-e-isko-i h-mi

wound-AGT soothe-TR pain-GEN NEG.COP.HAB-INFER-ABLA.REL-HABI nothing.INA-AGT

a wound, whose pain nothing can soothe

saumie, hea tekitagi knma saiskoo
[sumie heja k:idji cnma saskj]
saumi-e- he-a tek-i=ta-gi kn-ma s-a-isko-o
caribou-PL-AGT feed-TR child-ILLAT-PL milk-GEN COP.HAB-ASS-ABLA.REL-4P.AG

the caribous, whose milk we feed to our children

davvetamosi, katia mobi gai(s)kot
[dw:etmsi ktixa mbi gig/ gask]

davve=tamosi- kat-i-a mobi- g-a-isko/iko-t

former=hunter-AGT from-inherit-TR hunting.territory-DAT COP.PAST-ASS-ELAT/ABLA.REL-3P.OBV.AG

'

an ex-hunter, whose hunting territory X inherited

%
'
%

dedna, uoi ngatagi goiko

[dtna uji :ji gig]

dedna- u-=o-i nga-ta-gi g-o-iko

village-AGT PASS-attack-ITR inhabitant-PAT-PL COP.PAST-TRANSL.INFER-ELAT.REL

'

a village whose inhabitants were apparently attacked

%
'
%

maski, kista sauhhahi saiskomi

[masci csta suh:jhi sxaskmi]

maski- kist-a sauhha-hi s-a-isko-mi

people-AGT learn-TR language-GEN COP.PAST.HAB-ASS-ABLA.REL-1P.AG.SG

'

the people whose language I used to learn

9.16.1.3.4 Locative Relative Clauses

The locative relative clause construction is used when the argument of a main clause
is referred to with a locative case in a relative clause, or is the recipient in the relative
clause. Two types of locative relative clauses exist - simple and complex.
!
Simple locative relative clauses use only locative cases, whereas complex
use postpositions. Postpositions usually come before the verb, but may precede it
immediately. The argument of the postposition is either found as the recipient of the
relative clause (copularly relativie), or sometimes in the elative or ablative
459

(intracopularly relative) or with the relative marker on the preposition at the head of
the relative phrase (postpositionally relative).
!
The postpositions do tend to become affixed to the verb, if they are allowed
as preverbal adverbs (copularly relative), in which case the relative clause marker ois used. Postpositionally relative clauses are common with more complex
postpositional phrases (with postpositions found in one of the locative cases) in all
dialects it can be considered clearer and more concise. Copularly relative clauses
are often considered to be bad language.
!
This allows for three different markings for a phrase like the girl with whom I
used to play in the summer:
1.!
2.!
3.!

kydly, gagi biohtsi kobia saitomi!!

kydly, gabiohtsi kobia osami! !
kydly, ogagi biohtsi kobia sami% !

!
!
!

intracopularly relative
copularly relative
postpositionally relative

relative clause

copula

main clause
main verb

verbal phrase

copula

simple locative relative clause

mmi
[mjmi]

igaihtsa
[igahtsa]

salun
[saln]

mmi-
herder-AGT

i-gaihts-a
DIT-owe-TR

salun-
caribou.head-DAT

saitomi
[sxidmi]
s-a-ito-mi
COP.PAST.HAB-ASSILLAT.REL-1P.AG.SG

mmi, igaihtsa salun saitomi

the herder to whom I used to owe a caribou head
relative clause

copula

main clause
main verb

verbal phrase

copula

postpositional locative relative clause

kydly
[cyty]

gagi biohtsi
[gi bhtsi]

ogu kobia
[jj:u kbia]

kydly-
little.girl-AGT

gagi biohts-i
with play-ITR

ogu k<ob>-ia
once summer-INESS

saitomi
[sxidmi]
s-a-ito-mi
COP.PAST.HAB-ASSILLAT.REL-1P.AG.SG

kydly, gagi biohtsi kobia saitomi

the little girl with whom I once used to play in the summer
(also kydly, gabiohtsi ogu kobia ogami
or kydly, ogagi biohtsi kobia sami)

460

More examples:
!
'
%

selo, kidli sitkotuimi atkasa gagi saiko

[sel citi stkduimi atksa gi sxig]

%
!

selo- kidl-i sitk-ot-u-i-mi at-ka-sa gagi s-a-iko

river-AGT use-ITR fish-COMP-PAST-ASS.ITR-1P.AG.SG father-GEN-2P.PAT.SG with COP.PAST.HAB
ASS-ELAT.REL

'

the river from which I used to fish with your father

'
%
'
%

also
selo, kidli saiko sitkotuimi atkasa gagi
[sel citi sxig stkduimi atksa gi]

%
!

selo- kidl-i s-a-iko sitk-ot-u-i-mi at-ka-sa gagi

river-AGT use-ITR COP.PAST.HAB ASS-ELAT.REL fish-COMP-PAST-ASS.ITR-1P.AG.SG !
father-GEN-2P.PAT.SG with

'

id.

%
'
%

sitobi, gala sibmupa otsi sinin-t ogami

[st:xbi gla spmjuba tsi sinin gmi]

'
!
!
%
!
%

sitobi- gala sibm-up-a ot=si sinin-t o-g-a-mi

fishing.rod-AGT with catch-UP-TR this.ANI.DAT big.fish-DAT-DET.PROXI REL-COP.PAST-ASS-1P.AG.SG

the fishing rod with which I caught this big fish

or
sitobi, ogala sibmupa otsi sinin-t gami
[st:xbi gla spmjuba tsi sinin gmi]

sitobi- gala sibm-up-a ot=si sinin-t o-g-a-mi

fishing.rod-AGT REL-with catch-UP-TR this.ANI.DAT big.fish-DAT-DET.PROXI COP.PAST-ASS-1P.AG.SG

'

id.

%
'
%

tsviro, unna ngi ode Guokvinilmi

[tsvir u:a i::i de gkw:inlmi]

tsviro- unna ng-i o-d-e guokvinilmi-

under.water.fallen.tree-AGT under live-ITR REL-COP-INFER guokvinilmi-AGT

'
!

the fallen tree in water under which the King Frog Guokvinilmi supposedly
lives

!
%
'
%

or
tsviro, onunna ngi de Guokvinilmi
[tsvir nu:a i::i de gkw:inlmi]

tsviro- on-unna ng-i o-d-e guokvinilmi-

under.water.fallen.tree-AGT REL-under live-ITR COP-INFER guokvinilmi-AGT

'

id.

461

%
'
%

tegobi temi, onogika ikeiditta uohmita gana

[ej:bi emi nj:iga iceita hmida gna]

%
!

tegobi- temi- o-nog=ika i-keid-i-tta u<>ok-m=ita g-a-na

little.ligher-AGT little-AGT REL-from.the.end.of DIT-light-ITR-SUBIT pipe-ILLAT
COP.PAST-!ASS-2P.AG.SG

'
!

the little lighter from which you just lit your pipe
(less commonly tegobi temi, nogika ikeiditta uohmita gaikona)

%
'
%

dabien talkiska na, onldiska alda ptsti-hon nabe nytsyma

[dabi:n talcska na ni:lska alda ptst:ih nbe ntsxyma]

%
!

dab-i-en ta<l>-k=iska n-a o-n<l>-d=iska ald-a ptsti-hon n-a-be nytsy-ma

beat-ITR-P drum-ABLA COP.INCONCL-ASS REL-surface-ABLA entrance-TR around-3P.OBV-POSS
COP.INCONCL-ASS-2P.PAT.EXCL music-PAT

'
!
%

the drum beats, from whose surface the music puts us in a trance around it
(less commonly dabista talkiska na, nldiska alda ptsti-hon naikobe
nytsyma)

%
'
%

taulhi, lisyvvahta eleugi sytu kvaitogge

[talhi i:lisyw:ahta eleuji syt: kvidc:e]

%
!

taur=gi l-i-syvv-aht-a ele-u-gi syt=u g-ua-ito-gge

soldier-AGT.PL to-DIT-offer-AHT-TR flower-GEN-PL thank=ESS COP.PAST-OPTILLAT.REL-1P.AG.PL.EXCL

'
!
!

the soldiers, to whom we wanted to present (a bouquet of) flowers as

thanks
(more commonly taulhi, onlta isyvvahta eleugi sytu kvagge)

9.16.1.3.5 Link Constructions

Link constructions are copular phrases triggered by the addition of a so-called link
clitic to the verb. This clitic is added to the split-stem after the postverbal vowel.
!
These link clitics can be used to form temporal subordinating clauses (when
X), clauses showing goal (in order to X) and adverbial subordinating clauses (by
X). They can be combined with various conjunctions, some of which are only found
with link clitics. Link phrases are contained within the verb and the copula, and
generally do not take coordinating particles. Link constructions are nearly always at
the beginning of clauses. Generally, link constructions are separated from the main
sentence by a comma, but when the link construction appears as the subject of a
phrase, it may be found after the main clause. Link constructions and conjunctions
can be intersect by adverbs.
%
'
%

sihhitu da, imakihmi oakibma

[sih:iuda imchmi pma]

sihh-i-tu d-a i-mak-i-s-mi oak=ibma

rain-ITR-LINK.TEMP COP-ASS DIT-go-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB-1P.AG.SG home=ALLAT

'

when/if it rains, I go home

462

!
'
%

kemekkaka sihhitu atsa

[cemjkga sih:iu tsa]

kemekk-a-ka sihh-i-tu at=s-a

make.happy-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG rain-ITR-LINK.TEMP COP.NEG-ASS

'

it makes me happy when it does not rain

Link constructions may also be found attached directly to the marked form of the
infinitive of a verb:
!
'
'

sihhitsetu manidnan
[sih:itseu mntnan]

sihh-i-t=se-tu man-i-dna-n
rain-ITR-INFI.UNAG.ITR=GEN-LINK.TEMP come-ITR-REVERS-IMP.2P.SG

come back when it rains (lit. when raining)

The copula in link constructions tends to be found in its short form (a or e) especially
with longer phrases.
!
It is important to note that link constructions do not have a visible third
person patientive form like the copula.
!
Link constructions can be used with verbal adjectives by using the
inconclusive copula.
!
!
!

submika!
sututs nami'
iiuts orona'

!
'
'

I am hungry
when I am hungry
when you will have gotten old

9.16.1.3.5.1 Temporal Link Constructions

The temporal linking suffix is -tu (or also commonly in eastern dialects -u or even -u)
or -uts (slightly higher register) and is used with temporal conjunctions (see 6.6).
The inferential is especially common with such temporal conjunctions because many
of them have an inherently non-present meaning. Without conjunction, -tu/-uts
means when. It can be added directly to verbal adjectives (without a postverbal
vowel).
%
'
%

%
'
%

kokkaka sihhitu a
[kkga sih:iua]

kokk-a-ka sihh-i-tu -a
like-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG rain-ITR-LINK.TEMP COP-ASS

'

'

I like it when it rains

!
!
!

%
!
!

sututs nami
when Im hungry

463

tevu, d, tvo before1

!
'
%

%
'
%

mak-i-uts tevu d-e-na

go-ITR-LINK.TEMP before COP-INFER-2P.AG.SG

!
!
%
'
%

before you go

%
'
%

umekkitu tvo gusa

[umciu tv gusa]

u-ekk-i-tu tvo g-u-sa

PASS-be.born-ITR-LINK.TEMP before COP.PAST-TRANSL-2P.PAT.SG

'

'

before you were born!

%
'
%

%
'
%

pokiu d sasakkita demi

[pciju du: ssacida demi]

pok-i-u d sasam-k=ita d-e-mi

go.to.sleep-ITR-LINK.TEMP before tent-ILLAT COP-INFER-1P.AG.SG

'

'

before I go to sleep in the tent! !

ahha, aa, a, a, aya after

'
'
%

%
'
%

i-pe<nd>-i-dna-tu ahha oak=ibma g-a-gga

DIT-return.PAST-ITR-REVERSE-LINK.TEMP after home=ALLAT COP.PAST-ASS-1P.AG.PL.INCL

'

'

after we came back home

!
'
%

%
'
%

luhhauts ahha mavvu deta

[luh:ats h:a mw:u deta]

luhh-a-uts ahha mavvu- d-e-ta

boil-TR-LINK.TEMP after meat-DAT COP-INFER-3P.AG.SG

'

'

after X boils the meat

%
'
%

%
'
%

iratu kinoni ahha e, mianumao

[iru cinni h:ae minumj]

ir-a-tu kinoni ahha -e mian-um-a--o

kill-TR-LINK.TEMP immediately after COP-INFER gut-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT.SG-4P.AG

'

'

immediately after killing it, one must gut it

makiuts tevu dena

[mcts tevu dena]

ipendidnatu ahha oakibma gagga

[ipntnu h:a pma gk:a]

1 Many speakers have -uts and tevu/d/tvo merge to -uddeu, -udd, -utvo, e.g. makiudd dena before

you go
464

maa, mai while

%
'
%

%
'
%

%
!

%
!

ta-tu maa ma=a s-a somi--gi tulm=aisk-i-s ski--gi

be-LINK.TEMP while out=hunting COP.HAB-ASS man-AGT-PL, ! !
clothes=sew-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB woman-AGT-PL

'

'

while the men are out hunting, the women sew clothes

%
'
%

%
'
%

sihhitu maa anta, allami erritseta

[sih:iu mja anta :lmi er:itseda]

%
!

%
!

sihh-i-tu maa an=t-a all-a-mi err-i-t-se=ita

rain-ITR-LINK.TEMP while COP=NEG.INCONCL-ASS have.time-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG
work.outside-ITR-INFI.AG.ITR-ILLAT

'

'

while it is not raining, I have time to work outside

%
'
%

%
'
%

itskiuts mai rddia-nen mumma na, kessao komma

[tsc:ts mai r:iann mum:ana ces:j km:a]

%
!

%
!

itsk-i-uts mai r-dd=ianen mumma n-a kes-s-a-o ko=mma

spend.time-ITR-LINK.TEMP while nature-INESS4P.POSS among COP.INCONCL-ASS
learn-HAB-ASS.CONCL.TR-4P.AG much-GEN

'

'

while one spends time in nature, one learns a lot

soska since (sometimes after)

!
'
%

%
'
%

%
!

%
!

tahh-i-uts soska mu=nkauri g-a-na or-a-mi mytym=ia

leave-ITR-LINK.TEMP since among=from1P.POSS.PL COP.PAST-ASS-2P.AG.SG
COP.PERF-ASS-1P.AG.SG sad=INESS

'

'

since youve left us, I have been sad

%
'
%

%
'
%

nikiuts soska ga svottaki, nelis sbma

[nicts sskaga svti nels sxpma]

nik-i-uts soska g-a svo=tta-ki nel-i-s s-bma

die-ITR-LINK.TEMP since COP.PAST-ASS mother-PAT-1P.RECI.SG bud-ITR-HAB nothing-PAT

'

'

since my mother died, nothing buds

!
'
%

%
'
%

sppi besiuts soska kalkiaba ma, umekkuis ohtanna tegmari

[spi bsxts sska calcibama umcs htn:a m:ri]

%
!

%
!

sppi bes-i-uts soska kak-k=ia-ba m-a u-ekk-u-i-s oh=ta-nna tegma-ri

bad-adv be.peace-ITR-LINK.TEMP while land-INESS-1P.PAT.PL COP.INCONCL-ASS
PASS-be.born-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB less-PAT child-PAT

'

'

since/after the wartime, fewer children were born

tatu maa maa sa somigi, tulmaiskis skigi

[tu mja m:jasa smiji tlmascs i:sciji]
!

tahhiuts soska munka-uri gana, orami mytymia

[th:ts sska mkawri gna rmi mytymia]

465

mehdil, mehhil, mehhen once

!
'
%

!
'
%

kes-a-tu mehdil d-a- tsas-a-=en--o

learn-TR-LINK.TEMP once COP-ASS-3P.PAT forget-ASS.CONCL.TR-HABI=NEG-3P.PAT-4P.AG

'

'

once you learn Y, you cant forget

!
'
%

%
'
%

mahkihitu mehdil ore, numeo ysitsta ukatsahta

[mjahcihiu mhl re numej sxtst:a ukatsxahta]

%
!

%
!

mahkih-i-tu mehdil or-e num-e-o ysit-sta ukahtsa-h=ita

is.frost-ITR-LINK.TEMP once COP.PERF-INFER pick-INFER.CONCL.TR-4P.AG sour.berry-GEN
jam-ILLAT

'

'

once there will have been frost, we will pick the sour-berries for jam

%
'
%

%
'
%

nuatu mehdil dena, nuidnena

[nuju mhl dena ntnena]

%
!
!

%
!
!

'
!
!

'
once you will see Y, you will recognize Y
!
meddil, mel, medden as soon as

%
'
%

%
'
%

on-a-ki-n nu-a-u meddil d-e--na

tell-TR-1P.RECI.SG-IMP.2P.SG see-TR-LINK.TEMP as.soon.as COP-INFER-3P.PAT-2P.AG.SG

'

'

tell me as soon as you see it!

!
'
%

%
'
%

vimiuts mel do, temme tegeo

[vimtsmld em:e ej:ej]

%
!

%
!

vim-i-uts mel d-o tem-me teg-e-o

snow-ITR-LINK.TEMP as.soon.as COP-TRANSL.INFER track-GEN ! !
can.see-INFER.CONCL.TR-4P.AG.SG

'

'

as soon as it starts to snow, you will be able to see the tracks

%
'
%

%
'
%

ehru mel o
[jhrjuml]

ehr--u mel -o
is.possible-TRANSL-LINK.TEMP as.soon.as COP-TRANSL.INFER

'

'

as soon as possible!

kesatu mehdil da, tsasaeno

[cesu mhl da tsasxenj]

nu-a-tu mehdil d-e--na nuidn-e--na

see-TR-LINK.TEMP once COP-INFER-3P.PAT-2P.AG.SG
recognize-!
!
!
INFER.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-2P.AG

onakin, nuau meddil dena

[nn nujju met:l dena]

466

sinnil, sidnen as long as

!
'
'

%
'
'

ilil-i-uts sinnil d-e-ma

live-ITR-LINK.TEMP as.long.as COP-INFER-1P.UNAG.SG

'

'

for as long as I will live

!
'
'

!
'
'

huhiu sinnil e htta

[huiju sin:l hta]

huh-i-u sinnil -e htta-

blow-ITR-LINK.TEMP as.long.as COP-INFER wind-AGT

'

'

as long as the wind blows (i.e. for ever)

!
'
'

!
'
'

uokitu sinnil dena, emeihmi

[ujk:iu sin:l dena emehmi]

%
!

%
!

uo=k-i-tu sinnil d-e-na em-e-i-h=mi

right=speak-ITR-LINK.TEMP as.long.as COP-INFER-2P.AG.SG believe-!
ASS.CONCL.IFER-HABI-2P.PAT.SG=1P.AG.SG

'

'

as long as you say the truth, I will [able to] believe you

ililiuts sinnil dema

[iljilts sin:l dema]

dden, den now that

!
'
'

%
'
'

pednitu dden oradda, iomu etsi deitagga

[ptniu :n rt:a ijmu etsi deidk:a]

%
!

%
!

'
!
%
'
'

'
!
%
'
'

%
!
!

%
!
!

i-kes-a-tu dden or-a-si-mi nidl-um-a- nvvaa nk-e--na

DIT-teach-TR-LINK.TEMP now.that COP.PERF-ASS-2P.RECI.SG-1P.AG.SG !
do.thus-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT howREL.INTERRO knowASS.CONCLINFER-3P.PAT-2P.AG.SG

'
!
!
'
'

'

now that I have shown you how to do it properly, you will know how

%
'
'

sihhiu den na, kadda makiemmi

[sih:ijun na kt:a mciem:i]

sihh-i-u den n-a ka=dda mak-i-en-mi

rain-ITR-LINK.TEMP now.that COP.INCONCL-ASS out-ILLAT go-ITR-HABIL=NEG-1P.AG.SG

'

'

now that its raining, I cant go outside

pedn-i-tu dden or-a-dda iom-u ets-i d-e-ita-gga

come-ITR-LINK.TEMP now.that COP.PERF-ASS-2P.AG.PL be.possible-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL
begin-ITR COP-INFER-ILLAT-1P.AG.PL.INCL

now that you have arrived, we may begin

ikesatu dden orasimi, nidluma nvva-a, nkena
[icsxu :n rsimi nituma ni:waa i:cena]

467

dae if ever, in the case (also tae, t1)

%
'
'

%
'
'

%
!

%
!

susk--uts dae d-e-sa og-a-mu=n i-kos-i sesko=to<k>o-m=ita d-e-ita

lost-TRANSL-LINK.TEMP if.ever COP-INFER-2P.UNAG.SG remember-ASS.CONCL.TROBLI=IMP.2P.SG DIT-cut.into-ITR landmark=tree.trunk-ILLAT COP-INFER-ILLAT

'
!

'
!

if you ever get lost, remember to cut into the trunk of landmark
trees

%
'
'

%
'
'

olasitu dae desa, dihmeigla tevvukkahtam otski lausva

[ljsiu dxe desa dwmkla ew:kahtm tsc:i ljasva]

%
!

%
!

o-las-i-tu dae d-e-sa dihme<>-i=gla tevvukk-aht-a-mu=n otski lausva-

SUB-cut-ITR-LINK.TEMP if.ever COP-INFER-2P.UNAG.SG cloth-INSTRU bind-AHT-TROBLI=IMP.2P.SG tightly cut-DAT

'
!

'
!

if you ever cut yourself, you must bind the laceration with soft bark
(cloth)

%
'
'

%
'
'

gedliu dae atseta, tei t

[etiju dxe tseda tei tx]

gedl-i-u dae at=s-e-ta tei t

work-ITR-LINK.TEMP if.ever COP=NEG-INFER-3P.UNAG.SG, TEI if=ever

'

'

if ever it does not work, tough luck

!
!
!
'
'

eyl, ghdil, dden whenever (also every time)

%
!

%
!

hh-a-tu eyl ktka-di d-a-mi m-tv-a-a-sa

smell-TR-LINK.TEMP whenever pitch.smell-GEN COP-ASS-1P.AG.SG 1P.UNAG.SG-think.ofSEMELF-2P.PAT.SG

'

'

whenever I smell the smell of pitch/perfume, I think of you

%
'
'

%
'
'

nyatu hdil ktt tehtsotima dasa, saisakan

[nyxu xhl ct htsima dsa sisgan]

%
!

%
!

ny-a-tu hdil kt=t tehts-ot-i-ma d-a-sa sais-a-ka-n

catch.glimps-TR-LINK.TEMP whenever something.UNKNOWN-GEN move-COMPLE-ITRACT.PART.UNAG COP-ASS-2P.UNAG.sg warn-TR-1P.PAT.SG-IMP.2P.SG

'

'

every time you see catch a glimpse of something moving, tell me

%
'
'

suskuts dae desa, ogam ikosi seskotokomita deita

[s:sk:ts dxe desa j:m iksxi ssktkmida deida]

hhatu eyl ktkadi dami, mtvaasa

[e:h:uxl ci:tki dmi mi:tw:xsa]

The form t is nearly exclusively used phrases with a negative conotation, e.g. oeintiuts t desa
if you (are) ever (so unlucky as to) hurt yourself
!

468

%
'
'

%
'
'

maivvitu dden dakina, entsasa, onuami nt-a

[miw:iu x:n dcina ntsasxa numi ni::a]

%
!

%
!

'
!
!

'
whenever you smile to me, I forget what I wanted to say.
!
meihtsa, meuta, meua until

%
'
'

%
'
'

%
!

%
!

nik-i-uts meihtsa d-e-ma lugu-e-h=mi

die-ITR-LINK.TEMP until COP-INFER-1P.UNAG.SG loveINFER.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT.SG=1P.AG.SG

'

'

I will love you until I die

%
'
'

%
'
'

raditu meuta dena, s radumi

[rdiumeuda dena s rdumi]

rad-i-tu meuta d-e-na s rad-u-mi

stop-ITR-LINK.TEMP until COP-INFER-2P.UNAG.SG NEG stop-INFER.CONCL.ITR.1P.AG.SG

'

'

I wont stop until you stop

%
'
'

%
'
'

idumao klkotu meua ne

[idumj ci:lkumeu:a ne]

id-um-a-o kl-ko-tu meua n-e

wait-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR-4P.AG again=be.summer-LINK.TEMP until COP.INCONCL-INFER

'

'

one has to wait until summer again

maivv-i-tu dden d-a-ki-na en-tsas-a on-ua-mi n=ta

smile-ITR-LINK.TEMP when.ever COP-ASS-1P.RECI.SG-2P.AG.SG 1P.UNAG.SG-forgetASS.CONCL.TR say-ASS.CONCL.TR.OPT what-GENREL.INTERRO

nikiuts meihtsa dema, luguehmi

[nicts mhtsa dema luj:hmi]

9.16.1.3.5.2 Goal Link Constructions

The linking suffix is -ke and is used to show a goal. It may be found with the
conjunction kimi so that and ome in order to, for. On its own, -ke simply means to
or for, indicating that the link construction is the aim of the main verb. The
conjunctions kimi and ome are used rather simply and may be quite synonymous,
although ome may have a slightly more inferential meaning. The ending -ke and kimi
sometimes combine as -kkimi. Some dialects only have -kkmm, -kkma or -kkm
instead of -ke kimi and -ke ome.
!
'
'

!
'
'

dohhake desa mansimi

[dhke desa mansimi]

dohk-a-ke d-e-sa ma<ns>-i-mi

say.goodbye-ITR-LINK.GOAL COP-INFER-2P.PAT.AG come.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG

'

'

I came to say goodbye

469

kimi so that

!
'
'

!
'
'

%
!

%
!

treisk--ke kimi d-e-ta damu- tym-i-uge-a--o ll<k>i-mo=ita

lose.fur-TRANSL-LINK.GOAL so.that COP-INFER-3P.UNAG.SG skin-DAT down-DITsubmerge-ASS.CONCL.TR-4P.AG hot.water-ILLAT

we submerge the skin in hot water so that it will lose its fur

%
'
'

%
'
'

nupukkimi atsesa, set nonasimi

[nupcimi tsesa stnnsimi]

%
!

%
!

nup-u-k=imi at=s-e-sa set <non>-a-si-mi

get.angry-TRANSL-LINK.GOAL=so.that COP=NEG-INFER-2P.PAT.SG NEG tell.PASTASS.CONCL.TR-2P.RECI.1P.AG.SG

'

'

I didnt tell you so you wouldnt get angry

!
!
%
'
'

ome in order to

%
!

%
!

'
!
%
'
'

'

in order to catch slugs, you dont need a spear

%
'
'

eukake ome haa deo, tadnuma l te ohna

[euge me hja dej atnuma lj:de hna]

%
!

%
!

'
!

'
!

%
'
'

treiskke kimi deta, damu tymiugiao llkimoita

[trsce kimi deta dmu tymiuj:ij lu:lcimida]

oaigake ome meutskes de, sem bedna eterre

[ie me mjtsc:s de sm btna eter:e]
oaig-a-ke ome meutske-s d-e sem bedn-a ete<rr>-e
catch-TR-LINK.GOAL in.order.to slug-GEN COP-INFER NEG need-ASS.CONCL.TR spearGEN

euk-a-ke ome ha-a d-e-o, tadn-um-a lj- te ohna-

produce-TR-LINK.GOAL in.order.to glue.GEN COP-INFER-4P.AG find-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TRresin-DAT and ash-DAT

to make glue, you need to find (the) resin and (the) ash

9.16.1.3.5.3 Adverbial Link Constructions

The adverbial linking suffix is -te and is used with a variety of conjunctions. Used
alone, -te shows the means by which something is done. Conjunctions used with -te
include: aska because (negative), kuka because (neutral) ska thanks to, eppi
(so) that/nothing but (without adverbial link) and ose unless.
!
'
'

%
'
'

munite sa opiaguku
[munidesa pij:ugu]

mun-i-te s-a o-piaguk-u

rest-ITR-LINK.ADV COP.HAB-ASS SUBJ-recover-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL

'

'

one gets better by resting

470

aska because (usually implies something negative)

!
'
'

!
'
'

%
!

%
!

her-i-te aska g-a palv-ai-u ke<bs>i-e

cold-ITR-LINK.ADV because COP.PAST-ASS be.ruined-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL
mushroom-PAT

'

'

because it was cold, the mushrooms were ruined

%
'
'

%
'
'

atuukkate aska gakata, si huami mskodi

[tujkde aska gkda si humi mi:ski]

%
!

%
!

atuukk-a-te aska g-a-ka-ta si h-ua-mi msko-di

make.sick-TR-LINK.ADV because COP.PAST-ASS-1P.PAT.SG-3P.UNAG.SG no.longer
eat-ASS.CONCL.OPT.TR-1P.AG.SG beaver.meat-GEN

'

'

because it made me sick, I no longer want to eat beaver meat

kuka because (fairly neutral)

%
'
%
'

%
'
%
'

%
!
!

%
!
!

all-a-te kuska kl=trhs--t=le=ita mo<p>i-ko d-ua-dna-a-gga loal-k=ita u-lol-h-i-a

have.time-TR-LINK.ADV because again=grow-TRANSL-INFI.TRANSL.UNAG-ILLAT
hunting.territory-GEN COP-ASS.OPT-REVERS-3P.PAT.PL-1P.AG.PL.INCL abandon-ILLAT
PASS-leave-HAB-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.PAT.PL

'
!

'
!

because we want our hunting territory to have time to recover, it is

left abandoned

mit, midda, mio, meu because (fairly neutral)

!
'
'

!
'
'

%
!

%
!

neks-a-te midda g-a-ka to- nuhhi-, o<b>-a--mi

ask-TR-LINK.ADV because COP.PAST-ASS-1P.PAT.SG 3P.PRON.ANI.AGT old.woman-AGT
help.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG

'

'

because the old woman asked me, I helped her

ska, tska thanks to

!
'
'

%
'
'

%
!

%
!

mer-i-te ska eter=ia n-a tsaupr-i-bi akk=ia saven=gas-hee-ta-gi

be.mild-ITR-LINK.ADV thanks.to air-INESS COP.INCONCL-ASS !
be.rare-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.RECI.PL around.here ear.lobe=frostbite=winter-PAT-PL

'
!

'
!

thanks to the air being milder, we rarely get harsh winters

around here (lit. earlobe-frostbite winters)

herite aska ga, palvaiu kebsie

[heride askaga palviu cepsie]

allate kuka kltrhsdleta mopiko tvadnaagga, loalkita ulolhia

[l:de cka ci:ltrhsteda mpig tvatnjk:a lalcda
ullhija]

neskate midda gaka to nuhhi, obami

[nskde mit:a gka t uh:i bmi]

merite ska eteria na, tsaupribi akkia savengaseetagi

[meridei:ska eteria na tsapxibi acia svgasxejeji]

471

!
!
'
'

!
%
'
'

%
!
!

%
!
!

sa=lla se-a-te ska g-a-i- kv--a-i halukk-ot-i-a-i ktmni-

well hear-TR-LINK.ADV thanks.to COP.PAST-ASS-HABIL-3P.AG.SG feel-PASTASS.CONCL.TR-HABIL follow-COMPLE-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-4P.PAT
someone.UNKNOWN-AGT

'
!

'
!

thanks to Xs good hearing, X could feel that someone was

following him/her

eppi so X (that), nothing but X

!
'
'

%
'
'

vim-i-te eppi omi-ko ga hok-i-m-i katvume-ma

snow-ITR-LINK.ADV so COP.PASS-ASS blind-PAST-INCONCL-ASS.ITR reflection-PAT

'

'

it snowed so much that the reflection (off the snow) was blinding

%
'
'

%
'
'

luguate eppi dahmi, ednikoii

[luj:ude:pi dahmi tnicjii]

%
!

%
!

lugu-a-te eppi d-a-h=mi ed-nik-oi-i

love-TR-LINK.ADV so COP-ASS-2P.PAT=1P.AG.SG 1P.UNAG.SG-die-!
INFER.CONCL.COND.IRR.ITR-HABIL

'

'

I love you so much I could die

!
'
'

%
'
'

allate eppi a allami

[l:de pia l:mi]

all-a-te eppi a all-a--mi

have.time-TR-LINK.ADV eppi COP.ASS have.time-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.AG.SG

'

'

I have nothing but time

ose, heven, siven unless

%
'
'

%
'
'

%
!

%
!

t-te heven somi- d-a-na tata-di-i-=en-na

be-LINK.ADV unless man-ACT COP-ASS-2P.AG.SG into-step-ASS.CONCL.ITRHABIL.NEG-2P.AG.SG

'

'

you cannot step in here unless you are a man

salla seate ska gaita, kvai halukkotiai ktmni

[sl:a sejdei:ska gida kvu:i hljkia ktmn:i]

vimite eppi kko ga, hokimi katvumema

[vimide:pi kga hcimi katv:mema]

tte heven somi dana, tatadenna

[t:de hw:n smi dna ttdi:en:a ]

472

%
'
'

%
'
'

oaite ose kttsita dena, meylumi

[ide sxe kttsida dena mlumi]

%
!

%
!

oa-i-te ose ktn-ts=ita d-e-na meyl-u-mi

tell-ITR-LINK.ADV unless any.ANI-ILLAT COP-INFER-2P.AG.SG be.silentINFER.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG

'

'

I will keep silent unless you tell anyone

9.16.2 Dependent Copula

The dependent copula is a defective verb found as a clitic used for adjectives. The
clitic is either attached directly to the adjective or it can be found attached to a
number of defective copular stems (originally all variants of t- to be/stand).
!
!
!
negative defective copular verb!!
si- or hed!
conditional realis copular verb! !
add-1 ! (neg. siadd-)
!
optative copular verb! !
!
vo- ! (neg. svo-)
!
obligative copular verb! !
!
nt- ! (neg. sint-)
The negative, optative and obligative also have an additional conditional realis form:
!
!
neg.!
!
neg. !

tsi-, dahed- !
tvo- ! !
sitvo- !
dnt- ! !
sidnt- !!

!
!
!
!
!

if X is not
if X wants
if X does not want
if X must
if X must not

The dependent copula lacks many constituents that the independent copula has, for
example conclusivity (inconclusive adjectives are found in their verbal adjective
form). Both the defective copular verbs and the adjective clitic form may take
personal pronouns (generally agentive), using the copular set. However, the clitical
form of the dependent copula is also commonly found with independent pronouns:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%

1P.SG! !
2P.SG! !
3P.SG! !
1P.PL.INCL!
1P.PL.EXCL!
2P.PL! !
3P.PL! !
3P.OBV! !
4P.!
!

iiami' '
iiana' '
iiata' '
iiagga' '
iiagge !!
iiadda' '
iiatari% '
iiat'
!
iiao' !

or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!

iia megi'
iia negi'
iia to/ta'
iia mra !
iia mri'
iia nri !
iia ki% !
iia onto '
iia nin% '

I am old
you are old
X is old
we are old
we are old
you are old
they are old
X is old
one is old

Dialectal versions of the conditional realis are somewhat reflected in the copula the forms a- and
e- also exist.

473

%
%
%
%
!
!

siata ii%!
addita ii!
voeta ii!
tvouna ii!
sitvouna ii%
sinturena ii!

!
!
!
!
!
!

X is not old
if X was old
X would want to be old!
if you want to become old
if you do not want to become old!
you must not have been old (I imagine)

but!

iiaita' '

'

if X were old

The dependent copula, whether as a clitic to a defective copular verb or directly

attached to an adjective, behaves like any other verb and is thus usually found at the
beginning of the phrase.
!

killu iirita okon-go'

'

my old man had always been old

The copular endings can also take all the secondary aspect markers found in regular
verbs.
!
!
!
%

iiata' '
'
iiaata'
'
iianundata'
'
sitvouana ii'

X grew old
X suddenly grew old
X grew a little old
if you do not want to keep getting older

The dependent copula and defective copular verbs cannot be found in link
constructions instead, the copular verb tami is used (split stem is t-).
Consider the following table for the dependent copula.

474

475

-ia!
-ias!
-ra!
-au!
!

iia!
iias!
iira!
iiau!
!

ii!
iis!
iir!
iii!

TRANSLATIVE
-i, -ey! !
-is, -eys!
-r!
!
-i!
!

!
!
!
!
!

iiunta$ !

IMPERATIVE
-iunta! !

PAST

!
!
!
!

i!
is!
iiri!
iii!

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

iia!
iias!
iira!
iiai!

IE
TRANSITIVE
-ia!
!
-ias!
!
-ra, ra! !
-ai!
!
!
PAST
-, -! !
-s, -s! !
-ri!
!
-i!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

became old! !
!
used to become old! !
had become old!
!
if X would have become old!
!
!
!
!

becomes old! !
usually becomes old!
has become old!
if X became old!

may X be old! !

was old!
!
!
used to be old!!
!
had been old! !
!
if X would have been old!

is old! !
is usually old!
has been old!
if X were old!

!
!
!
!

-a!
-as!
-irva!
-eu!
!

!
!
!
!
!

-ivo, -eu!
-ius!
!
-rvo!
!
-uo!
!

-iunte! !

-io!
!
-ios!
!
-ro!
!
-, (-ey)!

-ie!
-ies!
-re!
-ei!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

iia!
iias!
iirva!
iieu!
!

iivo!
iius!
iirvo!
iiuo!

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

iiunte! !

iio!
iios!
iiro!
ii!

iie!
iies!
iire!
iiei!

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

would have become

old

would become old

(hopefully) is old

would have been old

would be old

476

TRANSLATIVE
-au, -! !
-aus, -s!
-ru!
!
-ui!
!
!
PAST
-a!
!
-as!
!
-ra!
!
-au!
!

becomes big! !
usually becomes big!
has become big!
if X became big!

became big! !
!
used to become big! !
had become big!
!
if X would have become big!

atanau! !
atanaus!
atanaru!!
atanaui!!

atanaa!!
atanaas!
atanara!
atanaau!

!
!
!
!

atanaunta$

IMPERATIVE
-aunta, -nta!

may X be big! !

was big!
!
!
used to be big!!
!
had been big! !
!
if X would have been big!

!
!
!
!

atanai! !
atanais! !
atanari! !
atanai! !

!
!
!
!

is big! !
is usually big!
has been big!
if X were big!

atanua! !
atanuas!
atanara!!
atanaai!!

AOU
TRANSITIVE
-ua!
!
-uas! !
-ra!
!
-ai!
!
!
PAST
-ai, -ui! !
-ais, -uis!
-ri!
!
-i!
!

-a!
-as!
-rvo!
-eu!

!
!
!
!

-avvo, -o!
-avvos, -os!
-rvo!
!
-uo!
!

-aunte, -nte!

-au, -! !
-aus, -s!
-ro!
!
-, -(ay)!

-ai, -ui! !
-ais, -uis!
-re!
!
-ei!
!

!
!
!
!

atanaa!
atanaas!
atanarvo!
atanaeu!

atanavvo!
atanavvos!
atanarvo!
atanauo!

atanaunte!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

atanau! !
!
atanaus!
!
atanaro!!
!
atana, atanay!

atanai! !
atanais!!
atanare!!
atanaei!!

would have become big

would become big

(hopefully) is big

would have been big

would be big

9.16.2.1 Copular Endings

Below are all the forms of the dependent copula:
TRANSITIVE

non-past !
!
!
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
!
%
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
imperative%
%
%

!
!
!
%
!

assertive!
-a%
%
-as(a)% %
-(u)la % %
-ai%
%

!
%
%
%
%

inferential
-e
-es(e)
-(u)le
-ei

!
!
%
!
%

-i%
-is%
-(u)li%
-i%
-unta%

%
%
%
%
%

-o
-os
-(u)lo
-ui or -
-unte

!
!
%
%
%

assertive!
-u/-% %
-us/-s% %
-(u)lu/-()l%
-ui/-i% %

!
%
%
%
%

inferential
-uo/-vo
-us(vo)
-(u)lvo, -(u)dlvo
-uo

%
%
!
!
%

-a%
-as%
-(u)la%
-au%
-anta%

%
%
%
%
%

-a/-va
-as/-vas
-(u)lva, -(u)dlva
-eu
-anto

%
%
%
%
%

TRANSLATIVE

non-past !
!
!
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
%
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
%
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
imperative%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%

The past conditional irrealis inferential ending - is generally found after -u- -o- -eand -y-, with -ui elsewhere. Some dialects, especially eastern dialects have -l- where
the perfective has -r-. The habitual endings in -s- when preceded by the
complementizer in -on-/-non- forms the fused ending -onh-/-nonh- or alternatively h-/-nh-.
!
%
%

netami, tyhhynonhata
[netmi tyh:ynnhda]

net-a-mi tyhhy-non-h-a-ta
know-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG green-COMPLE-HAB-3P.AG.SG

I know that it is usually green

477

9.16.2.2 Defective Copular Verbs

The defective forms of the dependent copular verb are as follow.
The negative copular verb in si- is not and hed- is not at all:
TRANSITIVE

non-past !
!
!
!
indicative!
!
'
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
imperative%
%
%

!
!
!
!
!

assertive!
sia / heda%
sias / hedas%
sila / hedla%
siai / heddai%

!
%
%
%
%

inferential
sie / hede
sies / hs
sile / hedle
siei / heddei

!
!
!
!
%

s / hei% %
%
ss / heis%
%
sili / hedli%
%
sii / hevi%
%
siunta / heunta% %

sio / hedo
sios / heus
silo / hedlo
siui / hev
siunte / heunte

!
!
!
!
!

assertive!
si / hed%
sis / heus%
sir / hedu%
sii / heddi%

inferential
sivvo / hevvo
sius / heus
sirvo / hervo1
siuo / hedduo

!
!
!
!
%

siga / hedda% %
sigas / heddas%%
sira / hera2%
%
siau / heddau% %
siganta / heddanta%

TRANSLATIVE

non-past !
!
!
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
imperative%
%
%

!
%
%
%
%

sivva / hevva
sivvas / hevvas
sirvo / herva3
sieu / heddeu
sivvanto/ hevvanto

Dialects have a lot of variation on the forms in heda and its other forms, such as
hela, hala, ala, ola and ora.
The conditional realis copular verb in add- if it is and the conditonal irrealis copular
verb in sadd- if it were:
1 The older form hedlvo also exists.
2 The older form hedla also exists.
3 The older form hedlva also exists.

478

TRANSITIVE

non-past !
!
!
indicative!
'
habitual!!
!
perfective!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
habitual!!
!
perfective!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

assertive!
adda % %
addas % %
adla % %

!
%
%
%

inferential
adde
addes
adle

!
!
!

!
!
!

addi % %
addis% %
adli %
%

%
%
%

addo
addos
adlo

!
!
!
!

!
%
!
%

assertive!
addu % %
addus% %
adlu % %

!
%
%
%

inferential
atvo
addusvo
atvolo~adlvo

!
!
!

!
!
!

adda % %
addas% %
adla~adlia %

%
%
%

atva
atvaso
atvalo~adlva

TRANSLATIVE

non-past !
!
!
indicative!
!
habitual!!
!
perfective!
!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
habitual!!
!
perfective!
!

The optative copular verb in vo- it wants to be and nt- if has to be:
TRANSITIVE

non-past !
!
!
!
indicative!
!
'
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
!
habitual!!
!
!
perfective!
!
'
conditional irrealis!
imperative%
%
%

!
!
!
!
!

assertive!
voa / nta%
voas / ntas%
vodla / ntula%
voai / ntai%

!
%
%
%
%

inferential
voe / nte
voes / ntes
vodle / ntule
voei / ntei

!
!
!
!
%

voi / nti%
vois / ntis%
vodli / ntuli%
vovi / nti%
- / ntunta%

%
%
%
%
%

voo / nto
voos / ntos
vodlu / ntulo
vov / nt
- / ntunte

479

TRANSLATIVE

non-past !
!
!
!
assertive!
!
inferential
!
indicative!
!
%
vou / ntu% %
vovo / ntuo
!
habitual!!
!
!
vous / ntus% %
vous/ntus
!
perfective!
!
!
vodu / nturu% %
vovoro / ntuoro
'
conditional irrealis!
!
voui / ntui% %
vouo / ntuo
!
!
!
past
!
indicative!
!
%
voa / nta% %
vova / nta
!
habitual!!
!
!
voas / ntas%%
vovas / ntas
!
perfective!
!
%
voura / ntura%
vourvo / nturvo
'
conditional irrealis!
!
voau / ntau%
voeu / nteu
!
imperative%
%
%
- / ntanta%
%
- / ntanto
9.16.2.3 Coalescence
The dependent copula is found as a clitic to adjectives which causes the final
syllable of to undergo a change. The most noticeable feature of this special
coalescence is that adjectives ending in -a- and -o- and -u- marge before back and
rounded vowels (not -u-), but not before front vowels. Similarly, adjectives in -e- and i- merge completely for all copula endings.
!
The coalescence of adjectives and dependent copula result in the formation
of two main groups of adjectives, those ending in -i or -e (and -y, -) and those
ending in -a -o -u. A third group (-y and -) exists in certain dialects.
copula
adjective
-a
back

-a-

-o-

-ua-

-u-au-

-e-

-i-ai-

-o

--

-ui-

-u
-e

--ia- / -a-

front

-io- / -o-

-iu- / -u-

-i
rounded

-y/-

--u-*

--

*Most dialects also allow -a.

Because so few adjectives end in -y or -, they usually behave as -i when coalesced.
!
The result of this coalescence pattern is that adjectives in -a -o -u do not
distinguish between inferential present (apparently is) and assertive past (was),
between inferential past (apparently was) and assertive transitive present (becomes):

480

atanauta!

it was apparently big or it becomes big

atanaita!!

it was big or it is apparently big

Te distin792ction is kept with adjectives in -e or -i.

!
!

!
!

iiota%
iita!

!
!

!
!

it was apparently old

it becomes old

!
!
ita!
!
!
it was old
!
!
iieta! !
!
it is apparently old
Below are the adjectives atana big and ii old and their coalescence with the
dependent copula.

481

9.16.2.4 Use
More examples of the dependent copula:
!
atanua tahha
[tnua th:a]

tyhhu lmua
[tyh:: :lmua]

atana-a tahha-
large-COP.ASS tree-AGT

tyhhy-a lma-a
green-COP.ASS leaf.AGT-Pl

the tree is big

the leaves are green

sia atana tahha

[sia tna th:a]

sia tyhhy lmua

[sia tyhy :lmua]

si-a atana tahha-

NEG.COP.ASS large tree-AGT

si-a tyhhy lma-a

NEG.COP.ASS green leaf.AGT-Pl

the tree is not big

the leaves are not green

aypua ta ikos-t
[bua ta iks]

irelai bauvvo
[irelai buw:]

aypo-a ta ikos-t
unusable-COP.ASS this.INA.AGT axe-AGTDET.PROXI

irela-i bauvvo-
beautiful-COP.PAST.ASS sky-AGT

the sky was beautiful

this axe is no good

herias kobyly
[heras kbyly]

hm mtabe
[hi:mi: mi:dbe]

here-as kob=yly-
cold-COP.HAB.ASS summer=night-AGT

hmi-i mtabe-
warm-COP.PAST.ASS yesterday-AGT

summer nights are cold

yesterday was warm

aihhi mtabuoo
[ih:ie: mi:dabu:]

kul yly
[kulu: yly]

aihhie-i mtabu=oo-
starry-COP.PAST yesterday=night.sky-AGT

kulu-u yly-
cloudy-COP.TRANSLO.ASS night-AGT

yesterdays sky was starry

the night is getting cloudy

tammi gekehi ebi eskile ta sbi-t

[tm:i dzecehi ebi scile ta su:b]
ta-mmi geke-hi ebi eski-le ta sbi-t
many-GEN year-GEN for empty-COP.PRES.PERF.INFER this.INA.AGT winter.camp-AGT-DET.PROXI

this winter camp has apparently been empty for many years
soprai hide nenika
[spxai hide neniga]

sari mahhakimi
[sri mh:imi]

sopra-i hide- nen-ika

golden-COP.PAST.ASS hair-AGT 3P.ANI.PRON-ELAT

sar-i mahh-a-ki-mi-
good-COP.PAST.ASS hunt-TR-TRANSLOINFI.AG.TR-AGT

Xs hair was golden

the (going) hunting was good

ehhabmisus osi kotet dobmibma tapakka
[eh:apmiss si kt dpmpma tpaka]
ehhabmis-us osi kotet- dob=m-ibma tapak-ka
detailed-COP.HAB.TRANSL.ASS 2P.SG.PRON-LOC carving-AGT handle-ALLAT knife-GEN

your carvings onto the handle of the blade are becoming detailed

482

9.16.2.5 Miscellaneous
The dependent copula can be found with certain other words than adjectives, namely
pronouns and quantifiers, or even as a hyphened clitic (-a or -e/-, sometimes -a
and -e/-) to reinforce the evidentiality of the verb, sometimes triggering a relative
clause.
!
When added directly to pronouns, the copula creates a strong declarative
sentence focusing the pronoun as the topic of the phrase. This triggers a relative
clause.
!
!
!
!

megi ! !
!
dami kistamo% '
megia oa kistamo'
gogitua sai oana'

I
I am a student
I am the student
its to me youre talking

With quantifiers, the dependent copula serves as the verb to be, as opposed to the
dependent copula which usually makes there-existential phrases:
!
!

ga taa omi'
taai omi'

'
'

'
'

there was a lot of snow

(lit.) the snow was much

%
%

ga euma siva% '

eumai siva'
'

'
'

there was a little bit of rain

(lit.) the rain was little

!
9.17 Participles
Participles are the forms of a verb which can behave as nouns or adjectives while still
keeping elements of verbal morphology. There are two forms of participles, called
active participles and patientive participles. All participles show tense and aspect,
case and number. Unlike adjectives, participles cannot be found with the dependent
copula instead, they use the independent copula:
!
sogonata'
X is dry (sogon dry is an adjective and takes the dep.
!
!
!
cop.)
but%
data tillu'
X is dried (tillu is the pat. part. of tila X will dry Y)
!
!
Active participles show some transitivity and thus have pre- and postverbal vowels.,
although virtually all attributive active participles only have the intransitive postverbal
vowel. Patientive participles do not have any pre- or postverbal vowels. Active
participles always have their postverbal vowel come before the aspect marker:
!
!
!
!

mani! !
!
manimo!
!
kengi manotima!
kengi derodlima%'

X comes
coming
coming day
passed day (i.e. a day which has already passed)
483

or!

kengi dehrotima''

past day (i.e. a day which passed [long ago])

!
!
!
%

okasi! !
!
okasimo!
!
tottamo okasven!
iodi kasama! !

X hurries
hurrying
a merchant in a hurry
time saving (lit. task-hurrying)

but!

kahu' '

worked in a hurry, botched (no postverbal vowel)

'

While active participles may be both agentive or unagentive, patientive participles

are only found in one form. Participles may also show both the conclusive and
inconclusive aspect (marked by an consonant-final -m-, identical to the adjective and
impersonal inconclusive marker).
!
Although participles may both be found as nouns and adjectives, they
behave like neither. When they function as nouns, they differ from true nouns in that
they may have a fixed plural ending and their declension differs from that of true
nouns.
!
When they function as adjectives, participles may form long and complex
participial phrases which precede the adjective-like word. Unlike true adjectives,
participles are always marked for number and are only found with the
complementizer as a relative clause if the participle is attributive. The
complementizer is very commonly found in its short form (see, and active participles
also exhibit a short form found in combination with the short complementizer (see
9.15.1).
!
Patientive participles may take personal pronouns participles allow
participants. If a noun is used instead of a pronoun, it is found in the genitive in the
participial phrase (i.e. between the noun and the adjective).
!
Below is a table illustrating the active and patientive participles.

484

active
patientive

agentive
singular

agentive

unagentive

-o

-a
pohhima
[ph:jima]

kimo
[k:im]
k-i-m-o
talk-ASS.ITR-INCONCLACT.PART.AG.AGT

pohh-i-m-a
sleep-ASS.ITRINCONCLACT.PART.AG.AGT

(X which is)
talking or speaker

agentive
plural

(X which is)
sleeping or
sleeper

si<nd>-u
catch.PAST-PAT.PART.AGT

(X which was) caught

or a catch

-uki

time
[t:ime]

ahruki
[jahrui]

t-i-m-e
stand-ASS.ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.AG.AGT.PL

<ahr>-u-ki
kill.PAST-PAT.PART.AGT.PL

(X who will be) standing or the winners/

victors

(X which have been)

killed or the kills

-atta

kimotta
[k:imta]
k-i-m-o-tta
talk-ASS.ITR-INCONCLACT.PART.AG.PAT

(X which is)
talking or speaker

patientive/
genitive
plural

sindu
[sndu]

-e/-i

-otta

patientive/
genitive
singular

-u

pohhimatta
[ph:jimata]
pohh-i-m-a-tta
sleep-ASS.ITRINCONCLACT.PART.UNAG.PAT

(X which is)
sleeping or
sleeper

-utta

sindutta
[sndta]
si<nd>-u-tta
catch.PAST-PAT.PART-PAT

(X which was) caught

or a catch

-itta or -ottai and -attai

-ukitta or -uttai

timitta
[t:imta]

ahrukitta or ahruttai
[jahruta] or
[jahrtai]

t-i-m-itta
stand-ASS.ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.AG.PAT.PL

(X who will be) standing or the winners/

victors

485

<ahr>-u-(ki)-tta-(i)
kill.PAST-PAT.PART.(PL).PAT.
(PL)

(X which have been)

killed or the kills

The plural forms -ottai and -attai exist but are restricted in use, especially in the east
and in older language. The form -uttai is common in all dialects, as is the form -ukitta.
The active plural form -e and -i are used fairly freely, but in correct language, -i tends
to be used for inanimate nouns while -e is used for animate nouns. In the locative
cases, the final -a in -otta/-atta/-itta is not lost, e.g. sinduttaita (in)to a catch.
!
9.17.1 Active Participles
Active participles are extremely common and serve a variety of purposes. They are
derived from verbs, impersonal verbs and verbal adjectives. Compare the form of the
three classes:
!
!
!
!
!

verb! !
!
impersonal verb!!
verbal adjective!!
active participle!!
attr. active participle!

tahoka''
X will blind Y
hokami'
'
it is blinding
hokamika'
'
I am blinded
hokama'
'
blinding (light)
hue hokatotima' a blinding light

The active participle, here hokama may function as a noun. For example, one might
say:
!
%
%

teklas notommima omudnamo hokama

[kl:as nm:ima mtnmo hcma]

tekl-a-s noton-m=ima omudna-mo hoka-m-a-

there.is.a.lot-ASS.CONCL.TR-HAB valley-ADESS snowy-GEN to.blind-INCONCL-ACT.PART.UNAG-AGT

in snowy valleys, there is quite a lot of reflected sunlight (blinding)

However, if the participle becomes attributive to a noun, the phrase changes:

%
%
%

teklas notommima omudnamo hue hokatotima

[kl:as nm:ima mtnmo hu:e hcdima]

!
!

tekl-a-s noton-m=ima omudna-mo hue- hoka-tot-i-m-a

there.is.a.lot-ASS.CONCL.TR-HAB valley-ADESS snowy-GEN light-ACT to.blind-COMPLE-!
ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.UNAG

in snowy valleys, there is quite a lot of blinding light

Active participles may be marked for time, mood, aspect and any other markings
found in regular verbs. They are also nearly always in the inconclusive. Past
participles are most commonly in the perfective (-odlimo, -odlima, -odlime), although
past participles also exist they generally refer to a more distant past.
!
!
!

somi vuihlotimo '

somi vuihlotumo'
somi vuihlodlimo'

the whistling man

the man who whistled (i.e. long ago, no longer)
the man who whistled (general, more common)

486

otarvodlimo% %

specialized

Very many active participles may function as nouns entirely - for example, the
participle sahma means literally (that which is) burning but it may very well be used
as a noun to mean a burn. Furthermore, it may also show personal suffixes - a
patientive pronoun is attached to a patientive participle. This also applies to
patientive participles.
!
cf.!
!
%

sahmaka !
sahmika'
sindu % !
sindumi !

my burn or (that which is) burning me

I am burning, I feel very hot
a catch
my catch

A few nouns behave like participles (marked form in -tta) but may lack other verbal
markings (such as postverbal vowels) and are called nominal participles. They are
include:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

adlmi''
keukonhimo'
nikima' '
lnuma !
!
!
miasma !
monokonama !
yryma ! !
!
!
tahama !
seuma !!
sitrima ! !
ma ! !
tma ! !
!
!
mosoma !

'
'
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

rainbow
a (walking) group
death
the Milky Way (originally probably that is seen at
night)
peace (cognate to bes- to be at peace/war)
will-o-the-wisp or foxfires (ghost-swamp-ing)
period when migrating birds leave or arrive (from
norga duck)
world
soil, land
fish head
a lot of
rough, porous, harsh (from a defunct verb *t-, cf.
v whetstone)
wolf, beast

Many impersonal verbs have corresponding active participles for noun forms. An
alternative form is in -en.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

skai' '
'
skama, sken' '

it happens often
event

trmi' '
trma, tren'

it is sunny
sunny weather or sunlight

'
'

huhmi' '
'
huhma, huhhen''

it is bright
brightness, light
487

!
%

komi% %
koma, koben'

%
'

it is summer
summer time

!
!

emi% %
ien' '

%
'

time passes
time

!
!

kilppi' '
'
kilppima, kilppen'

it is common
norm, expectation, habit

Generally, attributive active participles are typically found in the intransitive, even
though the verb from which it is derived is transitive. Such attributive active
participles are commonly found with an extra short form, especially in the eastern
dialects. The short form is a combination of a reduced complementizer (usually to -or -v-) and a simplified participial ending:
!
!

agentive and unagentive singular:!

agentive and unagentive plural:!!

-en
-in

The form hokama cannot be found as *hokaen, but the form hokatotima is also
found as hokaen. See 9.14.1 on the short forms.
!
Participlial phrase
Active participles may be preceded by a complete verb phrase this phrase is
ordered differently than regular verb phrases in that the verb comes at the very end
of the phrase, i.e. the participle should always be the last element of the phrase. This
type of construction, called participial phrase, can become quite long, and longer
phrases should preferably be found in relative phrase.
%
%
%

nuhhi kidlimatta eilli ketso kautsodlimo

[uh:i citimata jeil:i ctsx katsxtim]

!
!

nuhhi- kidl-i-m-a-tta ei<lli> ketso kauts-ot-l-i-m-o

old.woman-AGT is.tradition-ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.UNAG-GEN old-GEN according.to !make.jamCOMPLE-PERF-ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.AG!

the old woman who has made jam according to an old tradition

%
'
%

nuhhi tammi gekehi ebi kautsodlimo

[uh:i tm:i dzecehiebi katsxtim]

nuhhi- ta=mmi geke-hi ebi kauts-ot-l-i-m-o

old.woman-AGT many.GEN year-GEN for.many make.jam-COMPLE-PERF-ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.AG

the old woman who has made jam for many years

488

%
!

nuhhi orirra kidlimatta eilli ketso tammi gekehi ebi kautsodlimo

[uh:i rir:a citimata jeil:i ctsx tm:i dzecehiebi katsxtim]

!
!
!

nuhhi- kidl-i-m-a-tta ei<lli> orirra ketso ta=mmi geke-hi ebi kauts-ot-l-i-m-o

old.woman-AGT always is.tradition-ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.UNAG-GEN old-GEN according.to
many.GEN year-GEN for.many make.jam-COMPLE-PERF-ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.AG!

'
!
or
!
'
%

the old woman who has always made jam according to an old tradition for
many years
nuhhi, orirra kautsi kidlimatta eilli ketso tammi gekehi ebi onora
[uh:i rir:a katsxi citimata jeil:i ctsx tm:i dzecehiebi nra]

!
!

nuhhi- kauts-i kidl-i-m-a-tta ei<lli> ketso ta=mmi geke-hi ebi on-or-a

old.woman-AGT always make.jam-ITR is.tradition-ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.UNAG-GEN old-GEN
according.to many.GEN year-GEN for.many REL-COP.PERF-ASS

'
!

the old woman who has always made jam according to an old tradition for
many years

cf.
%
'
%

orirra kautsodlimo kidlimatta eilli ketso tammi gekehi ebi nuhhi

[rir:a katsxtim citimata jeil:i ctsx tm:i dzecehiebi]

!
!

orirra kauts-ot-l-i-m-o kidl-i-m-a-tta ei<lli> ketso ta=mmi geke-hi ebi nuhhi-

always make.jam--COMPLE-PERF-ITR-INCONCL-ACT.PART.AG is.tradition-ITR-INCONCL-! ACT.PART.UNAGGEN old-GEN according.to many.GEN year-GEN for.many old.woman-AGT

'
!

the old woman has made jam always according to an old tradition for many
years

9.17.2 Patientive Participles

Patientive participles correspond to passive participles. They end in -u and are
typically found attached on the past form of the verb. Non-past patientive participles
entail a notion that the participles are to be completed in the future:
!
%

kili savvu '

kili sahhu'

burnt wood (past stem savv-)

wood to be burnt (non-past stem sahh-)

Unlike active participles, patientive participles may stand as attributive adjectives to

nouns without the complementizer. However, negated participles do take the
complementizer, then with the form -ontu/-nontu or -tu/-ntu:
!
!
kili savvontu' unburnt wood
%
kili sahhontu' wood which is not to be burnt
%
tsavontu'
a taboo (that which is not to be said)

489

sem ulolis montu gattia-go milkid

[sm ulls mntu gatiag mlc:i]
sem u-lol-i-s m-ont-u gattiago mil<k>i-d
NEG PASS-leave-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB eat.PAST-COMPLE-PAT.PART in.presence-1P.POSS.SG
fish.scale-PAT

fish scales are not left uneaten when Im around

iriului shdika pelekktiu
[iriului si:higa peljkiu]
i-r-iul-u-i - sir-di=ka pelekk-ont-i-u
DIT-bite-IUL-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR fish-ELAT cook-COMPLE-PAST-PAT.PART

X took a bit out of the uncooked fish

lolla tamaleurrontuki eksi ipruo
[ll:a tmleur:ntui ks:i pxuo]
lo<ll>l-a- tama-leurr-ont-u-ki eksi ipro--o
leave.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG onto-touch.PAST-COMPLE.NEG-PAT.PART-PL 3P.PRON.PL.DAT
carcass-DAT-PL

X left the carcasses untouched

Patientive participles allow for pronoun markings. Usually, these will correspond to
the agents of the passive form of the phrase. If the agent is a noun, it will be found in
the genitive before the participle:
!
!
%
!

usahrami kidli% %
the wood was burnt by me
kili savvumi%
'
wood burnt by me or my burnt wood
kidli savvuttami'
wood (GEN) burnt by me or my burnt wood (GEN)
kili skko savvu'wood burnt by the man or the mans burnt wood

Other such fixed expressions exist in Siwa:

!
maistu% '
my mistake, my fault, sorry (cf. maihi I will make a
!
!
!
mistake)
!
ednesku%
please (cf. neskami I will ask Y)
!
nstettumi'
or so Ive heard (cf. nstettami I heard Y)
!
Patientive participles are sometimes found as nouns, though they are not as common
as their active counterparts:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tibu' '
kesku' '
miedu' '
missu' '
muontu''
nokkiu' '
oduki' '
sindu' '

meaning, sense (cf. tiba X will mean Y)

advice
herd, group, collection (cf. miega X will herd Y)
tobacco (cf. misu X will smove Y)
decision (cf. muonta X will decide Y)
name (cf. nokka X will call Y)
memory (plural, cf. oga X will remember Y)
catch (cf. sibma X will catch Y)
490

!
!

sotsu' '
tsimmilsuki'

'
'

permission (cf. usoti X will be allowed)

beliefs, conviction, hope

Compare more examples of passive participles:

!
!

tadna nora ' '

nora tandu' '

X will find the duck

a/the found duck

%
!

atuukkasa lokna'
longamo atuukkiu'

the cold will make you sick

sickened by the cold (also lokne-atuukkiu)

9.17.3 Temporal Participles

Participles, both active and patientive, may be found in a so-called temporal phrase,
equivalent to English temporal relative clauses, or (after) having -ed and (while) ing. The temporal phrase contains an agentive participle in the perfective (-lo, -la, li, -le), or in patientive participle (-u) both in the inconclusive.

!
%
%
!
!
!

!
%
%
!
!
!

%
%
%
!
!

!
%
%
!
!

la sololatta, nuskasivvo selue

[y:la sxllata nsksxiw: selue]
-la sol-o-l-a-tta, nuskasivv-o selo-e
ice-PAT melt-INFER.CONCL.ITR-PERF-ACT.PART.UNAG-PAT become.impassable-INFER.CONCL.TRANSL
large.river-PAT

when the ice will have thawed, the river will become impassable
to tymotuvilo, amappen ki
[t tymtuvil amxapn u:ci]
to tym-o-tuv-i-l-o to <am>-a-ppen- <ki>
3P.PRON.AGT.SG down-SUBJ-bend-ASS.CONCL.ITR-PERF-ACT.PART.AG drink.PASTASS.CONCL.ITR-FREQU-3P.AG.SG water-GEN

having bent down, he drank a little water

benho balo, maskimi kadda
[bnh bal mscimi kt:a]
benho- <b>-al-o ma<sk>-i-mi ka=dda
dog-AGT eat.PAST-PERF-ACT.PART.AG go.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR out-ILLAT

When the dog had eaten (the dogs having eaten), I went outside
benhue bali, maskimi kadda
[bnhue bali mscimi kt:a]
benho--e <ba>-al-i ma<sk>-i-mi ka=dda
dog-AGT-PL eat.PAST-PERF-ACT.PART.AG.PL go.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR out-ILLAT

When the dogs had eaten (the dogs having eaten), I went outside

491

!
%

tsoglita keidu te sasame keu, de na gati taba kitami

[tsxklida ceiu de ssme cewu de na gti tba citmi]

%
%
!

tso<gl>i-ta keid-u- te sasame- ke-u- de na g-a-ti ta=ba kita-a-mi-

tskli-ILLAT start.fire-PAT.PART-ACT and tipi-DAT rise-PAT.PART-ACT still.now ASS.PART COPASS-3P.RECi much.GEN do-TR-INFI.AG.TR-ACT

!
!

having yet to light a tsokli-fire and raise the tipi, there was still much to
do for them

'
%

kili sahhu, hidduahtappao

[cili sh:u hiujahtapj]

%
%

kili- sahh-u- hiddu-aht-a-ppa--o

wood-AGT burn-PAT.PART-AGT stack.up-AHT-ASS.CONCL.TR-FREQU-3P.PAT-4P.AGT

the wood having yet to be burned, one will stack it up in a bundle

9.18 Infinitives
Siwa has two types of infinitives copular infinitives and nominal infinitives. Copula
infinitives are made up of the main verb with all markings except for pronouns and
tense, followed by the infinitive clause (found in in the examples below.), which
itself ends with the copula and the appropriate markings (pronouns):

'
%

etsta nori sengyla eilli gaita tanutsigi1

[tst:a nri se:yla jeil:i gida tnutsiji]

%
!

ets-t-a nor-i sengy-la ei-l-ri g-a-ita tanut-si-gi

start.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR sing-ITR song-GEN old-GEN COP.PAST-ASS-ILLAT singer-AGT-PL

!
!

the singers started to sing an old song

Nominal infinitives are a special class of nouns (verbal nouns) whose objects
(provided they are nouns) are found in the genitive before the verbal noun and
require no copula:
aksa muontu mrana stodi tatamantami
[ak:sa mntu mrna i:sti ttmantmi]
ak=s-a muontu- mrana- sto-di tata-mant-a-mi
COP.PASS=NEG-ASS decision-AGT difficult-AGT gift-GEN into-receive-TR-INFI.AG.TR

it was not a difficult decision to accept the gift

1 The copula may follow the subject phrase: etsta tanutsigi nori sengyla eilli gaita

492

aksa muontu mrana tatamantami

[ak:sa mntu mrna ttmantmi]
ak=s-a muontu- mrana- tata-mant-a--mi
COP.PASS=NEG-ASS decision-AGT difficult-AGT gift-GEN into-receive-TR-3P.PAT-INFI.AG.TR

it was not a difficult decision to accept it

Only the infinitive clause of the finite verb is found in the copular form, with all
subsequent infinitives being found in the nominal form. Copular infinitives are not in
fact true infinitives, as the copula can be found in various tenses, moods, aspects,
etc thus, they can be considered close to a gerund or a participle. Below are the
various functions each infinitive form respectively covers:
An infinitive whose function is that of an adjectival adverbial (kekken gosmika
makisteta I am too tired to go) is found in the nominal form with appropriate
agreement with the verb, noun or adjective (illative or elative). The illative is used
with actions which have yet to happen (gimmika makisteta I am excited to go, i.e.
I am excited that I will go) while the elative is used with actions which have been
completed (gosmika noristeka I am tired of singing, i.e. I am tired of having
sung) or which have never occurred (sikkiami makisteka I refused to go).
When the infinitive functions as the subject of mostly copular verbs (ga aim
maksa it was a mistake to go) or the attribute of an adjective (mranua maksa it
is hard to go) or noun (the desire to go), as an interrogative (set netami nt-a
kitami I dont know what to do) or in a infinitive relative clause (atsa gogia t
kitami/kitabme I dont have anything to do), it is found as the nominal infinitive in
the unmarked form. When in an infinite relative clause, the nominal infinitive may be
found in its marked form, then understood to be in the genitive-partitive. It is also
found as the subject of impersonal verbs, always unmarked (voammika maksa
Im afraid to go). More complexe relative or interrogative infinitive clauses use the
copular infinitive.
When an infinitive functions as the object of a verb, it is usually found in the nominal
form in the illative or elative (kyhami manisteta I tried to go) or in the copular form
if the infinitive clause is more complex, for example if the infinitive itself has an
object (kyhami saisa kohko geita I tried to warn the boy). However, the nominal
form can be used if the object of the infinitive clause is a verbal pronoun (kyhami
saisami I tried to warn Y).
The copular form is used when the infinitive is governed by the indirect or double
object of a verb, often in the short form (nonasimi maki oakibma e I told you to go
home or gieliaka hantui geika he accused me of lying). This is very often the
case with verbs whose subject is not the same as that of the infinitive clause
(ikeskkami benhueita tadnaki norgua de I taught the dog to fetch the ducks).
The copular form is also used with various adverbs such as avvi or mi (ei avvi
493

na mansimi I came running) and with link constructions (see 9.16.1.3.5). Finally,
the copular form is also required with many auxiliary verbs.

form

function

ga aim maksa
[ga imu: maks:a]
g-a aim- maki-sa
mistake-AGT go-INFI.AG.ITR

COP.PAST-ASS

it was a mistake to go

subject
(of impersonal
verbs)

voammika maksa
[vm:iga maks:a]
voavv-m-i-ka maki-sa
be.afraid-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-1P.PAT.SG go-INFI.AG.ITR

Im afraid to go
muontu maksa
[mntu maks:a]
nominal attribute

muontu- maki-sa
decision-AGT go-INFI.AG.ITR

the decision to go
nominal

mranua maksa
[mrnua maks:a]

adjectival
attribute

mrana-a maki-sa
difficult-COP.ASS go-INFI.AG.ITR

it is difficult to go
set netami, nt-a kitami
[stnetmi ni::a citmi]
interrogative

NEG

set net-a-mi n=ta kita-a-mi

know-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG what.INA.UNKNOWN-GEN doTR-INFI.AG.TR

I dont know what to do

relative
(sometimes
marked)

atsa gogia hni kitami/kitabme

[tsa gia i:hni citmi / citapme]
at=s-a gogi-a h-ni kita-a-mi / kita-a-t=me
no.INA.UNKNOWN-AGT do-ASSINFI.AG.TR / do-ASS-INFI.AG.TR-GEN

COP=NEG-ASS 1P.PRON.SG-INESS

I dont have anything to do

494

form

function

kekken gosmika makitseta

[kkn smiga mcitseda]
kekk=en gos-m-i-ka maki-t=se=ita
too-ADV tired-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-1P.PAT go-INFI.AG.ITR-ILLAT

I am too tired to go
adjectival
adverbial

gosinami noritseka
[sinmi nrtsega]

nominal + ILLAT/

gosin-a-mi nor-i-t=se=ika
tired-COP.ASS-1P.ACT.AG.SG sing-ITR-INFI.AG.ITR-ELAT

ELAT

I am tired of singing
kyhami makitseta
[cymi mcitseda]
object of verb

ky<h>-a-mi maki-t=se=ita
try.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG go-INFI.AG.ITR-ILLAT

I tried to go
nonasimi mani e
[nnsimi mni e]
indirect object

n=on-a-si-mi man-i e
PAST-tell-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.RECI-1P.AG.SG

go-ITR COP-INFER-

I told you to come

gieliaka hantui geika
[ieliga hantui eiga]
giel-i-a-ka- hanto-i g-e-ika
accuse-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG-3P.AG.SG lie-ITR
COP.PAST-INFER-ELAT

X accused me of lying
double object

ikeskkami benhueita tadnaki norua e

[icsk:mi bnhueida atni rxuae]
i-ke<skk>-a-mi benho-e=ita tadn-a-ki norga--a -e
dog-ILLAT find-ASSTRANSLO duck-DAT-PL COP-INFER

DIT-teach.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG

I taught the dog to fetch the ducks

copular

495

form

function

ei avvi na mansi
[je:iw:i na mansi]
copular

adverbial

e-i mi g-a ma<ns>-i-

run-ITR ADV.PART COP.PAST-ASS come.PASTASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X came running
manike kimi ge ekki
[mnie kimi e jci]
link construction

man-i-ke kimi g-e e<kk>-i-

come-ITR-LINK.GOAL for COP.PAST-ASS run.PASTASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG

X ran in order to come

tahatru mani oakibma e
[thatxu mni cpma e]
auxiliary verbs

ta-hatr-u man-i oak=ibma -e

3P.UNAG-ought-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL come-ITR home-ALLAT COPINFER

X ought to come home

object of verb
(with complex
infinitive clause)

kyhami saisa kohko deita/e

[cymi sisa khk deida/e]
ky<h>-a-mi sais-a kori-ko d-e-ita/-e
try.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG warn-TR boy-GEN COP-INFERILLAT/COP-INFER

I tried to warn the boy

While the nominal infinitive can only show relative tense through the use of the illative
(imperfect) and elative (perfect), the copular infinitive can use its full conjugation to
function as a gerund of a participle. Thus, the copular infinitive is used in Siwa where
English uses complex infinitive or participial phrases beyond the scope of the
functions introduced above. Complex infinitive or participial phrases are those which
include arguments (own subject and/or object), e.g.

496

ahtami aim tatamanta sto kohko aksaika

[ahtmi imu: ttmanta i:st khk ak:siga]
<aht>-a-mi aim- tata-mant-a sto- kori-ko ak=s-a-ika
do.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG mistake-DAT into-receive-TR gift-DAT boy-GEN
COP.PASS=NEG-ASS-ELAT

I made the mistake of not accepting the boys gift

kyhami saisa kohko manitseka ge
[cymi sisa khk mnitsega e]
ky<h>-a-mi sais-a kori-ko s mani-t=se=ika g-e
try.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG warn-TR boy-GEN go-INFI.AG.ITR-ELAT COP.PAST-INFER

I tried to warn the boy not to go

Inside an infinitive clause however, there cannot be more than one copula. Infinitives
within an infinitive clause, as in the example above, are always in the nominal form.
Such nominal infinitives are negatived with s/sem/set, which is generally found
before the verbal nouns genitive objects. Infinitive Clause may contain any number of
infinitives. Nominal infinitives can also contain pronoun markers, though sometimes
independent genitive pronouns may be used, but the distinction between agent and
patient becomes blurred can also be used:
%
!
or

kyhami saisa kohko makitseka ketoabmeta ge

I tried to warn the boy not to go to look them

%
!

kyhami saisa kohko manitseka kon ketobmeta ge

I tried to warn the boy not to go to look them

Note that a number of auxiliary verbs may appear with the copular infinitive if the
construction is generally impersonal or benefactive, especially with the construction
usotiki hanta I am allowed to eat.

9.18.1 Nominal Infinitive

The nominal infinitive (also called verbal noun) is composed of the verb and the
infinitival ending. It is a noun and can have participants (no agent/patient distinction)
which are found before the verbal noun. The nominal infinitive may or may not have a
postverbal vowel. It is commonly dropped if a cluster can be formed (see 3.4.7). It
may reappear in the marked form to avoid impossible clusters. Nominal infinitives
can house personal pronouns and all other constituents of the normal verb, except
for tense. The nominal infinitive endings distinguish agentivity, but not in their marked
form. All unagentive infinitive endings in -u also exist in a rounded form - used after y- or --.

497

transitive

translative

intransitive

subjective

ditransitive

passive

AGT

-mi

-la
-oru
-r

-sa

-na

-nin

-monu

UNAGT

-mu
-m

-lu
-oru
-r

-su
-s

-nu
-n

-non
-nn

-monu
-mn

-bme

-dle

-tse

-dne

-nidne/ndne

-mdne

-nta

-lta
-olta
-lta

-sta

-nta

-nita / -nta

-mta

PAT/
GEN

The marked form of nominal infinitives exists in two forms, called the -Cta and the tCe forms. They are both valid and considered correct. Most eastern dialects use the
-tCe forms, while the -Cta form is commonly associated with lower or more relaxed
language registers and the far western dialects.
!
When the marked -Cta form is combined with locative endings, its -amerged with the -i- of the locative endings to -e-, e.g. maksa to go becomes
makisteta to go(ing) (from *makistaita).
!
Verbal adjectives do not generally have a nominal infinitive, while impersonal
verbs simply use their corresponding unagentive nominal infinitive endings:
!
9.18.1.2 Verb Stem and Nominal Infinitive Coalescence
The nominal infinitive ending in its unmarked form, when no participants or other
endings are found attached to the verb, coalesces in a specific way with the
consonant in which verb stems end and drop the postverbal vowel all together. The
tables below describes this. All consonants excluded require the postverbal vowel
only the unmarked form of verbs ending in the following consonants or consonant
clusters coalesce directly with the nominal infinitive endings.
Only a handful of verbs govern the nominal infinitive in its dative form most notably,
the verb sota1 X will make Y (do Z):
!
!
%

!
%

sodda kori kigami

[st:a kri cgmi]

%
!

so<dd>-a- kori- kig-a--mi

give.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.SG boy-DAT PICK.UP-TR-3P.PAT.SG-infi.AG.TR

the boy made X pick it up

The verb sota having the meaning of make X VERB has the past form sodd- as opposed to the past of
the same verb with the meaning of to give, which has the past form ist-.

498

499

-h-

--

--

-kk-gg-

tayhmi
to beat
(tayhha)

-hmi
-hmu

mebmi
to smear
(meha)

-bmi
-bmu

pihlu
to be possible
(pihhu)

-hlu

lulu
to rot
(dluu)

-lu

-mi
-mu

momi
to drink
(moa)

reklu
to open
(tarekku)

-klu

-kmi
-kmu

pelekmi
to cook
(pelekka)

translative

transitive

sahsu
to burn
(tsahhu)

-hsa
-hsu

thsa
to stand up
(ti)

gahna
to lean
(ogahhi)

-hna
-hnu

edna
to move
(oehi)

lehnon
to float (somewhere)
(tilehhi)

-hnin
-hnon

ednin
to move(somewhere)
(iehi)

-dnin
-dnon

-dna
-dnu

nyhmn
to become bent
(unyhhi)

-hmon

obmon
to be smoked
(ubohi)

-bmon

imon
to get accepted
(ubii)

enon
to
remain(somewhere)
(tei)

gana
to guess
(ogaa)

gkmon
to get sharpened
(ugkki)

-kmon

passive

-mon

-na
-nu

-hsa
-hsu

miknn
to infect (someone)
(imiggi)

-knin
-knon

ditransitive

-nin
-non

dikna
to show off
(odikki)

-kna
-knu

-ksa
-ksu
maksu
to snow
(makki)

subjective

intransitive

500

-v--vv-

-pp-bb-

-p-b-

-m-

stem ending

-llu
-rru
eullu
to reach
(teuvvu)

voammi
to scare
(voavva)

liupru
to die out
(dliupu)

-mmi
-mmu

vapmi
to praise
(vappa)

-pmi
-pmu

obmi
to help
(opa)

-pru

-bmi
-bmu

-mlu

-mmi
-mmu
iomlu
to be possible
(iomu)

-lu/-l
-oru/-r

-mi
-mu
-m

emmi
to believe
(ema)

translative

transitive

kessa
to rise
(kea)

-ssa
-ssu

epsu
to slip
(tebbi)

-psa
-psu

tsonna
to introduce onself
(otsovi)

-nna
-nnu

timna
to mean
(tiba)

-mna
-mnu

-bsa
-bsu
emmi
to believe
(ema)

tomna
to unite
(otomi)

-mna
-mnu

-msa
-msu
imsa
to roam
(imi)

-na/-nu/-n

subjective

-sa/-su/-s

intransitive

sunnon
to flow (somewhere)
(tisuvvi)

-nnin
-nnon

tsemnin
to have the patience
to
(itsepita)

-mnin
-mnon

lomnin
to run (somewhere)
(ilomi)

-mnin
-mnon

-nin/-non/-nn

ditransitive

menimmon
to be fooled
(umenii)

-mmon

vapmon
to be praised
(uvappi)

-pmon

nebmon
to get caught
(unpi)

-bmon

nemmon
to get piled up
(unemi)

-mmon

-mon
-mn

passive

501

--

-tt-dd-

-t-d-

-n-

vimi
to steal
(via)

ehsa
to run
(ei)

todlu
to turn out, to be
the answer
(tatou)

dna
to get somewhere
(obi)

-dna
-dnu

-hsa
-hsu

-dlu

-mi
-mu

-tna
-tnu

-tsa
-tsu
hetna
to scatter
(ohetti)

kikudnon
not to have patience
(for)
(tikikuti)

odna
or
otena
to pair up
(oti)

itsu
to fall
(tidi)

ednin
to run (somewhere)
(igei)

-dnin
-dnon

motnin
to end up somewhere
(timotti)

-tnin
-tnon

-dnin
-dnon

-dna
-dnu

-tsa
-tsu

konnin
to walk (somewhere)
(ikoni)

-nnin
-nnon

einna
to propel oneself
(omeini)

-nna
-nnu

-nta
-ntu

ditransitive

konta
to walk
(koni)

subjective

intransitive

motsa
to land
(motta)

modlu
to go down
(tamottu)

-dlu

-tmi
-tmu

pitmi
to pay attention
(pitta)

hdl
to fit, adapt
(tahd)

-dlu

translative

rabmi
to stop
(rada)

-bmi
-bmu

gaggamni
to examine
(gaggana)

-mni
-mnu

transitive

vimon
to get stolen
(uvii)

-mon

sautmon
to be caught with
hands
(usauddi)

-tmon

tiobmon
to be contained
(utiodi)

-bmon

naimnon
to be used
(unaini)

-mnon

passive

502

-k-g-

-ng-

-dl-

-l-ll-

goahmi
to pick
(goaka)

-hmi
-hmu

gm
to excite
(tnga)

-gmi
-gmu

bieklu
to start to leak
(tabieku)

-klu

sadlu
to burn
(tsadlu)

-dlu

-dlmi
-dlmu

ruodlmi
to fold
(ruodla)

nallu
to taste of
(tanalu)

-llu

-lmi
-lmu

lolmi
to leave
(lola)

translative

transitive

maksa
to go
(maki)

-ksa
-ksu

gmn
to be excited (by)
(ubngi)

gagnin
to find
shelter(somewhere)
(igangi)

inuhna
to prosper
(obinuki)

-hna
-hnu

mahnin
to go (somewhere)
(imaki)

oaihmon
to get hooked
(uboaigi)

-hmon

-gmon

-gnin
-gnon

-gna
-gnu

-hnin
-hnon

nidlmon
to be done a certain
way
(unidli)

kadlnon
to suffice for
(something)
(ikadli)

gedlna
to behave oneself
(ogedli)

migna
to get read
(omingi)

-dlmon

-dlnin
-dlnon

-dlna
-dlnu

slmon
to get blown away
(usli)

-lmon

passive

knnlnin
to settle (somewhere)
(iknnli)

-lnin
-lnon

ditransitive

tilna
to dry oneself
(otili)

-lna
-lnu

-lsa
-lsu
tsoalsu
to shimmer
(tatsoali)

subjective

intransitive

503

-r-

--

-ts-

-s-

demri
to wrap
(dera)

-mri
-mru

kymi
to try
(kya)

-mi
-mu

vitsmi
to fix
(vitsa)

-tsmi
-tsma

toairru
to rot
(tatoairu)

-rru

seslu
to happen
(tsesu)

-slu or

-smi
-smu

mismi
to smoke
(misa)

translative

transitive

erha
to be careful
(erii)

-rha
-rhu

saa
to speak
(sai)

-a
-u

tssa
to laugh
(tsi)

svihnu
to consist of
(osviri)

-hna
-hnu

aihnin
to row (somewhere)
(igairi)

-hnin
-hnon

miatsmon
to get soaked
(umiatsi)

ptsnin
to slouch
(somewhere)
(tibptsi)

imron
to get killed
(ubiri)

-mron

kymon
to be tried
(ukyi)

-mon

-tsmon

-tsnin
-tsnon

-tsna
-tsnu
eytsna
to nest, to hide
(tomeytsi)

saismon
to be warned
(usaisi)

rentin
to squeeze
(somewhere)
(iresi)

kanta
to hurry up
(okasi)

passive

-smon

-nta
-ntu

-ssa
-ssu

ditransitive

-ntin
-nton

subjective

intransitive

9.18.2 Copular Infinitive

Copular infinitives are in fact a copular construction identical to inconclusive copular
constructions (koni katsa nami I am walking outside). The details of the
organization of the copular and verbal stems are explained in 9.2.2. The infinitive
verb is found as a split-stem, with the normal phrase included between the split-stem
and the copula, which is only followed by the agent:
Slot 4 (Split-stem):
!
!
transitivity
!
!
!
transitive !
(-a) !
!
!
!
!
intransitive !
(-i)
!
!
!
ditransitive !
(i--i or i--a)!
!
!
!
objective!
(o--i or o--a)!
!
!
!
translative !
(-u/-)
!
!
!
passive !
(u--i or u--a)
Slot 4 (Copula):
!
!
mood
!
!
!
indicative
!
!
!
optative
!
!
!
conditional irrealis
!
!
evidentiality
!
!
!
assertive
!
!
!
inferential
In fact, copular infinitives are not true infinitives at all, because there is agreement
between the tense of the phrase governing the infinitive and the copulas tense and
evidentiality. A more accurate description of this function of the copula would be that
copular verbs act as infinitive-like phrases when the nominal infinitive cannot be
used.
!
The copular infinitive is used whenever the infinitive verb acts as the object
(either direct or indirect) of the matrix verb. In addition, it is used in link constructions
(see 9.16.1.3.5) and with very many auxiliary verbs.
!
%
%

nonasimi mani deita%

'
aiskaka mani geita'
'
kukomi taulhi omingi deita'

I told you to come

X asked me to go
to order the soldiers to get ready

An alternative to this is using the ditransitive and using the nominal infinitive, but it is
restricted to a very formal register.
%
!
%
!

inonasimi manta'
!
!
!
aiskaki manta' '
!
!
!

'
!
'
!

I told you to come (lit. I told you the

coming)
'
X asked me to go (lit. X asked me
!
the going)

504

!
!
!

kukonin tautaitagi migna'

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

'
!
!

to order the soldiers to get

ready (lit. to order to the soldiers the
getting ready)

The copular infinitive allows for a different subject of the infinitive clause that that of
the matrix verb:
!
!
!
!

tsepumana oheyti deika ki somigi'

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

you must wait until the men return

home (lit. you must have the
patience (that the men)
disembark)

9.18.2.1 Time And Evendiality

Copular infinitives agree in tense with the matrix verb a past matrix verb will have an
infinitive copula in the past. Not only is the tense of the matrix verb important, the
time-relation of the infinitive clause is also marked through evidentiality on the copula.
!
Copular infinitive clauses are very commonly found with either illative or
elative locative markers on the copula (locative infinitives). The illative is used when
the infinitive is a supervenient event to the matrix verb, i.e. has yet to happen in
relation to the verb. Because the action has yet to happen, the verb is generally
found in the inferential.
!
!
tsuoggami otoati belmueita deita
'
[tsuk:mi ti blmueida deida]
%
%

tsuogg-a-mi o-toat-i belmo-e=ita d-e-ita

hope-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG SUBJ-join-ITR work-ILLAT COP-INFER-ILLAT

I hope to join in chore

The elative is used when the infinitive is a preceding event, i.e. has already
happened /begun in relation to the matrix verb. The verbs are more commonly found
in the assertive in this case
%
'
%

radan nora atsi seng-t daika!

[rdan nra tsi se:y: diga]

rad-a-n nor-a at=si seng-t d-a-ika

stop-ASS.CONCL.TR-IMP.2P.SG sing-TR this.INA.DAT song-DATDET.MEDI COP-ASS-ELAT

stop singing that (whole) song!

However, if the infinitive clause is considered to be more closely linked to the main
verb, either because the two actions are simultaneous or because they are to be
considered as semantically one event, the copula may be left without locative
markers. It is often found in its simple form, especially in the present, then simply a or
e (i.e. -a). This is commonly done with the coordinating particles mi and avvi.

505

!
!

udyni mi a tsti '

!
!
!

'
!

X stood up, looking around or X stood up

and looked around

It is also used to link two infinitive clauses together, and the infinitive clause
containing the copula can be following by a nominal infinitive.
!
!
%
!

boadni e kyha% '

hkka e oskisu' '
goaka e obmi% '
hgiki a taydia%'

'
'
'
'

X tried to jump
to salt to preserve
to pick (someone) to help
X stopped and looked up

9.18.2.2 Bare Infinitives

A small number of verbs in Siwa allow for the infinitive clause to be found without any
additional marking. They typically say something about the likelihood/conditions/
strength of the matrix verbs agent. Note that many speakers use locative markers, or
even complementization instead. However, these verbs are more commonly found
with a bare infinitive clause.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

entu' '
hatru' '
heskva''
ahhu' '
esta' '
iomu, eomu'
!
!
koaibma'
lagu' '
laugi' '
lnn' '
pesa' '
pihhu' '
sapru' '
shka' '
sahta''
ahhu' '
!
!
eima' '
nka' '
!
!
taku' '
t'
'
vaika' '

not to be likely to
to ought to
to have the bad luck of
to be able to (because of enough endurance/will/strength)
to succeed to
to be possible to (because of sufficient time/good
conditions)
to be bored by
to happen to
to hesitate to
to be warm enough to
to have the courage to
may be possible to
may very well be
to have enough courage/to dare to
to be probably (be able to)
not to be able to (because of enough endurance/will/
strength)
to prevent from
can, to know how to (because of enough knowledge
power)
to be worth to
not to be able to do something because it is too cold
to be ashamed of

506

'
%
!
!
%
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
!
%
!
%
%
%
%

kenka set ento sihsu' '

sahatru seimi% '
'
heskviami nenita knin% '
so sahahhu-a kigami?%'
estiami kigami%'
'
s-iomu-a sugahami?% '
koaibmaka oakima nenta'
edladu nuimi% %
'
lautsimi manta% '
'
kadda lnn siegehhen konta'
set pehami aiskami%
'
empihhu suhmi% '
'
tsapru oa niksu% %
%
so shkana-a maksa% '
sahtami opsa% '
'
entahhu kigami%
'
s eibmasagge manta% '
nka oi kitami ataka%'
sataku-a aiskami%
'
mt ahhoru% '
'
vaikasen onakinin'
'

its not likely to rain tomorrow

you should listen to X
I made the mistake of speaking to X
can you lift X?
I was able to lift it
is it possible to visit you?
sitting at home bores me
I happened to see X
I hesitated to come
it is warm enough outside to walk barefoot
I didnt dare to ask
it is possible that I may visit X
it may very well be that X died
do you dare to go?
I can probably help
I am unable to lift X
we did not prevent you from going
my father knows how to make everything
it is worth that you ask X
I cant do it (because it is too cold)
dont be ashamed to tell me

9.18.2.3 Locative Infinitives

Many verbs require locative infinitives. These are usually transitive or translative
verbs. Some of the transitive verbs may be found with a nominal object instead of an
infinitive clause, in which case they lose their transitivity and become ditransitive,
using the same locative case for its object (marked here with *).
With the illative:
!
!
!
!
%
%
!
%
!
!
!
!

*alla -ita'
etsa -ita'
*euvva -ita'
*henna -ita'
ehru -ita'
kadlu -ita'
kya -ita'
ohku -ita'
taku -ita'
tiebba -ita'
*toa -ita'
*voalla -ita'

to have time to/for

to start to
to reach/be able to/to suffice/to be (long/tall/big) enough
to have the responsibility/be responsible to/for
to be possible to (because of favourable conditions)
to be enough to/to suffice to
to try (to)
to be possible to (because of space/place/position)
to be worth -ing
to have to (because it is the best thing to do)
to be able/to know how (to) (because of enough skills)
to have left (to)/to still have left to

507

With the elative:

!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
%

homa -ika'
ahhu -ika'
!
!
*kaha -ika'
kiguta -ika'
saibba -ika'
*iba -ika'
*siiba -ika'
!
!
*tsepa -ika'
t -ika'

to ought to
to be able (to) (because of enough will/endurance)/to dare
(to)
to need (to)
not to have enough patience to (impersonal verb!)
must not/may not/shall not
to have enough energy to/for/to be able to stand (to)
not to have enough energy to/for/not to be able to stand
(to)
to have enough patience to/for
to be too cold to/for

Compare the phrases below, showing the transitive form of the verb with an infinitive
clause, and the ditransitive form of the verb with a nominal object:
Transitive + infinitive clause

Ditransitive + nominal
object

set mallia na deitata

[sml:ia ju:na deidda]

set mallo ningita% '

[smjl: ni:ida]

set m-all-i-a n-a d-e-ita-ta

NEG 1P.UNAG.SG-have.time-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR
finish-TR COP-INFER-ILLAT-3P.PAT.SG

set m-i-all-o ning-ita

NEG 1P.UNAG.SG-DIT-have.time-INFER.CONCL.ITR
3p.pl-ILLAT

I didnt have time to finish it

I wont have time for them

euvva suma emet deita gmme

[euw:a s:ma mx deida e:m:e]

euvvi emetstita gmme

[jeuw:i mxtst:ida e:m:e]

euvv-a sum-a emet- d-e-i-ta ge<>-v=me

reach-ASS.CONCL.TR cover-TR thighs-DAT COPINFER-ILLAT hem-PAT

i-euvv-i emet-sti=ta ge<>-v=me

DIT-reach-ASS.CONCL.ITR thighs-ILLAT hem-PAT

the hem reaches to/over the thighs

the hem is long enough to cover the

thighs
hennami kekna sasame deita %
[hen:mi ca ssme deida]

ihennimi sasakkita%
[ihen:imi ssacida]

henn-a-mi kekn-a sasame- d-e-ita

be.responsible-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG
put.together-TR tent-DAT COP-INFER-ILLAT

i-henn-i-mi sasam-ki=ta
DIT-be.responsible-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG tent-

I am responsible for putting together

the tent

ILLAT

I am responsible for the tent

508

toa tkosa ipro deita tamosi

[t:a tksxa px deida tmsi]

itoi kongesita tamosi

[it:i c:esida tmsi]

to-a t-kos-a ipro- d-e-ita tamosi-

know.how-ASS.CONCL.TR down-cut-TR carcass-DAT
cop-infer-ILLAT hunter-AGT

i-to-i ko<ng>es-ita tamosi-

DIT-know.how-ASS.CONCL.ITR woven.basket-ILLAT
hunter-AGT

the hunter knows how to butcher a

carcass

the hunter knows how (to make) woven

baskets

voallami gia asukka deita%

[vl:mi dzia jska deida]

ivoallimi asukkita% %
[ivl:imi jscida]

voall-a-mi g=i-a asum-ka d-e-ita

have.left-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG wash-TR skin-GEN
COP-INFER-ILLAT

i-voall-i-mi asum-k=ita
DIT-have.left-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG skin-ILLAT

I still have the skin (as a task)

I still have to wash the skin

kahami tahhi deika
[kmi th:i deiga]

ikahimi sdika
[ikimi si:iga]

kah-a-mi tahh-i d-e-ika

need-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG leave-ITR COP-INFER-

i-kah-i-mi si<>i-d=ika
DIT-need-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.AG.SG honey-ELAT

ELAT

I need to go

I need honey (also kahami/bednami

sd)

kigutaka ivi deika% %

[cigudga ivi deiga]

ikigutaka yammoika
[icigudga yjm:iga]

kigut-a-ka- iv-i d-e-ika

cant.stand-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG-IMP stay-ITR
COP-INFER-ELAT

i-kikut-a-ka- y<>av-mo=ika
DIT-cant.stand-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG-IMP
summer.camp-ELAT

I cant stand to stay

I cant wait till summer camp

so ibana-a erri deika?%

[s()ibna: er:i deiga]

misiibi longamoika% %
[misiibi l:miga]

so ib-a-naa err-i d-e-ika

INTERRO. have.energy-2P.AG.SGPOS.INTERRO
work.outside-ITR COP-INFER-ELAT

m-i-si=ib-a lo<ng>a-mo=ika
1P.UNAG.SG-DIT-not.have.energy-ASS.CONCL.ITR
COLD-ELAT

can you stand to/are you good to work

outside?

I cant stand the cold

tsepumina oheyti deika somigi%

[tsepumina hi deiga smiji]

itsepumina kobika
[itsepumina kbiga]

tsep-um-i-na o-heyt-i d-e-ika somi--gi

wait-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.AG.SG SUBJ-disembarkITR COP-INFER-ELAT man-AGT-PL

i-tsep-um-i-na ko=b-ika
DIT-wait-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.AG.SG summer-ELAT

you must be patient until summer

you must wait until the men return

home (lit. you must have the patience
(that the men disembark)

509

10 Pronouns and Determiners

Siwa has various kinds of pronouns and determiners. They can be grouped as
follows:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

personal !
!
!
demonstrative! !
!
!
!
!
!
interrogative! !
!
indefinite!
!
!
!
existential known!
!
!
!
!
!
existential unknown !
!
elective!!
!
!
negative known!!
!
negative unknown!

megi I, negi you, nin one

at this, hait that, hha here, hahha
there
mmni who?, ndni what?, ngu when?

distributive!
!
universal !
!
!
!
!
other -ni determiners!
alternative clitics
!
-ne form!
!
-uli form!!

!
!
!
!

roam each, oi every

killa/kadlka all, the whole, killu/kadlku all
the time
adni such as this, haidni such as that

!
!

toamni-ne another, mni-ne any other

todni-uli a kind, dni-uli any kind

toamni a certain, some, toadni a certain,

some
ktmni someone, ktdni something
mni anyone, dni anything
smni no one, sdni nothing
set...hmi not...any, set...hni not...any

Personal pronouns are explicitly marked for all the nominal cases, in addition to two
other forms called the precedence and possessive forms. Siwa distinguishes
between known and unknown for indefinite pronouns.
!
All other pronouns may be found in many special forms unique to them,
which are somewhat regularly derived by function.
!
All pronouns except demonstrative, distributive and universal pronouns are
formed by the infixation of secondary case markers, often causing unpredictable
changes in the stem. However, the process is fairly regular and distinguishes
between inanimate and animate forms and plural:
!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!
%
!

ANIMATE!!

-mni% %
-mma% %
-mu/-hm 1%
-smi, -mi%
-tsi-!
!

!
%
%
%
%
!

INANIMATE

-dni
-bma%
-u/-t or -hr
-sti-, -i
-tsi-

1 An older form in -hka is found in certain expressions such as mhka whose (when talking about

people)
510

!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!
%
!

PLURAL

-kni% %
-hma% %
-hku/-hk%
-ski, -gi%
-ksi-! !

%
%
%
%
!

10.1 Personal Pronouns

Siwa personal pronouns are generally part of the verb if they are an argument of the
verbal phrase. However, personal pronouns also have independent forms.
Independent pronouns include proper independent pronouns, possessive pronouns
and pronouns of precedence.
!
meigi te pikima
[mii de pkima]

sosi negasari
[ssi negsri]

meigi te pik-i-ma
1P.PRON.PAT.SG and hurt-ASS.ITR-INCONCL

so=si n<eg>-a-ri
2P.PRON.DAT see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.AG.PL

I am hurt as well

they saw you

so sogi-a oata?
[s()sia ta]

so submisa-a, nta?
[s()si:pmisa: nta]

so sogia o=<>-a-ta
INTERRO 2P.PRON.GENINTERRO REL-COPASS-3P.AG.SG

so sut-m-i-sa-sa nta
INTERRO hungry-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-2P.PAT.SG
INTERRO 2P.PRON.PRECED

is it yours?

what about you?, are you hungry?

hat nisi roam

[ha nixsi rmi:]

da ningia kimpa-i
[da ni:ia cmpai]

h-a-t nidin-si roa=m

eat-TR-3P.IMPER 4P.PRON.GEN-2ND.DAT each-

d-a ning-ia kimpa-i

COP-ASS 3P.PRON.PL-INESS boots-AGT
2P.POSS.PL

AGT

may each eat his own (portion)

they have your boots

Certain speakers consistently use independent forms for all oblique cases (nonagentive). There is much variation regarding whether these speakers use only
independent personal pronouns or also use verbal personal pronouns.
!
!
!

standard:!
independent:!
double:!!

!
!
!

set taygaka! !
set tayga meigi!
set taygaka meigi!

511

X did not injur me

X did not injur me
X did not injur me

Personal pronouns differ from all other pronouns in having forms of precedence and
possession.
!
Pronouns of precedence are used to to show whose turn it is. Through
semantic shift, pronouns of precedence have also come to be used as a sort of
interrogative vocative, similar to English what about X?. It can also be said when
offering something to someone, similar to there you go in English, in which case the
pronoun might be followed by the hyphened interrogative clitic -a. The polite for ur
is often used when wanting to show that someone should go ahead or go first.
%
%

mta moiundami
[mta mxndmi]

%
!

mta mo-i-unda-mi
1P.PRON.PRECE.SG drink-ASS.CONCL.ITR-DIMIN-1P.AG.SG

its my turn to have a sip

!
%

ntra, so otoatidda-a?
[ntxa s:tit:a:]

%
!

ntra so o-toat-i-ddaa
2P.PRON.PRECED.PL INTERRO SUBJ-join-ASS.CONCL.ITR-2P.AG.PLINTERR

and what about you? Will you join us?

'
%
%

nta-a?
[nta:]

2P.PRON.PRECEDINTERRO!
your turn?, do you want some (when offered something)?

!
%

ur kolkon
[:r klkn]

%
%

ur kolkon-
2P.PRON.PRECED.PL.HONOR bread-AGT

have some bread

nta-a

Possession pronouns are hyphened to the noun they qualify. They can often be
dropped. The forms ho and ha are both pronounced simply as [w] after vowels,
while hi is often pronouns [j] in the same environment.
!
!
!
!

iki-go' '
kame-so '
moukkie-hi'
iaitta-nen'

my axe
your left hand
their bellies
to ones (own) daughter

Note the common expression ni-nen meaning originally to each his own but it has
grown into a common interjection showing that one should not try to control the
situation, similar to oh well in English:

512

!
%
%

nanta ikudoamo-so, ni-nen

[nanta ikudms nixnn]

na<nt>-a iku=do<>a-moso ni-nen

break.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR axe=handle-PAT2P.PRON.POSS.SG 4P.PRON-GEN4P.PRON.POSS.

oh well, your axe handle broke

10.1.1 First Person

The first person distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive in the plural, but its
dative and locative forms do not.
plural
singular
inclusive

exclusive

agentive

megi

mra

mri

patientive

meigi

menra

menri

genitive

gogi

ra

ri

dative

gosi

msi

locative

gogi-

momi-

possessive

go

ura

uri

precedence

mta

mtra

mtri

There is a lot of dialectal variation for the singular forms:

!
%
!

agentive!
patientive%
genitive!!

!
%
!

megi, megi, m, m, m, m
meigi, meihki, metki, medd, madd
gogi, guoki, guoggi, gueggi, gggi

The forms m/m and m/m are characteristic of eastern dialects outside the
Sapsi area. The forms meihki and metki is mostly found in mid-western dialects while
medd and madd are far-western dialectal forms. The genitive forms are found in
many different dialects and are not mapped as closely to any area, although gggi
and gueggi are mostly heard further east.!
10.1.2 Second Person
The second person has a singular and plural form, and a plural honorific which is
only marked through this independent pronoun.

513

plural
singular
plural

honorific

agentive

negi

nri

patientive

neigi

nenri

bma

genitive

sogi

iron

dative

sosi

ii

tsi

locative

sosi-

ii-

ts-

possessive

so

precedence

nta

ntra

da / ur

The second person mirrors the first person in dialects.

10.1.3 Third Person
The third person distinguishes between animate and inanimate in the singular, has a
plural form and an obviative form, which is not marked for number. Note that the
forms to ta and ki can be found as tot tat and kit in many dialects, especially if the
next word begins with a vowel. Many speakers have voiced consonants throughout
the paradigm (do, da, gi, odda) the dative -si being replaced by -i. This is mostly a
trait of younger speakers in the east.
!
The third person singular has two forms common to both animacies in the
patientive (tva) and the dative (tsi). These forms are short forms of the pronouns and
often found before other nouns.
!
The genitive of the third person singular and plural has a so-called long form
and a short form, both of which are equally common:

514

singular
animate

inanimate

to

ta

agentive
patientive
genitive
dative

otta

tva

n or tm,
tomo, tomen
otsi

plural

obviative

ki

onto or t/r

igi

o or

kon or kh

eksi

tsi

atta

en or taga, taa,
taen
tsi

atsi

locative

neni-

noni-

ningi-

teni-

possessive

ho (pron. [w])

ha (pron. [w])

hi (pron. [j])

precedence

tyta

teta

keta

tuta

The may also be found as a long [:] (usually spelled <o> or <>).

10.1.4 Fourth Person

The fourth person only has one form.
singular
agentive

nin

patientive

nigen

genitive

nih/ni

dative

nitsi

locative

ni-

possessive

nen

precedence

nitra

The form -nen is often pronounced as a single syllabic [].

10.1.5 Self
The fourth person found with patientive endings (their copular form) added directly to
the declined pronoun correspond to the English construction myself or the very.
Locative cases are not used in this case, using instead the genitive nih.

515

himself/herself/itself/
themselves

myself

ourselves

yourself

yourself

sg.

pl.

sg.

pl.

sg./pl.

obv.

agentive

ninka

nimba

ninsa
or
ninta

ninha

nini

ninno

patientive

nigenka

nigemba

nigensa
or
nigenta

nigenha

nigeni

nigenno

genitive

nihka

nihba

nihsa

nihha

niha

nihno

dative

nitsika

nitsiba

nitsisa

nitsiha

nitsia

nitsino

%
%

ahtami megi ninka

[ahtmi mei nka]

%
!

<aht>-a--mi megi- nin-ka

do.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.SG.AG 1P.PRON.AG self.AG-1P.SG

I did it myself (lit. I did it, I myself)

%
%

nonia bania-t niha

[nnia bani nija]

%
!

non-ia ban-=iat ni-h-ia

3P.PRON.UNAG-INESS place-INESS-DET.PROXI self-GEN-3P.SG

!
!
%
%

in this very place

!
'
neskahmi nigenta
[nskahmi ninta]

%
!

nesk-a-h=mi ni=gen-ta
ask-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT=1P.SG.AG self-PAT-2P.SG

!
!

I ask you personally

10.2 Demonstrative Pronouns

Siwa demonstrative pronouns can be divided into two different categories
independent and attributive. The independent form is found alone without any noun
to qualify. It declines like a noun, with two distinguished forms (marked and
unmarked) and exists in the singular and plural.

516

Independent forms:
!
!
!
!
!

da tahha dda' '

da tahha hadda''
da tahha udda' '
attaa' '
'
da tahhua eygi' '

this is a tree
that is a tree
that over there is a tree
in this (one)
these are trees

The attributive demonstrative pronouns qualify a noun (or an adjective). They split
into two parts the first part is a third person pronoun agreeing in case, number and
animacy with the noun qualified, while the second part is a hyphened clitic to the
noun. This pronoun may be augmented by two special clitics, ba- (out of two) and
tsa- (out of many).
Attributive forms:
!
!
!
%
!

to tahha-t '
'
to tahha-t'
'
to tahha-ut'
'
bata t-t%
%
tsaki henetka-t''

this tree !
!
(pron. [th:])
that tree!
!
(pron. [th:a])
that tree over there ! (pron. [th:aw])
this stone (of two)!
(pron. [bta t:])
these birch shoes (of many)

Both the attributive and the independent form distinguish three different distances
from the speaker the proximal, medial and distal forms. The proximal and the
medial form refer to something closer and further from the speaker, respectively. The
third, distal form is used for things that are not within the speakers sight, or as a more
generic pronoun.
!
'
!

eidda atsi soaki-t kmaka, s hait'

my paternal grandfather build this house (closer to me), not that one (over
there)

!
'

sbmua onta to benhi-t, magua katta bidiska-nen

while this dog is black, its puppies are white

!
'
%

da on tpra at, da ka pehra hait

[d tpxa a daka phra ha]

d-a on tpra- at- d-a ka pehra- hait-

COP-ASS ON juniper.berry-AGT this.PROXI-AGT COP-ASS KA yew.berry-AGT that.MEDI-AGT

'

this is a juniper berry, and that is a yew berry

517

!
'
%

da on tuovvumika ta suvu-t, da ka phraika ta suvo-t

[d tuw:umiga ta suv: daka pi:hriga ta suv]

!
!

d-a on tuo<vv>-um=ika ta suvo-t d-a ka ph-ra=ika ta suvo-t

COP-ASS ON juniper-ILLAT this.INA.AGT berry-AGTDET.PROXI COP-ASS KA yew-ILAT this.INA.AGT berryAGTDET.MEDI

this berry is from a juniper, and that berry is from a yew

10.2.1 Independent Pronouns

The independent pronouns decline as nouns and cannot be found attributively. Each
form of the independent pronoun exists in two paired forms called the short and the
long form. The medial and proximal merge in their long form. The short form is more
common, while the long form is used for emphasis, to elevate the language register,
making it more honorific or formal. The final -t common to most pronouns is either
pronounced [] or [h(t)].
The distal form iot is generally pronounced [] or [a] (sometimes spelled iat/
eat). There is quite a lot of variation regarding the proximal form at, including ut, t
and vvt. Similarly, the marked and unmarked form of plural long form egit show a
lot of variation: ke-, de-, he-.
'
The short pronouns exist in pairs (at~dda, hait~hadda, iot~udda). The
forms in -dda are more familiar and is slowly replacing the forms in -it.
!
The form t is commonly used in Siwa to refer to a honorific third person.
singular
unmarked
short

plural
marked

long

short

at

atta

dda

tten

unmarked
long

long

eygi

proximal

evvat

eatta

hait

haitta

hadda

hatten

iot

long

egit

eihta
kvahta

iotta
t

distal

short

eyhta

kvagi

medial

udda

'
%
%

short

marked

tta
utten

da seng sara at
[da se:y: sra ]

d-a seng- sara- at-

COP-ASS song-AGT good-AGT this.PROXI-AGT'

this is a good song

518

gaugi

gegi

gauhta

gehta

!
'
%

da riehpi evvat'
[da rhpi ew:a]

d-a riehpi- evvat-

COP-ASS wife-AGT this.PROXI-AGT

this/that is my wife

'
'
%

da nelba t
[da lba i:]

d-a neli--ba t-
COP-ASS chief-AGT-1P.PAT.PL this.DIST-AGT

he/(honorific) is our chief

Many dialects include out-of-two and out-of-many forms in the declension of

independent demonstrative pronouns. These forms are not commonly used by all
dialects, but may be more frequent in higher language registers or older speakers.

Out-of-two
singular
unmarked
short
proximal

marked

long

aba

plural

short

!
'
%

haiba

distal

ioba

long

appa
evvaba

medial

unmarked

oppa

long

eypa
eappa

haippa
ba

short

gaupa

kokkaka appa'
[kkga pa]

kokk-a-ka a=ppa
please-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.PAT.SG this.PROXI.OUT.OF.TWO.GEN

'

I like this (one, of two)

!
%
%

rni ue haiba
[rjni ue haba]

'

rni- o--e haiba-

female.wolf-AGT REL-COP-INFER this.MED.OUT.OF.TWO-AGT

'

the female wolf is that one (out of the pair)

519

short

long

eyhba
egiba

kvapa
ppa

marked

eihba
kvahba

geiba

gauhba

gehba

!
%
%

kimpa-go oa eypa%
[cmpag a pa]

kimpa-go o--a eypa-

boots-AGT1P.POSS.SG REL-COP-ASS these.PROXI.OUT.OF.TWO.PL-AGT

'

these two (shoes) are my pair of boots (of two)

Out-of-many
singular

plural

unmarked
short
proximal

ats

medial

haits

distal

iots

long

marked
short

long

atsta
evvats

%
%
%

unmarked

eatsta

iotsta

long

eytsi

haitsta
ts

short

short

egits

gautsi

long

eyhtsa

kvatsi
tsta

marked

eihtsa
kvahtsa

geits

gauhtsa

gehtsa

so kuiliska-a oa kvatsi?%
[s() kuilska: a kvatsxi]

so kuilis--kaa o--a kvatsi-

INTERRO tadpole-AGT-PL-INTERRO REL-COP-ASS this.MEDI.OUT.OF.MANY.PL-AGT

'

are those ones tadpoles?

!
%
%

da kutkuska nielra egits

[da ktkska nlra ej:ts]

d-a kutkus--ka nielra- egits-

COP-ASS bough-AGT-PL of.fir-AGT this.PROXI.LONG.OUT.OF.MANY.PL-AGT

'

these are fir floor boughs

10.2.2 Attributive Pronouns

The attributive pronouns consist of the appropriate third person pronoun (to/ta/ki/t),
following by the noun phrase, which ends with a hyphenated clitic which only
specifies proximity (-t, -t and -ut):

!
%
%
%

%
%
%
%

to -t% %
ta -t% %
t -t%%
ki -t% %

to -t% %
ta -t% %
t -t% %
ki -t% %

to -ut
ta -ut
t -ut
ki -ut

520

The third person pronoun agrees in animacy, case and number even when the
noun itself is not explicitly marked for plural, attributive pronouns may still be found in
the plural.
!
Attributive pronouns often agree with the perceived animacy of the noun
rather than its actually grammatical animacy in fact, these pronouns may be used
where English would not to emphasize the perceived animacy contrary to the nouns
grammatical animacy.
!
The proximity marker is usually found at the very end of the nominal phrase:
!
%
%

to/ta kepsi mialha-t%

'
[t/ta cps:i malh]

'

to-/ta- kepsi- mialha-t

3P.PRON.ANI.AGT.SG/3P.PRON.INA.AGT.SG mushroom-AGT blue-AGTDET.PROXI

this blue mushroom

!
'
%

mine n/en kebsie mialhadi-t

[mine n/n cpsie malh]

mine- n/ten kepsi-e mialha-dit

flesh-AGT 3P.PRON.ANI.GEN.SG/3P.PRON.INA.GEN.SG mushroom-GEN blue-GENDET.PROXI

'

this blue mushrooms flesh

Attributive pronouns are commonly found augmented by either of two special clitics,
ba- (out of two) and tsa- (out of many). The out-of-two form is used when the
demonstrative pronoun applies to one of two things, and the out-of-many form
identifies one from a group which is often only implied. The out-of-many form is
sometimes considered to belong to a more formal and archaic Siwa.
clitic
third person pronoun

noun phrase
form

short

animate

to / ki

proximal

-t

inanimate

ta / ki

medial

-t or -het

distal

-ut [w]

long

-eat

out of two

ba(u)-

out of
many

tsa(u)-

......

-et

-to/-ta/-ki

The out-of-two and out-of-many forms behave like the passive preverbal vowel u- and
avoids the formation of a triphthong by following the rules given in section 9.5.8:
%
%

%
%

bam-a-% %
bam-e-% %

tsam-atsam-e521

%
%
%
%

%
%
%

bab-i-% %
bab-o-% %
bab--% %

tsab-i
tsab-obab--

singular
animate

plural

inanimate

out-of-two

out-ofmany

out-oftwo

out-of-many

agentive

bato

tsato

bata

patientive

babotta

tsabotta

genitive

bamn
or
batm

dative

out-of-two

out-of-many

tsata

baki

tsaki

bamatta

tsamatta

babigi

tsabigi

tsamn or
tsatm

bamen
or
bataga

tsamen or
tsataga

bakon or
bakh

tsakon or
tsakh

babotsi

tsabotsi

bamatsi

tsamatsi

bameksi

tsameksi

locative

baneni-

tsaneni-

banoni-

tsanoni-

baningi-

tsaningi-

possessive

hoba

hotsa

haba

hatsa

hiba

hitsa

precedence

batyta

tsatyta

bateta

tsateta

baketa

tsaketa

The hyphened clitics coalesce with certain final vowels, sometimes changing
significantly. It may cause the medial proximity no longer to be distinguished. This
renders distinguishing between proximal and distal difficult.
hyphened attributive demonstrative coalescence
-a

a-t []
(as -ayt)

a-ut [aw]

-e

e-t []
(as -eyt)

e-ut [w]

-i

i-t [] or -t [y:]

i-ut [w]

-o
-u

o-ut [w] or -t [:]

u-t [:]

u-ut [uw] or -t [u:]

522

u-t
[:] demonstrative coalescence
hyphened
attributive
-
-y

e-ut [w:] or ut [:]

y-t [y] or u-t [:]

'
%
!

'
%
!

i-ut [w] or -t [y:]

%
'
%

ta ndla-t '
'
[ta ni:t]% %
this face !
!

ta ndla-ut
[ta ni:taw]
that face

!
'
!
!

tsata pbme-t / pbmu-t%

%
[tsta py:pm/py:pm:]%%
this seal skin (of many)!!
!
(cf. pbme sealskin)

tsata pbme-ut
[tsta py:pmw]
that sealskin (of many)

!
'
!
!

to saigi-t / saig-t%
[t sij/sijy:]%
this moose ! !
(cf. saigi moose)

%
%
!

%
%
!

ta saigi-ut
[ta sijw]
that moose

%
%
!
!

ta selu-t %
%
[ta sel:]%
%
this big river ! !
(cf. selo big river)

%
%
!

%
%
!

ta sel-t / selo-ut
[ta sel:/selw]
that big river

!
%
!
!

bata sitru-t % %
[bta stx:]% %
this soup (of two)!
(cf. sitru fish soup)

%
%
!

%
%
!

bata sitr-t / sitro-ut

[bta stx:/stxw]
that soup (of two)

%
%
!
!

ta lkku-t%
%
[ta lc:]% %
this cascade ! !
(cf. lkk cascade)

%
%
!

%
%
!

ta lkke-ut / lkku-t
[ta lcew/lc:]
that cascade

%
%
!
!

to lyg-t%%
%
[t lyy:]%
%
this disease ! !
(cf. lygy disease)

%
%
!

%
%
!

to lygy-ut / lyg-t
[ta lyyw/lyy:]
that disease

523

Words ending in the diphthongs (often due to pluralization of inanimate nouns)

change the endings -t and -ut to -t and -ut. However, to avoid this, the noun may
be left in the singular.
!
'
!

ki elebua-t% %
[ci elebua]%%
these flowers! !

or

!
%
!

ki eleba-t%
%
[ci eleb]% %
these flowers! !

%
%
!

ki elebua-ut
[ci elebua]
those flowers

%
%
!

ki eleba-ut
[ci elebaw]
those flowers

10.3 Adverbial Pronouns or Pro-Adverbs

Demonstrative pronouns form the basis for so-called pro-adverbs, or adverbs that
are derived from pronouns. Adverbial pronouns show place, time and manner as well
as reason. There are three levels of locative pro-adverbs the precise form (right
here, right there, etc.), the approximate form (around here, around there, etc.) and
the general form (here, there, etc.). The approximate forms are also used for paths
(by here, by there) or ways (this way, that way).
!
Pro-adverbs can become adjectives (in -vva with a special marked form in a and locative in --) they follow the noun they qualify and do not take the
locative case markings attributively, e.g.:
%
%
%

tshmoima oa'
skkita haa' '
oa gattia'
'

'
'
'

in such a place (as this)

to such a man (as that)
in such a case (as that)

A subclass of pro-adverbs is also found preceding nouns. This use is common to

show hesitation or as a filler word before an actual noun. Pro-adverbs preceding
nouns take locative cases. They are formed by the same endings as normal proadverbs but use third person pronouns. They are extremely common in relaxed
speech.
!
!
!

!
!
!

tovva! toa! !
tavva! taa! !
kivva! kia! !

%
%

ahrata toia soakkia vivid'

negami kia kgedi tebi'

a (sort of) (animate)

a (sort of) (inanimate)
(a sort of) (plural)
X was in a (kind of) big house
I saw (a sort of) little sparks

524

The table below shows the various forms such pro-adverbs exist in:

proximate

medial

distal

adda
right here

haidda
right there

iodda
right there

adda
to right here

haidda
to right there

iodda
to right there

atka
from right here

haitka
from right there

iotka
from right there

vvia
around/by here

hagia
around/by there

ogia
over/by there

vvita
(to) around/by here

hagita
(to) around/by
there

ogita
(to) over/by there

vvika
from around/by
here

hagika
from around/by
there

ogika
from over/by there

hha
here

hahha
there

iohha
there

hba
to here

hahba
to there

iohba
to there

hka
from here

hahka
from there

iohka
from there

temporal

dni~udni or uga
now

haga
then, at that
moment

oga
then, at that
moment

manner

oni or nn
like this, thus,
hereby

hanni
like that, thus,
thereby

oni
like that, thus,
thereby

ovva or uvva
such (as this)

havva
such (as that)

ovva
such (as that)

precise

locative

approx.

general

nom.

adj.

525

adj.
gen.

reason

proximate

medial

distal

oa or ua

haa

oa

mimi
for this reason

iomi
for that reason

%
%

tygimua kepsi havva

[tyimua cp:si hw:a]

%
!

tygima-a kepsi- havva-

poisonous-COP.ASS mushroom-AGT such.MEDI-AGT

!
'

a mushroom like that is poisonous or

that kind of mushroom is poisonous

!
%

s ahatru sailmi skid oa

[s jhatxu salmi i:sc j:a]

%
!

s a-hatr-u s=ail-mi ski-d o-a

not 4P.UNAG-ought-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL trust-INF.AG.TR woman-GEN such.DIST-GEN

one should not trust a woman like that

The locative adverbial pronouns have some more specific forms. They can be found
in the comparative and the superlative.
%
%
%
!

addgita%
%
hagikgita'
'
iohka iohkgita% '
osykin haiddgta'

closer here
from further that way
from far far over there
move further over there

10.4 Question Words

Siwa question words exist as pronouns, adverbs and quantifiers. Interrogative
pronouns show animacy and number. They decline for case and can be found with
an infixed -ets- or -eb- to form out-of-many and out-of-two forms like those of the
attributive demonstrative pronouns (to kori-t this boy, bato kori-t this boy (of the
two))
!
Interrogation in general causes no syntactical change, unlike English where
question words are usually moved to the beginning of the phrase. In Siwa, question
words stand where the part of speech they replace (noun, adjective, quantifier or
adverb) would be in a non-interrogative sentence, and they precede nouns. If a
pronoun is found with a noun, it does not take locative markers.
!

interrogative pronouns ! !

+!

526

noun/adjective

%
!
!
!

%
!
!
!

mmni dida?' '

nonatina nsti ugot?'
rento nt ela?' '
herha mhmon dda?%

!
%
%
!
!

interrogative adverbs! !
%
ngu pendidda?
or%
pendidda ngu?''
!
maskina na?''
!
nnni sngi?'
'

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

noun/adjective! %
%
!
da somi ntsva to?'
!
ntsvuata?'
'
!
hisk innot!'
'
!
ge imisi not to?''
!
ni atanaita?% '
or!
niata atana?1' '

'
'
'
%

what girl?
what kind of lies did you tell X?
the seed of what plant?
whose hat is this?

+!

verb/adjective

'
'
'

when did you arrive?

where did you go?
how are you?

+!
'
'
'
'
'
'

interrogative quantifiers
what kind of man is he?
what kind (of person) is X?
such bad luck!
what kind of animal was X?
how big was X?
how big was X!

All interrogative pronouns are followed by the clitic -a in relative and subclauses.
!
!
'
set netami, kitami nt-a '
I dont know what to do
!
set negami, ngu-a pendi'
I didnt see when they arrived
!
s-onaikina-a, masko na-a?'can you tell me where X went?
!
If followed by -a, a question word in a normal clause refers to a dropped matrix
clause (mskeli I wonder, oneskami I ask myself, etc.):
%
!

masko na-a%?!
!
!
!

!
or!

where could X have gone

I wonder where X went

Interrogative pronouns decline like other -ni pronouns.

animate

inanimate

plural

agentive

mmni
who?

ndni
what?

mkni
who?

patientive

mmma

nbma

mhma

1 Interrogative phrases of the type nii-COP ADJ are not very common and may be unacceptable in many

eastern dialects.
527

animate

inanimate

plural

genitive

mhm / mmu

nt / nu / nhr

mhk

dative

msmi, mmi

nsti, ni

mski, mgi

locative

mtsi-

nntsi-

mks-

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

mani mmni?' '

da mhmon dda'
ndni oa dda?' '
otoatebi mkni?' '
negana mgi?' '
bana nt?'
'
niddana mgi?%'
da mhka to iu-so?'

who is there?
whose is this?
what is this?
who wants to join us?
whom did you see?
what did you eat?
whom did you inform?
(of what people) is this relative of yours?

The out-of-two pronouns are formed by infixing -eb- to the normal pronouns. The
plural forms are used with dual nouns.

!
!
!

animate

inanimate

plural

agentive

mebmni
which one? (of two)

nebdni
which one? (of two)

mebkni
which? (of two)

patientive

mebmma

nebbma

mebhma

genitive

mebhm / mebmu

nebt / nebu / nebhr

mebhk

dative

mebsmi

nebsti

mebski, mebgi

locative

mebtsi-

nebntsi-

mebks-

oahriasa mebmni?'
'
'
iugi mebtsi kivvaita rentue?' '
mebkni toaba?'
'
'

which one of the two hurt you?

in which eye did the grain fly?
what twins?

The out-of-many pronouns are formed the same with the infix -ets-. The plural forms
are used with plural nouns.

528

%
%
!
!
!

animate

inanimate

plural

agentive

metsmni
which one? (of many)

netsdni
which one? (of many)

metskni
which ones? (of many)

patientive

metsmma

netsbma

metshma

genitive

metshm / metsmu

netst / netsu /
netshr

metshk

dative

metssmi

netssti

metsski, metsgi

locative

metstsi-

netsntsi-

metsks-

netsbma bana?'
'
maskiri metshk tokkirita?'
luhrana metsgi bytsva?'
!
!
!
!
pikima thhi metshma% '

'
'
'
!
'

what of those did you eat?

in which fish trap(s) did they go?
which (of these) slime molds did
you boil?
which joints are hurting?

10.5 Interrogative Adverbs

Interrogative adverbs are formed on the stem n-. There is a number of other
specialized interrogative forms. The stem n- can occasionally be heard as n-.
Included here are the adjectival interrogatives.

!
!
'
!
!
!
!

locative
!
adessive!
'
illative! !
!
elative! !
!
abessive!
!
allative! !
!
ablative!!

nvva' '
na' '
nga' '
nmma' '
npma' '
nskka' '

'
'
'
'
'
'

where?
where to?
where from? (also why)
where (on)?
where (onto)?
where (off)?

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

time! !
duration!
'
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

ngu' '
'
ngue, nuvve' '
ngoga, ngoa''
ngoda'/ngora%'
ngoma''
'
ngonta''
'
ngonna'
'

when?
in how much time?
how long ago? (perfect)
for how long? (future)
at what time?
how long? (past)
until when?!

!
!
'
!
!
!
!

529

!
!
!

reason! !
!
!
!
!

!
!
!

nmi(ta)''
'
nmaska'
'
nnkomo/nnk' '

why?
due to what? how come?
what? why? how come?

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

degree!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
'
!
!
!

ni, n' '

'
ni kommen~tagn'
ni komma~taba'

how (X)
how much (adv)
much much (X)

ni -uli'

'

what kind of

manner!!

nnni'

'

how?

!
!
!
!
!

adjectival!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

ntsva' '
not'
'
innot' '
nddibmis'
nnei' '

'
'
'
'
'

what kind? (GEN. ntsudda)

what sort of?
what sort of? (pejorative)
like what?
how manieth?

!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
%
%
%
!
or!
!
!
%
%
%
%
%
!

!
makina na?% '
'
siboaki nga?% '
'
iboandi npma?% '
'
suguabana ngu?'
'
sugebana ngoma?'
'
negaana ngoa?'
'
sitkuikina ngonta?'
'
sitkokina ngora%?'
'
evina hba ngonna?% '
htviasa nmi?% %
'
nmaska neta?%%
'
nnkomo tsehu haa?% '
ni atanaita?% '
'
nita atana?% '
'
ga ni somi-uli atasa?% '
nnni obona hahba?% '
nnni sngi?%
'
'
ga imisi ntsva, nua ogena?'
peva bb nodda nana?'
de rtmmi innot-e negi?'
nddibmisita?% !
!
da sinduna nnei to sira-t?'

'

where are you going?

where are you from?
where/what did X jump onto?
when do you want to visit us?
at what time will you visit us?
how long ago did you visit them?
how long did you go fishingf for?
for how long will you go fishing?
until what time do you want to stay here?
why did X hit you?
how come X knows about Y?
how did such a thing come to happen?
how big was X?
id.
what kind of man was your father?
how do you plan on getting there?
how are you?
what kind of animal did you see?
what (kind of) food are you eating?
what kind of an idiot are you?
how was X?
this fish is your how manieth catch?

10.6 Indefinite Pronouns

530

Siwa indefinite pronouns all follow the secondary case marking pattern they all
more or less have the following declension pattern:

!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!
%
!

animate!!
-mni% %
-mma% %
-mu, -hm%
-smi, -mi%
-tsi-!
!

!
%
%
%
%
!

!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!
%
!

plural! !
-kni% %
-hma% %
-hkon, -hk%
-ski, -gi%
-ksi-! !

%
%
%
%
!

inanimate
-dni
-bma%
-t, -u or -hr 1
-sti-, -i
-tsi-

%
%

The genitive ending has taken over the patientive ending in very many dialects in the
case of objects. It is common-place to use patientive endings only in the case of
people, and using the genitive with everything else, regardless of the grammatical
animacy.
The indefinite pronouns can be subcategorized as such:
!
existential !
!
!
!
toa- ! !
some
!
!
!
toa- -ne !
(some)other, another
!
!
!
toa- -uli%
some kind of
!
!
!
ene- ! !
some, a certain
!
!
!
ene- -ne%
another
!
!
!
ene- -uli%
a certain kind of
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

existential unknown
!
!
kt-! !
!
!
kt- -ne%
!
!
kt- -uli%
!
!
noa- ! !
!
!
noa- -ne%
!
!
noa- -uli%

some
(some) other, another!
some kind of
some (unimportant, unknown)
(yet) another
some kind of

!
!

elective
!
!

any

-!

The most common form is -hr in normal language and the more conserved forms are more formal.

531

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

!
%
!
!
%

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

negative
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

- -ne%
g- -uli%
ng-! !
ng- -ne%
ng- -uli%

any other
any kind of
any (what so ever/at all)
any other (at all)
any (kind of) (at all)

s-! !
s- -ne%
s- -uli%
syngy-% %
syngy- -ne%
syngy- -uli%

no
no other
no (kind of/at all)
no
no other
no (kind of/at all/not a single)

!
negative unknown
!
!
!
set...h-% %
not any
!
!
!
set...h- -ne% not any other
!
!
!
set...h- -uli% not any (kind of/at all)
!
!
!
Note that the unknown negative pronoun h- only distinguishes animacy and number
in the agentive. Its declension is as follows:

!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!
!
!

animate!!
hmi' '
hma' '
hr~t~gu'
hsi%
%
htsi'
'

inanimate!
hni'
'
'
'
'
'
%
%
'
'

plural
hki

Indefinite pronouns can be found with an infixed -ets- or -eb- to form out-of-many and
out-of-two forms like those of the attributive demonstrative and question pronouns.
Indefinite pronouns serve 9 main functions. The functions are as follow;
10.6.1.1 Known To Speaker
(somebody/something, a certain)
This function is used when the pronoun refers to a person, object or group which is
known to the speaker. It uses the known existential pronoun series (to-, ene-).
!
!
!
!

toamni somi'
'
'
!
!
!
!
enemni kengi % !
!
tandami tsatoahk kebsie !

some (known) man or some/one of the

men
a certain day
I found some of the mushroom(s)
532

!
!

so da-a sosia toadni kn !

!

do you have some (of the) milk

10.6.1.2 Unknown To Speaker

(someone/something)
This function is used when the pronoun refers to a person, object or group which is
not known to the speaker. It uses the unknown existential pronoun series (kt-,
noa-).
!
!
!
%
%
!

ktmni rtmmi '

'
ktkni' '
'
'
noamni pegg' '
'
tandami ktmi kepsi(-uli) '
so da-a sosia ktdni kn '

some idiot
some (people)
some (unimportant/unknown) girl
I found some (kind of) mushroom
do you have some (quantity of) milk

10.6.1.3 Non-Specific
(someone)
This function is used when the pronoun refers to a person, object or group not
defined or specific, or when the pronoun specifically refers to a possible reality. It
uses the unknown existential pronoun series (kt-, noa-).

%
!

han ktt!'
onan noat!%

'
'

'
'

eat something!
say something (anything)!

In the case of non-specific phrase types in the negative, the unknown negative
pronouns are used, unless the pronoun is found in the locative or adverbial forms, as
well as form for reason or there is already a negated pronoun in the phrase.
!
!

hasen t!'
'
set ma t smni!%

'
%

dont eat anything!

nobody ate anything!

10.6.1.4 Polar Question

(somebody existential or anyone elective)
There are two possibilities for pronouns: One can use the unknown existential
pronoun series (kt-, noa-) or the elective pronoun series (-, ng-). The
difference is subtle when using an existential pronoun, emphasis is on the quantity
(i.e. at least one), whereas with an elective pronoun, emphasis is on the nonspecificity of the pronoun (i.e. no matter what/who or any at all).
!

so ara-a katsa ktmni?'

is there someone outside?

533

so ara-a katsa mni?' '

is anyone outside?

10.6.1.5 Conditional
(if somebody/anybody)
This function is used in conditional statements referring to an unknown person, object
of group. It uses the elective pronoun series (-, ng-).
!
%
!

ronuana t' '

romani ngmni''
datsesu bma% '

if you see anything

if anyone at all comes
if anything happens

10.6.1.6 Indirection Negation

(not that anyone)
This function is found in subordinate clause when the main clause is negative. It
requires the elective pronoun series (-, ng-). This kind of clause usually has a
genitive object.
%
set tabmami negotemi nghma''
I dont think I saw anyone
'
set emmi manotu mni'
'
I dont believe anyone will come
!
10.6.1.7 Direct Negation
(nobody or no one)
This function is used when the pronoun refers to a person, object or group which is
negated. There are two possibilities for such pronouns. One can use the unknown
negative pronoun series (set...h-) or the known negative pronoun series (s-,
syngy-). When using an unknown pronoun, emphasis is on the quantity (i.e. not any),
whereas with a known negative pronoun, emphasis is on the negation (i.e. no one,
nothing). The unknown pronoun is usually used with the negation marker set, but the
known marker is usually the only negated item in the phrase.
!
%
!
%

mansi smni% '

biadli syngymni' '
!
!
!
set sygiami hma'

no one came
no one spoke or not a single person
spoke' '
I didnt invite anyone

10.6.1.8 Comparison
(more than anyone)
For phrases of comparison,the elective pronoun series (-, ng-) are used to refer
to a person, object or group to which something is compared to. The elective
pronoun series may be found in a special form only used for this particular function.
The form is the stem of the alternative pronoun found as a hyphened (-ne) to the noun
it describes, then meaning anyone/anything else.
%
!

sahne nori tavvi ngmni-ne%

!
!
!
!

'
!

X sings better than anyone

else

534

ngt saista%

'

'

'

better than anything!

10.6.1.9 Free Choice

(anybody)
For free choice phrases with an indefinite pronoun, the elective pronoun series is
used (nearly only ng-), or if the phrase is negative, the known negative pronoun
series (s-, syngy-). In positive phrases, the hyphened clitic -uli is commonly
attached to the noun or the pronoun itself to add the meaning at all.
!
%
!

hauri ngi soroko-ne''

nn noroii ngmni-uli'

'
'

eat any other piece

anyone (at all) could sing like this

10.6.1 Known Existential Pronouns

The forms of the known existential pronouns are as shown in the table below. The
known existential pronouns are inherently less common than their unknown
counterparts. They will often best be translated into English as a certain or a known
(but unspecified). The form in ene- is closer in meaning to a certain or a particular,
while toa- forms are more neutral. The known existential pronouns have only one
reason form.
!
The -ne form is commonly used where English simply has another, and the uli form corresponds to a type of or a kind of.
!
The form teboa- means either (of two), the other one or even one (of two).
It is commonly used to refer to one (then unspecified) of a pair:
!

pikimaki teboabma oama %

(one of) my knee is hurting.

The corresponding enebe- form means either (no matter which one of two) or which
ever (of two).
!
The form tetso- and enetse- are used when large numbers are involved, often
used where English would use some of them. The form enetse- also has the
specialized meaning of a part of (a group).
!
animate

toamni
someone

enemni
a certain

inanimate

toadni
something

enedni
a certain

plural

toakni
some

enekni
certain

out-of-two

teboamni
either, one or the other

enebemni
either, which ever

535

out-of-many

tetsoamni
some of

enetsemni
some of, which ever of

time

toagu
sometimes

eniu ~ enu
sometime

location

toavvia
tovavita
toavvika
somewhere

enia
enita
enika
somewhere

manner

toavva
in a way

ena
in a certain way
mito
for a (certain) reason

reason

-ne

toamni-ne
someone else or
(some) other

enemni-ne
another

-uli

toamni-uli
some kind of
or
a type of

enemni-uli
a certain kind of

Note that the word toavva is a common hesitation used in speech, similar to English
hm or uh. Some speakers pronounce this doa, tua, ta, toa, t, t or ta.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'

toavvia ngi somi'

'
eniu onekimi% '
'
ga toavva gelabmis'
'
toagu sisi'
'
'
so debmana-a toasti-ne''
sihi usotisi gatkebmi teboasti'
digia enet kevvesela-uli'
!
!
!
!
da toamni -uli tygyha at'
tygyhua enetsemni % '
!
!
!
!

somewhere there lives a man

I will tell you sometime
it was comforting in a way
it sometimes thunders
do you want another one?
you can only bring one or the other
X displayed a certain kind of
aggressiveness
this is a type of poisonous plant
a part of this plant/these plants is/are
poisonous

10.6.2 Unknown Existential Pronouns

The unknown existential pronouns are more common and have a broader meaning
than their known existential counterparts. They exist int wo forms, kt- and noa-. The
forms in noa- indicate that the qualified noun is unimportant or even uncertain, but it

536

can also be slightly diminutive, especially with noavva, which can be translated as in
some (small) way.
!
The form mik is a common adverb/coordinating particle used to show that
the speaker does not understand or is unable to explain his statement, or in negative
sentences where it means (somehow) not even. The word has diverged into various
other forms, such as migt, mg and ing. Certain speakers even use -m(t)- as a
secondary aspectual marker or even verbal derivative to show that the action is/
should be considered unbelievable, or to make the agent seem clumsy, stupid or
humorous.
!
The -ne form is commonly used where English simply has another, and the uli form corresponds to a type of or a kind of. Note that noa- -ne means both
some kind of and yet another (not pejorative).
!
The form kebt- (sometimes kbt-) means either (of two), the other one
or even one (of two). It is much less commonly used than its known counterpart
teboa-.
!
The form ketst- (sometimes ktst-)- and netsoa- are used when large
numbers are involved, often used where English would use some of them. The form
ketstkni or alternatively ketstkni is often translated as some people.

animate

ktmni
someone

noamni
someone

inanimate

ktdni
something

noadni
something

plural

ktkni
some

noakni
some

out-of-two

kebtmni
either, one or the other

neboamni
either, which ever

out-of-many

ketstmni
some

netsoamni
some, which ever

time

ktegu / kdd
sometimes

noagu
at some time

location

ktega
kteita
kteika
somewhere

noaga
noaita
noaika
somewhere

manner

ktva
somehow

noavva
in some way

reason

mik
for some reason

minoa
for some reason

537

-ne

ktmni-ne
someone else or
(some) other

noamni-ne
some other
or
yet another

-uli

ktmn-uli
some kind of
or
a type of

noamni-uli
some kind of
or
a type of

!
noagu ylyma mansi'
'
X came at some point in the night
!
kdd sesu' '
'
accidents sometimes happen
!
noagu seso% '
'
an accident will happen at some point
%
makin kteita-ne!'
'
go somewhere else
%
ktva dandiemmi'
'
for some reason, I couldnt cry
!
mik set toeintui%
'
X (somehow) did not (even) get hurt
%
tidda on, set mg oeintui '
X fell and X unbelievably did not get hurt
%
tiddam%
'
'
X fell clumsily/stupidly/funnily (notice
-!
!
!
!
!
m-)
!
onan kttsita-ne'
'
tell someone else
!
noadni sindu-ne'
'
yet another catch
%
da noamni tsieltami-uli to'
X is some kind of an idiot
'
da tsieltamie ketstkni% '
some people are idiots
!
10.6.3 Elective Pronouns
The elective pronoun exists in two forms. The standard form is - (sometimes found
as -) and the emphatic form ng- (translated as any at all) which is more
commonly found in indirectly negated sentences and with comparisons.
!
The forms eb- and ngeb- (sometimes b- and ngb-) are used to
mean either (of two), while ets- and ngets- (sometimes ts- and ngts-)
mean any (of them).

animate

mni
anyone

ngmni
anyone

inanimate

dni
anything

ngdni
anything

plural

kni
any

ngkni
any

out-of-two

ebkni
either

ngebkni
either

538

%
!
'
!
%
%
!
%
!
!
%
!

out-of-many

etskni
any of

ngetskni
any of

time

g
anytime

ngegu
anytime

location

gia
ita
ika
anywhere

ngega
ngeita
ngeika
anywhere

manner

vva
in any way

nga
in any way

reason

mi
for any reason

min
for any reason (at all)

-ne

mni-ne
any other
or
anyone else

ngmni-ne
some other
or
yet another

-uli

mni-uli
any kind of

ngmni-uli
some kind of
or
a type of

lagui ngega tami%

'
onakin, vva daiomu opotemi'
min geskkisen' '
'
!
!
!
!
usotisi ita kegna'
'
nguomi gia-ne tavvi ogia%
!
!
!
!
so-nuidnaina-a t ela-uli'
nga-uli s-opiina-a' '
!
!
!
!
hodlan ebsti' '
'
goskkieiba ngtsmni''

'
'
'
!
'
'
!
'
'
!
'
'

it could be anywhere (at all)

tell me if I can help in any way
do not make sound for any reason
at all
you can hide anywhere
I would want to live anywhere else
than there
can you identify any kind of plant?
can you help in any other way at
all?
choose either
anyone of them could betray us

10.6.5 Known Negative Pronouns

The known negative pronoun has a normal form in s- (sometimes also s-) and an
emphatic form in syngy- (in eastern dialects commonly songo-), which are analogous
to electives - and ng-.

539

!
The form syngymni-uli means both no kind of and not a single. The ending uli is sometimes found as -yli if both used with syngy- and a word ending in a
rounded vowel, for example in the expression syngydni rymyry-yli no problem,
OK (lit. not a single mosquito).
!
The forms seb- and syngeby- (also sb- and syngyby-) mean neither (of
two), while sets- and syngetsy- (also sts- and syngytsy-) none of (a group).

!
!

animate

smni
no one

syngymni
no one

inanimate

sdni
nothing

syngydni
nothing

plural

skni
none

syngykni
none

out-of-two

sebmni
neither

syngebymni
neither

out-of-many

setsmni
none of

syngetsymni
none of

time

sg
never

syngey
never

location

sgia
sita
sika
nowhere

syngoga
syngoita
syngoika
nowhere

manner

svva
in no way

synga
in no way

reason

mis
for no reason

misn
for no reason (at all)

-ne

smni-ne
no other
or
no one else

syngymni-ne
no other
or
no one else

-uli

smni-uli
no kind of

syngymni-uli
no kind of
or
not at single

saibba syngymni nstenadneka' '

shkia bialtse shma-ne'
'

no one must hear of X

no one else dared to speak up
540

!
!
!
!
!

syngey edniki% '

ga sgia ua% '
syngydni rymyry-yli'
!
!
!
nigi syngytsymma-ne'

'
'
'
!
'

'
'
'
!
'

Ill never ever die

there was nowhere water
not a single mosquito (i.e. no
problem)
none of the others died

10.6.6 Unknown Negative Pronouns

The unknown negative pronoun is alone in having only one form, which only
distinguishes animacy and number in the agentive case.

!
!

animate

set...hmi
not any

inanimate

set...hni
not any

plural

set..hki
not any

out-of-two

set...behki
not...either

out-of-many

set...tsehki
not...any of

time

set...hhu
not ever

location

set...hhia
set...hta
set...hka
not anywhere

manner

set...hha
not in any way

reason

set...mih
not for any reason

-ne

set...hmi-ne
not any other

-uli

set...hmi-uli
not any kind

set negami t' '

pednisen hhu% '

I didnt see anyone/anything

dont ever come back

541

!
!
!
!

pednisen tsehhu-ne'
set tandami hka'
mih onatisen% '
set luguahmi t-ne%

dont come back any other time

I didnt find Y anywhere
do not for any reason ever tell Y
I wont love any other

10.7 Universal and Distributive Pronouns

Siwa universal and distributive pronouns can be subcategorized as distributive
singular (roa-), distributive plural (o-) and universal (kil-/kadlk-). Neither distributive
nor universal pronouns have the known vs. unknown forms. They do not decline like
other -ni pronouns. Below is a table showing their function:
!
distributive singular
each

manta n roam kori

each boy receives a knife (considered individually)

distributive plural
every

manta n oi korigi
every boy receives a knife or all the boys receive a
knife (considered as a group, i.e. all the boys receive knives)

universal
countable
the whole

gkkia killa n kori

the boy sharpened the whole knife

universal
uncountable
all

ama killa kn kori

the boy drank all the milk

10.7.1 Distributive Pronouns

The distributive pronouns roam and oi differs slightly in its declension. The plural
form distinguishes only case it lacks animacy and number. It is also unique in
having no distinction between the agentive and the dative (much like nouns). In some
dialects, it is even found as an adjective (though it still usually precedes the noun)
with the marked form oko. The singular form roam declines like the numeral m
one and only has two forms, marked and unmarked, which distinguish animacy.
!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!
%
!

animate!!
roam! !
!
roamd~roamita!
roamd~roamita!
roam% %
%
roamd~roamita!

oi%
%
%
ova, oko!
oon, o, oi , oko
oi
oi-! !

Note that the out-of-two form for oi has alternates between eb- and ebo-

542

!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

!
!
!
!
%
!

animate!!
ebi% %
%
ebova (or eboko)! !
ebon/eb (or eboko)!
ebi% %
%
ebi-! !

The form oi-uli also has a contracted form in oli all kinds of or various which
does not decline.
!
Distributive pronouns only have one locative declension in o-. Time
expressions using distributive pronouns can often be found int he active form (no
case marking).

animate

roam
each

oi
all

out-of-two

reboam
each (of two)

ebi
both

out-of-many

retsoam
every (of)

etsoi
all (of)

time

ruogu
every time

ou
all the time

inanimate
plural

oia
ota
oka
everywhere

location

manner

ruovva
in every way

ova
completely

-ne

roam-ne
every other
or
everyone else

oi-ne
all other
or
all else

543

-uli

%
%
%
%
!
!
!
%
%
%
%

roam-uli
every kind of

niko noagu roamita' '

nigi ova'
'
'
sarkkia retsoam saiu' '
sarkkia etsoi saiu(o)% %
suganika ruogu, saskiuts saka'
!
!
!
!
ahrari oia% '
'
ruovva tvettu% '
'
pohhiuts mai sa roam-ne'
da gogia oi b-uli%
!

'
'
'
'
'
!
'
'
'
!

oi-uli
all kind of

everyone must die someday

everyone died
X broke every single pot
X broke all of the pots
X comes to see me every time I
wake up
they were everywhere
completely destroyed
while everyone else is sleeping
I have all kinds of food

10.7.2 Universal Pronouns

Siwa universal pronouns come in two sets. The first set in kil- is the default version,
and the second set in kadlk- is the more emphatic/poetic version. Their declension
diverges significantly from other pronouns, as they lack distinction of animacy,
number and various other functions. They do not have a locative form and take
instead the genitive form, much like adjectives. Only the kadlk- version has a manner
form.
!
!
!
!
unemphatic!
!
emphatic
!
agentive!
!
killa'
'
'
kadlka
!
patientive!
!
kilva' '
'
kadla'
!
genitive!!
!
kihl/kihlon'
'
kadl/kadlon or kadlka
%
dative! !
%
killa%
%
%
kadlkis
!
locative!!
!
!
!
!

animate
inanimate
plural

killa
the whole

out-of-two
out-of-many

544

kadlka
the whole

!
!
!
!

time

killu
the whole time

kadlku
the whole time, all the time

location

manner

kadlka, kadlken
completely

reason

-ne

killa-ne
the whole other

kadlka-ne
the whole other

-uli

killa-uli
the whole kind of

kadlka-uli
the whole kind of

ba killa mavvu to ebbenho'

sapoti killu%
'
'
sapohhis kadlku'
'
kadlken entsaskka'
'

'
'
'
'

the damn dog at all the meat

you slept the whole time
you sleep all the time
I completely forgot X

10.8 -ni Determiners

So-called -ni determiners are clitics used to create nouns or adjectives from other
word classes (often postpositions or adverbs). These adjectives follow the -ni
declension of inanimate nouns. The -ni clitic declines in all cases, and is in fact the
same declension as secondary case markers (see 4..6).
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
agentive!
!
-ni%
%
%
!
patientive!
!
-va/-a% %
%
!
genitive!!
!
-r/-/-h%
%
%
dative! !
%
-si, -i% %
%
!
locative!!
!
-tsi-!
!
!
Adjectives can be regularly derived from these words by the ending -nuha or -nha.
Double case markers can be used with postpositions:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

garini' '
'
cf. gari' '
'
(atta)maggani !
!
atta magga !
rooni ! !
!
!
roo ! !
!
roonha'

'
'
!
!
!
!
'

'
'
!
!
!
!
'

the one instead, replacement

instead
the one in this case, this particular
in this case or in the case of this
the one in the way, obstacle
in the way
obstructive, counter-productive

545

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tatsini !!
!
!
!
tatsi ! !
!
!
tatsinha'
'
kiani !
!
!
!
kia ! !
!
koloni' '
'
'
!
kolo'
'
'
samnani'
'
'
!
samna' '
'
!
oapi kelgosamnanha%
tevuni ! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
ahhani% %
%
%
!
!
!
!

!
!
'
!
!
'
'
'
'
'
!
!
%
!

the additional one

in addition
additional, extra
the one within sight, witness
within sight
local, close-by
around here
the one during
during
war-time help
the one before, the former,
ancestor
the one after, the latter,
descendants

!
'
'
!

'
sia hausa maggani
[sia hasxa e: mc:ni]

%
!

si-a hausa - magga-ni

COP.NEG-ASS.CONCL edible plant-AGT in.case-SECOND.AG

!
'
!

the plant in this case is not edible

sikkui toboita rootsi
[skui tbida rxtsi]

%
!

sikk-u-i- t<obo>-ita roo-tsi

kick-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.AG.SG rock-ILLAT in.the.way-SECOND.LOC

!
!
'
!

X kicked the rock that was in the way

%
!

mant-e tatsi-si komi-

take-INFER.CONCL.TR in.addition-DAT guest-AGT

the guest shall take the additional one

!
!

tsalbi mebubilua kiani

[tsalbi mbubilua ci:jni]

%
!

tsalbi me<b>-u-ila-a kia-ni

rarely desire.PAST-PAT.PART-SUPER-COP.ASS.CONCL within.sight-SECOND.AG

the most desired one is rarely the one in sight

'
!

pelekkemi on tevusi, oskemi ka ahhasi

[peljcemi tevusi scemika h:si]

%
!
!
!

pelekk-e-mi on tevu-si osk-e-mi ka ahha-si

cook-INFER.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG on former-SECOND.DAT, smoke-INFER.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG ka
latterSECOND.DAT

While I will cook the former, I will smoke the latter

mante tatsisi komi

[mante ttsisi km:i]

546

!
10.8.1 -ni Determiners on Pronouns
The -ni clitic can also be added onto demonstrative pronouns to form adjectives with
the meaning like this/that one or such as this/that.
!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!%

like this one!

adni' '
atva' '
ad, aa%
atsi% %
atsi-% %

like that one!

haidni' '
haitva' '
haid, haia'
haitsi% %
haitsi-% %

like that one!

iodni' '
iotva
iod, ioa
iotsi
iotsi-

!
!
!
!
%
!

!
!
agentive!
patientive!
genitive!!
dative! !
locative!!

like this one!

eygni% %
eyhtva% %
eyht, eyga%
eyhtsi% %
eyhtsi-% %

like that one! like that one

kvagni% %
gaugni% '
kvahtva%%
gauhtva
kvaht, kvaga% gauht, gauga
kvahtsi% %
gauhtsi
kvahtsi-%%
gauhtsi-

!
'

sg nuhlami t ad
[sxj: nhlmi i:hr x]

%
!

sg nuhl-a-mi hr= at-r

never see.PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.AG.SG nothing.INA.GEN this.PROXI.GEN

Ive never seen anything like this

!
'

siduma kvaht
[siduma kvaht]

%
!

sid-um-a kvaht=
understand-OBLI-ASS.CONCL.TR that.MED.PL.GEN

one must be understanding of these things

%
'

tsaupri iotva
[tsapxi tw:a]

%
!

tsaupr-i iot-va
happen.rarely-ASS.CONCL.ITR that.DIST.PAT

things like that happen rarely

It can also be added onto other forms of pronouns, such as locative forms of proadverbs:

vvini' '

the one around here (from vvia around here)

547

'

vvihni''

the one from around here (from vvika from around here)

!
!
!

hagini' '
hagihni'
!
!

the one around there (from hagia around there)

the one from around there (from hagika from around
there)

!
!

ogini' '
ogihni''

the one over there (from ogia around there)

the one from over there (from ogika from around there)

!
!

ksin ogitsita!' shoot the one over there!

Notice also:
!
!

nini%
!

%
!

ones own (derived from the locative form of the fourth

person).

548

11 Numerals
Siwas numeral system is decimal, like English it uses bases of tens. Originally, the
numeral system was based on the five fingers of the hand and was thus quinary
(using bases of fives). This eventually evolved into the fixed decimal system which is
now found in Siwa. Numerals have four main forms; cardinal, ordinal, nominal and
collective. Cardinal numerals are those used to count things. Ordinal numerals show
order in number (1st, 34th, etc.). Nominal numerals represent the number in itself
(number one, number four, etc.) while collective numerals are those describing a
group of people of a certain number (a foursome, 8 people). Additionally, collective
numerals can be found with absolutive descriptives (see section 9.14). Other
specializer numerals also exist.
11.1 Cardinal Numerals
The cardinal numerals are those used to count. Siwa lacks the concept of zero, which
can be expressed simply by using a negative circumlocution. However, the
neologism synt/snt can be used. Each basic numeral (1-9) has three form; one
unmarked form, one marked form for inanimate nouns and one marked form for
animate nouns. Cardinal numerals agree in animacy with the head noun in marked
cases, but do not in the active and the dative forms. They behave like adjectives (the
head of the phrase is the noun) and lack locative forms, agreeing in case for active or
dative and stative or genitive. Cardinal numerals commonly come before the head
noun. If found after the head noun, then they generally mean the two X, e.g.
!
!

!
but !

ei korigi !
korigi ei(gi) '

two boys
the two boys

They do not require the head noun to be in the plural, though animate nouns are
nearly always found in the plural. Inanimate nouns may have optional plural marking
in the active, but marked cases are generally left unmarked for plurality. The
numerals from 1-10 are:

!
!
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

!
!
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'
8'
9'
10'

agentive!
!
!
m'
'
ei'
'
nevi' '
aits'
'
hakno' '
sudna' '
vi'
'
tenga' '
boari' '
nets'
'

!
!
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

!
marked
animate!!
inanimate
mita' '
md
ehta' '
etta
neumi'
netta
aubmi' '
aidda
hanga''
hangoka
sutva' '
sunamo
umi' '
vid
tentsa' '
tengari
boata' '
boahka
'
nedda

549

Thus, one says:

%
%
but !
!
%

m kori %'
'
'
'
ei kori/korigi % '
'
'
ei pd~pduo~pdm~pd !
ehta kohko !
!
!
!
etta puma !
!
!
!

one boy
two boys
two logs
of two boys (animate genitive)
of two logs (inanimate genitive).

Numerals from 1-9 can have -gi added to them to mark a plural form used with
nouns always in pair or always in the plural, whether animate or inanimate, e.g. eigi
kimpa two pairs of boots but ei kitton two boots.
!
Numerals from 11 to 19 are formed by the addition of -nesta (a genitive of
nets) to the stem of the numeral (usually formed by dropping the last syllable of the
word). Short forms can also be used, having -net instead. The ending nesta can take
double marking for the genitive, becoming -netr (see section 4.6 on double case
marking).

!
!
'
!
!
'
!
!
!

11!
12!
13'
14!
15!
16'
17!
18!
19!

minesta''
ehnesta !
nenesta'
aidnesta'
hagnesta'
sunnesta'
nesta%'
tennesta'
boanesta'

or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!
or!

minet
ehnet
nenet
aidnet
hagnet
sunnet
net
tennet
boanet

Numerals from 20 to 90 are formed by the addition of -ra/-a/-ka to the lengthened

stem of the numerals 2-9. Numerals 1-9 are added after the decimal numerals.
%
!

iesa nevi !
boarka boari%

!
!

twenty three (23)

ninety nine (99)

In most dialects, if m is added to a decimal numeral, it will be preceded by te and.

%
hanra te m!
!
fifty (and) one (51)
They have regular declensions of inanimate nouns (in parantheses).
!
!
!
'

!
20!
30!
40'

unmarked!
iesa' '
nea' '
aita' '

!
'
'
'

marked
iesadi
neari !
aitaka
550

!
!
'
!
!

50!
60!
70'
80!
90!

hanra' '
suntsa''
ra' '
tenra' '
boarra% '

'
'
'
'
'

hanraka
suntsamo
hmo, ramo
tenrari
boarka

The numeral hundred is giabmi in the singular, and its genitive form guoma or goma
is consistently used with numerals other than 1, e.g. giabmi tenra vi one hundred
eighty seven (187) but nevi guoma te m three hundred and one (301).
!
Numerals from one to nine thousands are expressed with tens of hundreds teens for 1000-1900 and tens for 2000-9000). Thus, one thousand is nets guoma, and
boanesta guoma tenra tenga is nineteen hundred (one thousand nine hundred)
eighty eight (1988). Similarly, two thousand eleven (2011) is iesa guoma minet. In
less conservative dialects, it has merged with the ending -nesta to form -netsoma,
e.g. minetsoma one thousand one hundred (eleven hundred) (1100). The word
netsiabmi can stand on its own, meaning one thousand. It has the genitive form
netsoma. This form is more common in the western dialects, but has quickly made
its way into the speech of males especially in the eastern dialects.
!
The tens of thousands, Siwa uses decimal numerals (20-90) and netsiabmi
(1000), e.g. twenty five thousands five hundred and thirty four (25,534) is iesa
hakno netsuoma hakno guoma nea aits (lit. 25x100 + 534).
!
The hundreds of thousands are expressed using the word giamra (GEN.
guomra) (100,000) and the right decimal numerals, e.g. three hundred and twenty
thousand (320,000) is nevi guomra iesa netsoma (lit. 3x100,000 + 20x10,000).
!
Millions are expressed by using decimals 10-19 or 20-90, e.g. one million
and two hundred thousand (1,200,000) is nets guomra iesa netsoma (lit.
10x100,000+20x10,000) or six million and six hundred thousand (6,600,000) suntsa
guomra suntsa netsoma (lit. 60x100,00+60x1000).
!
Here to summarize is a comparison of the English and Siwa systems;

English

Siwa

10

ten

nets

100

hundred

giabmi

1.000

thousand

netsiabmi

10.000

ten thousand

nets netsuoma

100.000

one hundred thousand

giamra

1.000.000

million

nets guomra

551

Cardinal numbers can be made into adverbs by adding -il or -(v)en.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

m%
ei%
nevi%
aits%
hakno%
sudna%
vi%
tenga%
boari%
nets%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

migil% '
once
even% '
twice
neven%%
three times
aitsven% '
four times
hangen'
five times
sutven' '
six times
vivven, yvven'seven times
tengen% '
eight times
boaren% '
nine times
neddil% '
ten times

This is sometimes found also on demonstrative pronouns:

!
!
!
!
att% '
this time!
(also attei)
!
!
haitt% '
that time!
(also haittei)
!
!
iott% '
that time!
(also iottei)
11.2 Ordinal Numerals
Ordinal numerals show position in a series. They are regularly derived by applying
vowel polarization to the last vowel of the word and by adding -t. The irregular ordinal
form of m one is estot first. The genitive ending is fixed (not dependent on the
stressed vowel) and is -dna, e.g. neet thirtieth and needna of the thirtieth.

%
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
%
!
'
!
!
'

!
1. '
2. '
3.'
4.'
5.'
6.'
7.'
8.'
9.'
10.'
11.!
12.!
13.'
14.!
15.!
16.'

unmarked!
estot% %
eut% %
nevut% %
aitset% %
haknet% %
sudnet% %
voit% %
tenget% %
boarut% %
neddut% %
minestet%
ehnestet%
nenestet%
aidnestet%
hagnestet%
sudnestet%

!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

marked
estodna''
eudna''
nevudna'
aitsedna'
haknedna'
sudnedna'
voidna''
tengedna'
boarudna'
neddudna'
minestedna%
ehnestedna%
nenestedna%
aidnestetdna'
hagnestedna%
sudnestedna'
552

'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

first'
second
third
fourth
fifth
sixth'
seventh
eighth
ninth
tenth
eleventh
twelfth
thirteenth
fourteenth
fifteenth
sixteenth

!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
'
!
!
%
%

17.!
18.%
19.!
20.!
30.!
40.'
50.%
60.!
70.'
80.!
90.!
100.!
1000.!

nestet%
tennestet%
boanestet%
iaset% %
neet% %
aitet% %
anret% %
suntset%
ret% %
tenret% %
boarret% %
giabmut%%
netsiabmut%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

nestedna'
'
tennestedna' '
boanestedna% '
iasedna'
'
needna !
!
aitedna'
'
anredna'
'
suntsedna'
'
redna'
'
tenredna%
'
boarredna%
'
giambudna%
'
netsiabmudna''

seventeenth
eighteenth
nineteenth
twentieth
thirtieth
fortieth
fiftieth
sixtieth
seventieth
eightieth
ninetieth
hundredth
thousandth

Siwa ordinals behave like adjectives and follow the noun they qualify. Generally, both
items of numbers 21-99 are in the ordinal form, but numbers above are found in their
cardinal form.
!
gekes aitet aits %
!
!
the 44th year
!
guma nevi guoma hagnestet ' '
I became the 315th
As the last example shows, ordinal numbers are considered to be nouns when in a
copular phrase.
!
An adverbial form in -i can be used to show order of frequency.
!
estoi ! !
for the first time
!
eui' '
for the second time
!
nenestei !
for the 13th time
The interrogative pronoun for this form is nnei (for the) how manieth (time).
Similarly, one can say attei, haittei and iottei this manieth, that manieth and
that manieth (proximal, medial and distal).
%
'
!

luhhatu haittei orena, tamingo

it will be ready when you will have boiled it that many times (lit. that
manieth)

11.2.1 Halves and Fractions

Siwa forms fractions by having the numerator as a cardinal number, and the
denominator as the (adjectival -dna) genitive form of the cardinal form.
%
%

ei nevudna % '
nevi aitsedna% '

two thirds
three fourths

The genitive form of the numerator is found in the inanimate.

553

A half is koho (GEN. koamo). The cardinal form kohut (GEN. kohutta) is also commonly
found, especially qualifying a noun:
!
or!
'

ma kohut shdi~shdika
ma koha shdi~sihdika ' '
X ate half the fish.

Another word for half is bialbi, with the irregular genitive form bialdi.

11.3 Nominal Numerals

Ordinal numerals are called nominal numerals when they behave like nouns, i.e. they
decline according to nominal declension patterns, e.g. nivut the third or number
three and in the genitive nivudna of the third (as adjective) but nivutsta of number
three (as noun). The final syllable (-Vt) can be separated from the stem by an
absolutive descriptive. In this case, the nominal numeral may be the head of a noun
phrase, with the argument found in the genitive or the elative.

!
%
cf. !

tandami sudnohka % '

tandami sudnohka tme !
tandami sudna tey %
!

I found six (of the round things)

I found six (of the) eggs1
I found six eggs

11.4 Collective Numerals

Collective numerals are a set of fixed nouns that reflect a number of items or people
forming a group together. Collective numerals are regularly derived through
circumfixes. ta- is prefixed to the beginning of the word and -ri is suffixed (ta--ri) to
the polarized vowel of the genitive form of the animate numeral, except for the
number 1, which has the form tamiemi, meaning on ones own, alone. Only numerals
1-4 are found in the collective as well as giabmi, which has the form guomeri. The
noun guomeri has the primary meaning of an army, as the original meaning of
giabmi can be seen in the related verb kalmisa (or in its older form kamlisa) to battle
and kintumi warrior. For numbers higher than five, the postposition kuma is used
with the genitive animate form of the numeral. The word tahhangeri is usually
translated as a team or a fellowship. The phrase ei (ta)boadderi means something
like the whole pack or the whole family, i.e. all the members of a large group. From
the form taubmuri, the word aitsi group of friends is derived.

The form sudnohka bears the absolutive descriptive, but it could also be found on the verb, e.g.
tandohkami sudna tey I found six (round, large) eggs.

554

%
!
!
!

tamiemi%%
tehteri' '
taneuri'
taubmuri'

on ones own, alone

a pair
a threesome
a foursome

Collective numerals also have an adverbial form created by adding -(v)en. They
become tamiemen alone, tehteren in pair, taneuren as a threesome and
taubmuren as a foursome. When both the collective and adverbial collective forms
are side by side, it means X by X, e.g. tehteri tehteren two by two, taneuri
taneuren three by three.
!
Non-numerals are also found with collective markings, e.g. teuriri a
few (from eumo few) and tatammuri many people (from tama many) and the
derivative muri-uli (GEN muhma-uli or muid-uli) various and murot various (ADJ).

555

12 Interjections
Interjections are words or sounds to communicate specific commands or reactions.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
'
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
'

n or na '
mi'
'
hemmi''
(i)ssi% '
uo'
'
y or hyhh'
mdl' '
tsebb' '
tirri'
'
vvv' '
!
!
syll'
'
!
!
sytka' '
ti!
!
sytvi' '
hhami' '
hh' '
sta 1! !
isotveki''
isotve, sotve%
katanesk'
ama% %
nee % %
puu %%
pkka% %

'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
!
'
!
'
!
'
'
'
!
'
%
'
%
%
%
%

wow, woah, oh (surprise, awe)

wow (amazement, happiness)
hurray!
oh, no! (disbelief)'
'
'
ugh, huh (annoyance)
pfew (tiredness)
(sound to get a caribou to move)
(sound to encourage someone)
(sound to make animal go away)
(sound made to calm animals or
children)'
(sound to tell someone to be silent, pron
[sy:])'
please
please
please
thank you
thank you
thank you, there you go, no problem
sorry, excuse me
sorry, excuse me
sorry, excuse me
(sound to get someones attention)
well, you see, hm...
woosh, go away!
woosh, go away!

See also 9.9.4.6 on interjections made from the subitive ending -tta.

1 The word sta is actually the result of two separate words merging into one. The thank you meaning of

sta simply the past form of the verb root hh- to thank, while the meaning of there you go, no problem
comes from the verb root -sot- to give, allow in the meaning of X allowed Y to Z. This has lead to the
word having both the meaning of thank you and it is what is generally said after someone has
apologized.

556

13 Interrogation
Siwa uses clitics to show that a sentence is a tag question (yes or no question).
Positive questions start with so (always unstressed, s- before vowels, most common
simply [s] in all cases). The topic of the question is followed by -a (or -a) for a basic
interrogation and -de/-re (or -e) for a question expecting a positive answer. If the
question is negative, the phrase starts with si (which also functions as the negation
particle for verbs but not copular constructions) and the enclitic -i (or -i) when
expecting a negative answer. The enclitics are hyphened to the topic of the question,
although they also may stand alone. The words so/si can be reduced to s- and
hyphened to the verb. The hyphened enclitic question markers are usually
pronounced with a sharp rising tone. They are found at the end of the matrix verb, or
in the case of defective copular verbs, hyphened to the adjective.
!
The prefix so- is sometimes found as s-. Both so- and s- are accepted for
words in p- t- k- - v- m- n- and l-. %
!
neutral

positive

rhetoric

negative

positive

so -a
is X Y?

so -de/-re/-r
X is Y, right/
isnt it?

so -ahte/ahre (+INFER)
I wonder if XY

negative

si -i
is X not Y?

so -i
X is not Y, isnt
it?

!
%

minguana%
'
so minguana-a?%'

you are ready

are you ready?

%
%

so minguana-de?'
so minguana-ahte?'

you are ready, right/arent you?

I wonder if you are ready

%
%

si siana minga-i' '

so siana minga-i'

arent you ready?

youre not ready, are you?

The interrogative particle so/si must always be at the head of the sentence, but the
enclitics may be found at the end of the phrase.
%
'

so sasame nelta tamotta lilda-go-a saundotu

was it your paternal uncles friends chiefs tent that caught on fire?

557

14 Derivation
Siwa uses a large variety of strategies, with various levels of productivity, to create
words from other words and roots. Heavily involved in all derivations are three vowel
changes called lengthening, fronting and shortening. The combination of these
sound changes with derivational endings creates new words.
14.1 Derivational Phonological Changes
Siwa words may go through various phonological changes caused by derivation
processes. These changes are not always fully productive, but they have affected a
large number of words, and a good knowledge of these processes is essential to
understand how Siwa has developed its vocabulary.
!
The most important phonological changes in derivational strategies involve
changes in the quality of the stressed vowel of a stem, which in term may affect wordinitial consonants. There are three important changes: vowel fronting, lengthening
and shortening. Various derivational endings trigger various vowel changes. Some
can be inferred from the nature of the endings, while most are unpredictable.
!
Both short and long vowels are affected by these changes, and diphthongs
may also be affected. Diphthongs sometimes regress to long monophthongs:
!
%
%
%
%
%

au/ai % %
ei %
%
ie %
%
oa/ou/oi/uo %
uo %
%
eu/ey/ay %

/a
/e
/i
/o
/u
u//y

They may lose an initial i- and gain the glide -:

!
!
ia %
%
%
a
%
io %
%

o
%
iu %
%

u
%
i %
%

Or they may lose and initial o-/u- and gain the glide -:
!
!
oa/a ! !
!
a
!
ui/i ! !
!
i
Note that the vowel // reverts to its original <o(n)> or <u(n)> when affected by such
changes, and therefore is not included below.
!
Certain lengthened vowels, specifically those in - or oa-, may cause
preceding <p t k> to become voiced [b d g] <b d g> (usually cause the loss of -).
Similarly, vowels resulting in diphthongs in - may change k to t and t to ts and
certain shortened vowels, especially o and a, may change k to h or .

558

!
!
%
!
!

ki [k:i] X will speak % %

puna [puna] deer skin %
%
%
%
%
kyni [cyni] nest %
%
!
!
!
!

%
%
%
%
!

goaia [gixa] fast-spoken

bename [benme] leather bag (<
*pename)
tnni [nni] newborn animal
still living in a nest ( < *knni)

While the particular derivational endings are not discussed in this section, examples
will be given for each type of change.

14.1.1 Fronted Vowels

Vowel fronting is the most common sound change for vowel-initial derivational
endings. It is less common than vowel lengthening, but also more regular.
!
fronting
a

salama [slma] antlers selion [seln] caribou

herd (-ion animate aggregate)

ei

plli [p:l:i] mature male peilni [plni] eldest male of

a group (-ni member of group)

npa [npa] X catches Y nebbi [nep:i] trap (-bi tool)

neo [new] sand niuaka [niujga] sand dune (-aka

inanimate aggregate)

psi [pe:si] maternal uncle pgon [pi:j:n] maternal

uncles family (-ion animate aggregate)

ia/a

ii [ii] old ai [j:i] old age (-(i)gi time period)

g-

k [ci:] new kgini [cij:ini] youngest child (-ni

member of group)

i/y

obeno [ben] smoke ibengi [ibe:i] smoking

period (-(i)gi time period)

lma [:lma] leaf lys [y:ls] leaflet (-s inanimate

diminutive)

muni [muni] X will rest myngi [my:i] break, pause ((i)gi time period)

559

fronting

u/

h [hju:] sea water hbaka [hjbga] tidal pool (aka inanimate aggregate)

/ey

kyni [cyni] nest tnni [nni] newborn animal still

living in a nest (-ni member of group)

ieu

nmi [ny:mi] it is humid nieugi [nieuji] ground mist ((i)gi time period)

pd [pd] log peddaka [pe:ga] logs used to

build a house (-aka inanimate aggregate)

su [s:] river sgaka [sy:j:ga] branches of a

river (-aka inanimate aggregate)

14.1.2 Lengthened Vowels

Vowels change as follow when lengthened. Many lengthened vowels have a front
and a back versions, depending on the vowel found in the suffix that causes
lengthening. Vowel lengthening is by far the most common of these three vowel
changes, but least regular.
lengthening
sarana [srna] narrow soarut [sr] lower back (t related to)
a

oa/au/ai

sarana [srna] narrow sauhna [sahna] narrowing

of a river (-na place)
sarana [srna] narrow saihkena [sahcena] cap (kena topogaphy/shape)

ay/eu/u

rmi [r:mi] rock protruding out of water reumkena/

raymkena [rmcena/rmcena] dangerous spot in a
river due to hidden rocks (-kena topography/shape)
v [v:] lake vume [vme] reflection (-me surface/
material)

ay/ey

krru [cr:u] doubt keyrpa [crpa] unknown/

possibly dangerous plant (-ba plant)

560

lengthening
mega [mga] X respects Y meuguna [mguna]
respectful (-na abundance)
e

eu/ei

iei/u

netro [ntx] pistil neitrike [ntxie] proboscis (-ke

shape/similarity)
no [e:n] little bay untsi [:ntsxi] having many little
bays (-si abundance)
iba [iba] X has enough energy iabuna [ibuna]
energetic, fit (-na abundance)

ia/ie

iai/iei
ai/ei

ku [i:gu] snow bank eigge [jei:e] deep path in

snow (-ke shape/similarity)

oa/a/i

kori [kri] boy garike [grie] boyish, childish (-ke

shape/similarity)

hide [hide] hair hiebme [hpmi] fur coat (-me

material/surface)

ki [k:i] X will speak goaia [gixa] fast-spoken (a rapidity/facility)

va/vi//
oai

pbi [p:bi] seal pbme [py:pme] seal skin (-me

material/surface)
[:] bruise vike [vice] bruised (-ke shape/similarity)
puna [puna] deer skin bename [benme] leather
bag (-me material/surface)

uo/ue/e

kulu [kulu] cloudy kvolku [kvlku] cloud cover (-ku

inanimate aggregate)
n [u:] lust nuosi [sxi] lustful (-si
abundance)

uo/ve

a/i/ve

uvv [uw:u:] abundance vessu [ves:u] to abound (-s

to become more like noun)
yi [yi] salmon ak [ac] salmon migration (k inanimate aggregate)
yly [yly] night vellu [vel:u] by night (-lu distributive)

561

lengthening

u/vu

[y:] ice vut [v:] ices (-t collective/related to)

ey

dnn [dn:] loop deydna [dtna] whirlpool (-na

place)

evvu/
evva

ku [c:] attack kevvasa [cew:asxa] aggressive,

quick-tempered (-sa rapidity/facility)

14.1.3 Shortened Vowels

Vowel shortening is the least common vowel change, most commonly caused by
circumfixes, or more productively by the adessive ending -skon.
shortening
pila [pila] red polra [plra] cranberry (-ra fruit)
a

o/

e/

li [:li] wound eluskon [elskn] safe and sound (skon abessive, also luskon)

u/i

kmes [cms] happy umeskon [xumskn]

unhappy (-skon abessive)

i/

erri [er:i] X will work tairsi [tarsi] worker (t--si male

agent)

mpsei [me:ps:ei] X will repair net tamepsusi

[tmps:usi] net repairer/clever man (t--si male agent)

a/

hide [hide] hair hatskon [hatsk:n] hairless (-skon

abessive)

mielo [miel] rot melki [mlci] peat (-ki place)

u/i

nori [nri] X will sing tanutsi [tnutsi] singer (ta--si

male agent)

soalu [slu] perfume soluna [sluna] fragrant,

balmy (-na adjective)

a/o/y

ua [uja] water iki [i] marsh (-ki topology)

kalara [klra] hole ouskon [xskn] cover for

hunting (-skon abessive)

562

shortening

tuobi [tubi] juniper tpra [tpxa] juniper berry (-ra

fruit)

tygi [tyi] poison tekskon [tksk:n] not poisonous (skon abessive)

/ey

[y:] ice eyskon [skn] iceless, not covered in

ice (-skon abessive)

e/

ka [cja] afloat keskon [cskn] non-buoyant,

sinking (-skon abessive)

/e

tul [t:l] X will subside tlaskon [tlaskn] not

improving, worsening (-skon abessive)

14.1.4 Overview of Vowel Changes

Below is a table summarizing the various changes vowels can go through;
fronted

lengthened

shortened

polarized

oa/au/ai

o/

i/e (o before i/-e in western

dialects)

ei

ay/eu/u

ie/ei

ay/ey

u/i

eu/ei

i/

u/o

iei/u

uo/(vv)

ia/a

ia/ie

a/

u/y

g-

iai/iei

uo/

i/y

oa/a/i

u/i

i/y

va/vi//oai

uo/ue/e

a/o/y

e/ai

u/

uo/ve

/ey

563

fronted

lengthened

shortened

polarized

/ey

a/i/ve

oi/

ieu

u/vu

/ey

uo/ui

ey

e/

i/ei

evvu/evva

/e

14.2 Derivational Endings

Derivational endings are added to verbs, nouns, adjectives and bare roots to create
new words. The form of the ending somewhat dictates what phonological changes, if
any, apply to the new word. Derivational endings are grouped by their function. For
adjectival derivational endings, see section 5.5 on adjective formation.
14.2.1 Nominal Derivational Endings
Endings used to create nouns (and some adjectives) are called nominal derivational
endings.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-()aka%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!

%
!
!

diaka' '
eulaka' '
miraka' '
niuaka' '
nenaka%'
peddaka'
segaka' '
sesoaka'

collection of bones in a tree (cf. demo bone)

bouquet of flowers (cf. eleba flower)
a cloud of mosquitos (cf. myry fly)
sand dune (cf. neo sand)
waves (cf. ndna wave)
logs used to build a house (cf. pd log)
burnt embers (cf. sahh- to burn)
a group of tents (cf. sasame tent)

!
!
!

-()on%
!
!

%
!
!

Creates a noun for a group/aggregate/assemblage

that is either from an animate noun or itself animate.
If -- is included, fronting occurs.

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

pgon ' '

selion' '
mehhon'
ilon'
'

%
!
!

Creates a noun for a group/aggregate/assemblage

that is either from an inanimate noun or itself
inanimate. If -- !is included, fronting occurs.

maternal uncles family (cf. psi maternal uncle)

caribou herd (cf. salama antler)
maple tree forest (cf. maihhi maple tree)
vegetation (cf. el- grow)
564

!
!
!

!
!

gylkon' '
iamon' '

community (cf. golk- to live together)

fauna (cf. imisi animal)

!
!

-(i)bi%
!

%
!

Creates a noun for a tool or a diminutive. Causes

fronting.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kysibi' '
kygybi' '
mambi' '
nebbi' '
riakkabi''
sitobi' '
toaibi' '
teidobi''

!
!

-n (-un/-on/-in/-n)!
!
!
!

Creates a noun for a container/box or organ. It also

creates magnitives of words. Causes lengthening

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

human skull (cf. komi mind)

little room, small space (cf. kyni nest)
smoke sauna/tent (cf. imn- to smoke)
bucket for milk
nasal cavity (cf. lsi nostrils)
resin-filled blister on bark (cf. lyra resin GEN.)
box to keep meat in (cf. mavvu meat)
intestines (cf. tiod- to contain)
big tree (cf. tahha tree)
full moon (cf. gasi moon)

!
!
!

-()ni/-()n !
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

%
!

goamun'
ginn' '
amnon''
keynn' '
lagin' '
lirn' '
mauvvun'
toadun'
toahhun'
gausun''

!
!

kgini' '
myni' '
!
!
peilni' '
panni' '
tinni'
'
tnni' '
!
!
ydni'
'

carving knife (cf. kos- to carve)

horn to call animals (cf. kegvi- to call animal)
gutting knife (cf. mian- to gut)
trap (cf. np- to catch)
key (cf. rikki- to open)
fishing rod (cf. sitk- to fish)
cap (cf. totami head)!
branch used in fire (cf. tinin fire wood)

Creates a noun for member of a group. Causes

fronting.
youngest of a group, runt (cf. k new)
member of a hunting group (cf. muoi group of
hunters)
oldest member (cf. plli mature male)
harvester, worker (cf. pni corn)
spouse, partner (cf. ten- to unite)
animal that has not left its parents/nest (cf. kyni
nest)
character (cf. on- to tell/talk/tell a story)

565

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-gi/-i/(-i)%
%
!
!
!
!
!
ayrhi' '
!
aigi/ai'
!
ibengi' '
!
!
!
!
gymi' '
!
myngi' '
!
tingi'
'
!

Creates a noun designating a certain time or

period. !Causes fronting.

-(o)ko% %
!
!
!
!

Creates a noun for a little part, a diminutive or a

small thing part of a greater whole. Causes
lengthening.

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

bovvoko'
deumko''
geunko''
saroko' '
toahhoko'

broken branch (cf. boa branch)

piece of bone, little finger/toe (cf. demo bone)
spore (cf. gedna nut)
piece (cf. sar- to break)
small tree (cf. tahha tree)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!

-ba%
!

%
!

Common derivative in nouns for plants and flowers.

Can cause lengthening or no change.

!
!
!
!
'
!
!

aalba' '
maulba''
monoba'
'
'
soamba''
teylba' '

!
!

-o/-go/-o%
!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!

%
!
!

%
!

%
!

kennego'
nobiego''
tatamo''

time while something is still fresh (cf. aurin fresh)

old age (cf. ii old)
time needed to smoke something (cf. obeno
smoke)
period of frost (cf. kuima frosty)
pause (cf. mun- to rest)
mating period (cf. t(en)- to unite)

horse tail, equisetum (cf. iul- spruce)

butterwort, pinguicula vulgaris (cf. mialha blue)
indian pipes, monotropa uniflora (cf. monona
pale)
buttercup (cf. somora gold)
cotton grass (cf. tr fur)

Creates masculine versions of things, especially

animals. Causes polarization.
male mallard duck (cf. kennut mallard duck)
male porcupine (cf. nobia porcupine)
male wolf (cf. tatami wolf)

566

!
!
!

-ha%
!
!

%
!
!

%
!
!

Creates feminine versions of things, especially

animals. Causes polarization. Can sometimes
replace -mo.

!
!
!

!
!
!

notsiha'
nelha' '
kenneha'

!
%
!
!

!
-o/-e/-/-y%
!
!
!
!

%
!
!

Creates nouns from verbs. The nouns are

usually the result of the verb. Causes lengthening.
The ending depends on the stressed vowel:

!
!
%
%
%

!
%
%
%
%

!
%
%
%
%

!
%
%
%
%

stressed vowel!
a o u% %
i e % %
y%
%
%
%

%
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!
!

The ending may also cause stem-final consonants

to become fortified (lenition in the opposite
direction). Diphthongs tend to become reduced to
monophthongs. No vowel is added to a stem
ending in a vowel, though it may change
unpredictably.

!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
'
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

eiro'
'
gieko' '
poai' '
oadni' '
tamalago'
muodni' '
noadni% %
sieddo' '
!
!
toati' '
sit' '
ikk' '
giego' '
aike' '
niaki' '
muihi' '
naukni' '

shaman woman (cf. notsomo shaman)

female leader (cf. nelli chief)
female mallard duck (cf. kennut mallard duck)

!
%
%
%
%

ending
-i
-o
-y
-

care (cf. er- to be careful)

glance (cf. gik- to glance)
sleep (cf. pohh- to sleep)
look (cf. oden- to look)
hindrance (cf. tamalau- to hinder)
rest (cf. mun- to rest)
swim (cf. non- to swim)
understanding, intelligence (cf. sid- to
understand)
cooperation (cf. tot- to work together)
thank (cf. syty- to thank)
fight (cf. kk- to fight)
apex, tip, climax (cf. gig- to become pointed)
senility (cf. ak- to grow old)
death (cf. nik- to die)
disappearance (cf. muh- to disappear)
breakage (cf. nakn- to break)
567

!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
'
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-lden, -ldon, -ldn!

Creates an abstract noun. Causes polarization.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tamosuldon'
suoselden'
atruldon''
ibilden' '
kinaguldon'
!
!
imisuldon'
rogilden''
hmhelden'
sibmululdon'

friendship (cf. tamosi friend)

motherhood (cf. suosa mother)
fatherhood (cf. atri father)
seniority (cf. iu older relative)
strangeness, unfamiliarity, foreignness (cf. kinagi
foreigner)
animality, wildness (cf. imisi animal)
masculinity
feminity
luck at fishing (cf. sibmuli lucky at catching)!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-ke%
!

%
!

Creates nouns or adjectives similar in shape or

appearance. Causes lengthening.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

neitrike' '
neuge''
keynke' '
paukke' '
soakke'
ahnoke'
vaukke' '

!
!
!
!
!

-kena% %
!
!
!
!
!

nailli' '
noksi' '
ailkko' '
atilo% %
tevvulo' '
vurh' '
oapi'
'
sukli' '
seto' '
kuoko' '
ki' '
moaldi' '
moai' '
mauhho'

%
!

%
!
!

eugena'

taste (cf. nal- to taste)

conclusion (cf. noaks- to end)
swelling (cf. slk- to swell)
starvation (cf. aitel- to starve)
relent, subsiding (cf. tul- to subside)
scar, wound healing (cf. rh- to scar, to grow)
help (cf. op- to help)
protection (cf. saykl- to protect)
threat (cf. seito- to threaten)
order (cf. kuko- to order)
attempt (cf. ky- to try)!
praise (cf. malda- to praise)
drink (cf. mo- to drink)
a hunt (cf. mahh- to hunt)

proboscis (cf. netro pistil)

dust (cf. neo sand)
sperm (cf. kn milk)
hole, pit (cf. pakvi pit)
ghost (cf. sodna shade)
dandruff (cf. ohna white ash)
hook (cf. u id.)

Creates a noun denoting places characterized by

the root word. Causes lengthening. Also creates
adjectives.
sandy forest ground (cf. u sand)
568

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

geinkena'
heiggena'
heimkena'
hulkena'
!
!
meilkkena'
naitkena'
saigena'
!
!

!
!

-ku/-ko/-k%
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kvolku' '
miasku' '
meuhku'
nalk' '
siagu' '
svahku' '
raunko' '
ak' '

cloud cover/layer (cf. kulu cloud)

gravel (cf. misas stone)
taiga, moss field (cf. mieri moss)
beehive (cf. nadli wasp, bee)
a large group (cf. sieo foot)
skin disease (cf. sori blister)
fox/wolf litter (cf. raibma tail)
salmon migration (cf. yi samlon)

!
!

-me%
!

%
!

Creates nouns for materials or surfaces. Causes

lengthening.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

gegeme'
hiebme''
kalme' '
pbme' '
roatme' '
iemme''

hem (cf. geg- to be open at one end)

fur coat (on animal) (cf. hide hair)
inner bark (cf. kylk- to slip off, to come off)
seal skin (cf. pbi seal)
crust (cf. ratta dry, hardened)!
bear skin (cf. imi bear head)

!
!

-na%
!

%
!

Creates nouns denoting a place. Causes

lengthening. Also creates a few adjectives.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

deydna''
geuhna''
keunna''
muodna'
muogna'
!
!
sauhna''

%
!

%
!

%
!

oak-forest (cf. gedna nut)

salty marsh (cf. hego salt)
bird nesting area (cf. hemi bird)
place where melt water pools (cf. heuli melt
water)
peat field (cf. melki peat)
precipice (cf. nauto vertigo)
spot in a forest where there was a fire (cf. saa a
fire)

Creates a noun denoting a large aggregate.

Causes lengthening.

whirlpool (cf. dnn loop, repeated pattern)

mouth of a river (cf. geg- to be open at one end)
cape, promontory (cf. ke- to rise)
grave (cf. mun- to rest)
place to stay the night (cf. muong- to stay the
night)
narrowing point of a lake/river (cf. sarana narrow)
569

ainno' '

courageous (cf. avvi courage)

!
!
!

-rV/-V/-hV%
!
!
!
!

%
!
!

Creates nouns depicting species/collective/group.

Causes lengthening or no change. See section
4..3.2.1 on the historical collective plural.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

brho'
hoalro'
keie'
mosi'
nylry'
!
solra'
rhu'
vatro'

'
'
'
'
'
!
'
'
'

canidae (cf. benho dog)

odonata (cf. holokken dragonfly)
betula (any birch) (cf. kehhe birch bark)
mammal (cf. mahhi bear)
stinging insects (bees and wasps) (cf. nadli
wasp)
cervidae (cf. salama antler)
bank of fish (cf. s young fish)
lichen cover (cf. ono lichen)

!
!
!

-t%
!
!

%
!
!

%
!
!

Creates a noun related to the stem, sometimes a

collective. Causes lengthening or no change. It
sometimes reverts long vowels to their short form.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%

nangat'
nertet'
sirit'
!
temyt'
tsut'
eit%
rt'

'
'
'
!
'
'
%
'

provisions (cf. nang- to save up)

pain, symptoms (cf. nrtt- to hurt)
fish stock, types/number of fish in a lake (cf. sira
fish)
moose antlers (cf. tmi moose head)
skeleton (cf. tsli animal skull)
quality of water (cf. ua water)
nature, environment (cf. rma vicinity)

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-t%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!

%
!
!

Creates nouns from passive verbs. The nouns are

usually the result of the verb. Causes shortening
and in some cases consonant lenition.

sutot'
ikket'
migit'
matot'

'
'
'
'

permission (cf. usot- to be permitted)

birth (cf. umekk- to be born)
respect (cf. umeg- to be respected)
explanation (cf. umiti- to be explained)

!
!

-()lt%
!

%
!

%
!

Creates nouns for an action in which many take

place. Causes lengthening.

moaolot'

a festive occasion (cf. mo- to drink)

570

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

toatolot'
heidnilit''
aitilit' '
nakolot%'

cooperation (cf. tot- to work together)

a wake (cf. heidn- to wake)
epidemic (cf. ate- to be sick)
end of the world (cf. nik- to die)

!
!

-e%
!

%
!

Creates a noun which is worth the action. May also

behave as adjectives. Causes no change.

%
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Agents

kitaie' '
kyye' '
haue' '
!
!
nainie'
onue' '

(something) worth doing (cf. kita- to do)

(something) worth trying (cf. ky- to try)
(something) worth eating, appetizing (cf. h- to
eat)
(something) useful (cf. nain- to use)
(something) worth telling (cf. on- to tell)

%
!
!
!
!

-%
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!

Creates an agent who is an expert or experienced

at something, or someone who does something
often/a lot. If he ending is preceded by a vowel, the
vowel is geminated and coalesces with the ending
(then -a) as shown in 3.1.5.1.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

sitk' '
ks'
'
hantoma'
belm' '
kaiksevva'
ouma' '
sut' '

!
!
!
-!

-obba/-ebba%
!
!
!
!

!
%
!
!
!
!
!

!
%
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!

%
!
!

kkibba'
%
%
idebba' '
piagebba'
!
!
koahlebba'
listebba''

experienced fisherman (cf. sitk- to fish)

experienced archer (cf. ks- to shoot)
pathological liar (cf. hanto- to lie)
good/diligent worker (belm- to work)
coward (kaikse- to dodge)
whiner (cf. ou- to cry)
glutton (cf. sut- to be hungry)

Creates an agent who is prone to/known to do

something. Causes no change. Adjective form in
beha.
someone who is prone to quarreling (cf. kk- to
quarrel)
a clumsy person (cf. id- to fall)
a sleepy person, sleepyhead (cf. piag- to fall
asleep)
a noisy person (cf. koahl- to be noisy)
someone who gives up easily (cf. list- to give up)

571

!
!
!

-uli/-eli% %
!
!
!
!

%
!
!

Creates an agent who is able to, good at or has the

potential to performing the action. Adjective form in
-lha. Causes no change.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kaseli' '
oguli' '
!
!
ogenuli''
ahhuli''
!
!
keknuli' '
!
!
nuuli' '
seuli' '
sibmuli' '

someone who works quickly (cf. kas- to hurry)

someone with a good memory (cf. og- to
remember)
an observant person (cf. ogen- to notice)
someone with low endurance (cf. ahh- not to be
able to stand)
an organized/initiative person (cf. kekn- to put
together)
someone who sees well (cf. nu- to see)
someone who hears well (cf. se- to hear)
a lucky/skilled hunter/fisher (cf. sibm- to catch)

%
!
!
!
!
!
!

t(a)--si%
%
!
tamosi' '
!
tanutsi' '
!
tagassi' '
!
ttasi' '
!
tukvasi''
!
tassi' '

Creates a male agent. Causes shortening.

hunter, friend (cf. mahh- to hunt)
singer (cf. nod-/nor- to sing)
traveler (cf. gus- to travel)
dancer (cf. onta- to dance)
murderer (cf. ukva- to murder)
male guest (cf. iv- to stay)

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

t(a)--ni%
%
!
tamoni' '
!
taiskani''
!
iutokni' '
!
tanudni' '
!
ttani' '
!
tanni' '
!

Creates a female agent. Causes shortening.

female friend (cf. mahh- to hunt)
seamstress (cf. aisk- to sew)
bough cutter/fetcher (cf. iuak- to cut boughs)
singer (cf. nod-/nor- to sing)
dancer (cf. onta- to dance)
female guest (cf. iv- to stay)

%
!
!
!
!
!

t(a)--ri%%
%
!
tamori' '
!
tairri' '
!
ttari' '
!
tamoskari'
!
!
!

Creates a plural agent. Causes shortening.

hunters, hunting partners (cf. mahh- to hunt)
row men (cf. air- to row)
dancers, group of dancers (cf. onta- to dance)
people, nation, inhabitants, Siwas (cf. maski
people)

!
!
!

(t)(a)--ra(gi)% %
!
Tatimragi'
!
Aslaragi''

Creates a people. Causes shortening.

eastern Siwa (cf. temm- lake)
mid-western Siwa (cf. sal- caribou)
572

!
!
!
!

s(o)--ge%
%
!
somode'
!
sotrage'
!
sakoge'

Creates a patient. Causes shortening.

huntee, pray (cf. mahh- to hunt)
enemy (cf. rutr- to hate)
victim (cf. ukv- to murder)

14.2.1.1 Non-Productive Endings

In addition to the endings listed above, Siwa employs a variety of less common
endings, which are not productive they are not generally used to create new words
anymore. This includes many endings for various species of animals and insects.
!
Many insects have endings of the shape -CCen.
!
!
!
!

-kken%
!
!
!

%
%
holokken%
terhekken'
aekken'

!
!
!

-bben% %
%
!
olobben''
!
tohhobben'

winged beetle, hemiptera

leafhopper
treehopper

!
!
!
!
'

-dlen%
!
!
!
'

%
%
nyggedlen'
holodlen'
lehhidlen'
idlen' '

spider, araneae/arachnida
wolf spider
cellar spider
harvestman'
jumping spider

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-men'
!
!
!

'
'
ibmen'
somen''
redlmen%'

grasshopper, cricket,
grasshopper
cricket
cricket

-lken%
!
!
!

%
%
somolken'
kobolken'
velken' '

butterfly
yellow summer butterfly
monarch
moth

Many birds have endings of the shape -mi/-in or -nut

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

bumi' '
eumi' '
mialrikkin'
siggini' '

winged insect, odonata

dragon fly!
mayfly
damselfly

flycatcher
shrike
blue jay
sparrow
573

!
!
!
!
!
'
!

!
!
!
!
!
'

itemi' '
sokmi' '
mogopimi'
kikiin' '
kennut' '
ikimainnut'

thrush
seagull
oystercatcher (also mpimi or mbmi)
woodpecker
mallard duck'
eider duck'

14.2.2 Deverbalizers
Deverbalizers are used to form nouns (names of actions) from verbs. Consonantal
roots retain prefixes (-r- bite, -t- unite and -tk- to train).
!
!

transitive (infinitive -mi/-mu/-m)

!
-on (+lengthening)

!
!
!

!
!
!

!
!

intransitive (infinitive -sa/-su/-s)

!
-va/-a (often simplification of diphthongs)

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!

subjective (infinitive -na/-nu/-n)

!
o--en (+shortening; verbs in -ld- get -len)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

ditransitive (infinitive -nin/-non/-nn)

!
(i)--det~et (oftens implification of diphthongs)

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

mauhhon '
nuogon''
vagon' '

bilva'
erva'
gedlva'
irva'

'
'
'
'

osoken ''
oten' '
otken' '
obesilen'
ogalen' '
ungokeen'

aldet ' '

ihendet' '
kaddet' '
tottet~toet'
ivalet' '

a hunt! (cf. mahmi to hunt)

sight (cf. nuimi to see)
memory, remembrance (cf. ogami to remember)

speech, talking (cf. bialsa to speak)

toil, hard work (cf. errisa to work outside)
function, behavior, role (cf. gedlisu to function)
bite (cf. irinen to bite into)

building a house (cf. soakna to build a house)

unit(y)! (cf. otena to unite)
training (cf. otkena to train)
peace making (cf. beisildena to make peace)
conversation (cf. gauldena to speak together)
effort (cf. uokyina to make an effort)

free time (cf. allnin to have time)

responsability! (cf. hennanin to be responsible)
need (cf. kadnin to need)
ability, know-how (cf. toanin to know how to)
lack (cf. valinon to lack)
574

!
!

translative (infinitive -lu/-l or -oru/-r)

!
(i)--et (+shortening; verbs in -sk- get -set)

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!

passive (infinitive -mon/-mn)

!
u--as (+shortening)

!
!
!

!
!
!

soluset' '
teguset''
!
!
soet' '
imoget' '
!
!
imanget''

katubias'
utegas' '
umegas'

losing of antlers
losing ones sight, going blind (cf. teuguskoru to
go blind)
venture, migration (cf. sulu to move away)
paling, whitening, becoming pale (cf. magoru to
become white)
preparation (cf. mingoru to get ready)

exile (cf. katabimon to be thrown out)

support (cf. teigemon to be supported)
being wounded (cf. aygimon to be wounded)

14.2.2.1 Verbal Derivational Endings

Siwa has a rich system of verbal derivational endings. Generally, most verbal
derivational endings either cause polarization, lengthening or fronting. Polarization
occurs when the derivational ending is added onto a stem ending in a vowel (or
which could not form the resulting cluster), while lengthening and fronting occurs if
the ending is added to a consonant. The vowel <> is common, which means verbal
endings are heavily harmonized (see 3.1.1.3).

Verbalizer%
-or-%
-er-%
-rThese endings are found attached to all word classes and simply create a verb from
the root. They can modify the meaning of the root in various ways. The endings
generally cause lengthening. It is thought that the -r- is a cliticized form of the copula d- is.
!
'

mumma!
muommora%

!
!

moukki! !
!
tamatamoaikkeri!

belly
X will fall/lie flat (on its belly)

!
!

koho! !
koaora!

!
!

half
X will (cut in) half

!
!

t!
tera'

!
!

you (honorific)
X will use the honorific t for Y

!
!

!
!

in Xs fathom, amongst
X will hug Y

575

Opportunitive% %
-()r-% -()-% -()h-%
These endings create verbs from any word class with the added meaning that there
is enough of a quality for a purpose, that it is the right time for the action or that a
period is currently ongoing. The endings generally cause lengthening, though less
often for nouns.
!
!
!

submi% %
tautri% %
autru% %

%
%
%

X is hungry
X is hungry enough to eat
it is time to eat

!
!

misi%
%
miasi% %

%
%

X will smoke
it is (a good) time to smoke/celebrate

!
!

nodi% %
noadi% %

%
%

X will sing
it is (a good) time to sing or X wants to sing

!
!

mhki% %
mhkehi%

%
'

rime
it is cold enough for rime, it is frosty

!
!

moksabi%
moksabuhi%

!
%

ptarmigan
it is ptarmigan hunting time

!
!

sitki% %
sitkehi% %

%
%

X will fish
it is the right time to fish

Verbal Causative!
%
--%
-u-%
-e-%
-The verbal causative endings are found added onto verbal roots and add the
meaning of an agent who is made to perform an action, or it may create verbs whose
agent causes a patient to change state or perform an action. The endings cause
fronting. The endings are thought to be a cliticized form of the verb root - to change,
to become.
!
!

neta% %
nita% %

%
%

X knows Y
X will inform/teach Y

!
!

ha%
hea%

%
%

%
%

X will eat Y
X will feed Y

!
!

ti%
%
teigia% %

%
%

X will stand
X will support/hold up Y

!
!

maivvi% %
meigia%%

%
%

X will smile
X will make Y smile
576

!
Adjectival Causative! !
-t-%
-ut-%
-et-%
-tThe adjectival causative endings are added onto adjectives and show that the agent
of the verb causes an object to become (more) like the adjective. The endings cause
lengthening. They are thought to be cognates with the comparative endings.
!
!

leyma% %
leilta% %

%
%

warm
X will warm Y up

!
!

laippo% %
loaita% %

%
%

flat
X will flatten Y

!
!

moton% %
moatuta%

%
%

sad
X will sadden Y

!
!

nivvon% %
navvuta%

%
%

wet
X will wet Y

!
!

nunna% %
nuonta%%

%
%

angry
X will anger Y

!
!

nn%
%
nunta%%

%
%

closed, shut
X will shut/close Y

!
!

roko% %
roahta% %

%
%

hollow
X will hollow Y out

Nominal Causative%
-m-%
-um-% -em-% -mThes nominal causative endings are added onto nominal stems and a verb whose
agent perform an action related to the noun. It is not associated with any sound
change other than deletion of final vowels in some cases.
!
!

kut% %
klma% %

%
%

war
X will wage war on Y

!
!

miola% %
miolma%%

%
%

flame
X will set Y on fire/burn Y

!
!

nidagan%%
nidema%

%
%

stripe
X will tattoo Y

!
!

nukli% %
nukluma%

%
%

hook
X will put Y on a hook/catch Y (red-handed)
577

Translative%
-n-%
-un-%
-en-%
-nThe translative endings create a translative verb whose agent changes state or gains
a characteristic. They often cause lengthening.
!
!

nobba% %
%
tanoabbunu% %

beard
X will grow a beard

!
!

pakvi% %
tapoaknu%

%
%

grave
X will be(come) very busy/sick/taken

!
!

oo% %
vadnu% %

%
%

clear night sky

the sky clears up

!
!

neo% %
taneinnu%

%
%

sand
X will get sand/dirt on itself

!
!

ne% %
taneydn%

%
%

coil
X will coil up/retract

!
!

nuobmo%
tanuomnu%

%
%

stretched skin
X will get stretched out/used to (+ELAT)

Detranslative% %
-sk-%
-usk-% -esk-% -isk-% -skThe detranslative endings create translative verbs whose agent loses a
characteristic, and are opposite to the translative endings. They cause lengthening.
!
!

tr%
%
tatreisk%

%
%

fur
X will shed its fur

!
!

salama%%
tsoalusku%

%
%

antlers
X will lose its antlers/be humiliated

!
!

ua%
%
tueisku%

%
%

water
X will become dehydrated

!
!

tega% %
tateugusku%

%
%

X is able to see Y
X will (slowly) lose its sight/disappear

!
!

bieli%
%
tabeulusku%

%
%

fat
X will lose weight

kori%

boy

578

takvaresku%

X will enter adulthood/lose his virginity

!
!

dida% %
tadiedesku%

%
%

girl
X will menstruate for the first time

!
!

suosa% %
tasvesisku%

%
%

mother
X will miscarry

!
!

tveli%
%
tatveilosku%

%
%

blood (outside the body)

X will bleed out

Reciprocal!
-ld-%
-uld-% -ild-%
-ldThe reciprocal forms a verb, often subjective and generally plural, where two agents
act toward each other or together. Some eastern dialects use -l- instead of -ld-. The
endings cause lengthening.
!
!

besima%
obeisildiri%

%
%

there is peace
they will make peace with each other

!
!

ki%
%
ogauldari%

%
%

X will speak
they will discuss Y together

!
!

gattia% %
ogetildiri%

%
%

in Xs presence
they will meet/come across each other

!
!

sasame%%
soasuldiri%

%
%

tipi
they will share a tipi together

!
!

soaki% %
suikildiri%

%
%

house
they will live together/cohabit

!
!

ti%
%
oteigldiri%

%
%

X will stand
they will face each other off/feud/

!
!
!

nebbi% %
oneibbildiri%
!
!

%
%
!

tap
they will hunt/try to get/horse around with each
other

!
!

nua% %
onuouldiri%

%
%

X will see Y
they will see/court/be with each other

579

Continual%
-l-%
-l-%
-klThe continual endings create a verb whose action lasts for a long time. It causes
lengthening.
!
!

submi% %
taiteli%

%
%

X is hungry
X will starve

!
!

tapohhi%
tapikeli%

%
%

X will sleep
X will be in a coma/is dead (euphemism)

!
!

atemi% %
taiteli% %

%
%

X is sick
X will be severely sick

!
!

la%
%
eilgila% %

%
%

X will know Y
X will get to know Y (over time)

!
!

t%
%
teytkli%

%
%

it is too cold
X will die of cold

!
!

ha%
%
haukli% %

%
%

X will eat Y
X will eat a meal/feast

!
!

ivi%
%
iaggeli%

%
%

X will stay
X will stay for a while

!
!

neni% %
neineli%%

%
%

X will sit
X will sit for a while

Sensive!
-()un-% -()en-% -()nThe sensive endings create verbs that indicate that the agent feels like,
experiences or seems like a characteristic. It often causes fronting though not
always. These verbs are also commonly found in subjective-intransitive pairs, and
may also incorporate a beneficiary when placed in the ditransitive:
!
!
%
%

submi% %
moaiteni%
entaiteni%
miaitenisi%

%
%
%
%

!
!

atemi% %
%
t(om)atouni% %

X is sick
X will feel/seem sick

!
!

sara% %
t(o)sereni%

good
X will feel/seem good

%
%

X is hungry
I feel sick
I seem sick
I seem sick to you

580

!
!

tohhot% %
tatihheni%

%
%

young
X will feel/seem young/fresh

!
!
!
!

hee% %
t(o)higeni%
hmi% %
t(o)heimeni%

%
%
%
%

cold
X will feel/seem cold
hot
X will feel/seem hot

!
!

gimha% %
tagimuni%

%
%

pleasant
X will feel pleasant

!
!

leyma% %
dleileni%

%
%

warm
X will feel warm

!
!

pila%
%
tapialeni%

%
%

red
X will flush/seem red

Sensive-Translative Causative%%
-()kk% -ekk
The causative form common to the sensive and translative create verbs where an
agent causes an object to appear, feel or gain a characteristic. It often causes
lengthening or polarization, but the sensive ending -Vni is simply changed to -Vkka.
!
!

eski%
%
eskuekka%

%
%

empty
X will empty Y

!
!

atemi% %
tatoukka%

%
%

X is sick
X will make Y (feel/seem/be) sick

!
!
!

sara% %
tserekka%
!
!

%
%
!

good
X will make Y feel/seem good or X will be
enough/too much for (then tiserekkaita)

!
!
!

hee% %
t(o)higeni%
tahigekka%

%
%
%

cold
X will feel/seem cold
X will make Y (feel) cold

!
!
!

hmi% %
t(o)heimeni%
taheimekka%

%
%
%

hot
X will feel/seem hot!
X will make Y (feel) hot/give fever

581

!
!
!

gimha% %
tagimuni%
tagimukka%

%
%
%

pleasant
X will feel pleasant
X will Y feel good/pleasant/intoxicated

Sensive Excessive!
-ents-% %
-untsThe sensive excessive creates verbs generally from adjectives and confers the verb
with a meaning of (far) too much. It causes lengthening. The resulting verbs are
commonly without a subject, or ditransitive with a beneficiary.
!
The form i--entsa or i--untsa is sometimes found attached on
adjectives, though these are not considered verbs because they are only found in
this particular form. These forms of adjectives usually mean X is too Y for Z but it can
also simply be a very strong emphasizer if the 4th person is the recipient (then i-entsani or i--untsani). Some speakers reanalyse these forms and decline them
like -ni suffixed adjectives and pronouns. The word
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

sientsaki'
'
atanauntsani% %
iteuntsatsita %%

you are too old for me

the very greatest of all
to the very tiniest of all

hmi% %
%
taheimentsi% %
tiheimentsaki%

hot
X will be (far) too hot
X will be too hot for me

!
!
!
!

hee% %
%
tahigentsi% %
tihigentsaki% %
iheeuntsani% %

cold
X will be (far) too cold
X will be too cold for me
freezing cold

!
!
!
%
!

kendi-% %
keindentsi%

%
%

early
it is (far) too early

dla%
%
eidlentsi%

%
%

late
it is (far) too late

Optative Causative! --!

-vv-%
-vThe optative causative creates verbs with an object which is caused to want to
perform the verb. The endings cause lengthening, though in some cases fronting.
!
!

neta% %
taneutva%

%
%

X knows Y
X will interest Y
582

!
!
!
!
!

ha%
%
tahauvva%

%
%

X will eat Y
X will make Y want to eat/will be appetizing to Y

vmi% %
taviama%

%
%

X will scream
X will enrage Y

!
!

mani% %
menia%%

%
%

X will come
X will lure/fool Y

!
!

tapohhi%
tapoava%

%
%

X will sleep
X will make Y sleepy/bore Y

!
!

saitki% %
seitkva%%

%
%

X will disappear
X will put Y to shame/shun Y

!
!

takokka%
gakva% %

%
%

X will please Y
X will (be made to want to) befriend Y

!
!

obkki%
eykva% %

%
%

X will fight
X will (be made to want to) fight Y

Comitative%
-ul-%
-el-%
-il-%
-lThe comitative endings create verbs, often from adjectives, whose agent is
characterized, covered, dressed in or wearing something. Final vowels are polarized
and sometimes lenition also occurs. In some dialects, the resulting verbs have a
meaning close to X looks Y. Younger speakers use this more productively.
!
!

maiki% %
maikli%%

%
%

white
X is wearing (all)/looks white

!
!

rybmy% %
rymuli%%

%
%

dress
X is wearing a dress

!
!

sbma% %
smli% %

%
%

black
X is wearing (all) black/looks black

!
!

tveli%
%
tvelli% %

%
%

blood
X is covered in blood

!
!

rodlot% %
rodlli% %

%
%

folds
X is wearing beautiful clothes

583

Permissive%
-st-%
-ust-% -est-% -ist-%
-stThe permissive endings create verbs who agent allows an object to perform an
action. It causes lengthening. It is thought to be a cliticized form of the verb -sot- to
give, to allow.
!
!

mani% %
maunusta%

%
%

X will come
X will allow Y (in/to come)

!
!

ha%
%
hausta%%

%
%

X will eat Y
X will allow Y to eat

!
!

ki%
%
gaista% %

%
%

X will speak
X will allow Y to speak

!
!

taniki% %
nakusta%

%
%

X will die
X will let Y to die

Privative%
-nt-%
-tThe privative creates verbs whose agents take something away of rids something
(from some object). It causes polarization.
!
!

milki% %
milkta%%

%
%

scales
X will remove the scales off Y

!
!

nelsi% %
nelsta%

%
%

sprig
X will take sprigs from Y

!
!

damu% %
daumenta%

%
%

raw hide
X will skin Y

!
!

kehhe% %
kehhta%

%
%

birch bark
X will take bark off (a birch)

!
!

keppi% %
keppta%

%
%

head
X will decapitate Y

584

585

15 Syntax
Siwa syntax differs greatly from that of English. Siwa has a fixed word order that
offers some variation. Siwa is a VOS, partly head-final language.
15.1 General Word Order
Siwa is of the rather rare VOS word order, common to only 3% of the worlds
languages. This means that the verb generally precedes the object and subject of a
phrase. The order is commonly switched to SVO by means of relative marker o- in
copular sentences.
!
Siwa sentences can be broken down into two general types. Both types have
the same components which are fixed. They are the adverbial phrase (which does
not necessairly only contain adverbs, but also object predicatives and quantifiers),
the verb, the locative phrase (which is usually ordered as stative>movement
to>movement from and contains indirect objects), the object phrase (contains direct
objects and the predicates of copular verbs) and the subject phrase. The copula
phrase is only present in certain types of sentence constructions, but it becomes
before the subject.

Adverb! !

Verb!

Locative!

!
!
mani% %
%
%
Menho will come
!
kenka% %
ipendidna%
oakibma%
tomorrow Menho will return home
ska% %
irentima%%
hemmita %
Menho often feeds seeds to birds

Object! !

Subject

Menho

Menho

rentue% %

Menho

kloah% %
ista%
%
skta oagika% %
X thanked the woman for her help repeatedly

%
%
da%
%
she has a husband
'
%
%
tkilla% %
the man cut down the tree

nenima%%

nalbi

tahha% %

somi

lillu%

somi

mtka% tagil% sihri

yesterday it rained a lot
%
%
daki%
%
the man is my paternal uncle

586

Or more commonly:
!
!
%
%
%
somi, % oaki %
the man is my paternal uncle (SVO copular)

lillu

ska% kobai% %
longi% %
vvia% %
%
%
the water is often still freezing cold in the summer around here

ua

ska% kobai% %
sia%
%
vvia% %
longiu% %
the water is often not freezing cold in the summer around here

ua

The other type of sentence structure is the copular sentence, which differs by having
the copula inserted right before the subject.

Adverb!

Verb!

Locative/Object!!

Copula! Subject

Main Clause

neni%
%
%
%
nami
I am sitting
(inconclusive copular phrase)
!
sinka% nainahpes%
kysibmoita kimi attaga%
okabagi
our forefathers used to use this as a bark carving knife a long time ago
(distant past copular phrase)
kori,% nua% %
pentsa kaiksitotima%
the boy who saw the wolf cub escape
(relative clause)

oga

tamosi,%kaiksi% %
daiko% %
the hunter, whose wolf cub escaped
(genitive relative clause)

pengi

It should be noted that coordination particles are generally found in the adverbial
phrase only if is not otherwise empty. If the adverbial phrase is empty, the
coordinating particle always directly follows the verb:
mtka katta maski%
denarika %
%
%
.however, yesterday the hunters left the village

muoi

%
maski katta% denarika%
%
.however, the hunters left the village

muoi

15.2 The Noun Phrase

The Siwa noun phrase contains a head, which may be followed, preceded or
surrounded by many components. Here they are listed by where thet stand in the
noun phrase.
587

Preceding the noun:

numerals!
!
personal pronouns!
question pronouns!
indefinite pronouns!
quantifiers!
!

!
!
!
!
!

!
%
%
%
!

ei kori% '
to kori% '
mmni kori'
toamni kori'
tami kori'

Following the noun:

attributive adjectives!
pro-adverbial phrases!
!
!
!
relative clauses!!
!
!
!
locative phrases!
!
!
!
infinitive phrases!
determinate numerals!
genitive phrase!!

!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

%
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

el tygyha'
'
el havva'
'
!
!
!
el, ihha ogakina''
!
!
!
el korulia'
'
!
!
!
el ilami' '
'
el ei% '
'
el unnuhmo' '

a poisonouns plant
a plant like that
(one)
the plant you gave
me
the plant in the
pot
a plant to cultivate
the two plants
the witchs plant

!
!

to kori-t%
'
toamni kori-ne% '

this boy
another boy

Surrounding the noun:

demonstrative pronouns!!
-ne other and -uli kind of !

'
'
'
'
'

two boys
the/that boy
what boy?
some boy
many boys

!
15.3 The Adjectival Phrase
The adjectival phrase refers to true adjectives and participal adjectives. The
adjectival phrase head may be preceded by adverbs. It can be followed by a
locative or postpositional phrase. In other respects, the adjectival phrase behaves
like the noun phrase.
adverbial phrase!
locative/postp. phrase!
!
!
!
comparative! !
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

seppen tygyha% '

tygyha saumkita%'
!
!
!
tygyhita savi ta' '
!
!
!

very poisonous
poisonous to
caribou
more poisonous
than it

The adjective phrase is found before the noun it qualifies only if the adjective is
considered to be an object predicate.
!
!

mestagga soaki pila%

mestagga pila soaki%

'
'

we painted the red house

we painted the house red

15.4 The Adverbial Phrase%

The adverbial phrase is exclusively left-branching, meaning the head is preceded by
all its modifiers. This reverses the typical order of adjectival phrase from nounadjective to adjective-noun.

588

Left Branching
tamottahgil bettutta nebie aygontuvven lolnoskui lppi
the hare escaped unarmed by the hunters carefully placed trap
(lit. hunters carefully placed trap-by unhurtedly escaped hare)
Compare to the same noun phrase outside a larger adverbial phrase:
nebbi tamotta hgil bettu
a trap placed carefully by the hunter

15.5 Interrogative Phrase

Interrogatives in Siwa do not change the word order of the phrase. Instead, Siwa
uses circumfication for tag questions (see 13). The question words are found in their
respective slot in the phrase:
Adverb! !

Verb!

Locative!

Object! !

Subject

%
%
so mani-a%
%
%
will Menho come?
!
ngu% %
ipendidna%
oakibma%
when Menho will return home?

Menho?

Menho?

ska% %
irentima%%
nntsita %%
Whom does Menho often feed seeds to

rentue% %

Menho?

ska% %
irentima%%
hemmita %
What does Menho often feed to the birds

nt%

Menho?

ska% %
irentima%%
nntsita %%
Who often feeds seeds to birds?

rentue% %

mmni?

15.6 Topicalization
Topicalization in Siwa done by moving the topic to the front of the phrase and using
the complementizer (especially the short form -). The topicalized phrase is usually
still in the case it would normally be.
%
!
!
%
'

hemmita ska irentima rentue Menho

it is to birds that Menho is feeding seeds
rentue ska irentima hemmita Menho
it is seeds that Menho is feeding to the birds

589

590

16 Dialects
Siwa is better described as a continuum of dialects than a single language, although
for the purposes of this book, a specific dialect was taken as the standard. There are
two main dialects, the eastern and the western dialects. Each contains many smaller
dialects, but there are general features which distinguish eastern and western
dialects. These will be outlined here.
Eastern

Western

Plural of inanimate nouns ending in vowels

ED have inanimate noun plurals in
diphthongs (-ua -ie -uo) and voicing of
voiceless stops

WD have inanimate noun plurals in uma -ime -umo -m or - -en - -n

respectively

elebua flowers

elebuma or eleb flowers

oarie points

oarime or oaren points

sekuo or sego or seka cliffs

sekm or sekn cliffs

tapua or taba bulbs

tapuma or tap bulbs

Inanimate nouns have undefined plural

in - or -
sira a couple of fishes
Inanimate nouns with genitives in -ila and -yla
ED have agentive form in -il and -yl

WD have agentive form in - and -

angil seed

ang beam

ymmyl good fishing waters

ymm good fishing waters

Inanimate words in -Vut which have -lda in the patientive

ED have genitive form in -lda

WD have genitive form in -utta

agut agelda marrow

agut ageutta marrow

baut balda butter

baut bautta butter

Sounds

ED allow -rg-

WD allow -rh-

591

Eastern

Western

birgo beam

birho beam

norga duck

norha duck

ED keep -i-

WD have -i-

neui birch wood

neui birch wood

sevai burnt embers

sevai burnt embers

has word final -

has word final -s

sei little river

sevvis little river

closed <> is []

closed <> is []

ndna [ntna] wave

ndna [ntna] wave

weakly anaptyctic

strongly anaptyctic

ertto [xrt:] threshold

ertto [x:rt:] threshold

olkko [lk:] temple

olkko [:lk] temple

stressed --

no stressed --

ei young animal

veis young animal

-a- polarized to -e- or -i- before -i- or -e-

-a- polarized to -o- before -i- or -e-

elebimi smell of flowers

elebomi smell of flowers

-b- allowed

-pr- or -pi- allowed

sebi bad GEN.

sepi bad GEN.

word initial - and - not allowed

word initial - and - allowed

mahingu I will die in combat

ingu I will die in combat

ED have -ps- and -bs-

WD only have -ps-

kepsi kebsie mushroom

kepsi kepsie mushroom

Conditional irrealis and optative forms

592

Eastern

Western

ED have more conservative version

WD have standard version

sihhubo may it rain

sihhuo may it rain

mahingoi I would die in combat

ingoi I would die in combat

Conditional realis
da- or d-

ro- or r-

damanimi if I come

romanii if I come

Verbal adjective rule 1 pronouns

ED have coalescing version

WD have separated version

hoatsimha you are surprised

hoatsimasa you are surprised

dappima I am lonely

dappimaka I am lonely
Pronouns

1p.sg agentive -mi/-m

1p.sg agentive -i

kimi or kim I will talk

kii I will talk

munimi or munim I will rest

munii I will rest

1p.pl agentive inclusive -gga

1p.pl agentive exclusive -gge

1p.pl agentive inclusive -ko

1p.pl agentive exclusive -k

ilagga we will cultivate Y

ilako we will cultivate Y

kaiknigge we will look

kaiknik we will look

2p.pl agentive -dda

2p.pl agentive -d

konidda you will walk

konid you will walk

3p.pl agentive -ri

3p.pl agentive -(i)ts

keidiri they will start a fire

keidits they will start a fire

pedniri they will arrive

pednits they will arrive

593

Eastern

Western

1p.pl unagentive copular exclusive meri

1p.pl unagentive copular exclusive mri

pohhi saomeri in which we sleep

pohhi saomri in which we sleep

2p.pl unagentive copular exclusive sari

2p.pl unagentive copular exclusive -si

nekeni ogasari which you lost

nekeni ogasi which you lost

2p.pl unagentive copular exclusive -tari

2p.pl unagentive copular exclusive -di

noski gaitotari into which they got

noski gaitodi into which they got

Adjectives and Adverbs

adjectives in -ot

adjectives in -oo

tapot last

tapoo last

adjectives in -on

adjectives in -

tauson rigid

taus rigid

adverbs in -en, -il

adverbs in -il

sogen dryly

sogil dryly

tihen slightly

tihil slightly

koken lightly

kokvil~kokil lightly

!
%

594

17 Texts
%

Nitaka Siiko

Kala
Suikildi tsamnitasia oalmo Siuragi, keuhka ihta. Ipenduni 20 (iesadi)
gekesuoma iga en kalkibma-t. Osoagu onta netta ines kolta
unokki Sipsi okua Kkiesiustagi, siarupmamo kolta ines unokki
Aingo osoagotu katta tabba. muolkio kikarhhi 435 (aits guoma
nea akno) maidomnihta ai Hoklies sarakka. Aidlepmamo ines
da gagulka-ne netva Neihisko, araiko ineska benkahteri 135
(giabmi nea angoka) maiduoma kua Kuomin te Kevvi e, selo
sytrotima. Sorhi oa kadna biekkula Kkiekalkima, daiko mrar siva
kokket. Inda etta Sipsuesima rhhima unokki Rhri te Kelin eura
dedna. Sutaen oa Aingoka siehteri 200 (ei guoma) maiduoma
kua, r sisella kalka siikodi.
!
Tommitgita on sievvi gekesuoma est-odna iga ogmo
Kkiesiustagi sahra Tatimragi (suikildiri k temme ai), osoage u
muid kanamo-uli. Kkiekalkaska binderi on ara dednunevi
Sarsirit, Onnu te Okna taga, miullil komo ehmi Tatimstatsita kekkotta-hi.
nn keutseeibma Su-kkiekala sahra kala Aslastagi, tagil k
miegari salakka, kommil rakma osatari, ara taga Sipsueska 215-260
(ei guoma agnet-ei guoma suntsamo) maiduoma kua.
!
Medde 265 (ei guoma suntsa akno) maiduoma kutgta
binderi oa Sukiekala, osviri onta Skisamoika oda, tkka tona
takekkita oda, Kolmoika katta te Hadlogo. Onokki on Denigi ogihni,
nokkari ka deno rid.
!
Hadlogoika tkka Sukiekala kie-kalkibma selo unokki
Tski, oat eut kanamo sii-kodi. Tymisuvvi numeita Tskmo, oarat
Hadlo-goika 500 (akno guoma) maiduoma kua. ara numeika
siehteri 65 (suntsa angoka) maiduoma kua Nenniauki, medde 65
(suntsa angoka) maiduoma kutgita oa Regna, sahra dedna
sisella kiekalkima. ara nume ampo Riekka, sahra toatnededna
ataneila kadl kalka Siustagi, kemotoatuli Siuragi te rkoloni sao.
Onokki on Heigi ogihni, katibogu de nonuttaika tatimstagi hego
nokkiutta-hi, suikildiri k vetari ai.
!
Atai on rakma sitkitse te mamahhabme Tatimragi, otki ka
salmiegabme te Aslaragi te Denigi, skai kemunokkotias mimi
Mamoski. Mahha on ketso pumi te shhumi Heigi, toatuli on.
!
Kadlkadlka, oavvi Riekunika kia Sohta-ita kkia 1835
(netsiabmi tenga guoma nea angoka) maiduoma kalka Siustagi,
te Sutaeska siehdia te Sohtaita biekkia, 1000 (netsuoma)
maiduoma lla.
Da k Siustaagi eudna nedda inden denari, kanamo te gaulkka.
Tatsaimna on retsotsita muohta-ita mopiko oalmo, kosokkil on piegista
mopi mahrutta. Medde inda alen oni-nokkiu, oa rma, usoti sppi
maka mahhami sippi kidli akami duo. Utatski ue bana sytrotima.
Uloliuts maa noabbunolteta a, ikiri tsamita oli atora on sara on

595

seba. Piaguari onta tsama, saibba katta radlvaabmeka, teua on

sobmate on lkobmate ose.
Totka
Totka oa suingioten sokuroakkenta Siustagi. Da on attaita tontavvi
koigi atta-nen sahra lillu, da on svottaita tontavvi toabigi svotta-nen
sahra vilo, utatski k uetari nirhi. Site utatski, ue kemamomi-nen
tymoakimi-hi. Adda attaa-nen tobori sahra koalgi, egi takeri svattaanen sahra psi (tveliu), utatski k ue tveluri ki kvesi sahra tyry koaltsa
egi kvena sahra ini koaltsa, site pyddi sahra tyry pta egi pydna
sahra ini pta. Orirra ungitegi epieibma te tlrimoibma Siuragi.

lillu
father
s
brothe
r

nirhi
parents

tveliu
aunts
~uncles

koalgi
fathers sister

tveluri
cousins

kvesi
cous
in
(m)

kemamo
-mi
siblings

ataka
my
father

suoka
my
mother

vilo
moth
ers
sister
psi
mothers
brother

megi
I

kvena
cousi
n (f)

pydd
i
cousi
n (m)

kosoka
my older brother

toabika
my older sister

karsa
younger brother

dapsa
younger sister

pydn
a
cous
in(f)

Veimna
Oveimiuts e Siuragi, otis ketso totrita riekumi-nen sahra tatikkita to
nalbi. Tobimitta tatsi onta oti totonta balha sagva-nen somi estoi
oveibmu sahra esetvi, oni u otoatuloti ki skigi-t. Hanni k otoatuli
sagna te tobimi boaltta. Sapru tamusoti eskvarre magga totonta
mbma nalumi-h, sahra nelimitta ki kosomi, oni u okoasulioti ki
somigi-t. Sidnis kobaika soantaima la ea seiskotima atta.
Oveimiuts e Siuragi, keulari soangi. Soanta tevu, saibba boalsagvaita
nua gaiskkita deikoi. Sidniuts mai a at, kesa rebomni, toa nalumi te
riekumi halkaita. Atai on miasi soantaima siikodi, ukvari k sagva
riekumi kea te umeitvi boaltta nelumi kea. Kommil on hagen te
moien, rodlli ka oi. Soanta ahha, etsa kemngi deita omna k.
Ketso on sytu ikka tatikkita-nen sindu atana (ska mahhi) nalbi k,
lka nelimittaita-nen rolotta riehpi k.

596

Sikkenka
Nnni-a okokite kuka sa totonta-hi, oti on ksamita atantanna
unokki sikkenka Siuragi. Sem onta keumahhi heetai ki sikkenka-t,
suikildiri katta kobai soakkia totta unokki okna ki oi. eibma dedna
tammi ongamo. eibma selue tvomma egi temme ai gagulka teuirre
denari. Aingo oa gagulka siiko tunneila, indao giabmie ongamo.
Suikiltsa
Suikildi kobai soakkia atakka unokki okna Siuragi. Soake on bhma
totonta, ska netta aidda, da ka okna etta totrita, unokki
vangoko. Da eita iaggelibmis birgira te kehhura oknua. ara ongamo
tatakkia kekila pipid-nen gagi, iokota panraka te liarkodi, optsti
ogauld neni sa maski. Oaki on nonutta kekila tontavvi keulmi, orirra
de uoli, kokota aingoka-nen kekilli ai Siuragi.
!
Heetai on eitao spimo, osviri ndika egi mulomika oda,
isumao ka sasakkibma saldama otamo kvekkotsta.
!
nkate eppi soakna gaungika da Siuragi, tsatsaupri
eytkltse. Eitai ngsti eiddu-uli Siura. Toti avvi sa totka kadlka
ketso unidlis osokenta. Kisilontem kukkuhko toabmolla Siusta
neidnobi igu nlly.
!
ska udiki on umehi on ongamo. Sapru on ue kotet
tatamanisbirhoima etta unokki alppot, karakka eibmotima, dikmua ka
teukue iemiskena. Sbmil umehi ketso sogvilmamo meimeri gala
salulkika te asakika.
!
Ongamo sia, ska ara nehon, auhneni mi na ogauldi te
ogetildi sao tvat te pa. Usotsi ihha skkita, kvarruttaita te ntaita
nios tatimannin. Kidli oa ihha niosia nata sahra ketuska keltari akka.
Uemi on, utakona mi keltaribma tamiditse sa, mega k rdda,
tsuogga mimi manta heudi-ha deita Siuragi.
!
Nios sia, gamahha ongamo eltari egi hnamo, omei, ukedi,
utigi te niki sao Siustagi.
Gagolkon
Da tamosi radedd atehtsotuma lolmahhotuma sesveieika
omoimo-nen ailit oi Siuragi. Katiari sasli enesti kuti unokki
mobi. Mahhumi onta mopikoima-nen sikken, pihhu katta ktt sikkesne gakmi. Gatkeitsa amika Siuragi tegonta rumu imisi, lolmahhauts
dae de imisti ola sikken, alki kupa-ne ogat, usotiti k ihha en
vlommi. Unokki vsitas atta.
!
Tiba ki gagulkua-t atana kemobiota Siuragi, imkvi
nga-a mopiko-nen te inoaksi na-a mopiko enehm-ne. Kvaulis
ketso rkolot-nen gagi saslusikken. Da komo senni tunna meie
ren teukeknami. Gaulkkika ska de iomu tamottaitagi sahne otina,
mi mopiko oaltanna, sahne geudluen meie-hi osatari, netvua ka
gagolkon. Kemotoatuli avvi Siustagi mumma egi kinaubi e a on,
piusti ka gaulkka atantanna, ara ka somigi te skigi toeli seppen
otarvodlimi.

597

Tvata on gaulkka nelli, ugoaka k nelta emi, somigi on skigi on.

Diehko on ogetildi te ogaulda soemme te moburemme emi,
lolmahha ka ototulenta-nen ednet kekna keulos te moadula taga
svaltonta naitseka. Utatski ue nika enedni elio nima. Naiuts
dae de somi, gasivvi-mi vienra, irren egi aykren, sapru usikkote
katubiahta, tiba oda, sadnu dona h mobi-ha s usotsi ngisa ngi
saota. Pihhu sidnote totta gekehi, etta egi netta gekehi, medde
singelote. Unokki ubiobba toamma katubiahia. ska mrahmi onta
uobmoita gaulkkita-hi pedninha, sapru tymiotumari katta topisi-mi
seita, oa errimo keerroti suikilditse toaddita totonta t to topisi.
Saupihtsa on da totria inintanna topisi, alla debmi omagelma ekue
taukukka eukabmeta seita.

Kkiket rkolot Keu

Totta ekue kea asukka, dama, netsta, tulmuma, usatahi enetsi
mopikoibma te nitakadi taga mangosvamo balha hemme te omobmo
ki Siuragi. ara uomaskka manna ailit oi ta ototulen-t. Sarai de
rkona Sigotagi te Onotagi n Sakaba, sahne svysiti gagoki e.
Totta on rkolot-nen keu siaraka te sehkahka Siuragi, ehmi k
sauhhahita, soaokita te nldita kh, sarai de hayt rkonaa Siustagi
haydde sarai otoatuliri. Siarakva unokki Iriragi te ragi
sehkahkaa. Klmalagen medde mopiko, opohmi katta syngyhm
atarkelgie taedna samnar. nta on utkagen enemma kohko kintuttta
kea, lubiumi de nalonta. Oveimi on Siura enemni kttsi
soaokita-ne, oveimi site kinagi enemni totrita siikodi. Utatski
sarone tamosi-t ktotii tammi sauhhahi nonga imisti on tamottagi on.

Tulmu
Euka tulmuma-hi dama te trma okuhka muid moskko-uli ki Siuragi.
Ketso on henna aiska tulmuma aihka gala te tonkamo seita skigi, da
ka kira tunna toanta Siustagi ismet te almi, katibogi daikota
sakaba. Seppen maldota puna nelesita, onome umalatsti tamara
holotta kea dagen, unokki komo alpot en asukka-t, nainiia
katta eukanteta arenta sahra arenta damu, tr, pi te pbme taga.
Atai dela rymyma te herhari ki skigi. Kobai ko kokkuiba rymuligen
nelpiea, udeli ra heetai lunuma otita-asmiraka. Dela boimmo
unokki bevvut ki skigi te somigi, onogika kekediksa netsta te
elvotsta sahra elepsaka sari. Da elepri, ela te ska tsldi bevvutstianen nainren lolonnin ta elvot. Tiba kk bevvutstia-nen etta me,
atarotima dailra, tiba katta lppuraimaka, oveibmunonte ski. Unainis
on onike kimi vauhkika egi aingokika enehm en elvotsta, dela b en
bevvutsta, oaki nntsika-a denarika egi sikkeska.

598

Nvvetka
Naina on euka on muid netsta-uli ki Siuragi. Nayma avvi en kolotn de egi nalonta-nen eirpeika manttta de, ahhu on tsia vauhkiauli ililsa neylie 1. Nia ue nvvet netveila te tamneiheila kekediksote
ngmni somi. Nokka tammi nma geilue-h otarvodlimi ketso ki
Siuragi, oni k ta mambi siehhin te sehi (sehisihin) mianupake kimi e,
ta kysibi iurha te ota kosohkake kimi e, ta tapaki giges te nyot
akahtake kimi e te ta esvi taga gkkiu te gindotima osayklike kimi e.
Eukari te gybid kidlita kimi te lygvid damita otamo kimi. Bbika
geska, nainari lamnaka leghka rentue te laahi e, kosari atka,
kolraro 2te koruri kiluhdi, sauka mesorari, nnemu te ohkihi kehhorari te
kongenta taga tsiamuhdi.
!
Tsaupri itahhotes tsamita ikiusi egi ohkousi3 sahra lkma
ts ki somigi. Mahhake tsamia e kekediksari gsyma te irid, eterre
sahra orogo vetarima, tamasitkau a gangaka te sitobid seluea.

Norha te Ntkat
Da kira tunna soaoka siikodi norha. Kemotiari on sengyla
gigutta ska, opohmi ka oanika-hi. Seppen onta kalvekeudlua norha,
daima komo nevi aidleeita rkta saigita estot, onren ntkatsta
aidlat-aidlai oneibbildi saoa skigi te somigi norren ona rogogoslet
sinnena te netsengesuha to ksi t tanuhtagi oa eita eut norista.
Da gontorha sahra gddorha ta eita-t norista.

Aumi
ema Siuragi, imkvoti kolmemi sd n mana, idi gaiko diari te
tatuhalgui. Sopria nevita deda en haluka. Iddi on umibma diari
estodna, edli u ousta kea, umekki kehhieika-h geiko skko te
imisti. Iddi on vetarita diari eudna, mi u somogalka kea, umekki
geiko skid te shdi. Mega on iddi eterita diari taedna, mi u thta te
gatta kea.
!
ema on hingutsta oa tatilimuadi Siuragi, ema ne
ohhistai ldnitanna tatoimuhka. Askile enet sorohma manaika elotima
roam ohra. Da ohra thta, unokka Kibo odao. Da ohra gatta koga
igi Eidli te Seidli. Da ohra ootta sahka, unokka Timuni odao. Te da
ohra siu, unokka Idenga odao. Tau da enekni ohragi-ne te, iutagi
te sayklami kemorre sasatka unokkiuki.
Tekla on niadlka siiko aingoka gietsotappima, daikekka ka
aingetsapetta tunnamo kh ketsetagi. Keulumi ketselhi unokkiu lhi,
tatkka nialos naihkuhnamoa kokkenda kua odari. Iuminesta
tuts da korigi, itygluhhitigen komo te tatatendaa hnamoa terommi

neylie dialectal of neylle

kolraro dialectal of kolramo

ohkousi dialectal of ihkousi

599

ea. Lolumaukustia on hagu rddita, opiamnumiri ka oakibma te

gatkedumari sindu-nen. Saupihtsa k vvvunokkia sindutta hala.
!
Keula on ketselhi didagi te, unokkino aumulhi, phhts
mehdil dua. Katusokmia on oakiska, ngikiri de ststagi-nen gagi.
Sapru sidnote koggaiskkiska egi kokutta at. Urengiti samna-t okolva
skko deikari.
!
Ruovva ublki gaskia kihl tatiddoti aumutaimagi, aa
skkika. Sihi neta didari te stsnhi, tatiddi nt-a aumutaimagi.

600

17.1 English Version

Territory
The Siwa people inhabit a large belt of forest from East to West. They
arrived to this land within the last two thousand years. The ancestors of
Eastern Siwa settled around three lakes called Sipsi. Most settled
around the southwestern point of the lake, called Aingo (narrow-lake).
The 130km long shores of the narrow Hokla lake is sparsely populated.
At the other end of the lake, Neihisko is another important community,
with Kuomin and the sacred river Kevvi about 40km northeast from
the lake. The northernmost settlement of Eastern Siwa territory is Sorhi,
whose dialect is difficult to understand. The two eastern lakes of Sipsi,
called Rhri and Kelin, are home to a few Siwa villages. About 65km
south of Aingo is the lake Sutaen, the southern edge of Siwa territory.
!
Within the first thousand years, the ancestors of Eastern
Siwa or Tatimragi (they live by lakes, temmu) expanded further west
and established various villages.
%
West of the eastern Siwa territory are the three villages of
Sarsirit, Onnu and Okna, whose dialect differs slightly from eastern
Siwa dialects. Together they form the mid-eastern territory or the
Aslaragi territority (they herd caribou, salama). They rely more heavily
on caribou herding and lie about 65-80km west of lakes Sipsi.
!
Still 80km further northwest is the mid-western territory,
which consists of Skisa river, which connects the East with the
West and Kola (ridge) and Hadloi. These Siwa call themselves
Denigi, as they call the arrow (rri) deno.
!
From Hadloi, the river Tski connects the mid-western
territory with the western Siwa territory, second largest Siwa population.
Tski flows into dnu bay, 150km from Hadloi. 20km south of dnu is
Nenniauki, and 20km further is the southernmost village of the western
territory, Regna. Across the bay from dnu is Riekka, the biggest
trading village of all Siwa territory. There, Siwa trade with their
neighbors. These Siwa call themselves Heigi, which corresponds to
the Eastern Siwa word hego salt, as they live by the sea.
!
Eastern Siwa or Tatimragi rely mostly on fishing and game
hunting. Many mid-eastern Suwa, or Aslaragi, and mid-western Siwa,
or Denigi, practice caribou herding and hunt beavers, which is why
they are sometimes collectively refered to as Mamoski game-people.
Western Siwa, or Heigi, are known for their seal and whale hunting
and trading.
!
All in all, from Riekka in the west to Sorhi in the east, the
Siwa territory spans about 550km, and from Sutaen lake in the south
to Sorhi in the north, nearly 300km.
!
Siwa people live in about two dozen villages, settlements
and communities. Each band of hunter receives a vast hunting territory,
which is allowed to recover periodically. There are even so-called
alen, which are areas where it is neither allowed to hunt game nor cut
wood. It is considered a sacred place. When left to grow back, all
kinds of beings come into the forest, some benevolent, some
601

malevolent. They heal the forest, and they must not be disturbed unless
one has asked before hand and made a sacrifice.
Family%
The basic social unit of the Siwa is a family (totka). The brothers of
ones father (lillu) and sisters of ones mother (vilo) are considered
parents, and their children are ones siblings (kemamomi). If the father
has a sister (koalgi), or the mother a brother (psi), they are considered
uncles or aunts (tveliu), and their children are cousins (tveluri, or kvesi
for son of fathers sister, kvena for daughter of fathers sister ~ pyddi
for son of mothers brother, pydna for daughter of mothers brother).
Siwa always distinguish older siblings from younger siblings.
!
Generally, when Siwa marry, the husband will join the wifes
family. The first man to get married usually unites with his brides family
along with his sisters. If a woman gets married first, her brothers may
be sent to her husbands family.
Marriage
Generally, when Siwa marry, the husband (nalbi) will join the wifes
(riehpi) family (tatriki). The first man to get married (esetvi) usually
unites with his brides family along with his sisters. It is then said that
these women become sisters (otoabuli), such that the bride and a
mans sisters become sisters. If a woman gets married first (eskvari),
her brothers may be sent to her husbands family (nelimi). It is then
said that these men become brothers (okoasuli). This lasts from the
wedding in summer to the following early spring. When Siwa marry,
they observe wedding (soangi). Before the wedding, bride (sagna) and
groom (boalhi) may not see each other for a month. During that time,
each will learn the skills to honor (the title of) wife and husband. Siwa
marriage is a big celebration, as the bride is crowned wife (ukvari to
be crowned), and the groom is knifed husband (umeitvi to be
knifed). People eat and drink a lot, and everyone wears fine clothes.
After the wedding, the new married couple (omna) begin their life
together. It is the tradition that the new husband offers a large catch
(often a bear) to his family as a thank, and the new wife offers her
husbands family new clothes.
Bands
Because of how their families intertwine, Siwa organize themselves into
larger groups they call sikken. These bands do not hunt together in the
winter time, but in summer, they all live in one long house called okna.
Many long houses form a village (dedna). Two villages or more on the
same river/lake form a community (gagulka). The largest Siwa
community is Aingo, where there are hundreds of long houses.
Housing
In the summer, Siwa live in large houses called okna. A single okna
may house several families, usually 3 or 4, though okna for two families
exist, called vangoko (lit. small okna). Okna are permanant structures,

602

made from logs and bark. Inside the okna, there is a hearth (kekila)
and its smoke hole (pibi) surrounded by the homebench (panra) and
the guestbench (liarkko), where people sit and discuss (kekli to sit
around the hearth). From the word kekila, there is also keula to
observe a ceremony, because Siwa people have always centered (lit.
weaved) their lives around the fire.
!
In the winter, winter camps (sbi) are built, which consist of
cabins for keeping (n) or smoking meat (mulo). The tents (sasame)
are covered by thick warm caribou skins (saldamu).
Siwa people are so good at building shelters that dying out is nearly
unheard of. A Siwa man knows how to build any type of house.
Building a house is generally done by whole families cooperating. It is
said that even the best beaver cannot outdo a well learned Siwa.
!
Okna are often decorated and painted. There may be
carvings on the two entry beams (alppot) which form the door (karaka),
they often display animal carvings. The front of a house (sokvilma) will
generally be painted black with paint made from tar or sap and black
ashes.
!
Besides okna, there is often a speaking house (nehon),
where elders and leaders meet and discuss side-by-side. Only men,
married women and widows may enter the nehon. The nehon is
traditionally the only building where there is an above ground floor
(nata). It is believed that by avoiding to thread on the ground, Siwa
show respect to the environment, and therefor hope to gain its favor.
!
In addition to the nehon, okna are also accompanied by a
steam house (eltta) or a steam tent (hdna), where Siwa bathe, are
born, are cured and die.
Communities
The majority of Siwa are hunters who must constantly stalk and follow
the animals over great distances. Siwa inherit responsibility (sasli) for a
known territory called mobi. A band must hunt on their mobi, but may
make deals with other bands. Siwa uphold the belief that animals see
no boarders, and if a band has been hunting an animal that crosses
into someone else territory, they may pursue it, but only it. This is called
vsitas.
%
These large territories mean that Siwa must agree with each
other on where ones territory begins and anothers starts. Usually, the
band responsible for a land will summer with his neighbors. Thus,
summering is an important time for the planning of the coming winter
hunting season. Communities are important because they allow
hunters to be better organized, have access to larger areas, which
renders their hunting more efficient. Larger communities thrive through
trading within Siwas and with other non-Siwas and often, one can find
able men and women with very specialized skills.
!
A community is headed by a chief (nelli). The chief is
chosen by a council of elders (emi), women and men alike. The
council meet regularly and discuss the economy (soemmy), their
territories, keep track of trading relations, organize ceremonies and

603

also maintain order by advocating punishments for crimes. Siwa

consider certain offenses to be crimes (nika). If a man commits a
nika, such as stealing, killing or hurting someone, he may be placed
in exile (katubias, lit. being thrown out), which means his hunting
territory is no longer his and he cannot live where he used. This can
last one, two or three years, or even be permanent. A person in
katubias is called ubiobba. It is often hard for ubiobba to return to their
community. They must often resolve to working as helpers (topisi). A
topisi is someone who works for a family in exchange for housing.
Generally, wealthier families have a topisi, as they can concentrate on
producing valuable goods.

Relations With Neighboring Tribes

Siwa trade goods such as furs and leather, tools, clothes, rights to
certain territories and information on the migration of birds and game.
The majority of this trading happens within the Alopian tribes
(uomaski). Because the Siwa language is closely related to the Sigori
and Onori, it is easier for them to communicate together. Siwa trade
with their neighbors to the south-west and south-east. Their languages,
cultues and faces are different, such that Siwa are not closely tied to
them, nor are their trade relations. Siwa call these people Iriragi (cf. iri
bark) in the south-west and ragi in the south-east. There have
even been wars fought over territory. No one lives on from the last
great war. Some boys are still trained as warriors, because the skills
must be passed on. Some Siwa marry into other ethnicities, and some
foreigners have been married into Siwa families. It is said that a good
hunter will know how to deal the many languages of animals and the
hunters.

Material World
Clothing
Siwa make their clothes from the skins and furs of various mammals.
Women generally see about sewing clothes with needles and sinew.
Leather (asuma~asma) and tanning (almi) are an important part of the
Siwa skills, and the language reflects this. The skin of the deer (puna)
is especially valued for summer clothes (nellen), for which it is tanned
especially thin, a leather called alpot, while thick leathers (damu) and
furs (tr) or bear skin (pi), seal skin (pbme) and caribou skin (sigme)
are used for winter clothes (arren~arren).
!
Women mostly wear a dress (rybmy) and a hat (herha). In
the summer, a lighter dress called nelppi is used, while in the winter, a
lunu made from thicker leather is used. Women and men wear a belt
called bevvut, which is used to carry tools and elvot or flower-code in
their bevvut. Elvot is a code that involves flowers, plants and
sometimes animal skulls that are attached to the bevvut to signify
certain things. For example, two pine cones in a bevvut shows that a
woman is pregnant (she is a dailha). A beaver head means a woman is

604

married to a hunter, and a hares tail indicates that the woman is not
married. While elvot is used to state something about the bearers life
or status, the bevvut itself usually shows from what village or band one
is.
Tools
Siwa use and make a variety of tools (nvvet). A good toolmaker (neyli)
knows how to survive in any situation by using what is at hand and his
skills, which he will have received from a toolmaster (eirp). The most
important and versatile tool any man will have with him is the knife
(n). Siwa has many ways of calling a knife according to its
specialized function, such as mambi, long and thin for gutting fish,
kysibi, thick and strong for carving wood, tapaki, sharp and curved for
cutting skins and bark, esvi, cutting and dangerous for protection.
Siwa also make other tools. They also make adzes (gbi) for wood and
awls (lykvi) for hard leather.
!
For food, they use a quern (lamna) to crush seeds and make
flour, they carve bowls (ata), large containers (kolra) and smaller ones
(kor) from wood, bowls from rock (saiu), boxes (nnnu) and bags
(ohkis) from birch bark, baskets (koknen) from cedar bark.
%
Men rarely go into the forest without an axe (iki) or a hatchet
(ikos or lk). For hunting in the forest, a bow (ksy) and arrows (irri), a
spear (eteri or orobi) at sea, nets (gakna) on lakes and fishing rod
(sitobi) in rivers

Culture
Singing And Story-telling
Singing is a major part of Siwa culture. Their common songs keep them
connected and the stories keep them alive. Singing is highly ritualized
and has three main forms. One type of singing is similar to a contest,
where men compete against women in telling a story through song
(ntkat). Another type of singing is where a single group sings and
tells long heroic adventures (rogogoslet). This type of singing is called
gontorha or gddorha (lit. travel-singing).
Religion
Siwa believe the world began as a cloud of honey, from which a drop
fell and was struck by lightning. The lightning split the drop of honey in
three. One drop fell onto the ground and grew into a birch tree, from
whose bark men and animals were born. One drop fell into the ocean
and turned into golden row, from which women and fish were born and
the last drop fell into the sky and became the sun and the moon.
%
The Siwa people believe in numerous inhabiting spirits, but
they also believe in greater individual deities. Each deity is said to
govern certain parts of the living world. There is the sun deity, called
Kibo. There are the twin deities of the moon, Eidli and Seidli. There is
the deity of good fish stock, called Timuni. And there is also the deity of

605

rain, called Idenga. Then there are other deities, parents and protectors
of animal groups, called the sasats.
!
There are many rituals that punctuate the spiritual life of
Siwa people. Rites of passage (ketselhi) are ceremonies that represent
important moments in ones life. Boys must go through a rite of
passage called lhi that involves a ceremony in a steamhut half a
days walk into the wild, where boys of 11 years of age are intoxicated
with a poison and kept in until nightfall. They are released into nature
and must find their way back home and bring home an animal that they
hunted. They are generally given a name associated with what they
bring back.
!
Girls also observe a rite of passage called aumulhi, which is
when they first bleed. They are sent away from their homes to alone live
with older female relatives (grandmothers or aunts) called stsni (lit.
mother-guardian) . This may last a week or more. They are forbidden
from interacting with men during this time. What happens during
aumulhi is kept entirely secret from all, especially men. Only the girls
and their mother-guardians know what happens during aumulhi.

606

18 Lexicon
LEXICON ~ NINAKA
aihhabi, aihaga~aihhaga!! !! (no.ina)
! evergreen branch
aihhi, aika! ! !! (no.ina)
! star(s)
aihhudna, aihhudnaka!! !! (adj.)
! starry
aihhot, aihhotta! ! !! (no.ina)
! thorny plant/bush
aihi, aisti!! !! (v.uit. inf. aihisu)
! to be wrong, to err, to make a mistake
aihmi, aihmika! ! !! (no.ina)
! nesting hole in snow: maikli
aihmikima! like a needle in ! a haystack (lit.
dressed in white in ~); tami aihmikia-nen !to
feel at home/to be in ones element
aiho! ! !! (adv.)
! the wrong way, wrongly
ai, aika!! !! (adj.)
! clear, transparent
aikla!! !! (adv.)
! from all directions, from everywhere, in
disorder, in ! confusion, in disarray: aikla te
aiho completely wrong
ailit, ailihka!! !! (pron.)
! one or the other, every other: ailihka kenda
one day or ! the other | ailit oi the
majority, most (people)
aingo, aingoka!! !! (no.ina)
! narrow lake, narrow stretch (of a lake) |
canal, channel, ! passage
aipimi, aipumi!! !! (v.adj)
! to (feel/be) bloated | to (become/be) vast
aipiot, aipiotta! ! !! (adj.)
! enormous, huge, vast, immense, great,
massive
airas, airhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! penis
aiska, aiskia! ! !! (v.at/.ai. inf. aiskami))
! to sew
aiteili, aiteidli!! !! (v.ui. inf. aitelsu)
! to be severely sick
aitilit, aitilitsta!! !! (no.ina)
! epidemic
aits, aubmi~aidda! ! !! (num.ani/.ina)

Aa
hnis, hnihi! ! !! (no.ina)
! hole/cavity (at the bottom of a tree) used a
shelter | h
! iding place
li, lka! ! !! (no.ina)
! wound, injury
lni, la!! !! (no.ani)
! early spring
adlma, adlmia! ! !! (v.at. inf. adlmami)
! to foster, to bring up | to care for, to look
after | to ! nurture ! (old)
agelma, agelmia!! !! (v.at. inf. agelmami)
! to centre, to focus
omageldi, omageldui'' !! (v.asubj. inf.
ageldena)
! to concentrate
ageut, aelda~aeutta! ! !! (no.ina)
! heart, centre, marrow
agei~agil! ! !! (adv.)
! precisely, exactly
alen, alenta' ' !! (no.ina)
! restricted area (forest not hunted so it may
regenerate ! itself)
ahha!! !! (postp.)
! after
ahhani! ! !! (det.)
! after, the latter | descendent(s)
ahtsis, ahtsihi!! !! (no.ina)
! offspring
aidla, aidlaka! ! !! (adj.)
! in front of each other, opposed | opposing,
at odds: ! aidlat aidlai~aidlaaidlai : against
each other
! aidle proto-, main-, principal
aen! !! (adv.)
! clearly, obviously
kataigeta, kataigedda! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
kataigebmi/ !kataigebmu)
! to explain, to be due to
aihha, aihka!! !! (no.ina)
! needle

607

! four
! aidnet! ! fourteen
! aita! ! ! forty
! aitsven!! four times
! aitset!! ! fourth
aitsemis, aitsemhi!! !! (no.ina)
! Thursday
aitsi, aitska!! !! (no.ina)
! group of friends, circle of friends
aka, aga!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. ahmi)
! to cut
! tymaka to cut down (of trees)
akna, angaka!! !! (no.ina)
! traces, remain, sign, mark: angakia
passed away, dead !(EAST) ~ sick, with a
rash (WEST)
aki, akohta!! !! (no.ani)
! death (personification/deity)
akvo, agvoka!! !! (no.ina)
! slippery/wet place | (more) difficult
alternative
ala, adla!! !! (v.at. inf. almi)
! to tan (skin) | to treat, to tackle, to handle
alahra, alahraka! ! !! (no.ina)
! floating log
alla, allia!! !! (v.at. inf. almi~allami)
! to have time for (+COP +ILLAT)
alli, allui! ! !! (v.aditr. inf. alnin~allinin)
! to have time for ( +ILLAT)
am~amau, amari!! !! (no.ina)
! snot
amoi, amota!! !! (no.ani)
! blood (inside the body)
amokvelva, kvelvari/kvelu!! !! (no.ina/
no.ani)
! northern lights
ang~angiu~angil~angir, angiri! ! !! (no.ina)
! seed, pit
aroma, arokka! ! !! (no.ina)
! place next to, side
arru(i)~au(i)! ! !! (postp.)
! next to
! ! arta~ata next to
! ! artairi~atairi towards the side
! ! ai along the side, on the shores of
! ! arka~aka from the side
aruka~arkka~erkka,
arukka~arkaka~erkari! ! !! (no.ina)
! branch, fork

asa, asaka!! !! (no.ina)

! (black) ashes | coal
aska!! !! (conj./postp.)
! because (negative reason) (+ -te / GEN.)
askila, askidla! ! !! (v.at. inf. askilmi)
! to control, to be in charge, to govern, to
lead
Aslara(gi), Aslasta(gi)!! !! (no.ani)
! mid-western Siwa
auta!! !! (postp.)
! compared to
aekken, aekkes~aekkes! ! !! (no.ina)
! damselfly
ata-, atka-! ! !! (act.nom)
! father
ata, atra!! !! (no.ina)
! mouth, open mouth
ata-erribmot, ~bmotta!! !! (adj.)
! hard-working, diligent
atahmi, atarrima! ! (atar-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be pregnant, to be bloated, to be large(r
than usual)
atai!! !! (adv.)
! largely, very, verily, mostly
atana, atakka!! !! (adj.)
! big, large (adv. atai)
ataga, atagga!! !! (no.du)
! father and son(s)
ataba, atabba!! !! (no.du)
! father and daughter(s)
at~ateu~atel, ateri!! !! (no.ina)
! size, largeness
atemi, atumi'' !! (v.adj)
! to be sick
ati, atika!! !! (no.ina)
! bass
atkana, atkavva~atkakka!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! (bushy) tail | fox(s tail)
atkanokka, atkanokkamo!! !! (no.ina)
! wolf
atkenka!! !! (adv.)
! the day after tomorrow
atki, atkika!! !! (no.ina)
! day after tomorrow
atoukka, atoukkia!! !! (v.ut. inf. atoukmu)
! to sicken, to make (feel) sick; atoukkaka
' atta soalka-t 'this ! smell makes me feel
sick
atouni, atoudi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. atountu)
608

! to feel sick, to seem sick

atora, atohka! ! !! (no.ina)
! being, creature | little man/woman
atri, atta!! !! (no.ani)
! father
atsio, atsioka! ! !! (no.ina)
! glade
aubmi, aumika! ! !! (no.ina)
! knot
auhka!! !! (adv.)
! quite
auksi, auhta!! !! (no.ani)
! lumberjack (also tauksi)
aumlu, aumta!! !! (no.ani)
! (smell/taste of) blood
aumulhi, aumutagi! ! !! (no.ani.pl)
! first menstruation (ceremony)
aunta, auntia!! !! (v.at. inf. auntami)
! to make a knot, to tie
aurin, aurinta' ! !! (ad.)
! crisp, brisk, refreshing | cool, chilly
auruni, aurudi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. auruntu)
! to (still) feel/taste/smell fresh
aurko, aurkka~auruni! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! lake trout
ayka, ayga! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
aykmi~aykm)
! to wound, to hurt, to injure
aymi, mami!! !! (v.adj)
! to shudder, to feel sick, to (be/feel)
repusled (see b)
aypitsi, aypitsika!! !! (adj.)
! huge, substantial, enormous (in number)
ayrhi, ayrhika!! !! (no.ina)
! time while something is still fresh | prime:
ayrhikia-nen 'at ones best
aye~ayvve, ayeka~ayvveka!! !! (adj.)
! shrill, high-pitched, piercing, sharp

bahht, bahhtta! ! !! (no.ina)

! diary
bahpa, baa! ! !! (no.du)
! testicles
baa, baika!! !! (no.ina)
! branch
balet, baletta! ! !! (no.ina)
! flank, side
balha! ! !! (postp.)
! on(to) the side of | about
! ! balkka from the side of
bamri, bamrui! ! !! (v.ui/.ai inf. bamrisu/
bamrisa)
! to nap, to doze off | to rest (v.ai)
bana, banka, -i-!! !! (no.ina)
! place, location, site
baulla, baudla~baullia!! !! (v.at. inf. baulmi)
! to cross, to wade
bauni, baudi! ! !! (v.ai/.adit. inf.
baunta~baunnin)
! to get somewhere (in time)
baut, balda~bautta!! !! (no.ina)
! butter
b~beu~bel, bela!! !! (no.ina)
! acid
obeigildi, obeigildui!! !! (v.asubj/.at. inf.
beigildena/!beisildami)
! to make peace (between each other)
belha, belra! ! !! (no.ani)
! pregnant lobster/crab
belm, belme!! !! (no.ina)
! hard worker
belmi, belmui! ! !! (v.ai. inf. belmisa)
! to work, to be busy, to be at work
bename, benammi! ! !! (no.ina)
! leather pouch, bag, purse
bengomu~bengon,
bengomme~bengos! ! !! (no.ina)
! roof
benho, benhue~benra~belra~bedda! ! !
! (no.ina/.ani)
! dog
benka, benkari!! !! (no.ina/.adv)
! north-east
! ! benkaa in the north-east
! ! benkahta to the north-east
! ! benkahteri towards the north-east
! ! benkahtsi along the north-east (face/
side)

Bb
bhna, bhnaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! bed
bahhi, baski!! !! (no.ina)
! day, 24 hours
bahho, baa!! !! (no.ani)
! testicle
609

! ! benkahka from the north-east

besi, beskki!! !! (v.imp)
! to be peaceful | (salla ~) to be in peace
bevvut, bevvutsta~bevvudda! ! !! (no.ina)
! belt(s) (on a dress/animal) | signal
bia, ania!! !! (v.at. inf. (b)imi)
! to throw
! katabia!to throw (into exile), to reject
bialbi, bialdi!! !! (no.ina.irr)
! half
biali, biadli! ! !! (v.ai. inf. bialsa)
! to talk, to speak | to address, to
communicate
bialvuni, bialvdi! ! !! (no.ina)
! crustacean
bidis, biihi! ! !! (no.ina)
! puppy
biehna, biehnari! ! !! (adj.)
! highest, top, best | superior
biekkia! ! !! (adv.)
! north
! ! biehta northwards, to the north
! ! biehteri towards the north
! ! benti along the north(face/side)
! ! biehka from the north
! ! biekkula northernmost'
biele, bielli!! !! (adj.)
! fat, stout, chubby, thick
bieli, bielle!! !! (no.ina)
! fat, blubber
bieluha, bieluhdi!! !! (adj.)
! fat, greasy, oily
bieluhma, bieluhmari!! !! (adj.)
! quite fat, plump, chubby, stout
beni, benne! ! !! (no.ina)
! back (of an animal) | (something) facing up
beulusku, beuluskau! ! !! (v.utrans. inf.
beuluskoru)
! to lose weight
biyt, biytsta! ! !! (no.ina)
! game, play, fun, amusement
blin, blis!! !! (no.ina)
! liver: blisia in luck, at stake, at the right
place
blitse, blitsedi!! !! (adj.)
! lucky
brho, brhodi!! !! (no.ina)
! canidae, dog-like animals
bumi, bundi~butta !!! (no.ina/.ani)

! flycatcher
billo, bilodi!! !! (no.ina)
! hunger, need: tami biloa to be hungry
bilva, bilvari' ' '' (no.ina)
! speech, talking | communication, adress
birgo~birho, birhodi! ! !! (no.ina)
! beam, large round log | tall/big/strong man
boaihhi~boaii, boaika!! !! (no.ina)
! algae
boalhi, boalta~boaltta! ! !! (no.ani)
! groom
boari, boata~boahka!! !! (num.ani/.ina)
! nine
! boanet!! nineteen
! boarra!! ninety
! boaren!! nine times
! boarut!! ninth
boi~boi, boko~boo! ! !! (no.ina)
! branch (with leaves)
boa, boiko!! !! (no.ina)
! branch
boina, boimmo!! !! (no.ina)
! belt, strap
bovvoko, bkoma!! !! (no.ina)
! broken branch | small branch
bunus, bunuhi~bunhi~bhhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! (small) squash
butta, buttamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! bad weather, rainy weather
bbmua, bbmia (bbmo-)!! !! (v.at. inf.
bbmomi)
! to pound (something), to knock
bnta, bntia!! !! (v.at. inf. bntami)
! to weave (baskets, shoes)
bgi, bima! ! !! (no.ina/.adv)
! north-west | back (direction WEST)
! ! bimi in the north-west
! ! binda to the north-west
! ! binderi towards the north-west
! ! bintsi along the north-west (face/side)
! ! binka from the north-west
blka, blkia!! !! (v.at. inf. blkami)
! to keep (in fat), to conserve/preserve
bydny, bynyma! ! !! (no.ina)
! squash
b, bb! ! !! (no.ina)
! food

610

dehruvven!! !! (adv.)
! recently
dela, dedla! ! !! (v.at. inf. delmi)
! to wear | to show, to display, to exhibit
demo, dei~demme! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! bone
demy~demy, demme! ~deme!!! (no.ina)
! mucus, slime, ooze
deri, dehri'' !! (v.ui. inf. derhu)
! to roll | to pass (time) | to run out of (+ELAT)
detku~dedu, detkume~detume!! !! (no.ina)
! quality, feature, trait, skill
deumko~deunko, deumkue~deunkue!! !
! (no.ina)
! small bone | little finger, little toe | piece of
bone
deumu, deumme! ! !! (no.ina)
! bone (dead, of animals)
deusa, deusari!! !! (adj.)
! flexible, bendable, supple, pliable, elastic,
stretchy
deusagamiha, ~gamihka! ! !! (adj.)
! flexible-minded, open-minded, open,
unprejudiced
deus~deuseu~deusel, deusela!! !
! (no.ina)
! flexibility, bendability, suppleness, elasticity
deydna, deynari! ! !! (no.ina)
! whirlpool, whirl, spiral
deyri, deyrre! ! !! (no.ina)
! salmon which stays in lake/river over winter
deysima, deysuima!! !! (v.adj)
! to be flexible, to bend
diaka, diakadi!! !! (no.ina)
! collection of bones in a tree | symbol
dida, diadi!! !! (no.ina)
! girl
diege, diekedi!! !! (adj./.no.ina)
! girlish, young (female), youthful | little girl
idigga, idaga! ! !! (v.udit. inf. diknin)
! to happen, to change (of state)
d, dui! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. disa/disu)
! to step
dmma, dndi! ! !! (no.ina)
! treeless mountain
dn, ds! ! !! (no.ina)
! barren land
doba, doamo!! !! (no.ina)
! handle

Dd
ddna, dnaka!! !! (no.ina)
! pillow | pad, stomach | dressing, bandage,
plaster
dagis, daihhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! detail, feature, characteristic
dahpi, dahpika!! !! (no.ina)
! clan (3-5 families)
daibmi, daipsima! ! (daipp-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/become) wet (of weather) | to be
sweaty (from ! work) | to be hard at work
daihha, daihhaka! ! !! (adj.)
! charactestic, typical
dailha, dailra! ! !! (no.ani)
! pregnant woman
daimi, daumi! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be moist, to be damp
daippo, daippoka!! !! (adj.)
! damp, wet
daie~daivve, daieka~daivveka! ! !! (adj.)
! moist, dramp, humid
damenta, damentia' ' !! (v.at inf.
damentami)
! to skin (of animal) | to punish (children)
damu, dama!! !! (no.ina)
! skin (on living animal/with fur)
dapmi, dapsima! ! (dapp-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be alone/lonely
dappo, dappoka!! !! (adj.)
! alone, lonely
dapsa, daa!! !! (no.ani)
! younger sister
dabi, dabbi!! !! (v.ai. inf. dabisa)
! to drum, to beat
daa, dakka! ! !! (v.at./.adit inf.
dami~dadnin)
! to answer
davva, dagga!! !! (no.ina)
! past, history | background, setting
debmi, dettima! ! !! (v.at.inconcl. inf.
debmi, det-)
! to want
deda, diari!! !! (no.ina)
! tear, droplet | drizzle
d~deu~del, dela!! !! (no.ina)
! roll, cylinder, tube
degga, degari!! !! (no.ina)
! story, lie

611

doote, doobmo!! !! (no.ina)

! dispute, disagreement | discord, friction
dotsa, dotsamo!! !! (no.ina)
! idea, thought | concept, notion | image
dihme, dihmedi!! !! (no.ina)
! softened bark, cloth
dnn, dnnma! ! !! (no.ina)
! loop, pattern
dyra, dyhmo!! !! (no.ina)
! turn (in a river)

! smell, odor
no, nue~nobi! ! !! (no.ina)
! bay, cove
t, tsta~dda!! !! (no.ina)
! swampy soil/ground
egit, eihta' ! ! !! (det.)
! these (long/honorific)
! ! egiba, eihba these (out of two)
ei, esti! ! !! (v.adit/.udit inf. enin/enon)
! to remain (somewhere) (+ILLAT)
ehhama, ehhakka!! !! (no.ina)
! seam, stitching | vein, streak, strand,
stria(tion)
ehhon, ehhos!! !! (no.ina)
! nuance, difference, distinction | over-/
undertone
ehli, ehlui' ' !! (v.ui. inf. ehlisu)
! to burst, to blow up (of bubbles,
arguments, etc.)
ehmi, evvima! ! '' (v.adj)
! to differ (to +ILLAT)
ehrena, ehrevva~ehredi!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! sharpened stick for fishing
eilia, eilua'' !! (v.at/.ut. inf. eilimi/eilimu)
! to hurt (someones feelings), to offend, to
upset
eirha, eirra!! !! (no.ani)
! female (of animal/plant)
eiro, eirue! ! !! (no.ina)
! care | accuracy
eitis, eitihi!! !! (no.ina)
! branch, twig (WESTERN)
eitsi, eitsi!! !! (no.ina)
! wall, barrier
umekki, umekkui!! !! (v.pass. inf. ekkimon)
! to be born
ekni, engie!! !! (no.ina)
! way, path (in grass) | route, way
eko, ekue~ekobi!! !! (no.ina)
! product, thing, good, item
ekviri, egvirre~ekvita!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! walleye
eleba, elepri -pi- ~ eleu! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! flower
elepia! ! !! (adv.)
! in bloom, blooming
elet, eletsta~eledda! ! !! (no.ina)
! open grassland, pasture, meadow
elgi, elgie!! !! (no.ina)

D d
dadni, dand!! !! (v.ui. inf. dadnisu)
! to cry, to shed tears
dati, daddi!! !! (v.ui. inf. datsu)
! to mourn (sometimes ditr. + INESS)
de, deri! ! !! (adj./.no.ina)
! gray | silver
det, detsta~dedda!! !! (no.ina)
! gray haired man, old man
dika, diga! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. dikmi/dikmu)
! to decorate, to adorn, to garnish | to cut
details in, to !carve (out) | to (proudly) display
(.ut)
dikami, dikamitta!! !! (v.act.part.pl)
! ornament(s)
dikma!! !! (adv.)
! on display, obvious, visible
doki, dokko! ! !! (no.ina)
! trap (in snow) | hidden danger

Ee
ede, eteri!! !! (no.ina)
! air, sky
edd, edme!! !! (no.ina)
! fungus
! ! totedd idiot, cretin, moron, imbecile
~el, ela! ! !! (no.ina)
! plant
hheni, hhedi!! !! (v.ui. inf. hhentu)
! to smell (like, +ADV): ieppil thheni X
smells like sap
mi, mie!! !! (no.ina)

612

! bloom | prime, peak, height

eli, edli! ! !! (v.ui. inf. elh)
! to grow | to change
elio, eliue~eliobi! ! !! (no.ina)
! offense, insult
elki, elkie!! !! (no.ina)
! high grasses, reeds
eluri, elurre! ! !! (adj.)
! great, fantastic | important, basic, major
! elul~el !great(ly), fantastic(ally) (adv.)
eluskon, eluskos! ! !! (adj.)
! safe and sound
emet, emetsta!! !! (no.ina)
! thighs
emre, emreri! ! !! (no.ina)
! skin rash (also re)
enneu~enn, enneume~ennme! ! !
! (quant.)
! any number of, some quantity, some
number
ennu, enume! ! !! (no.ina)
! pole (used to navigate on water)
eni, enohta!! !! (no.ani)
! early winter
entu, entau!! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. entoru)
! not to be likely to (+INF)
epri, epie!! !! (no.ina)
! older sibling
eri, ehri!! !! (v.ai. inf. erha)
! to be careful
omerkkari, omerkkahri!! !! (v.usubj. inf.
erkkahsu)
! to diverge, to branch off
erri, eruli!! !! (v.ai. inf. errisa)
! to work (outside) | to be outside | to toil
erva, ervari!! !! (no.ina)
! toil, work
ervausi, ervausie% ! !! (no.ina)
! weekend
eski, eskie!! !! (adj.)
! empty | hollow
eskuekka, eskuekkia'! ! !! (v.at. inf.
eskuekmi)
! to empty, to empty out (kat~)
eskvari, eskvata~eskvarre! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! first daughter married
estot, estodna! ! !! (num.quard)
! first
estoi!! !! (adv.)

! (for) the first time

ei, ehta~etta'' '' (num.ani/.ina)
! two: ei (ta)boadderi!the whole nine years,
the whole ! shabang
! ehnet!! twelve
! iesa!! twenty
! even! ! twice
(om)eiti, (om)eitui!! !! (v.ui/.usubj. inf.
eitisu/!eitina)
! to (get) split (in two) | to separate (.usubj)
eemis, eemhi!! !! (no.ina)
! Tuesday
eut, eudna! ! !! (card.num)
! second
! eui!! (for) the second time
etsa, etsta!! !! (v.at. inf. etsmi)
! to start, to begin (+ILLAT)
eu, eme!! !! (no.ina)
! scab, scar, cicatrix
euka, euga! ! !! (v.ut/.at. inf. eukmu/eukmi)
! to produce, to yield (.ut) | to supply, to
provide (.at) | !eukiula ! to secrete
eukken~eukkil~kli! ! !! (adv.)
! a little (COMP. kne, SUP. ihba)
eulbi~ulbi, eulbie~ulbimo!! !! (no.ina)
! hoof
eulaka, eulai -i-! ! !! (no.ina)
! bouquet of flowers | flowery place
euma, eukka! ! !! (quant.)
! a little (COMP. onda, SUP. olla, SUP.GEN uhla)
eura, eumo~euhmo!! !! (quant.)
! few (COMP. ohta, SUP. olra, SUP.GEN ouhra)
eugena, eukedi!! !! (no.ina)
! sandy forest ground, sandy beach with
trees
euvva, eua! ! !! (v.ut. inf. eummu)
! to reach, to be long enough to (+COP
+ILLAT)
euvvi, eui! ! !! (v.uditr. inf. eunnon)
! to reach, to be long enough to ( +ILLAT)
u, b! ! !! (no.ina)
! sand(y place)
untsi, untsid!! !! (adj.)
! having many bays/inlets
evvat, eatta' ! ! !! (det.)
! this (long/honorific)
! ! evvaba, eappa this (out of two)
! ! evvats, eatsta~eadda this (out of
many)
613

eydnta, eydntta! ! !! (v.at. inf. eydnbmi)

! to modernize, to freshen up, to spruce up
eyvra, eyvrra!! !! (v.at.inf. eyvhmi)
! to practice, to perfect, to edge
eygi, eyhta'! ! !! (det.)
! these
! ! eypa, eyhba these (out of two)
! ! eytsi, eyhtsa these (out of many)
eygni! ! !! (det.)
! like these, like such, such
eykva, eykvia' ' !! (v.at. inf. eykvami)
! to want to fight, to look for a fight, to be
belligerent
eyskon, eyskos! ! !! (adj.)
! iceless, not covered in ice
eytkli, eytkdli! ! !! (v.ui. inf. eytkls)
! to die of cold
eyga, eygga' ! ! !! (v.at. inf. eygami)
! to want to fight | to provoke
b, mi! ! !! (v.utrans. inf. ll)
! to be(come) disgusted, to feel contempt/
! aversion/outrage for (+ELAT)

! to be carrying eggs, to be pregnant

galmot, galmotta! ! !! (adj.)
! soft, mushy, squishy, spongy | pregnant
(with eggs)
gama, gama, -i-!! !! (no.ina)
! character, personality, nature, temper
gari!! !! (postp.)
! instead (+GEN.)
! garita!! instead (movement to)
! garika! ! instead (movement from
garike, garikka!! !! (adj./no.ina)
! boyish, young (male), youthful | little boy
gasi, gatta~gaska! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! moon: gaskia during the night, secretly, in
secret
gatkoantaa, -koantia-! ! !! (v.at. inf.
gatkoantaami)
! to take for granted, to neglect
gattia! ! !! (postp. +GEN.)
! in the presence of, in the case of
gaugi, gauhta'! ! !! (det.)
! those (distal)
! ! gaupa, gauhba those (out of two)
! ! gautsi, gauhtsa those (out of many)
gaugni! ! !! (det.)
! like those, like such, such
ogaulda, ogauldia!! !! (v.asubj. inf.
gauldena)
! to discuss (something together)
gausun, gausunta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! full moon
gauta, gautra!! !! (no.ina)
! color, hue, shade
gedli, gelli~gedlui! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. gedlisa/
gedlisu)
! to work (.ai) | to function, to operate, to act,
to behave !(.ui)
gedlva, gedlvari~gelvari! ! !! (no.ina)
! function, behavior, role, task, purpose
gedna, genari!! !! (no.ina)
! nut, kernel
gegeme, gmmi! ! !! (no.ina)
! hem | border | trim, trimming, cut
gegen, geis! ! !! (no.ina)
! mouth (vulgar)
gegi, getki'' '' (v.ui. geksu)
! to be open (at one end)
gegin, geis!! !! (no.ina)
! big snout, big nose

Gg
gagama, gagama!! !! (no.ina)
! condolences, compassion, empathy | pity
gagi! ! !! (postp.)
! with (comitative)
gagulka, gaulkka! ! !! (no.ina)
! community, locality, neighborhood
gaista, gaistia' ' !! (v.at. inf. gaistami)
! to allow to speak
gaitsa, gaitska! ! !! (no.ina)
! meteor, shooting star
gakna, gangaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! net (for fishing)
gakva, gakvia! ! !! (v.at. inf. gakvami)
! to (want to) befriend, to approach in a
friendly way
gakvobmot, -bmotta! ! !! (adj.)
! friendly
gala~-gla, %% !! (postp./suff.)
! with (instrumental)
gali, galka' ' '' (no.ina)
! (salmon) roe
galmimi, galmumi!! !! (v.adj)

614

gei, gee! ! !! (no.ina)

! snout, muzzle, nose
geiga, giga~gigga!! !! (v.at. inf. geihmi)
! to share
geinkena, geinkedi!! !! (no.ina)
! oak-forest
geki, gegi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. geksu)
! to feel, to seem (+adv): gosil engeki I feel
tired
gekkon, gekkos! ! !! (no.ina)
! slope, hillside
gek! ! !! (adv.)
! seemingly, apparently, supposedly
gela, gedla!! !! (v.at./.ut. inf. gelami/
gelamu)
! to comfort (.at) | to soothe (.ut)
gelabmis, gelamha! ! !! (adj.)
! comforting, soothing
gendot, gendotsta~gendodda!! !! (adj.)
! tall, high
geskki, geskkui! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. geskkisa/
geskkisu)
! to make a sound
ogetildi, ogetildui! ! !! (v.asubj/.at. inf.
getildena)
! to come across (each other), to meet (each
other)
geuhna, geuhnari!! !! (no.ina)
! mouth of a river
geunko, geunkue!! !! (no.ina)
! spore
giabmi, guoma'' '' (num.irr)
! hundred
ogahtsi, ogahtsta! ! !! (v.asubj. inf.
gahtsina)
! to lie down
gaukama, gaukakka! ! !! (no.ina)
! down (feathers)
gidlki, gidlkui!! !! (v.ui. inf. gidklisu)
! to break, to crack, to give under, to fracture
| to !surrender, to give up
gegi, gehta' ! ! !! (det.)
! those (long/honorific)
! ! geiba, gehba those (out of two)
! ! geits, gehtsa those (out of many)
giego, gieodi! ! !! (no.ina)
! apex, tip, climax
gekes, gekehi!! !! (no.ina)
! year

gieko, giekodi! ! !! (no.ina)

! glance, peek, peep
giga, gii/giubi! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! goose
giges, gigehi! ! !! (adj.)
! sharp
agigu, agidu!! !! (v.ui. inf. gigr)
! to become sharp | to improve | to reach a
climax | to !become dull (~dna- +REVERS)
gkka, gkkia! ! !! (v.at. inf. gkmi)
! to sharpen, to whet, to file | to improve | to
climax
grha, grhadi!! !! (no.ina)
! flock of geese
gika, giga! ! !! (v.at. inf. gikmi)
! to glance, peek, peep
gikis, gikihi! ! !! (no.ina)
! shard, sliver, splinter, chip
gikuni, gikdi!! !! (no.ina)
! cartilage | larynx (often gikun)
gilra, gilradi! ! !! (no.ina)
! wet weather, rain (over many days)
gimha, gimhadi! ! !! (adj.)
! pleasant, nice
gimukka, gimukkia!! !! (v.ut. inf.
gimukmu)
! to be pleasing, to make feel nice
gimukkabmis, -amhi! ! !! (adj.)
! pleasing, appeasing, pleasant
gimuni, gimudi!! !! (v.ui. inf. gimuntu)
! to feel nice, to feel pleasant, to appear
pleasant
ginden, gindes!! !! (no.ina)
! danger
gindima, ginduima! ! !! (v.adj)
! dangerous
gosin, gosis!! !! (adj.)
! tired
gosmi, gohima~gobmi! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be tired
gori, gohko!! !! (no.ina)
! doubt, uncertainty, hesitation
gitsin, gitsis!! !! (no.ina)
! stain, mark, pigment (pl. gitsinka)
goaia, goaiaka! ! !! (adj.)
! talkative, who speaks quickly
goamun, goamunta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! human skull

615

gogantsi~gogatsi,
gogantsui~gogatski!! !! (v.ui. inf.
! gogantsisu~gogatsisu)
! to limp, to hobble
gogantsua, gogantsuvva!! !! (v.ut. inf.
gogantsuimi)
! to make limp | to hurt (in a food)
goi, gogo! ! !! (no.ina)
! edge, point | sting(er)
goka, gogmo!! !! (no.ina)
! sheath, case, envelope | condom | foreskin
golki, golkui! ! !! (v.ai. golkisa)
! to live in community, to live together
gonne, gommo~gomno!! !! (no.ina)
! rind, peel, skin (of food)
goskka, goskkia!! !! (v.at. inf. goskkami)
! to betray
gos~gosul, gosuri!! !! (no.ina)
! calm, tranquility
gesi, gesse! ! !! (no.ina)
! travel, journey, trip
! netsengesi!adventure
guni, gua! ! !! (no.ani)
! late fall
guokvo, guokoi~guogvoma! ! !! (no.ina)
! frog
gusi, guhi!! !! (v.ai. inf. gussa)
! to travel
! ! tamusi!! to move/go somewhere (for
good)
! ! mangusi'to migrate
ginn, gins!! !! (no.ina)
! little room, little space, small corner: iketui
rotsi ginsta !to look in every nook and
cranny
gybi, gid! ! !! (no.ina)
! horn
gylkon, gylkos! ! !! (no.ina)
! community, small village
gymi, gymid!! !! (no.ina)
! frost, period of frost
gbi, gybid! ! !! (no.ina)
! adze

! callus, hardened skin | pad, cushion

edlvi, edlvie! ! !! (no.ina)
! thick fog
endo, endue~endobi!! !! (no.ina)
! small salmon
ugot~uot, uvvotsta!! !! (no.ina)
! lies, fiction, fib
ey, b! ! !! (no.ina)
! pine con | child, little child (affectionate)
ilka, ilkadi!! !! (adj.)
! yellow
oli, olko! ! !! (no.ina)
! hill
oppa, oppia!!! (v.at.inf opmi)
! to hit, to knock, to hurt | to tease
otroti, otroika! ! !! (no.ani)
! bullfrog
ouskon, ouskonta -ri-!! !! (no.ina)p
! cover for hunting, hiding spot: pohhi
ouskria-nen to !miss out on something
euri, eurre~euta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! muskellunge
evvi, ei~ui!! !! (v.ai. inf.
essa)
! to bark
ibmen, imes!! !! (no.ina)
! grasshopper
idlen, iles!! !! (no.ina)
! jumping spider, stressed person, tens
iri, ihri! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf irha/irhu)
! to jump (insects)
umeskon, umeskonta! ! !! (adj.)
! depressed, unhappy, miserable, morose
uo!! !! (onom.)
! sound to show annoyance
gia! ! !! (adv.)
! anywhere
! ita! ! anywhere (movement to)
! ika!anywhere (movement from)
la, lamo! ! !! (adj.)
! short (length)
mni, -! ! !! (pron.)
! anyone
! ebkni!! either
! etskni!! any (of)
! g!! anytime
! vva! ! in any way
! mi' ' for any reason
tt, ttsta~tdda! ! !! (no.ina)

ala, alaka!! !! (no.ina)

616

! crest, tuft
vivi, vivid!! !! (adj.)
! large, big, important
ylky, ylkyma!! !! (no.ina)
! peak, sumit | mountain
ylkymausi! ! !! (adv.)
! monotonously, boringly
ymeskima, ymeskuima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to feel depressed, unhappy, miserable,
morose

! hot, spicy, stinging, smarting, burning

hait, haitta! ! !! (det.)
! that (medial)
! ! haiba, haippa that (out of two)
! ! haits, haitsta~haida that (out of many)
! ! haittei!! that manieth
! ' haitt!! that time
hakno, hanga~hangoka!! !! (num.ani/.ina)
! five
! hagnet!! fifteen
! hanra!! fifty
! hangen! ! five times
! haknet!! fifth
halgei, halgui! ! !! (v.ui inf. halgesu)
! ! to be lightning
hallu, haluka! ! !! (no.ina)
! electricity | flash, lightning (also halgu)
halma, halka' ' !! (no.ani)
! (honorific title)
! ! halkaita (postp). honorable for
hamit, hamitta! ! !! (no.ina)
! metal, ore
hammua, hammaa!! !! (v.ut.imp inf.
hammumu)
! to be dear to, to love: tahammuaka X is
dear to me
hanna~honna, hanka~honka!! !! (adj.)
! fair, beautiful, pretty (adv. hagi~hagil)
hanni! ! !! (adv.)
! thus, like that, thereby
hantoma, hantokka!! !! (no.ina)
! (pathological) liar
hantui, hanti! ! !! (v.ai. inf. hantosa)
! to lie (to someone +ALLAT)
hapri, hapika! ! !! (no.ina)
! flock of birds
hatru, hatrau!! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. hatroru)
! ought to, should (+INF)
hatskon, hatskonta!! !! (adj.)
! hairless, bald
haukli, hauklui'' '' (v.ai. inf hauklisa)
! to have a meal, to eat a meal
hauma, haumka~haumaka!! !! (adj./.no.ina)
! bright (.adj) | brightness, light (.no.ina)
hausa, hausaka! ! !! (adj.)
! edible | wholesome
hausta, haustia' ' !! (v.at. inf. haustami)
! to allow to eat, to let be eaten
haue, hameka~haueka! ! !! (no.ina/adj.)

Hh
ha, ma' ~sma'' !! (v.at/.ut. inf. hami/hamu)
! to eat
hbmi, hbmui~hndi! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf.
hbmisa/hbmisu)
! to fly
hppo, hppoka!! !! (adj.)
! broad, ample, wide, vast
hppokelbiha, ~kelbihari! ! !! (adj.)
! with broad shoulders
habi, hapra, -i-! ! !! (no.ina)
! nipple
habma, habmaka! ! !! (adj.)
! deep, low (of sound)
hadlna, hadlnaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! sea ice
haga~hagu! ! !! (adv.)
! then, at that moment
hagia!! !! (proadv.)
! around there
! ! hagita to ~
! ! hagika from ~
hahha! ! !! (proadv.)
! there
! ! hahba to ~
! ! hahka from ~
haidda! ! !! (proadv.)
! right there
! ! haidda to ~
! ! haitka from ~
haidni! ! !! (det.)
! like that, like such, such
haimpima, haimpuima!! !! (v.adj)
! to smart, to sting, to burn
haimpo, haimpoka! ! !! (adj.)

617

! (something) worth eating, appetizing

hauvva, haua! ! !! (v.ut/.imp. inf.
haummu)
! to make want to eat | to be tempted, to
want to (.imp); !so hauvvasa-a gatamani
deita? are you tempted to !come along?
havva, haa!! !! (adj.)
! such, like that, such as that
hegina, heidi! ! !! (no.ina)
! restaurant
hegista, hegistari! ! !! (adj.)
! unsalted, sweat (of water)
hego, hivve~hevvue~hevvobi!! !! (no.ina)
! salt | spice
hehmi, herrima (her-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to be cold: hehmika I am cold
hea, hevva!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. heimi/heimu)
! to feed | to fortify (.ut), to strengthen
hee, heeri!! !! (adj.)
! cold
heeri, heeta! ! !! (no.ani)
! winter (also heri)
heidni, heinti'' !! (v.ai. inf. heidnisa)
! to wake, to stay awake
heiggena, heigedi!! !! (no.ina)
! salty marsh
heimkena, heimkedi! ! !! (no.ina)
! nesting area
heohmi, heorrima (heor-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to feel weak
heoli, heodli!! !! (v.ui. inf. heolsu)
! to shiver
heomi, heomme! ! !! (adj.)
! winter-like, wintery
heona, heodi! ! !! (adj.)
! weak, frail, delicate, feeble
he~heul, heula!! !! (no.ina)
! shiver, tremble, quiver
hekken, hekkes! ! !! (no.ina)
! crystal
helon, helos!! !! (no.ina)
! pregnant mammal
helva, helvari! ! !! (no.ina)
! female moose, pregnant moose
hemi, hemta~hemme! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! bird
hemm()i!! !! (onom.)
! hurray! hurrah! huzzah!
henetka, henetsta~henedda!! !! (no.ina.pl)

! birch shoes
hengy, hengyme!! !! (no.ina)
! venom, toxin
henna, hennia!! !! (v.at. inf. hennami)
! to be responsible for (+COP +ILLAT)
ihenni, ihennui! ! !! (v.aditr. inf. hennanin)
! to be responsible for ( +ILLAT)
heskva, heskvia!! !! (v.ut. inf. heskvamu)
! to have the bad luck of (+INF)
hesse, hesi~hesseri! ! !! (no.ina)
! shovel, spade | paddle, large oar | petal
heutso, heutsue~heutsobi! ! !! (no.ina)
! burbot
hulkena, hulkemmo!! !! (no.ina)
! place where melt water pools | pool
hey, heyme~hme! ! !! (no.ina)
! swamp
hey!! !! (adv./postp.direct)
! up
! ! heyta up (to)
! ! heytari upward | landward, up (onto) land
! ! heytatsti up along | along the top
! ! heyka up above
(o)heyti, (o)heytti! !! (v.ai/.asubj. inf.
heydna)
! to disembark, to hit land, to land | to stop |
to arrive, to ! return
hkaingil!! !! (adv.)
! generally
hmma, hmari! ! !! (no.ina)
! (place) up | top
! ! hmaria on land, at home, back (from
fishing/hunting)
hni! ! !! (adv./postp.desti)
! up
! ! henda up (to)
! ! henga (from) up
hiddua, hidduda!! !! (v.at. inf. hidduima)
! to stack up, to heap up, to pile up
hide, hieri!! !! (no.ina)
! hair
hie, hiddi!! !! (no.ina)
! pile, mount | a large amount, a lot (.quant)
hiebme, hiemedi!! !! (no.ina)
! fur coat (on animal)
heidnilit, heinilitsta! ! !! (no.ina)
! wake, funeral
heimekka, heimekkia' ! ! !! (v.ut. inf.
heimekmu)
618

! to make (feel) hot; heimekkaka konitse

walking makes ! me hot
heimeni, heimedi' ! ! !! (v.ui. inf. heinentu)
! to feel hot, to seem hot, to appear hot;
heimeni kindi-' so' your hand feels hot
heimentsi, heimentsui'! ! !! (v.imp)
! to be (far) too hot, there to be a heat wave
heuli, heulle! ! !! (no.ina)
! melt water
higekka, higekkia!! !! (v.ut. inf. higekmu)
! to make (feel) cold; si higekkasa-a byltyma
isnt the ! wind making you cold?
higeni, higedi'! ! !! (v.ui. inf. higentu)
! to feel cold, to appear cold; higeni kindi-go
my hand(s) !feel(s) cold
higentsi, higentsui! !! (v.imp)
! to be (far) too cold
hibmi, histima (hih-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/become) slanted/tilted | for there to
be a slope, to s! lope
hihi, hihid!! !! (adj.)
! slanted, tilted, leaning
hmha, hmra! ! !! (no.ani)
! woman, female character, she
hmi, hmid'! ! !! (adj.)
! hot, warm
hingut, hingutsta~hingudda! ! !! (no.ina)
! ghost, spirit
homa, hobma! ! !! (v.at. inf. hommi)
! to ought to (+COP +ELAT)
hmno, hma!! !! (no.ani)
! midwife
hnna, hnnamo!! !! (adj.)
! careful, precise, meticulous (adv.
hgen~hgil)
hirhima, hirhuima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be dim | to be drunk
hirhot, hirhotsta! ! !! (adj.)
! dim | stupid, slow, drunk
hiri, hiid~hita!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! (a single) hair (often animate in the plural)
hisk, hiskdi!! !! (no.ina)
! bad luck, curse
hikora, hikohdi~hikosta!! !! (no.ina)
! cloudberry
hutu, hubma!! !! (no.ina)
! necklace
h~hul, huri!! !! (no.ina)
! sea water

hbaka, hahma!! !! (no.ina)

! tidal pool | need to pee: naki hbaka I
need to pee
hda!! !! (adv.)
! pregnant
hoadna, hoadnaka! ! !! (adj.)
! surprised
hoalra, hoalraka! ! !! (no.ina)
! odonata (dragonfly-like insects)
hoatsmi, hoatskima!! !! (v.adj)
! taken a back, astonished, amazed
hobbe, hobmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! (ear)wax
hodla, holla!! !! (v.at. inf. hodlmi)
! to choose, to select | to decide
hogi, hokko! ! !! (no.ina)
! pearl, ball, globe, sphere
hog, homa! ! !! (no.ina)
! nonsense, rubbish, gibberish
hoen, hois! ! !! (no.ina)
! groin
hohtari! ! !! (adv.)
! on board, aboard
hoivva, hoimmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! flooding/flooded river/area
hokami, hokimi! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be blind(ed)
hoku, hokumo!! !! (adj.)
! blind
hokon, hokonta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! (large) boulder, rock, stone
holi, holko! ! !! (no.ina)
! stem, stalk, trunk | cane
holmi, hodlmi!! !! (v.adj)
! to be malnourished/sickly/starving | to
(become/be) !sparse(ly vegetated)
holodlen, holodles! ! !! (no.ina)
! cellar spider, spider
holokken~horokken,
holokkes~horokkes!! !! (no.ina)
! dragon fly
holot, holotta! ! !! (adj.)
! thin, sparse
holpima, holpuima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be muffled: kkia konra salla holpima
walking in !the snow muffles (our presence)
well | to be bored
holpo, holpoma! ! !! (adj.)
! dull, muffled, faded, washed out
619

holu, hoda!! !! (no.ani)

! ghost, spirit, soul
honomi, honkko~honomitta! ! !
! (no.ina/.ag.part)
! (hot) embers
h, hobo! ! !! (no.ina)
! (hot) embers
horimi, horumi! ! !! (v.adj)
! to feel tender/sore: horimika oboa the
bruise feels sore
horiot, horiotta! ! !! (adj.)
! tender, sore | fragile
hoson, hogonta!! !! (adj.)
! inedible, disgusting
hoto, hobma! ! !! (no.ina)
! peel, layer, coating, sheet, film
huhhi, huhri!! !! (v.ui. inf. huhsu)
! to shine
huhmi, huhrima! ! (huhh-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be bright
hummi, huima!(huvv-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to be cool/chilly
huoka, huohmo! ! !! (qant.)
! quite (also uoka)
huopi, huobmo!! !! (no.ina)
! scout, spy, mole
hdna, hnamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! sweat hut, sweat lodge, Siwa sauna
hue, huhmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! light, brightness
huvvi, hummo! ! !! (adj/.no.ina)
! comfortably/comfortable cold
huvvuhma, huvvuhmamo! ! !! (adj.)
! cool, frisky, chilly, chill, brisk
huvvukemua, ~kemuari! ! !! (adj.)
! (with) a cool morning
hhha, hmo!! !! (no.ina)
! heron
hpi, hppohta!! !! (no.ani)
! purple finch
hylys, hylhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! thin, scrawny person
hyi, hymo!! !! (no.ina)
! pregnant salmon

%, a' ' !! (v.at. inf. mi)

! to raise, to bring up
lppi~jayppi, alpika~aypika~llumi! ! !
! (no.ina/.ani)
! hare
adua, adia!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. adomi/
adomu)
! to make fall, to trip, to trick
ahhu, atu! ! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf.
ahhoru)
! to be able to (endurance/will) (+ELAT)
aalba, aalbaka~aalu!! !! (no.ina/ani)
! horse tail (equisetum): nelsta aalu-nen
to gathers ! ones belongings and leave, to
pack up and go
aingo, aingoka! ! !! (no.ina)
! (ones) life
airi, airri!! !! (v.ai. inf. airha)
! to row
aike, aikeka!! !! (no.ina)
! senility
ama!! !! (interj.)
! hey (to get someones attention)
amnon, amnonta -ri-!! !! (no.ina)
! smoke tent, sauna tent | confusion, dark
(be in the dark): konikni amnria to be in the
dark, not to know
iamon, iamos!! !! (no.ina)
! fauna
anna, anka, -i-!! !! (no.ina)
! piled-up snow, snow bank, snow (on
branches)
asuma~asma, asukka~askka! ! !! (no.ina)
! skin (of dead animal) | leather
ai, aid! ! !! (no.ina)
! old age, senility
aku, akau! ! !! (v.utrans. inf. akoru)
! to grow older
ata, atka (-ti-)!! !! (no.ina)
! carved bowl | open area where people sit,
theatre
atkini, atkia! ! !! (no.ani)
! late winter
ibengi, iengid%% !! (no.ina)
! time needed to smoke meat | time (in the
context of !waiting): neni iengid-nen! ! to do
ones part, to serve !ones time
ibme, imedi! ! !! (no.ina)
! ice (to walk on)

Ii
620

idebba, iebbadi!! !! (no.ina)

! a clumsy person
idi, iddi!! !! (v.ui. inf. itsu)
! to fall
ie, iddi! ! !! (no.ina)
! crack (where water seeps through),
fracture
~eu~el, ela! ! !! (no.ina)
! growth, success, increase
ehru, ehrau!! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. ehroru)
! to be possible (favourable conditions)
(+ILLAT)
eibma, einda! ! !! (v.at/.ut inf. eibmami/
eibmamu)
! to form, to create, to build, to shape
eidlentsi, eidlentsui!! !! (v.imp)
! to be (far) too late (for +ILLAT)
eigge, eigeri!! !! (no.ina)
! snow trench | ditch, furrow (in snow)
eita,eitri!! !! (no.ina)
! structure, shape, form | system,
organization
eumi, eumme~eutta!!! (no.ina/.ani)
! shrike
eilgila, eilgidla! ! !! (v.at. inf. eilgilmi)
! to get to know (someone, over time)
emra, emria!! !! (v.at/.ut inf. emrami/
emramu)
! to bore, to pierce, to go through (a surface)
| to !exasperate, to provoke (.ut)
esta, estia! ! !! (v.at. inf. estami)
! to succeed, to achieve (+ INF.)
ei, ekki! ! !! (v.ai. inf. ehsa)
! to run
eydna, eydnari! ! !! (adj.)
! adult (usually male)
eyta, eydda!! !! (v.at. inf. eybmi)
! to parboil (mushrooms) to remove poison
igut, iutsta~iudda!! !! (no.ina)
! personality, humor, mood, temper,
disposition
ia, ista!! !! (v.at. inf. imi)
! to accept | to agree | to trust (that
something is)
! tymia! to resolve to, to accept (ones
faith)
! lia! ! to pass on, to give (something as a
gift), to ! ! ! entrust
! kemia!! to agree (with +DIT)

ihko~ihk !! !! (adv.)
! sometimes, occasionally, from time to time
, mi!! !! (v.ui. inf. s)
! to change
~l~iu~i~idd~iddil~iddiu~iddi~iddir,
ila~la! ! !! (no.ina)
! darkness, pitch dark | shadow
ihha' ' !! (adv.)
! only, just
dla, dladi! ! !! (adj.)
! late
dlu, ludi!! !! (no.ina)
! sprout, bud, offshoot, sprig
gna, gtta! ! !! (v.ut. inf. gmn)
! to inspire
iebmi, iepsima (iepp-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to feel sticky, to be sticky/tacky: iebmi
tomumia ' iuhdi'my fingers are sticky
because of the sap (lit. the ! sap stickies in
my fingers)
ieppi, ieppid!! !! (adj.)
! sappy, sticky, gluey, tacky, gummy
iepp~ieppul, ieppula!! !! (no.ina)
! stickiness, tackiness
ieppitiekiha, ~tiekihdi! ! !! (adj.)
! sticky-handed, with sticky hands
hha, ista~ita!! !! (v.at/.adit. mi/hhanin)
! to thank (for +ELAT)
hhia! ! !! (adv.)
! (not) anywhere
! hta!! (not) anywhere (movement to)
! hka!(not) anywhere (movement from)
! hha!(not) in any way
hmi, h-! ! !! (pron.)
! (not) anyone
! behki! ! not either
! tsehki! ! not any (of)
! set hhu!! not ever
kia! ! !! (adv.)
! west
! ! hta westwards, to the west
! ! hteri towards the west
! ! htsi along the west(face/side)
! ! hka from the west
ikimainnut, kimainnutta! !! (no.ina)
! eider duck
ks, gsgi! ! !! (no.ina)
! experienced archer
ksi, ksui!! !! (v.at/.adit. inf. ksisa/ksinin)
621

! to shoot (an arrow) (at/ +ILLAT)

ku, hdi~kudi!! !! (no.ina)
! snow bench
la, dla~lla~lda!! !! (v.at. inf. lmi)
! to know (someone)
vvvla, -dla~-lla~lda!! !! (v.at. inf.
vvvlmi)
! to forgive
lka, lkia!! !! (v.at/.adit. inf. lkami/lkanin)
! to present, to offer, to suggest | to give
lkobma, lkonda! ! !! (v.dit. inf. lkobmanin)
! to make an offering to
ngi, ndi!! !! (v.ai. inf. ngisa)
! to live: nnni sngi? ' how are you?
nta!! !! (adv.)
! still
iomu, iobmu! ! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. iomlu)
! to be possible (time/conditions) (+INF)
rri, rid! ! !! (no.ina)
! arrow
pa, va!! !! (no.du)
! grandparents, elders
t, tta'! ! !! (det.)
! that (long/honorific)
! ! ba, ppa that (out of two)
! ! ts, tsta~dda that (out of many)
t!! !! (pron.)
! you (honorific)
! ! bma PAT.
! ! d GEN.
! ! ts DAT.
! ' tsi-' LOC.
! ! t POSS.
! ! da~ur PREC
tera, tehra! ! !! (v.at. inf. tehmi)
! to use honorific t
tima, ddima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be late
tina, tindi! ! !! (adj.)
! late
iki, ikid!! !! (no.ina)
! axe
ik-, ikih-! ! !! (act.nom)
! axe
ikket, ikketsta!! !! (no.ina)
! birth
ikos, ikohi~ihki!! !! (no.ina)
! (small) axe
ilili, ilidli!! !! (v.ui/.ai inf. ililsu/ililsa)

! to be alive, to live: ahhu ililsa~lsu to

survive
ilon, ilos !! !! (no.ina)
! vegetation
ilkima, ilkia!! !! (no.du)
! temples | forehead
ilun, ilus!! !! (no.ina)
! young (boy/girl)
imanget, imangetsta' ' !! (no.ina)
! preparation | maturation
imisi, imisti'' !! (no.ina)
! animal
imoget, imogetsta!! !! (no.ina)
! whitening, paling
obu, ouma~jobma!! !! (no.ina)
! sheaf, bundle, stack
skanhi, skaagi!! !! (no.ani.pl)
! vernal equinox
ski, skid!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! woman
iuaki, iuagi! ! !! (v.ai. inf. iuaksa)
! to cut boughs
iurha, iurhadi! ! !! (adj.)
! vigorous, strong, robust, sturdy | sappy,
juicy
iurh~iurheu~iurhel, iurhela!! !! (no.ina)
! vigor, strength, robustness, sturdiness |
sappiness, ! juiciness
iuri, iuhdi! ! !! (no.ina)
! sap | juice | life spirit, vigor, strength
iutokni, iutonga! ! !! (no.ani)
! bough cutter/fetcher
imna, imnia!! !! (v.at. inf. imnami)
! to smoke (meat to preserve it)
inden! ! !! (postp.)
! roughly, about, something like: eudna
nedda inden ' something like twenty, two
dozens
ini, inui! ! !! (v.ai. inf. inisa)
! to sneak, to creep, to slide | to go
unnoticed: inisa 'keemi to go (completely)
unnoticed (lit. to sneak like a !lynx)
inina, inindi! ! !! (adj.)
! rich, wealthy, well-off
in~inul, inula! ! !! (no.ina)
! wealth
irela, ireldi! ! !! (adj.)
! beautiful
Irhi, Ihta!! !! (no.ani)
622

! (female personal name)

irhon, irhos ! ! !! (no.ina)
! holiday, leave, work-free period
iri, iid!! !! (no.ina)
! bark (usually for writing on) | paper | skin
iruoga, iruohdi! ! !! (no.ina)
! coniferous wood
ir~irul, irula! ! !! (no.ina)
! beauty
irva, irvadi' ' !! (no.ina)
! bite
istoma, istdi!! !! (no.ina)
! scalp
ii, iid!! !! (adj.)
! old
iu-(numeral)! ! !! (indecl. adj.)
! X years old
! ! iuminesta 11 year old
i, iula! ! !! (no.ina)
! age
oairha, oairhaka! ! !! (adj.)
! easy to row in | calm, serene, still, tranquil
okon, okonta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! large caribou herd
iodda!! !! (proadv.)
! right there (distal)
! ! iodda to ~
! ! iotka from ~
iodni! ! !! (det.)
! like that, like such, such
oga~ogu! ! !! (adv.)
! then, at that moment (distal)
ogia! ! !! (proadv.)
! over there (distal)
! ! ogita to ~
! ! ogika from ~
iohha!! !! (proadv.)
! there (distal)
! ! iohba to ~
! ! iohka from ~
iomi! ! !! (adv.)
! for that reason, thus, so
oni!! !! (adv.)
! thus, like that, thereby (distal)
iot, iotta!! !! (det.)
! that (distal)
! ! ioba, ioppa~oppa that (out of two)
! ! iots, iotsta~iodda that (out of many)
! ! iottei! ! that manieth

! ! iott!! that time

ovva, oa!! !! (adj.)
! such, like that, such as that (distal)
ismet, ismetsta!! !! (no.ina)
! leather work
(i)ss()i! ! !! (onom.)
! sound to show disbelief
itemi, itendi~itetta !!! (no.ina/.ani)
! thrush
itvi, itvid'' '' (adj.)
! short (time)
iu, ibi!! !! (no.ina)
! older relative, superior
io, iodi!! !! (no.ina)
! difficult task, difficulty: ioila~oila~oira with
difficulty, !hardly
uoku, uohma! ! !! (no.ina)
! caribou enclosure
na, tta' ' !! (v.at. inf. jmni)
! to finish, to complete
tsuma, tsummo!! !! (no.ina)
! fear, paralysis, terror
liha~lha, lihma~lhama!! !! (adj.)
! sweaty
lilielliha, ~liellihdi! ! !! (adj.)
! sweaty-palmed, stressed, anxious
l, lma! ! !! (no.ina)
! sweat
ivi, ivvi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. issu)
! to increase
iv!! !! (adv.)
! increasingly, more and more
~yl, yla! ! !! (no.ina)
! end, ending, extremity, conclusion

Kk
khl~khlil, khliri! ! !! (no.ina)
! height, elevation
khlo, khloka! ! !! (adj.)
! high, elevated, highest
kma-, kma-!! !! (act.nom)
! paternal grandfather
kadlka%% (pron.ina)
! the whole
! ! AG. !! kadlka
! ! PAT.!! kadla

623

! ! GEN.! kadl
! ! DAT. ! kadlkis
' ' kadlku!! the whole time
! ! kadlka! ! completely
kadlu, kallu! ! !! (v.aux.utrans inf. kadloru)
! to be enough, to suffice to/for (+ILLAT)
kaha, kada' ' '' ' (v.aditr. inf. kabmi)
! to need (+COP +ELAT)
ikahi, ikadi'' '' ' (v.aditr. inf. kadnin)
! to need (+ILAT)
kahi, kaika!! !! (no.ina)
! shell, husk
kaikseuha, kaikseuhka! ! !! (adj.)
! evasive, elusive, vague, ambiguous
kaiksevva, kaigsegga!! !! (no.ina)
! coward
kaiksia, kaiksua!! !! (v.at. inf. kaiksimi)
! to dodge, to dart, to elude, to evade, to
avoid, to !escape
kalara, kalahka!! !! (no.ina)
! hole (dug)
kalmi, kalmui!! !! (v.ai. inf. kalmisa)
! to (go into) battle, to wage war
kalsa, kalsaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! oven | insides, interior, core, centre
kal~kalul, kaluri! ! !! (no.ina)
! stringency, strictness, firmness, rigidity,
rigor, discipline ! | !tightness, pressure,
compression
kalve, kalveka! ! !! (adj.)
! stringent, strict, firm, rigid, rigorous,
disciplined, harsh | !tight | under pressure,
pressurized, compressed
kalvegeigabmot, ~bmotta!! !! (adj.)
! cheap, miserly, stingy
kammo, kamoka!! !! (no.ina)
! frozen lake | thick ice
kame, kameka!! !! (no.ina)
! left hand
kanni, kan-! ! !! (quest.pron.)
! who? (plural)
! ' kebanni who (out of two)
! ! ketsanni who (out of many)
kansi, kanta!! !! (no.ani)
! female moose (young)
karsa, karta~kartta! ! !! (no.ani)
! younger brother
katama, katakka!! !! (no.ina)
! (place) outside, outdoor, exterior

kata~katsa!! !! (adv./postp.)
! out(side)
! ! kadda out
! ! kaddairi towards the outside, at (missing)
! ! katsti along the outside
! ! katka from the outside
katubias, katubiahi' ' '' (no.ina)
! exile
keda, kedda~ketta!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. kebmi/
kebmu)
! to carry, to bear
! ! kekediksa to carry X attached to/with
Y
! ! gatkeda!! to bring
kega, ketka!! !! (v.at. inf. kegmi)
! to hide
okegi, oketki!! !! (v.asubj. inf. kegna)
! to hide (oneself)
keggeki, kegegge!! !! (no.ina)
! brag, boast; irehhaika kegegge!! X will
brag about Y
kehebmi, kehepsima (kehepp-)!! !! (adj.)
! to feel sulky, sullen, surly | to mope | to be
grumpy, ! grouchy
kehepp~keheppil, keheppila!! !! (no.ina)
! sulkiness, sullenness, grumpiness
keheppo, keheppue~keheppobi!! !! (adj.)
! sulky, sullen, surly, moping, grumpy
kehhe, kehhie~kei!! !! (no.ina)
! birch bark
kehhokokabmot, ~bmotta!! !! (adj.)
! birch-bark weaving | normal, standard
(person), !every-! day
kehmo, kehka! ! !! (no.ani)
! skin (human)
kehno, kehha~kehnue~kehnobi! ! !
! (no.ani/.ina)
! pine
kehhta, kehhtta' ' ' !! (v.at. inf.
kehhbmi)
! to remove bark (of tree) | to peel off
kehma, kehka!! !! (no.ani)
! (human) skin
kei, kee!! !! (no.ina)
! lynx | person/animal/thing that is difficult to
see/spot
keigi, keia~keihta! ! !! (no.ani)
! helmet
keie, keii~keiie~keiie! ! !! (no.ina)
624

! betula (any birch tree)

keihme, keihmie!! !! (no.ina)
! page
keindentsi, keindentsui'! ! !! (v.imp)
! to be (far) too early
keingita, keingitta!! !! (v.at. inf.
keingibmi)
! to polish, to smooth out
keisme, keismie! ! !! (no.ina)
! course, formation, guide
kekki, kekkie~kekken~keggen!! !! (quant.)
! too (much): kekken atana too big
kekna, kenta!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. keknami/
keknamu)
! to organize, to put together | to initiate, to
spark (.ut)
keknuli, kengulle~keknulta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! organized, structured person, initiator
kelba, kema!! !! (no.du)
! shoulders
kelgi~kelki, kelgie!! !! (no.ina)
! war, warfare, conflict
kelhegemis, kelhegemhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! Wednesday
kelta~keltta, keltari! ! !! (no.ina)
! ground
keltaus, keltauhi!! !! (adj.)
! terristrial, landkemamomi, kemamomitta' ' !
! (v.act.part.pl)
! siblings (sg.
kembo~sambo, kmoi~smoi!! !! (no.ani)
! grandfather
kemh, kemhula!! !! (no.ina)
! happiness, joy
kemaingo, kemaingoka!! !! (no.ina)
! society
kemi, kemie! ! !! (no.ina)
! morning
kendia% , -ita, -ika! ! !! (adv.)
! early, at an early time
kendima, kenduima!! !! (v.adj)
! to be early
kenehta!! !! (adv.)
! tomorrow (for, to, before)
kenes, kenhi' ' !! (no.ina)
! tomorrow
kengi, kenda~kegna!! !! (no.ani)
! day: sare kengi! hello!

kenho, kenra! ! !! (no.ani)

! virgin/prepubescent girl
kenka! ! !! (adv.)
! tomorrow
kennut, kennutsta' ! !! (no.ina)
! mallard duck
! kenneha! female
! kennego!male
keppi, keppie!! !! (no.ina)
! head, number, quantity
keppta, kepptta' ' ' !! (v.at. inf.
keppbmi)!
! to behead, decapitate
kepsi, kebsie~keutta(kepta)!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! mushroom
kesa, keha! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. kesmi/kesmu)
! to learn | to discover (.ut)
keskon, keskos! ! !! (adj.)
! non-buoyant, sinking
ketku, ketkume!! !! (no.ina)
! shoulder(blade)
ketso! ! !! (adv.)
! as per the custom, because of a custom,
customarily, !usually
keu~k~e ! ! !! (postp.)
! with (as one, together)
kei, kevvi!! !! (v.ui/.ai. inf. kessu/kessa)
! to rise, to go up
keundlu, keundluma! ! !! (adj.)
! daily, by day, daykeunl~keunleu~keunlel, keunlela!! !
! (no.ina)
! dailiness, routine
keullu, keulluma!! !! (ajd.)
! per person | personal, individual
keunna, keunnari' ' !! (no.ina)
! cape, promontory, hill, high point
kea!! !! (postp.)
! as, in the form of | in Xs skin/view/opinion
! kega! ! from (being)
kevvasa, kevvasari! ! !! (adj.)
! aggressive, quick-tempered
ku, kla! ! !! (no.ina)
! attack, fight: idigga klita to attack X
kut, klda!! !! (no.ina)
! violence, war
keynke, keynkie! ! !! (no.ina)
! sperm, ejaculation
keynn, keyns! ! !! (no.ina)
625

! milk bucket | (vulgar) breasts, tits

keyrpa, keyrpari! ! !! (adj.)
! unknown, possibly dangerous
kkia!! !! (adv.)
! east
! ! keuhta eastwards, to the east
! ! keuhteri towards the east
! keuhtsi along the east(face/side)
! keuhka! from the east
kmes, kemhi!! !! (adj.)
! happy, glad (also kmis~kmus~kmys)
kmmi, kebmima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to feel happy, to be happy
krru, krume!! !! (no.ina)
! doubt, suspicion, distrust
ki! ! !! (pron.)
! they
! ! igi PAT.
! ! kjon~kh GEN.
! ! eksi DAT.
! ' ningi-' LOC.
! ! hi POSS.
! ! keta PREC
kala, kalka! ! !! (no.ina)
! land, territory
kalba, kalkaba! ! !! (act.no)
! Siwa land
kaseli, kaselka~kaselta! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! someone who works quickly
okasi, okahi! ! !! (v.asubj/.ai. inf. kanta/
kassa)
! to hurry up | to work quickly (.ai)
kieska, kieskia!! !! (v.at. inf. kieskami)
! to watch, to observe, to view, to look at
kiega, kieti!! !! (v.at. inf. kiegami)
! to steal
(i)kiguta, (i)kigutta! ! !! (v.ui/.uditr. inf.
kigubmi~kigudnon)
! not to be able to wait | not be able to !wait
for (+ELAT, .uditr.)
k, kd! ! !! (adj.)
! new
kgini, kgia~kindi! ! !! (no.ani/no.ina/adj.)
! youngest of a group | runt (.ina)
kloah! ! !! (adv.)
! repeatedly, over and over again
kika! ! !! (adv./postp.)
! over
! ! kihta over (to)

! ! kihtairi over, too much, too far, too high,

passed a
! ! goal
! ! kihtsi' along the top/surface
! ! kikka (from) over, from the top/surface
kikama, kikandi! ! !! (no.ina)
! (place) over, space over | surface area |
upper part
kikin, kikis !! !! (no.ina)
! meal
! kemukikin!! breakfast
' kikin~sogikin!supper
kikiin, kikiis!! !! (no.ina)
! woodpecker
kilge, kilgedi!! !! (no.ina)
! blade
kila, killa!! !! (v.at. inf. kilami)
! to cut, to fall (tree)
! tkila ! to cut down (tree) | (~ohk-) to kill
a large ! game
kili, kidli!! !! (no.ina)
! wood
killa! ! !! ! (pron.ani)
! the whole
! ! AG. !! killa
! ! PAT.!kilva
! ! GEN.! kihl
! ! DAT. ! killa
' ' killu!! always
killu!! !! (adv.)
! always
kilura, kiluhdi!! !! (adj.)
! wooden
kilur, kilurela!! !! (no.ina)
! woodenness
kinagi, kinai!/kinaubi! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! foreigner, stranger
kinapomi, kinapota! ! !! (no.ani)
! guest, foreigner | invader, aggressor
kinaubmi, kinaundi!! !! (adj.)
! foreign, exotic, alien
kinaubm, kinaubmula! ! !! (no.ina)
! foreignnes, exoticism, alienness
kinna, kindi! ! !! (no.ina)
! fist, paw | (large) hand
kintumi, kintutta! ! !! (no.ani)
! warrior, hero
kinuba~kinulba,
kin~kinulu~kinuadi~kinuldi!! !! (no.ani)
626

! thistle
koma, komamo!! !! (no.ina)
! auk bird
komimu, komimma! ! !! (adj.)
! auk bird-like, sea bird(like)
koka, kuhka~kukka! ! !! (v.at. inf. kokmi)
! to weave (especially birch bark)
kori, kohko!! !! (no.ina)
! rotten wood
korki, korkko!! !! (no.ina)
! mulch
koro, kohma!! !! (no.ina)
! sea bird
kiras, kirhi' ! ! !! (no.ina)
! morning
kisit, kisitsta'' !! (no.ina)
! culture
kisili, kisidli! ! !! (v.ai. inf. kisilsa)
! to work fast, to be fast
kisina, kisindi!! !! (adj.)
! quick, fast, rapid, swift
kisinupubmot, ~bmotta! ! !! (adj.)
! quick-tempered
kis~kisul, kisula! ! !! (no.ina)
! quickness, speed, rapidity, swiftness
kita, ahta!! !! (v.at. inf. kibmi)
! to do
kita, kivva! ! !! (no.ani)
! eye
kitaie, kitaiedi! ! !! (no.ina/adj.)
! (something) worth doing
kuhko, kuhhuni!! !! (no.ani)
! beaver
kuomon, kuomonta! ! !! (adj.)
! bent, twisted, warped, out of shape
Kuomin, Kuonis!! !! (no.ina)
! (name of a village)
akuomu, akuobmu!! !! (v.utransl. inf.
kuomlu)
! to become bent, to bend out of shape
kuti, kutimo!! !! (no.ina)
! territory, used land
kiga, kita!! !! (v.at. inf. kigami)
! to pick up | to lift, to hoist
kiba, keubba! ! !! (no.du)
! eyes
kia!! !! (postp.)
within sight, in sight, with/while X watching/
seeing

kiani! ! !! (det.)
! the one within sight | witness
knes, knehi! ! !! (no.ina)
! sour~fermented drink | beer
ko, koba! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! summer
koaora, koaohra!! !! (v.at. inf.
koaohmi)
! to half, to split in halves
koahi, koakka!! !! (quant.)
! enough, well (COMP. koatta, SUP. kodla,
SUP.GEN. kuhla)
koahi, koasti! ! !! (v.ui/.ai. inf.
koahisu~koassu)
! to be enough, to suffice | to fulfill
koahibmis, -mhi!! !! (adj.)
! sufficient (adv. koahimui)
koahim, koahimuri! ! !! (no.ina)
! sufficiency, abundance
koahlebba, koahlebbaka!! !! (no.ina)
! a noisy person | a misbehaved child
koahli, koahlui!! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. koahlisa/
koahlisu)
! to make noise, to be noisy | to misbehave
(.ai)
koaibma, koainda! ! !! (v.ut/at. inf.
koaibmimu/koaibmimi)
! to be bored (of +INF.): koaindaka
neutvamatta I lost ! interest
koakken~koakkil! ! !! (adv.)
! enough, well (COMP. koakne SUP. koaiba)
koalgi, koaltsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! paternal aunt
koat, koatta! ! !! (no.ina)
! (person/animal) born during the summer
kobas, koahhi!! !! (no.ina)
! freckle, speckle, fleck, dot
kobolken, klkes! ! !! (no.ina)
! monarch (butterfly)
komi, koa!! !! (no.ani)
! guest
koha, koamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! half
koho, kma! ! !! (no.ina)
! half
kohut, kohutta! ! !! (card.)
! half (often used before nouns)
! ma kohut~koho~koha shdi X ate half the
fish
627

koita~koia, koibmo~koimo!! !! (no.ina)

! cocoon | wrap, cloak
kokka, kokkia! ! !! (v.ut. inf. kokmu)
(patientive)
! to like; takokkaka I like X | to please
kokket, kokketta!! !! (no.ina)
! dialect, speech
kokk, kokkuri! ! !! (no.ina)
! lightness, lightweightness | agility,
nimbleness
koklu, kohda! ! !! (no.ani)
! place where boat is lowered into lake
kokmi, kogima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/feel) relieved, glad, reassured
kokve, kokvemo! ! !! (adj.)
! light, lightweight, not heavy | agile, nimble
kola, kolmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! ridge, esker
kolia!! !! (adv.)
! strained, tensed, stretched, tight
kolkon, kolkonta -ri-'' '' (no.ina)
! bread
kolla, komma!! !! (quant.)
! much, a lot (COMP. kvolda, SUP. kvobba,
SUP.GEN k
' uohba)
kolo~kulo, kolma~kulma! ! !! (no.ina)
! cloud
kolo! ! !! (postp./adv.)
! around (here/there), in the vicinity, close to
(kolta to ~ ! kolka from ~)
koloni! ! !! (det.)
! the one close by | at hand | local, close-by
kolot, kolotta! ! !! (no.ina)
! womb, placenta
komi, kkko!! !! (no.ina)
! mind | memory: maski kkko kihtairi it
didnt dawn (on ! me)
kommen~kommil%% !! (adv.)
! much, a lot (COMP. komne~kelme, SUP.
keilba~kuba)
koni, kodi~koddi! ! !! (v.ai/ui. inf. konta/
kontu)
! to walk
konihta, konihtamo!! !! (adj.)
! one summer old/long
konkot, konkotta!! !! (adj.)
! horrible, terrible, awful, dreadful
(sometimes !konkoonkot)
ki, koki' ' !! (v.ai. inf. ksa)! ! IRR!

! to speak, to talk
! ! gaka to deal with someone
kori, kohko!! !! (no.ina)
! boy
koro, kohma!! !! (no.ina)
! headwear,
kor~korul, koruri!! !! (no.ina)
! pot
kosa, koskka!! !! (v.at. inf. kosami)
! to carve (out)
koso-, kotta-!! !! (act.nom)
! older brother
kosomi, kosomitta!! !! (v.act.part.pl)
! brothers
koi, gasta!! !! (no.ani)
! older brother
kotson, kotsonta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! shock, scare, fright | jolt, blow
koga, kgga!! !! (no.du)
! twins (brothers)
koa, khha!! !! (no.du)
! twins
koba, kbba!! !! (no.du)
! brother(s) and sister(s)
khi, kkko! ! !! (no.ina)
! memory, remembrance
kga, kkamo!! !! (no.ina)
! bear cub
kegvia, kegvua! ! !! (v.at. inf. kegvimi)
! to call (an animal)
kuilis, kuilhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! tadpole
kuilva~kilva, kuilvamo~kilvamo!! !
! (no.ina)
! drizzle, spray, mist
kuima, kuimamo!! !! (no.ina)
! frosty
kuki, kuta!! !! (no.ani)
! mouth
kukua, kukia' ' '' (v.at. inf. kukomi)
! to order
kulu~kolu, kuluma~koluma! ! !! (adj.)
! cloudy
Kumho, Kumtsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! (male personal name)
kumora, kumosta~kumohma! ! !
! (no.ani/.ina)
! white spruce
kunna, kuna/kulva!! !! (no.ani)
628

! oak tree
kuohhidna, kuohhidnamo! ! !! (adj.)
! noisy
kuoko, kuokoma!! !! (no.ina)
! order
kuos, kuohhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! noise
kuspo, kusoi!! !! (no.ani)
! skunk
kutkuska~kutuska,
kutkuhi~kutuhi! ! !! (no.ina.pl)
! floor(ing)
kadna, kanamo!! !! (no.ina)
! settlement, community, outpost
kalme, kalmemo! ! !! (no.ina)
! inner bark
ka! ! !! (adv.)
! afloat, floating
kimpa, kygua~kbba! ! !! (no.du)
! (pair of) boots/shoes
kira, kihmo!! !! (no.ina)
! issue, matter, question, point
kin, kis! ! !! (no.ina)
! big squirrel | adult squirrel
kitton, kittos!! !! (no.ina)
! shoe, boot
kkiket, kkiketsta'' '' (no.ina)
! relations
ki, kima! ! !! (no.ina)
! attempt, exam(ination), test
kka, kkia! ! !! (v.at. inf. kkmi)
! to bring (along) | to escort, to guide
klma, klmia! ! !! (v.at. inf. klmami)
! to wage war on, to combat, to battle
kmli, kmdli'' !! (v.uit. inf. kmls)
! to be in rut, to be horny
kngi, kngei! ! !! (v.at. inf. kngsa)
! to knock
iknnli, iknndli!! !! (v.adit. inf.
knnlnn)
! to settle (somewhere)
kn, knma! ! !! (no.ina)
! milk
ksi, ksimo!! !! (no.ina)
! place where many mushrooms are found |
group, team
ktega!! '' (adv.)
! somewhere (unknown)
! kteita!! somewhere (movement to)

! kteika!! somewhere (movement from)

ktmni, kt-!! !! (pron.)
! someone (unknown)
! kebtmni! ! either, one or the other
! ketstmni! ! some
! kdd'' sometimes
! ktva!! somehow
! mik! ! for some reason
kvn, kus!! !! (no.ina)
! brain
! ! eddkvn idiot, fool, halfwit
kvauli, kvaudli!! !! (v.ai. inf. kvaulsa)
! to summer, to spend the summer
somewhere
kvagi, kvahta' ! ! !! (det.)
! those (medial)
! ! kvapa, kvahba those (out of two)
! ! kvatsi, kvahtsa those (out of many)
kvagni! ! !! (det.)
! like those, like such, such
kvego, kveue~kveobi! ! !! (no.ina)
! feeling, perception, sense
kvekkot, kvekkotsta! ! !! (adj.)
! insulating, warm
kven!~kvon, kves~kvonta! ! !! (no.ina)
! feather
kvena, kvevva! ! !! (no.ani)
! female cousin (fathers sisters)
kvesi, kvetta!! !! (no.ani)
! male cousin (fathers sisters)
kva, kvma~kvivva!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
kvmi~kvmu)
! to feel, to perceive | to sense, to detect (.ut)
okv, okvivvi! ! !! (v.usubj inf. kvna)
! to feel like (noun+ ELAT or kea~kega,
adj + ADV)
kvisil!! !! ! (adv.)
! regularly
kvisot, kvisotsta! ! !! (adj.)
! regular
! sikvisot! irregular
kvolku, kvolkuma! ! !! (no.ina)
! cloud cover, cloudy weather
kydly, kylyma!! !! (no.ina)
! bell | little girl
! kylys~kvylys little flower
kygybi, kbid!! !! (no.ina)
! calling horn
kya, kymo! ! !! (no.ina)
629

! mouse
kykky, kykkyma! ! !! (no.ina)
! voice
kykkymil! ! !! (adv.)
! out loud
kylk, kylke' ' '' (v.utrans. inf. kylkr)
! to slip off, to come off (easily)
kymina~kymna, kymimmo~kymmo!! !
! (adj.)
! nice, pleasant, agreeable
kyni, kyndi!! !! (no.ina)
! nest, lair, den
kysibi, kysibid! ! !! (no.ina)
! carving knife
kya, kyha! ! !! (v.at. inf. kymi)
! to try to (+ILLAT)
kyi, kyti~kyhta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! squirrel
ungokyi, ungokyhi! ! !! (v.asubj inf.
uokyina)
! to apply oneself, to make an effort
kyye, kyyemo! ! !! (no.ina/adj.)
! (something) worth trying | valuable
experience
k~kv, kyby~kvyby!! !! (no.ina)
! grease, fat, oil

lamm~lammil, lamiri!! !! (no.ina)

! boldness, braveness | arrogance
lammon, lammonta!! !! (adj.)
! bold, brave | arrogant: gegin lammon
big~foul mouth
laugi, lautsi!! !! (v.ui. inf. lauisa)
! to hesitate
tamalaua, ~lauda! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
tamalauami/~lauamu)
! to hinder
lega, leda! ! !! (v.at inf. leimi)
! to crush (seeds, flour, often leghna) | to
win, to beat !someone | to hit someone
(violently), to strike
lehhidlen, lehhidles!! !! (no.ina)
! harvestman, daddy long legs
leilma, leilmari! ! !! (adj.)
! warm
leilmi, leidlmi! ! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/become) warm
leil, leilula!! !! (no.ina)
! warmth | kindness
leren, leres ! !! (no.ina)
! pile of straw/moss/boughs
letku, letkume!! !! (no.ina)
! paddle
letkuika!! !! (adv.)
! confused, lost, astray
letse, letsi! ! !! (no.ina)
! pole, post, pillar
leba, lema! ! !! (no.du)
! mittens
lagin, lainta -ri-!! !! (no.ina)
! nasal cavity, sinuses
lialsei, lialsui!! !! (v.ui. inf. lialsesu)
! to drift, to be carried away | to stray
lialse! ! !! (adv.)
! adrift | lost, off course
leileni, leiledi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. leilentu)
! to feel warm, to be warm
leilta, leiltia! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. leiltami/
leiltamu)
! to warm up
liello, liellodi!! !! (no.ina)
! palm
lemi, lemme! ! !! (no.ina)
! infection | pus
lsi, lihhet!! !! (no.ani)
! nostril(s)

Ll
lagas, laahi!! !! (no.ina)
! ingredient | powdered grains, flour
lago, laoka! ! !! (no.ina)
! hesitation, doubt
lagu, ladu! ! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. lagoru)
! to happen (to be) (+INF)
lahton, lahtos!! !! (no.ina)
! (single) mitten
laibmi, laibima (laip-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/become/feel) resentful/jealous
laiklo, laigloka! ! !! (no.ina)
! the innermost part of a house/tipi
laipin, laipinta'! !! (adj.)
! bitter, sour, sharp
laippo, laippoka! ! !! (adj.)
! flat
laip~laipul, laipuri!! !! (no.ina)
! bitterness, sourness, sharpness
630

likion, likios!!! (adj.)

! awful | rude, bad-tempered | bitter (of food)
lillu, lilda! ! !! (no.ani)
! paternal uncle
lodla, lotsta~lollamo! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! balsam fir (abies balsamea)
liota, liovva! ! !! (no.ani)
! mother (animal)
l, lyra! ! !! (no.ina.irr)
! resin, pitch
louhe, loubmo!! !! (no.ina)
! fin
lista, listia! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. listami/listamu)
! to abandon | to give up (on)
listebba, listebbadi!! !! (no.ina)
! someone who gives up easily, coward
listi, listui! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. listisa/listisu)
! to give up (on, +ELAT)
oloai, oloasti!! !! (v.asubj. inf. loana)
! to masturbate
loaita, loaitta!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. loaibmi/
loaibmu)
! to flatten, to level | to crush
loalla, loalaka!! !! (no.ina)
! (place) behind | back, backside
loveli, lovelko!! !! (no.ina)
! a jerk-off, idiot, wanker (insult)
lohhe~loe, lohmo~lomo!! !! (no.ina)
! bob | jolt, jerk
loibmi, loipsima (loipp-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/become) flat | to be bored
loii, loiko!! !! (no.ina)
! leech, parasite
loippo, loippomo! ! !! (adj.)
! flat
lokkima! ! !! (adv.)
! flat (on ones stomach)
lokli, loklui!! !! (v.ai. inf. loklisa)
! to lie flat (on ones stomach)
lokna, longamo!! !! (no.ina)
! (intense) cold
lomi, lobmi! ! !! (v.ai. inf. lomsa)
! to run: obrrikmaita lomsa to run as fast
as one ! can (lit. to run into drowning)
longi~longieu~longiel, longieri!! !! (no.ina)
! iciness, coldness
longiu, longiuma!! !! (adj.)
! icy, (very) cold
lugua, lugaa' ' '' (v.at. inf. lugumi)

! to love: luguahmi I love you

luhha, luhra!! !! (v.at. inf. luhmi)
! to boil
luhhi, luvvi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. luhsu)
' to boil
luika~lika, luukka~lkka! ! !! (act.nom.
1p)
! my love, my darling
lukki, lukkimo!! !! ! (no.ina)
! hole (in the ice)
lungit, lungitta! ! !! (no.ina)
! steam
llkki, llkimo!! !! (no.ina)
! hot water, hot pool of water
luvv~luvvul, lri! ! !! (no.ina)
! (intense) heat | fervor, passion
lirn, lirs!! !! (no.ina)
! resin-filled blister on bark | pimple
lkk, lkkma!! !! (no.ina)
! rapids, turbulent waters | froth, foam
lnn, lnne!! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf.
lnnr)
! to be warm enough to (+INF)
lri, lhdi!! !! (no.ina)
! scum, filth, dregs
lybby, lybma! ! !! (no.ina)
! vine
lygy, limo!! !! (no.ina)
! disease | defect, disability

Mm
mhra, mhraka!! !! (no.ina)
! bear
mra~mra! ! !! (pron.)
! we (inclusive)
! ! menra~menra PAT.
! ! ra GEN.
! ! msi DAT.
! ' momi-' LOC.
! ! ura POSS.
! ! mtra~mtra PREC
mri~mri% % !! (pron.)
! we (exclusive)
! ! menri~menri PAT.
! ! ri GEN.
! ! msi DAT.

631

! ' momi-' LOC.

! ! uri POSS.
! ! mtri~mtri PREC.
madu, mama! ! !! (no.ina)
! pregnancy
magga! ! !! (postp.)
! in the case of, in the event of
maggani! ! !! (det.)
! this one, the one in this case
maga, magaka! ! !! (adj.)
! white
amagu, amadu! ! !! (v.utransl. inf.
magoru)
! to become white | to pale
mahha, mahra!! !! (v.at. inf. mahmi)
! to hunt | to stalk, to track down
! lolmahha to stalk, to keep track of, to
recount
mahhi, maka! ! !! (no.ina)
! fallen bear, dead bear
maidiabmi, -uoma!! !! (no.ina)
! measuring unit of length (300m)
maidi, magaka!! !! (no.ina)
! measuring unit of length (30cm)
maidnet, mainetta!! !! (no.ina)
! measuring unit of length (3m)
maihhi, maita~maihka!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! maple tree
maiki, maikika! ! !! (adj.)
! white
maikukka, maikukkia! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
maikukmi/'maikukmu)
! to whiten, to bleach
maikli, maikdli! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. maiklsa/
maiklsu)
! to be wearing white | to be covered in snow
(.ui)
mairui, mairi! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. mairosa/
mairosu)
! to laugh
maivvi, maii!! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. maissa/
maissu)
! to smile
maki, maski'! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. maksa/
maksu)
! to go, to leave, to go there
malda, maldia' ' '' (v.at. inf. maldami)
! to praise
maldot, maldotta! ! !! (adj.)

! valuable, precious, important

mangosva, mangosvamo!! !! (no.ina)
! migration
mani, mansi' ' !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. manta/
mantu)!
! to come, to approach, to come here
mankobi, mankoumi! ! !! (no.ani)
! red-winged black bird
manta, mantia!! !! (v.at inf. mantami)
! to take, to receive, to accept | to host
manta, mantaka~mana! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! world, earth, land
marva, marvaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! laughter
maski, maskka!! !! (no.ina)
! people
matot, matotta! ! !! (no.ina)
! explanation, reason
mauhhon, mauhhonta!! !! (no.ina)
! hunt
maukusta, maukustia!! !! (v.at. inf.
maukustami)
! to allow to go, to let go
maunusta, maunustia'' '' (v.at. inf.
maunustami)
! to allow in/to come
mauvvun, mamunta~mauunta! -ri-!!
! (no.ina)
! meat box
mavvedna, mavvednaka! ! !! (adj.)
! meaty, beefy | muscular, strong, burly
mavvu, magga!! !! (no.ina)
! meat, flesh
mi!! !! (onom.)
! wow, sound to show amazement
mpsei, mpsui!! !! (v.ai. inf. mpsesa)
! to repair nets | to do something boring and
tidious
megi~megi! ! !! (pron.)
! I, me
! ! meigi~meigi PAT.
! ! gogi GEN.
! ! gosi DAT.
! ' ogi-' LOC.
! ! go POSS.
! ! mta~mta PREC
mei!! !! (coord.part)
! fortunately
meha, mesta!! !! (v.at. inf. mebmi)
632

! to paint | to smear, to smudge, to coat

mehhon, mehhos! ! !! (no.ina)
! maple tree forest
meigia, meidia (meige-)! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
meigemi/'meigemu)
! to make smile, to cheer up
meihhi, meihhie! ! !! (no.ina)
! honeycomb
meilkkena, meilkedi! ! !! (no.ina)
! peat field
meirisa, meirisari!! !! (adj.)
! funny, amusing
mek, megme! ! !! (no.ina)
! river banks (especially raised)
melki, melkie! ! !! (no.ina)
! peat
Menho, Mentsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! (male personal name)
menia, menivva!! !! (v.ut/.at. inf.
menimmu/menimmi)
! to lure | to fool (.at)
mesora, mesorari!! !! (no.ina)
! stone, made from stone
mesu, mesume!! !! (no.ina)
! rock, stone (material)
meuli, meulle!! !! (adj.)
! dark blue>green
meuguna, meugudi' '' (adj.)

miana, miatta' ' '' (v.at. inf. miamni)

! to gut (game)
miasi, miaskki! ! !! (v.imp/.at. inf.
miasami)
! to be an occasion to smoke | to celebrate
(.at)
miasku, miaskudi!! !! (no.ina)
! gravel
miatsa, miatsta! ! !! (v.at. inf. miatsmi)
! to let soak | to neglect
maulba, maulbaka~maulu!! !! (no.ina/ani)
! butterwort (pinguicula vulgaris)
midlkis, midlkihi! ! !! (no.ina)
! crab
miebii, miebiid!! !! (no.ina)
! old bear, fat bear
miedu~miedu,
miedutta~miedutta!! !! (v.pat.part)
! herd (usually miedumi~miedumi my
herd)
miea, meba!! !! (v.at. inf. miemi)
! to desire, to want, to wish | to lust for
miega~miega, mieda~mieda! ! !
! (v.at. inf. miegami~mieami)
! to herd | to round up, to gather | to guide
meuhku, 'meuhkume! ! !! (no.ina)
! taiga, mossy ground
mielo, mieldi! ! !! (no.ina)
! mold, mildew | short/fine hairs
mieri, miehdi! !! (no.ina)
! moss
mig~migil~migiu~migi~midd~middil
~migir, ! miila!! !! (no.ina)
! dew, moisture
migit, mtsta!! !! (no.ina)
! respect, honor
mih! ! !! (adv.)
! (not) for any reason
mihy, midi! ! !! (no.ina)
! monster, beast, giant
m, mita~md! ! !! (num.ani/.ina)
! one
! minet!! elleven
! migil!! once
! estot! ! ! first
mmni, m-! ! !! (quest.pron.)
! who?
! ! mebmni who (of two)
! ! metsmni who (of many)

! respectful, polite

mega, meta!! !! (v.at. inf. megami)

! to respect | to esteem, to admire
mrahmi, mrarrima (mrar-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be difficult (to nagivate, of a river)
mrai! ! !! (adv.)
! with difficulty, hardly
mrana, mradi! ! !! (adj.)
! difficult, hard, complicated | troublesome,
tiresome
mr~mreu~mrel, mrela~mrla!! !
! (no.ina)
! difficulty, complication | trouble
-mi! ! !! (hyphened clitic)
! as (essive) (also -imi/-emi/-ebi/-iu/-eu/-)
mialha, mialhadi!! !! (adj.)
! pale blue>gray
mialrikkin, mialrikkis!!! (no.ina)
! blue jay (also mialrikkini no.ani)
mambi, mambika! ! !! (no.ina)
! gutting knife

633

! ! mkni!who (pl.)
mdl! ! !! (onom.)
! sound to get a caribou to move | lets go!
mhkehi, mhkehri! ! !! (v.imp)
! to be frosty, to be cold enough for rime to
form
mhki, mhkid!! !! (no.ina)
! rime, frost: mhkidia frosty, covered in frost
mppa, mhu!! !! (no.ani)
! (two) feet: mhua winning, superior, ready,
steadfast
mtabe, mtaid! ! !! (no.ina)
! yesterday
milki, milta~milkid!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! fish skin | scales (.ina)
milkta, milktta' ' !! (v.at. inf.
milkbma)! !
! to remove/collect sprigs (for a ! beverage)
milla, mildi!! !! (no.ina)
! soggy spot
milmi, miltta!! !! (no.ani)
! lip
mimi!! !! (adv.)
! for this reason, thus, so
mine, mindi! ! !! (no.ina)
! flesh (of plant/fruit) | fibers
minhi, minta~minhid! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! black spruce
minga, mingadi! ! !! (adj.)
! ready
amingu, amindu!! !! (v.utrans. inf.
mingoru)
! to become prepared | to mature
miniso~minso, minihi~midni! ! !! (no.ani)
! common snipe
moahna, moahnaka!! !! (no.ina)
! sparsely populated area | difficult time
period, povrety
miohhot, miohhotsta!! !! (adj.)
! slender, slim, lean | scant, sparse
miola, mioldi! ! !! (no.ina)
! flame, fire, warmth
miolma, miolmia! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
miolmami/miolmamu)
! to set on fire, to set fire to | to ignite | to
trigger, to cause
mosta, mostia! ! !! (v.at. inf. mostami)
! to chew
miout, miolda~mioutta!! !! (no.ina)

! warmth, energy
miraka, mirakadi~miakadi!! !! (no.ina)
! cloud of mosquitos
misa, miha! ! !! (v.at. inf. mismi)
! to smoke
misas, misahi~misid!! !! (no.ina)
! stone
misemis, misemhi!! !! (no.ina)
! Friday
missu, missutta!! !! (v.past.patpart)
! tobacco
mite(us), mitedi~miteuhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! reason, cause, grounds
miteusi~miteuhiusi! ! !! (adv.)
! unnecessarily, without reason, irratioinal
umiti, umitui!! !! (v.pass. inf. mitimon)
! to be explained
mitsema, mitsebma! ! !! (v.at. inf.
mitsemmi)
! to wash, to soak
miudla, miuhla! ! !! (adj. sup)
! least (most little) (sup. of ms, !
! tiuhhen~tyhhyn~tyyn)
miudna, miudnanna~miudnammo!! !
! (adj.comp)
! (a little) less (comp. of ms,
! tiuhhen~tyhhyn~tyyn)
miuki, miuhdi!! !! (no.ina)
! bog, marsh (mostly wet, low acidity)
miullen~miullil!! !! (adv.)
! a little, slightly (COMP. mylne~mlne SUP.
mylba~mlba)
muti, muika! ! !! (no.ani)
! finger tip, palm
mibi, mihhumi!! !! (no.ani)
! gray jay
moadula, moadudla!! !! (v.at. inf.
moadulmi)
! to keep ordered | to police, to moderate
moai, moaika! ! !! (no.ina)
! drink
moaglot, moavvolotta! ! !! (no.ina)
! festive occasion, celebration, party
moaundi, moavvundika!! !! (no.ina)
! sip (sometimes moaundi)
tamamoaikkeri, ~moaikkehri! ! !! (v.ui. inf.
~moaikkerhu)
! to fall flat (on ones belly), to be knocked
out, to pass !out
634

moaldi, moaldika! ! !! (no.ina)

! praise
moatuta~moaruta,
moatutta~moarutta! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
moatubma/moatubmu~moarubma/
moarubmu)
! to sadden, to dishearten, to depress
mobmi, mostima (moh-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! not to be able to understand/imagine | for
something to !slip ones mind, to forget
(completely)
mogopimi, mogopitta! ! !! (no.ani)
! oystercatcher (also mpimi/mbmi)
moa~moa, ama!! !! (v.at. inf.
momi~momi)
! to drink
mohi, mohiko!! !! (adj.)
! slippery, slimy | elusive, evasive |
ambiguous, difficult
moh~mohul, mouri!! !! (no.ina)
! slipperiness, sliminess | elusiveness |
ambiguity
mokkuo~mokkumo~mokk,
mokkoma!! !! (no.ina.pl)
! beak
moksabi, moksaumi! ! !! (no.ani)
! ptarmigan (lagopus muta)
moksabuhi, moksabuhri!! !! (v.imp)
! to be ptarmigan hunting time
molka, molkia! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. molkami/
molkamu)
! to slide, to move | to push to the side
! ! lmolka 'to accomplish, to achieve, to
realise (.at)
molki, molkko!! !! (no.ina)
! erosion, wearing away, abrasion, decay
mome, mommo! ! !! (no.ina)
! slope | angle, gradiant, slant; mommoimo
slanted, ! tilted, leaning, distored, drunk
mongemis, mongemhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! Sunday
moni, mkko! ! !! (no.ina)
! path, walkway | possibility
monnu, monnuma! ! !! (no.ina)
! damage, harm
monoba, monou~monobmo!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! indian pipe
ms, mhhi~mhko! ! !! (quant.)
! slight, little

mori, mohko!! !! (quant.)

! a little
mosi, moskko!! !! (no.ina)
! mammal
moski, moskko!! !! (no.ina)
! wild copper, ore
motommi, motobmi!! (moton-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to feel sad, to be sad
moton, motonta! ! !! (adj.)
! sad, unhappy
motona~motona,
motovva~motovva!! !! (no.ani)
! claw
moukki, moukkiko!! !! (no.ina)
! belly (of animal)
mobi, mopiko!! !! (no.ina)
! hunting territory | domain, field, department
moot, mohhotta! ! !! (no.ina)
! rule, law, command, order
muhu, mustu!! !! (v.utrans. inf. mubmon)
! to disappear, to vanish
muihi, mugid!! !! (no.ina)
! disappearance
Mihti, Mihta!! !! (no.ani)
! God, god, deity
muni, mudi~muri!! !! (v.ai. inf. munha)
! to rest
muodni, muonimo!! !! (no.ina)
! rest, pause, break
muogna, muognamo!! !! (no.ina)
! place to stay the night
muommora, muommohra!! !! (v.at. inf.
muommohmi)
! to hug, to comfort | to welcome, to host
muongi, muondi! ! !! (v.ai. inf. muongisa)
! to stay the night (also omuongi)
muoi, muoid!! !! (no.ina)
! group of hunters, band
muri-uli, -uli, muid! ! !! (quant.)
various, a number of, some
murot, murotta!! !! (adj.)
! various, varied
mmi~mmi, mtta~mtta! ! !
! (no.ani)
! herder | owner
mkvi, mkvi ' ! !! (v.ut. inf. mkvis)
! to begin (somewhere)
myben! ! !! (adv.)
! silently, in silence
635

mybi, mid!! !! (no.ina)

! silence
mybi, mybid!! !! (adj.)
! silent
mybidibmot, ~bmotta! ! !! (adj.)
! sneaky, stealthy
mybma, mynda! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. mybmami/
mybmamu)
! to silence, to hush | to muffle (.ut)
mybmi, mybima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be silent, still, calm
mykyt, mykytsta~mykydda! ! !! (no.ina)
! path along a river
mynd, myndma!! !! (adj.)
! muffled, unclear, mumbled
fmyngi, myngid! ! !! (no.ina)
! pause, calm | calm period
mynna, mydda~mynnia! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
mynnami~mynnam)
! to damage, to cause damage, to harm
mynty, myntyma!! !! (no.ina)
! animal tracks (not in snow)
myry, myhma!! !! (no.ina)
! fly, bug
mhni, mhha! ! !! (no.ani)
! wolverine
myni, mya! ! !! (no.ani)
! member of a muoi | member of a group

naia, naiaka! ! !! (no.ina)

! thicket; ugi naiaka X failed (lit. flew into
the thicket)
naihto, naihha! ! !! (no.ani)
! infectious disease, virus
naipi, naipra!! !! (no.ina)
! banks (of a river, usually low)
naitkena, % naitkekka!! !! (no.ina)
! precipice, steep cliff
naknu, nantu~nantsu! ! !! (v.ui[.semel].
inf. naknoru)
! to break, to snap
nalbi~nalvi, nalumi!! !! (no.ani)
! husband
nanga, nanda! ! !! (v.at. inf. nagmi)
! to save up, to put aside, to stash | (tama~)
to hoard
nangobba, nangobbaka! ! !! (adj.)
! greedy, cheap, niggardly, miserly
natabi, nataga! ! !! (no.ina)
! hemlock
Natsu, Natska! ! !! (no.ina)
! (male personal name)
naukni, naungika! ! !! (no.ina)
! breakage, fracture, rupture
nauto, nautra!! !! (no.ina)
! nausea, vertigo
naina, naitta!! !! (v.at inf. naimni)
! to use (also nayma to put to use)
nainie, nainieka~nainieka! ! !! (no.ina/
adj.)
! (something) useful
nay, nma! ! !! (no.ina)
! use (also nvi)
nebbi, nebie!! !! (no.ina)
! trap
nedi, edi!! !! (v.ai. inf. nedisa)
! to sit down
negi! ! !! (pron.)
! you (.sg)
! ! neigi PAT.
! ! sogi GEN.
! ! sosi DAT.
! ' osi-' LOC.
! ! so POSS.
! ! nta PREC
nevi, neumi~netta! ! !! (num.ani/.ina)
! three
! nenet!! thirteen

Nn
ni, nta!! !! (no.ani)
! widow
nri!! !! (pron.)
! you (pl.)
! ! nenri PAT.
! ! iron GEN.
! ! ii DAT.
! ' ii-' LOC.
! ! i POSS.
! ! ntra PREC
nrri, nrt!! !! (no.ani WEST)
! nose
nadlka, nalonta, -r-!! !! (no.ina)
! skills, traditions (involving learned skills)
nahkara, nahkahka!! !! (no.ina)
! louse (also pa)
636

! nea! ! thirty
! neven! ! three times
! nevut!! third
nee!! !! (interj.)
! well, you see, hm
oneibbildi, oneibbildui ! ! !! (v.asubj/.at.
inf. neibbildena/ ' neibbildami)
! to hunt (each other), to try to get (each
other) | to c
! ompete (against each other)
neidden~neiddil!! !! (adv.)
! wisely
neidno, neidnue~neidnobi!! !! (adj.)
! wise, sage, learned, knowledgeable
neineli, neinedli! ! !! (v.ai. inf. neinelsa)
! to sit for a while, to have a sit-down
neinko, neinkue~neinkobi! ! !! (no.ina)
! care, attention | aid, relief
neinnu, neinnaa! ! !! (v.utrans. inf.
neinnoru)
! to get sand/dirt on oneself
neitrike, neitie -i-!! !! (no.ina)
! proboscis, trunk
neivi, neirri!! !! (no.ina)
! cone
nekka, nekunne!! !! (no.ina.pl)
! crumbs | fragment, morsel, speck
neks, nekhi!! !! (no.ina)
! bit, piece, grain, particle
nelimi, nelimitta!! !! (v.act.part.pl)
! husbands family
neni, edi'~ned'! ! !! (v.ai. inf. nenta)
! to sit
nenaka, nenai -i-! ! !! (no.ina)
! waves
neniga, ediga~nediga!! !! (v.ai.semel. inf.
nenihsa/'neniksa)
! to sit down (also ned-)
nenka, nehta! ! !! (v.at. inf. nenkami)
! to care for, to attend | to aid, to relief
neno, nenue~nenobi!! !! (no.ina)
! pollen
neska, eska~aiska!! !! (v.at/.adit. inf.
neskami/neskanin)
! to ask
neta, nedda' ! ! !! (v.at. inf. nebmi)
! to know (something)
netra~neta!! !! (adv.)
! really, truly
netro, netue~netobi!! !! (no.ina)

! pistil, stammen
nets, nedda!! !! (num.)
! ten
! neddil!! ten times | very often
! neddut! ! tenth
netsiabmi, ~uoma!! !! (num.irr)
! thousand
netuba, netupri, -pi-! ! !! (no.ina)
! lilly
netva, netvari!! !! (adj.)
! important
neulkio~nulkio,
neulkiue~neulkiobi~nulkioma! ! !! (no.ina)
! ant
neutva, neutvia! ! !! (v.ut/.imp. inf.
neutvamu)
! to interest, be interested in; neutvaka
sauhhahi I am !interested in languages
neuge, neukie!! !! (no.ina)
! dust, dirt | light snow
neo, niue, niobi'! ! !! (no.ina)
! sand
nunta, nuntia! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. nuntami/
nuntam)
! to close, to shut | to lock
nut, nutsta~nudda!! !! (adj.)
! wet, dripping
nevala~nala, nevalli~nalmo! ! !! (adj.)
! diligent, hard-working
nev, nla' ! ! !! (no.ina)
! diligence, hard work
neyrta, neyrtta!! !! (v.at. inf. neyrbmi)
! to dust off
npa, neba!! !! (v.at. inf. nebmi)
! to catch (with a trap)
na! ! !! (interj.)
! now, then, well
niaggis, niagihi~niahki!! !! (no.ina)
! pond, puddle
naikka, naikuni! ! !! (no.ani)
! racoon
nailli, nailika!! !! (no.ina)
! taste, flavor
niaki, niakid!! !! (no.ina)
! death
nakolot, nakolotta! ! !! (no.ina)
! end (of the world) | apocalyps | death
nakusta, nakustia'' !! (v.at. inf.
nakustami)!
637

! to allow to die, to let to die | to abandon

nala, nalla! ! !! (v.at. inf. nalmi)
! to taste
nalu, nallu! ! !! (v.utrans inf. naloru)
! to taste: osven tanalu X tastes sour
nianso~nianto, niansodi~niantodi!! !
! (no.ina)
! creek | belt, corridor, passage
narri, naret!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! nose
nai, naddi' ' !! (v.ai. inf. naa)
! to commit a crime, to break a law, to
commit nika
navvuta, navvutta!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
navvubmi/'navvubmu)
! to wet | to dampen (.ut), to moisten
nidagan, nilagas!! !! (no.ina)
! stripe, band, strip, belt (also nidan)
nidan, nitas! ! !! (no.ina)
! stripe, ridge, groove, furrow, channel
! ! tsamnidan belt of forest, large territory
nidema, nidebma!! !! (v.at. inf.
nidemmi)
! to tattoo | to furrow
nidula, nituldi!~ nidusta!!! (no.ina/.ani)
! elm tree
nid~nidiu~nidi~nidil~nidir, nla'! ! !
! (no.ina)
! craftiness, cunningness, skillfulness
nidla, nilla!! !! (v.at. inf. nidlmi)
! to do something in a certain way (often
passive, + avvi)
nidlme, nidlmedi~nilmedi!! !! (no.ina)
! certificat, confirmation
! kesnidlme! ! degree (studies)
nima, nimadi! ! '' ' (adj.)
! grave, serious, profound
nidot, nidotsta~nidodda! ! !! (adj.)
! crafty, cunning, masterful, expert, skillful
niebini, nieiga~nidda!! !! (no.ani)
! paternal grandmother
niedas, nielhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! fir
nrtta, nrtari! ! !! (no.ina)
! sharp pain
nrtteni, nrttedi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. nrttenhu)
! to be painful, to hurt
neiku, neihme!! !! (no.ina)
! frown, look of anger/dissatisfaction

nel-, nelta-' ! ! !! (act.nom)

! chief
nelha, nelra! ! !! (no.ani)
! female chief
nelli, nelta'! !! (no.ani)
! chief
nelsi, nelsie' ' '' (no.ina)
! sprig | child (endearing)
nelsta, nelstta'' '' (v.at. inf. nelsbmi)
! to take sprigs, to gather (something fresh)
from | to ! harvest
nielra, nielradi' ! !! (adj.)
! (made of) fir
nielsta, nielstta'' !! (v.at. inf. nielsbmi)!
! to remove/collect sprigs (for a ! beverage)
nertet, nertetsta!! !! (no.ina)
! pain, symptoms
nieugi, nibid!! !! (no.ina)
! ground mist, dew
niea-, niea-!! !! (act.nom)
! paternal grandmother
nieugi~neygi, nibid~neyhdi! ! !! (no.ina)
! ground mist
neydnu, neyndu!! !! (v.utrans. inf.
neydnr)
! to coil up, to wind up, to twine
nige, niddi!! !! (no.ina)
! mud (at the bottom of a lake), silt, clay
nbma, nmadi! ! !! (no.ina)
! fir bark (usually for tinder)
nbma!! !! (postp.)
! over (the period of), during
ndli~ndla, nldi! ! !! (no.ina)
! face | expression
ndna, nndi! ! !! (no.ina)
! hut (especially for food) | cabin
ndni, n-'! ! !! (quest.pron)
! what?
! ! nebdni what (of two)
! ! netsdni what (of many)
ngu!! !! (quest.pron)
! when?
! ! ngue in how much time?
! ! ngoga how long ago? (+PERF)
! ! ngoda~ngora for how long (future)?
! ! ngoma at what time/on what occasion?
! ! ngonta how long (past)?
! ' ngonna until when?
Nlkka, Nlkuni! ! !! (no.ani)
638

! (female personal name)

nmi! ! !! (quest.pron)
! why?
! ! nmita for what reason?
! ! nmaska for what reason/because of
what?
! ! nnkomo why?, how come?
nnei!! !! (quest.pron)
! how manieth? how many times? how often?
nnni!! !! (quest.pron)
! how?
not, notsta~nodda! ! !! (quest.pron)
! what sort of?
! ! innot what sort of (PEJ.)
npi, numi~npid!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! dwarf birch
niputsammiha, ~tsammihka! ! !! (adj.)
! (with) birch forests
ntkat, ntkatsta~ntkadda!! !! (no.ina)
! gender-based story telling singing
ntsva, ntsudda! ! !! (quest.pron)
! what kind of?
ni!! !! (quest.pron)
! how (X)?: ni ii how old?
! ! ni -uli what kind of?
nvva!! !! (quest.pron)
! where?
! ! na ~ to?
! ! nga ~ from?
! ! nmma ~ on?
! ! npma ~ onto?
! ! nskka ~ off?
niki, nigi' ! ! !! (v.ui. inf. niksu)
! to die, to pass away/on
nimmi, niima (nivv-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/become) wet | to be slippery
nin-!! !! (act.nom)
! -self
nin! ! !! (pron.)
! oneself | he/she/it (4p.)
! ! nigen PAT.
! ! nih GEN.
! ! nitsi DAT.
! ' ni-' LOC.
! ! nen POSS.
! ! nitra PREC
nini! ! !! (det.)
! (ones) own | self

noabbunu, noabbuttu!! !! (v.utrans. inf.

noabbunoru)
! to grow a beard | to regrow, to recover from
(+ELAT)
noaga!! !! (adv.)
! somewhere
! noaita!! somewhere (movement to)
! noaika!! somewhere (movement from)
noamni, noa-'' '' (pron.)
! someone (unknown)
! neboamni! ! either, which ever
! netsoamni! ! some, which ever
! noagu! ! at some time/point
! noavva! ! in some way
! minoa!! for some reason
nobba, nobmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! beard, facial hair
nolttima, nolttuima!! !! (v.adj)
! to be (often) sick | to feel unwell
ndna, ndnami! ! !! (adj.)
! unwell, ill
nt, ntta'! ! !! (no.ina)
! illness, sickness
nita nidda!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. niitami/
nitamu)
! to inform, to notify | to alarm (.ut)
nika, niid!! !! (no.ina.pl)
! crime, offense, sin
nuhhi, nuhmo!! !! (no.ina)
! old woman, granny
niuaka, niuahdi!! !! (no.ina)
! sand dune
nukli, nuglima!! !! (no.ina)
! hook, finger
nukluma, nuklubma! ! !! (v.at. inf.
nuklummi)
! to put on a hook | to get something over
with
nulva, nulu~nulvamo!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! muskox
nuosi, nuosid !! !! (adj.)
! lustful, horny
n~nul, nuri!! !! (no.ina)
! desire, lust | greed
nadli, nalid!! !! (no.ina)
! wasp, bee, stinging insect
nalk, nalkma! ! !! (no.ina)
! beehive
ne, nhhema!! !! (no.ina)
639

! coil, loop, curl | seashell

nivv~nivviu~nivvi~nivvil~nivvir,
niila~nla' ! ! !! (no.ina)
! wetness, humidity
nivvon, nivvos! ! !! (adj.)
! wet
nylry, nylryma!! !! (no.ina)
! stinging insects, bugs, pest
noadi, noadui! ! !! (v.ui. inf. noadisu)
! to want to sing, to be ecstatic, to be elated,
to be e
! uphoric
noadni, noanika! ! !! (no.ina)
! swim
noaksi, noaksui!! !! (v.ui/.udit inf. noaksisu/
noaksinon)
! to end (somewhere)
noaks-a!! !! (adv.)
! finally
noangora, noangohra!! !! (v.at. inf.
noangohmi)
! to limit, to restrict, to bind
nobemo, noimma!! !! (no.ina)
! fire
nobia, noamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! porcupine
! nobiego!male
! nobieha!female
nohi, nohiko!! !! (adj.)
! smart, clever, intelligent
noh~nohul, nouri! ! !! (no.ina)
! cleverness, intelligence
nokka, nokkia! ! !! (v.at. inf. nokmi)
! to call; unokkika... I am called
nokkiu, nokkiutta!! !! (v.pat.part)
! name
nokna, nongamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! end, limit | side
nokos, nokohi~nohki!! !! (no.ina)
! stick, cane, staff, twig
noksi, nogsimo!! !! (no.ina)
! end, conclusion | margin, border, edge
nomi, nomo!! !! (no.ina)
! screen
nommo~nmmo,
nomi~nmi~nomoma' ' '' (no.ani/.ina)
! sturgeon
nomono, nomovva! ! !! (no.ani)
! fang
nongamousi! ! !! (adv.)

! endless(ly), for ever

noni, nodi!! !! (v.ai. inf. nonta)
! to swim
n~nohhi~no/na ! ! !! (conj.)
% or (n [nu:])
nori~nodi, nenodi!! !! (v.ai/.at. inf.
norha~notsa/' nomri~nobmi)
! to sing
notoko, notohma!! !! (no.ina)
! hollow, cavity
notsa, oa~voa!! !! (v.at inf. notsmi)
! to take
notsiha, notsira!! !! (no.ani)
! female shaman
notsomo, notsomotta! ! !! (v.act.part)
! shaman
ndlni, ndlnui! ! !! (v.ui)
! to overflow, to flood, to inundate
nstena, nstetta!! !! (v.at. inf. nstemni)
! to hear about, to learn of, to hear news
nubba, nubmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! eyelid
nubmi, nubima (nup-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be angry
neidno, neinue!! !! (no.ina)
! difference, nuance, distinguishing trait,
characteristic
nugeni, nugedi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. nugentu)
! to look (some way +adv)
nua, nega, PERF. nuhla!! !! (v.at. inf.
nuimi~nugmi)
! to see
nuidna, nuinda' ' '' (v.at. inf. nuidnami)
! to identify, to know (plant/animal), to
recognize, to !distinguish
nuuli, nuulma~nuulta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! someone who sees well, with good sight
nunna, nunnamo! ! !! (adj.)
! angry, mad
nuobmo, nuomoma~nuomma! ! !! (no.ina)
! stretched skin | window
nuogon, nuoonta!! !! (no.ina)
! sight, vision | premonition, intuition
onuouldi, onuouldui!! !! (v.asubj/.at inf.
nuouldena)
! to see each other | to frequent each other
nuonta, nuontia!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. nuontami/
nuontamu)
! to anger
640

nuppua, nuppaa!! !! (v.at. inf. nuppumi)

! to snatch, to grab, to seize
nukva, nukvamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! hail(storm)
ntta!! !! (interj.)
! look! look out!
ndna, nnamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! wave, ripple
ni-, nm-! ! !! (act.nom)
! knife
nirhi, nitagi! ! !! (no.ani.pl)
! parents, adults
n, nma! ! !! (no.ina)
! knife (short)
nnamousi! ! !! (adv.)
! still, calm
nvvet, netsta!! !! (no.ona)
! tool
nydna, nydnamo!! !! (adj.)
! adult, mature (usually female)
nyggedlen, nygedles! ! !! (no.ina)
! wolf spider, big spider
nygy, nyyma!! !! (no.ina)
! verse, poem
nyot, nyotsta!! !! (adj.)
! curved, bent
nykki, nyhta~nykkid!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! nail
nyly, nylyma!! !! (no.ina)
! snout | sharp end, (arrow/axe) head
nynnyly~nynnyly~nlly!! !! (adv.)
% it is said, one would say, as though, as it
were
nypy, nypyma! ! !! (no.ina)
! anger, rage
n!! !! (onom.)
! wow, woah, sound to show surprise/awe
nmi, nuomi! ! !! (v.imp)
! to be humid (usually at dawn)
nn, ns! ! !! (adj.)
! closed, shut

! palate, tongue
oadni, oanika!! !! (no.ina)
! story | look, glance
oahkurra, oahkurta! ! !! (v.at. inf. oahkurmi)
! to test, to edge
oakima!!! (adv.)
! at home: oakibma to ~, oakiska from ~
oapi, oaga!! !! (no.ina)
! help, assistance
oari, oahka!! !! (no.ina)
! edge, brim, brink, verge
oabi, vaubbi~vaubba! ! !! (no.du)
! gums
obeno, oimma! ! !! (no.ina)
! smoke, fumes
obesilen, obesilenta! ! !! (no.ina)
! peace making/keeping, resolution
oddo, odoma!! !! (no.ina)
! white reindeer
odlebi, olebmo!! !! (no.ina)
! sorrow, sadness | regret
odlna, odlnamo~olnamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! blizzard, white-out, snow storm (with very
low visibility)
ogalen, ovvalenta!! !! (no.ina)
! conversation, discussion, dialogue
oga, oda!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. ogami/ogamu)
! to remember
ogena, ogetta! ! !! (v.at)
! to notice
ogenuli, oenulko~ogenulta!! !
! (no.ina/.ani)
! a perspicacious, observant, alert, sharpeyed person
oguli, oulko~ogulta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! someone with a good memory, a wise
person
ohha, ora~ohmo!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! female salmon
ohhima, ostima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be strong/powerful
ohho, ohhoma! ! !! (adj.)
! strong
ohhothmiha, ~thmihka!! !! (adj.)
! strong-hearted, generous
ohkama~ohkana, ohkammo! ! !! (adj.)
! raw, uncooked
ohki, ohkimo! ! !! (adj.)
! deep

Oo
oa!! !! (adv.)
! already, yet
oadi, vaika!! !! (no.ina)

641

ohku, ohkau!! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. ohkoru)

! to be possible to (space/place/position), to
fit (+ILLAT)
ohk~ohkul, ohkuri!! !! (no.ina)
! depth
ohlu, ohda!! !! (no.ani)
! death | smell of death
ohna, ohnamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! white ash
oi, ota! ! !! (no.ani)
! moon light
oina, oitta' ' !! (v.at. inf. oimni)
! to look at, to glance at (older odena)
oui, oei!! !! (v.ui/.ai. inf. ousu/ousa)
! to cry, to whine | to complain (.ai)
oula~olula, ousta~olusta! ! !! (no.ani)
! white birch
ouma, oummo! ! !! (no.ina)
! whiner, whinger
oka, ogmo!! !! (no.ina)
! forefather(s), ancestors
okkomosi, okkomotta! ! !! (no.ani)
! poor fellow
okon, okonta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! big old man, old man
okuhka! ! !! (postp.)
! from (as a source of), of X origin: tulmu
dama okuhka clothes !(made) from animal
skins
ok~okul, okuri! ! !! (no.ina)
! origin, source, ancestry
olobben, olobbes!! !! (no.ina)
! leafhopper, little bug, bug on a leaf
omi, kko!! !! (no.ina)
! snow
omna, bba!! !! (no.du)
! married couple
ona, nona!! !! (v.at/.adit. inf. omna/onnin)
! to tell, to let know
onda%% !! (interj.)
! yes (short for oni da)
oni~nn! ! !! (adv.)
! thus, like this, hereby
onikeltuha, ~keltuhari!! !! (adj.)
! (with) lichen on the ground/bottom
onna!! !! (comp.)
! less
ono, omma! ! !! (no.ina)
! lichen

onona, onommo!! !! (adj.)

! little, small, compact
ontai, ontei! ! !! (v.ai. inf. ontasa)
! to dance
onto~t~dd! ! !! (pron.)
! he/she/it/they (obv.)
! ! o~ PAT.
! ! h GEN.
! ! tsi DAT.
! ' teni-' LOC.
! ! h POSS.
! ! tuta PREC
onue, onuemo! ! !! (adj./no.ina)
! (something) worth telling
, obo~bo! ! !! (no.ina)
! bruise, lesion, lump
dni~udni! ! !! (adv.)
! now
hhi, ko!! !! (no.ina)
! evening, late afternoon
liha~lha, lihmo~lhamo! ! !! (adj.)
! leafy
lma, lka! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! leaf (also vulma)
min, minta' ! !! (adj.)
! stiff, rigid | painful (of muscles)
mmi, bmima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to feel stiff/reluctant, unwilling | to prove
difficult to
opa, oba!! !! (v.at)
! to help, to assist, to support
opo, obma!! !! (no.ina)
! individual, person, human
opohmi, oporrima!! (opor-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to be (still) alive, to be (still) safe and
sound, unhurt
opona, opommo!! !! (adj.)
! alive, living, breathing | unhurt, safe and
sound
orobi, orobmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! forked spear
oska, oskia! ! !! (v.at. inf. oskami)
! to smoke (to preserve) | to preserve
oskon, oskonta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! male moose
osmi, obmi~ohima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to have heartburn | to feel guilty, ashamed
osmu, osmuma! ! !! (no.ina)
! smell of fire, smell of burning
642

osoken, osokenta!! !! (no.ina)

! building a house
osve, osvemo!! !! (adj.)
! sour, acidic, bitter | rancid, turned
oot, ootta! ! !! (no.ina)
! quantity of animals/fish in a certain area
oten, otenta! ! !! (no.ina)
! organization, union
ota, otamo!! !! (adj.)
! thick, broad
otken, otkenta! ! !! (no.ina)
! training, formation | education
oala~oala, oalmo~oalmo! ! !! (adj.)
! wide, broad, extensive
ougu~ouu, oumma~ouhma! ! !! (no.ina)
! hook, barb: oummia~ouhmia to have a
problem
oo, ohma'! ! !! (no.ina)
! (clear) night sky
ovva~uvva, oa~ua!! !! (adj.)
! such, like this, such as this

pahla, pahlaka! ! !! (adj.)

! full, filled
paikki, paihta! ! !! (no.ani)
! turtle
pakvi, pagvika! ! !! (no.ina)
! grave, pit, hole | mistake
patskon, patskonta!! !! (adj.)
! inconsiderate | inattentive | distracted
paukke, paukkeka!! !! (no.ina)
! hole, pit
peddaka, peddai -i' logs used to build a house
pedni, pendi! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf.[irr]
penha~pedninha/pednisa~pednidnasa)
! to arrive | to return (~dna- +REVERS)
pbmui, pbmi (pbmo-)!! !! (v.ui. inf.
pbmosu)
! to bounce, to rebound, to spring back
psi, pta! ! !! (no.ani)
! maternal uncle
pegg, pegme! ! !! (no.ina)
! girl
peilki, peilta~peilkie!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! trout
peilni, peila!! !! (no.ani)
! eldest (male of group)
pelekka, pelekkia'! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
pelekmi/pelekmu)
! to cook (over fire)
penda, pendari!! !! (no.ina)
! arrival
pengi, pentsa!! !! (no.ani)
! (young) wolf, wolf cub
Pengo, pentsa' ' '' (no.ani)
! (male personal name)
pesa, peha! ! !! (v.at. inf. pesmi)
! to have the courage to (+INF)
peva, ba!! !! (v.at./.ai inf. pemmi~pessa)
! to eat (humans only, polite)
peyma, peymmi! ! !! (no.ina)
! table, bench, counter, work bench |
working area
piagebba, piaibbadi!! !! (no.ina)
! a sleepy person, sleepy head
piagi, piatki!! !! (v.ui. inf. piaksu)
! to fall asleep
paha, para! ! !! (no.ani)
! healer, doctor

ka, gmo!! !! (no.ina)

! tundra
ri, rko~hko! ! !! (no.ina)
! stump, lower part of tree
si! !! (neg.adv.)
! no longer, not (now) anymore
ska!! !! (adv.)
! often
skai, skei'' !! (v.ui inf. skasu)
! to happen often
ut, utta!! !! (no.ina)
! newly fallen snow

Pp
plli, plta~pllika!! !! (no.ani/adj.)
! mature male animal | mature (male)
pagi, paika!! !! (no.ina)
! back, backside
paggemis, pagemhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! Saturday

643

pialekka, pialekkia! ! !! (v.ut/.at. inf.

pialekmu/pialekmi)
! to make flush, to make red
pialeni, pialedi'! ! !! (v.ui. inf. pialentu)
! to seem red, to flush, to be reddish
panni, pana!! !! (no.ina)
! harvester, worker | slave (often abbanni)
pappa, parpa!! !! (act.nom)
! (our) shaman
piddani, pitta! ! !! (no.ani)
! maternal grandmother
piegista, piegistia!! !! (v.at. inf.
piegistami)
! to allow (life/animals) to recover, to give a
chance
piegino, piegindi!! !! (adj.)
! healthy, in good health
pig~pigil~pidd~piddil, piila! ! !! (no.ina)
! health, vigor
pigima, pidima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be/look/feel healthy
piguoma!! !! (interj.)
! take care, goodbye
pihhu, pivvu! ! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. pihlu)
! may, to be possible (+INF)
pdna, pnadi! ! !! (no.ina)
! direction, orientation | way, course
! saupdna !grammar
phha, phra~phdi! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! yew
pgon, pos!! !! (no.ina)
! maternal (uncles family)/family
pni, pndi! ! !! (no.ina)
! corn, bean
pikima, pikuima!! !! (v.adj)
! to be hurt
pila, piladi~pildi! ! !! (adj.)
! red
pilmi, pidlmi!! !! (v.adj)
! to be red(dish)/orange (of light)
poki, pjokko! ! !! (no.ina)
! flint
pirin, piis !! !! (no.ina)
! nugget, chunk, piece
piisusi~piui~pui~puspus~pupu~p
p not at ! ! all, not in the ! slightest
pikeli, pikedli! ! !! (v.ui. inf. pikelsu)
! to be in a coma
pitta, pittia!! !! (v.at. inf. pitmi)

! to pay attention to
pittabmot, -bmotta! ! !! (adj.)
! attentive, observant, alert (adv.
pittamoi~pittamil)
pittam~pittamil, pittamila! ! !! (no.ina)
! attention, attentiveness
pitta-, pitta-!! !! (act.nom)
! maternal grandmother
piusti, piustui!! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. piustisa/
piustisu)
! to thrive | to flourish, to burgeon, to blossom
poaknu, poantu!! !! (v.utrans. inf.
poaknoru)
! to be very busy | to make the mistake of
(+ELAT)
poai, poaka!! !! (no.ina)
! sleep
poava, poavia! ! !! (v.ut/.at. inf.
poavamu/poavami)
! to make sleepy | to put to sleep (.at)
poavvi, poagga! ! !! (no.ina)
! seal
pohhi, posti! ! !! (v.ui. inf. pou)
! to sleep
pohi, pohiko!! !! (adj.)
! chubby, fat, round
polbi, polumi! ! !! (no.ani)
! northern cardinal
polra, polramo! ! !! (no.ina)
! cranberry
pbi, pomumi!! !! (no.ani)
! (young) seal
puu!! !! (onom.)
! woosh, go away
puilo, puilma! ! !! (no.ina)
! nerve
pulemis, pulemhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! Monday
puna, pummo!! !! (no.ina)
! deer skin, deer leather
puodus, puolhi!! !! (no.ina)
! navel, belly button | focus, nucleus
pa, pama! ! !! (no.ina)
! (head)louse
padlva, padlvamo~palvamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! otter
pbma, pmamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! point, position | level, degree
pd, puma!! !! (no.ina)
644

! log
pkka!! !! (onom.)
! woosh, go away
pln, pls!! !! (no.ina)
! bud (on a tree)
pmra, pmria!! !! (v.at. inf. pmrami)
! to situate
! uopmra!to pinpoint
pyddi, pytta!! !! (no.ani)
! male cousin (mothers brothers)
pydna, pytva! ! !! (no.ani)
! female cousin (mothers brothers)
pymi, pyndi~pymmo!! !! (no.ina)
! (bad) bark, (hard) bark
pbme, pmedi! ! !! (no.ina)
! seal skin, seal lather
pka, pyby! ! !! (no.ina.pl)
! canvas, material, cloth

rapa, rapra, -i-!! !! (no.ina)

! small hill, hillock, mound, knoll
rapuppa, rapupra~rapuppaka! ! !! (adj.)
! hilly
rarpima, rarpuima!! !! (v.adj)
! to feel furious, enraged
rarpo, rarpoka! ! !! (adj.)
! furious, enraged: rarpo r~remi
madly ! furious (lit. furious like a female
wolf)
ratta, rattaka!! !! (adj.)
! dry, hardened, rough
raunko, raunkoka~raunkka! ! !! (no.ina)
! (fox/wolf) litter
redlmen, redlmes~relmes! ! !! (no.ina)
! cricket
rehha, rehra! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. rehmi/rehmu)
! to drag, to haul | to have an attitude
reibo, reibbe! ! !! (no.ina)
! beam (of light), ray | expression, look
rekkot, rekkotsta~rekkodda!! !! (adj.)
! open | clear, safe
remmy, remme'' !! (no.ina)
! issue, (state of) affaire, thing, material |
(arch.) pimple
! ! soemmy!economy
rendli, rendlui! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. rendlisa/
rendlisu)
! to graze, to eat slowly | to talk (a lot)
rentima, rentibma! ! !! (v.at/.adit. inf.
rentimmi/rentimnin)
! to feed (seeds, to birds/animals)
rento, rentue~rentobi' ! ! !! (no.ina)
! seed, grain
rerreki, reregge! ! !! (no.ina)
! sudden change of mind; ituvvibma
reregge!X had a ! sudden change of mind/
mood (lit. ~ turned onto X)
reet, reetsta! ! !! (no.ina)
! mussel
retema, revva!! !! (no.ani)
! fox (pl. sitema)
retro, retue~retobi~retsta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! northern pike
reymkena, reymkedi!! !! (no.ina)
! dangerous spot in a river/lake due to
hidden rocks
iri, irui' ' !! (v.adit. inf. irinen)
! to bite into

Rr
ra, ria' ' '' (v.at/.ut! inf. rami/ramu)
! to bite
rmi, rmka! ! !! (no.ina)
! rock protruding out of water | protrusion,
projection, !outgrowth, bulge
rabma, ramaka!! !! (no.ina)
! canoe (for one man)
rada, radda!! !! (v.at. inf. rabmi)
! to stop, to cease
radedd!! !! (adv.)
! unceasingly, non-stop, constantly
radlva, radlvia!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. radlvami/
radlvamu)
! to disturb, to interrupt
! ! hradlva to agitate (.at/.ut)
irahka, irahkia!! !! (v.adit. inf. rahkanin)
! to advise, to give advice (to someone
+ALLAT)
raibma, raimaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! tail
raiksi, raigsika' ' !! (no.ina)
! fresh water source
rakma, rakmia!! !! (v.at/.ut inf. rakmami/
rakmamu)
! to take something from somewhere, to rely
on
645

riakkabi, riakkabid! ! !! (no.ina)

! key
ranna, ranka!! !! (no.ina)
! hip
raba, raubba!! !! (no.du)
! hips
riehpi, riekumi! ! !! (no.ani)
! wife
reinkena, reinkedi!! !! (adj.)
! thorny, shaped like a thorn | difficult, tricky
r, rita!! !! (no.ani)
! tooth
rdni, rnid ! ! !! (no.ina)
! thorn, spike, barb: idi rnta(ra)
rhko, rhta!! !! (no.ani)
! skin, membrane, film
rikkia, rikkua!! !! (v.at. inf. rikkimi)
! to open
riso, risodi!! !! (no.ina)
! sandy ground
roahi, roahika!! !! (adj.)
! simple, normal, usual
roahta, roahtia!! !! (v.at. inf. roahtami)
! to hollow out, to gouge, to scoop
roakken, roakkes' ' !! (no.ina)
! circle
! ! sokuroakken !society
roatme, roatmeka!! !! (no.ina)
! crust, hard layer, tough layer
robakken!! !! (adv.)
! everyday (also rokendai)
rodlot, rolotta!! !! (no.ina)
! folds, detail (in clothes) | fine clothes
rodlli, rodldli! ! !! (v.ai. inf. rodllsa)
! to be wearing beautiful clothes
rogo, rotsa!! !! (no.ani)
! (young/heroic) man | character, hero
roo!! !! (postp.)
! in the way (rota into ~ roka from ~)
rooni! ! !! (det.)
! the one in the way, obstacle
roihho, roihma! ! !! (no.ina)
! droplet, drop (of water)
roko, rokoma!! !! (adj.)
! hollow, void, worthless
romestot, ~estodna!! !! ! (num.quard/.adj)
! the very first | primal, fundamental,
primeval, primitive ! (adj. GEN.
romestotsta~romestodda)

romni!! !! (pron.)
! every
! rokni! ! pl.
! rebomni!! both
! retsomni!! every (one of)
rovus, rhhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! shore (of a lake)
rukso, rugsoma! ! !! (no.ina)
! circle, ring
rumu, rumma!! !! (no.ina)
! fog
ruogia! ! !! (adv.)
! everywhere
' ruogita! ! everywhere (movement to)
! ruogika!everywhere (movement from)
ruogu!! !! (adv.)
! every time
ruovva! ! !! (adv.)
! in every way, completely, quite
rutra, rutria! ! !! (v.at. inf. rutrami)
! to hate, to despise
r, rumu!! !! (no.ina)
! limit (of territory), border
rtmmi, rtmmid!! !! (adj./no.ina)
! idiot
rybmy, rymyma! ! !! (no.ina)
! dress
rymuli, rymudli!! !! (v.ai. inf. rymulsa)
! to be wearing a dress, to be in a dress
rymyry, rymyhma!! !! (no.ina)
! mosquito, problem: syngydni rymyry-yli! no
problem

Ss
shka, shkia! ! !! (v.at. inf. shkami)
! to dare to, to have the courage to (+INF)
shpa, sma! ! !! (no.du)
! lungs, torso
shta, shha! ! !! (no.ani)
! lung, breath
sma-, sma-!! !! (act.nom)
! maternal grandfather
sagna~svagna, sagva~svagva!! !! (no.ani)
! bride
sahha, sahra!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. sahmi/sahmu)

646

! to burn
sahhi, savvi'' '' (v.ui. inf. sahsu)
! to burn
saibba, saipra!! '' (v.aux.atr. inf. saipmi)
! must/may/shall not (+ELAT)
saigi, saitsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! moose
saihkena, saihkekka! ! !! (no.ina)
! point, cap, spit
saila, taila! ! !! (v.at.irr inf. sailmi)
! to trust
saimni, saimui!! !! (v.ui/.ai. inf. saimnisa)
! to run, to flow | to sprint, to dash | to flee | to
disappear
! ! tatsaimna to belong to
saipi, saiga! ! !! (no.ina)
! race, contest | rivalry, opposition
saitki, saitkui!! !! (v.ui/.asubj. inf. saitkisu/
saitkina)
! to disappear, to go out of sight | to hide (in
shame, in ! fear, cowardly) (.asubj, osaitki)
saigena, saikekka!! !! (no.ina)
! burnt forest
salama, salakka! ! !! (no.ina)
! antlers | caribou(s)
salekoahibmis, ~mhi!! !! (adj.)
! which has many caribou
salla!! ! !! (adv.)
! well (COMP. sahne, SUPER. sagoba~saiba)
salinhi, saliagi!! !! (no.ani.pl)
! caribou head sacrifice
saluli~saluri, salulka!! !! (no.ina)
! tar
Samho, Samtsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! (male personal name)
samna!! !! (postp.)
! while, during
-samnanha, -samnanhaka!! !! (adj.)
! belonging to X time/period: oapi
kelgosamnanha war-!time help
samnani!! !! (det.)
! the one during, the one from X period
sappiska, sappiskka!! !! (no.ina)
! paw, big hands
sapru, saprau!! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf.
saproru)
! to be likely to, may very well (+INF)
sara, sara, sakka!! !! (adj.)

! good (COMP. sohta, SUPER. saisla [GEN.

! saisilda])
! sarva! is good
sarahmi, sararrima (sarar-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to (become/be) more narrow
sarana, sarakka! ! !! (adj.)
! narrow, tight, cramped | limited
saroko, sarokka' ' '' (no.ina)
! piece, part, section, portion (also soroko)
sasame, sasakka! ! !! (no.ina)
! tent, tipi
sasat, sasatta!! !! (no.ina)
! protective spirit | benevolence, kindness
saski, saskui!! !! (v.ui/.ai. inf. saskisu/
saskisa)
! to wake up, to awake
sasli, saslika! ! !! (no.ina)
! responsibility (towards ones land)
sai~sahhi, satsi~sasti! ! !! (v.ai. inf.
saa)
! to speak, to talk
saiba~sapa, sakaba!! !! (act.nom)
! Siwa | (our) language
sakoge, sakokka!! !! (no.ina)
! victim (of murder)
sata, savva' ! ! !! (no.ani)
! ear
saudda, sauddia! ! !! (v.at)
! to catch (with ones hands)
saudnu, saundu! ! !! (v.utrans. inf.
saudnoru)
! to catch on fire
sauhna, sauhnaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! narrowing point in lake/river
saumi, saumka!! !! (no.ina)
! caribou (owned/domesticated)
saupihtsa !! !! (adv.)
! generally, customarily, in many cases, time
and time !again
savi! ! !! (conj.)
! than
saba, saubba!! !! (no.du)
! ears
saa, sahhaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! fire (in house/forest)
savv, sauri!! !! (no.ina)
! goal, destination, aim, target
saykla, sayklia!! !! (v.at. inf. sayklami)
! to protect, to defend, to shield
647

seba, sebi~sepri~sepsi! ! !! (adj.)

! bad | evil | harmful, dangerous (COMP.
seutta~stta, SUP. !baidla, SUP.GEN bailda)
segaka, sevai -i-! ! !! (no.ina)
! burnt (out) embers, cinder, coal
seu, seume! ! !! (no.ina)
! barren soil, rocky soil
sehhe, sehheri! ! !! (adj.)
! fervent, passionate, intense | eager, keen |
impatient
sehi, sehie!! !! (adj.)
! thin (not thick) | fine
sehka, sehkari! ! !! (no.ina/.adv)
! south-east
! ! sehkaa in the south-east
! ! sehkahta to the south-east
! ! sehkahteri towards the south-east
! ! sehkahtsi along the south-east (face/
side)
! ! sehkahka from the south-east
sehmi, sevvima!! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/feel) eager/keen, impatient | to be
sexually ! aroused, to be horny
sea, seda! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. seimi/seimu)
! to hear
seidla, seidlari! ! !! (no.ina)
! pregnant fish
seitkva, seitkvia!! !! (v.ut/.at. inf. seitkvamu/
seitkvami)
! to put to shame, to shame
seitua, seitia' ' '' (v.at. inf. seitomi)
! to threaten
seuli, seulle~seulta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! someone who hears well, someone with
fine hearing
seky, segme! ! !! (no.ina)
! cliff, rock face
sel-, seus-! ! !! (act.nom)
! (my) herd
selga, seltsa!! !! (no.ani)
! (young/pretty) woman
(t)selgoni, (t)selgoa! ! !! (no.ani)
! girlfriend
selion, selios! ! !! (no.ina)
! caribou herd (small)
selo, selue~selobi'! !! (no.ina)
! (big) river
sengi, sendi!! !! (v.ai. inf. sengisa)

! to sound, to sing, to chant, so make a

! sound | to shine (of the sun only)
seng, sengyla'! ! !! (no.ina)
! song, chant
senni, sennie'' '' (no.ina)
! time, period
seppi, seppie~seppe/seppen! ! !! (quant.)
! very, quite, exceedingly, quite (the)
serekka, serekkia!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
serekmi/serekmu)
! to fix, to make good/amends, to make up
for | to make f!eel/seem good
sereni, seredi!! !! (v.ui. inf. seentu)
! to feel good, to seem good, to appear
good
sesu, seskku!! !! (v.utrans. inf. sesoru)
! to happen (of accidents)
! ses! ! by accident
seskken! ! !! (adv.)
! sometimes
seskora, seskosta!! !! (no.ani)
! tree used to find ones way: tsa
' seskostimi~seskotemi~seskotebi to be
obvious/evident !or to be obvious (lit. to
stand like a seskora)
seskvi, seskvui' ' '' (v.ui. inf. seskvisu/
seskosu)
! to be clear, to be obvious | (kat-) to be
safe, to be away f!rom !danger
sesoaka, sesoai --!! !! (no.ina)
! group of tents, camp, temporary settlement
set~sem~s ! !! (neg.adv)
! not
seto, setue!! !! (no.ina)
! threat
su, sb! ! !! (no.ina)
! river, creek
seis, shhi!! !! (no.ina)
! (small) river
seumi, seumme! ! !! (no.ina)
! soil, land | clay (arch.)
seuvvi, seuvve!! !! (adj.)
! sweet
sahta, sahtia! ! !! (v.at. inf. sahtami)
! to be able to (uncertain)
soa, sia!! !! (v.at. inf. somi)
! to feed (animals)
soakke, soakkeka!! !! (no.ina)
! ghost
648

sodna, sonamo!! !! (no.ina)

! shade, shadow
sotrage, sotahmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! enemy
sdl(k)i, slli~sdlkui! ! !! (v.ai. inf.
sdl(k)isa)
! to shit (-k- often found, originally translo.)
sgiia! ! !! (adv.)
! nowhere
! sita! ! nowhere (movement to)
! sika!nowhere (movement from)
sg! ! !! (adv.)
! never
smni, s-!! !! (pron.)
! no one
! sebmni!! neither
! setsmni! ! none (of)
! svva! ! in no way
! mis! ! for no reason
sianta, siantadi!! !! (no.ina)
! horizon, skyline
siari, siarid!! !! (no.ina/.adv)
! south-west | front (direction WEST)
! ! siara in the south-west
! ! siarata to the south-west
! ! siarateri towards the south-west
! ! siaratsi along the south-west (face/side)
! ! siaraka from the south-west
sibema, sibekka!! !! (no.ina)
! North | back (direction, EAST)
! ! sibemla northern most
sibma, sinda!! !! (v.at/.ut)
! to catch
sibmuli, simuldi~sibmulta!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! good/lucky/skilled hunter/fisherman
sidi~s~svidi, siddi~sui~sviddi!! !
! (v.ai/.at. inf. !sitsa~sisa~svitsa)
! to understand: tsengita~tsengista ssa to
realize (lit. to !understand [into] clear)
sidni, sindi! ! !! (v.imp/.ui)
! to last (for a long time)
sieddo, sietodi! ! !! (no.ina)
! understanding, intelligence (also svieddo)
siehdia! ! !! (adv.)
! south
! ! siehta southwards, to the south
! ! siehteri towards the south
! ! siehtsi along the south(face/side)
! ! siehka from the south

siehhihidoha, ~hidohdi! ! !! (adj.)

! long-haired
siehhin, siehhis! ! !! (adj.)
! long (in length) | tall (.ina)
siehhumi, siehhdi!! !! (no.ina)
! dried meat
siehh~siehhul, siehhula! ! !! (no.ina)
! length, height
siehmi, sievvima (siehh-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/become) elongated, stretched out:
vvika siehmi 'suta syahmo from here the
tributaries stretch out/! spread out far
siebi, siehhumi!! !! (no.ani)
! eagle
siggini, sigindi~siggia! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! sparrow
sihhi, sihri!! !! (v.imp.)
! to rain
sihhuita!! !! (adv.)
! along the length: sihhuita hohtsi down
along the length
sihi'' '' (adv.)
! only
sihuha, sihuhadi!! !! (adj.)
! (the) only (one)
sie! ! !! (interj.)
! isnt it, right?
submi, suddima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to be hungry (sut-)
sut, sutgi! ! !! (no.ina)
! glutton, giant
siula, siuldi!! !! (no.ina)
! spruce (usually as a material)
sikka, sikkia! ! !! (v.at. inf. sikmi)
! to refuse, to send back | to leave, to
abandon | to kick
osikki, osikkui!! !! (v.ut. inf. sikna)
! to sneak
sikvi, sikvid' ' '' (adj.)
! white, bright, shiny | beautiful, pretty,
attractive
sikvut, sigvutsta~sigvudda! ! !! (no.ina)
! bonfire, large fire, bright light
sili, sildi!! !! ! (no.ina)
! breast(s)
simi~imi, simohta~imohta!! !! (no.ani)
! human, person, Siwa
singeli, singedli'' !! (v.imp)
! to last for a long time, to be permanent
649

! ! singelibmis!permanent
sinin, sinis !! !! (no.ina)
! large fish
sinnena, sinnendi!! !! (adj.)
! long (duration)
sipobmi, sipostima (sipo-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to (be/feel) confused | to be entangled, for
there to be a ! knot: gangakia sipobmi the
net is entangled
sipoi, sipoid!! !! (adj.)
! entangled, twisted, intertwined, in a knot
sipo, sipoula!! !! (no.ina)
! confusion, knot, twist
sira, shdi~ssta! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! fish
sirit, siitsta~siidda!! !! (no.ina)
! fish stock of a lake or river
siriu, siriudi! ! !! (adj.)
! fishy, fishlike
sise, sised(i)~sisti!! !! (adj.)
! tall (ani.)
siseri, sisehdi!! !! (no.ina)
! South | front (direction, EAST) | left (WEST)
! ! sisella southernmost
sisi, siskki!! !! (v.imp. inf. sisisu)
! to thunder
sisi, sisti! ! !! (no.ina)
! thunder
siskko, siskuni! ! !! (no.ani)
! thunder (diety)
sii, sidi!! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. sia/siu)
! to lie (low)
isiibi, isiibi!! !! (v.uditr. inf. siimnon)
! not to be able to stand (+ELAT)
sitema, sivva! ! !! (no.ani.pl)
! foxes
sitobi, sitobid!! !! (no.ina)
! fishing rod
sitk, sitkgi! ! !! (no.ina)
! experiencer fisherman
sitkts, sitkeibme! !! (no.ani.poe)
! experienced fisherman, skilled fisherman
sitkehi, sitkehri! ! !! (v.imp)
! to be the right time to fish
sitki, sitkui!! !! (v.ai. inf. sitkisa)
! to fish
! ! tamasitki to fish on a lake (in a boat)
sitro, sitodi!! !! (no.ina)
! fish soup

siura, siusta!! !! (no.ani)

! Siwa (person)
sivi, sd!! !! (no.ina)
! honey
sivutabbubmi, ~tabbubmika!! !! (adj.)
! nice, goodhearted, pure, innocent, naive |
generous
soappa, soapra !!! (no.ina)
! fellow, lad, pal, guy, chap
soaa, soaaka! ! !! (adj.)
! which burns well, combustible
soao, soaoka! ! !! (no.ina)
! culture, identity, ethnicity, clan
soaki, soakka!! !! (no.ina)
! house, home
soakubmi, soakubmika!! !! (adj.)
! cozy, homely, snug, comfortable |
welcoming
soakubm, soakubmuri!! !! (no.ina)
! coziness, comfort | welcomingness
soalu, soalka! ! !! (no.ina)
! scent, smell | hint, trace, dash | clue,
indication | !fragrance, perfume
soalusku, soaluskaa! ! !! (v.utrans. inf
soaluskoru)
! to lose ones antlers | to lose face, to lose
soamba, soambaka~soamu'' '' (no.ina/ani)
! buttercup
soarut, soarutta! ! !! (no.ina)
! lower back
soasuldi, soasuldui! ! !! (v.ai. inf.
soasuldisa)
! to share a tent, to share living space
sodlmot, sodlmotta!! !! (no.ina)
! snowdrift
somen, somes!! !! (no.ina)
! cricket
sogiekka, sogiekkia! ! !! (v.ut. inf.
sogiekmu)
! to dry out, to make feel dry
sogientsi, sogentsui! ! !! (v.imp)
! to be (far) too dry, to be dry season, to be
drought
sog~sogil, soiri!! !! (no.ina)
! dryness, draught
sogon, sogonta!! !! (adj.)
! dry
soon, soonta! ! !! (adj.)

650

! which does not burn well, incombustible |

wet | good-!for-nothing, useless, vain,
pointless | hung-over
sorita~srita! ! !! (adv.)
! in vain
sohpa, sohhu!! !! (no.ani)
! skis
sokmi, sokmiko~sohta! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! seagull
sokubmue!! !! (adv.)
! welcome!
sokuma, sokubma!! !! (v.at. inf. sokummi)
! to welcome
solha, solra! ! !! (no.ani)
! female caribou (mother)
solra, solramo! ! !! (no.ina)
! cervidae, antlered animal
solta, soltia' ' !! (v.at. inf. soltami)
! to punish | to compensate
soluna, solummo~solunamo! ! !! (adj.)
! fragrant, balmy
soluset, solusetta!! !! (no.ina)
! losing of antlers | humiliation, degradation,
losing face
somi, skko!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! man, adult male
somode, somodemo!! !! (no.ina)
! pray, victim
somolken, somolkes!! !! (no.ina)
! (summer/little) butterfly
somora, somohmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! gold
sompo, sompoma!! !! (adj.)
! swift, sudden
somuka, somuhmo!! !! (adj.)
! manly | courageous
somuk~somukeu~somukel,
sokumeri! ! !! (no.ina)
! manliness | courageousness
sonnot, sonnotta!! !! (adj.)
! lukewarm, tepid | apathetic, indifferent |
cool, trendy, ! genuine
s-, sma-!! !! (act.nom)
! mother
sopon, soponta! !! (adj.)
! evil, wicked, foul, vile | cruel
sopra, sopria!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. !soprami)
! to split (in two: eita)
sori, sohko!! !! (no.ina)

! blister
soroko, sorohma! ! !! (no.ina)
! piece, part, section (also saroko)
sodlu, -utta' ' !! (v.pass.part)
! famous, reknown
sota, sodda~(i)sta! ! !! (v.at/.adit. inf.
sobmi/sodnin)
! to make | to give (.adit)
usoti, usoddi! ! !! (v.pass)
! to be allowed, may: usotiki!I am allowed
Sotso, Sotsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! (male personal name)
subo, suoi~suovvi!! !! (no.ani)
! fruit
sudna, sutva~sunamo!! !! (num.ani/.ina)
! six
! sunnet!! sixteen
! suntsa!sixty
! sutven!! six times
! sudnet!! sixth
suikildi, suikildui! ! !! (v.ai/.at. inf. suikildisa/
suikildamu)
! to live together (in a house) | to cohabit
(.at), to inhabit
suikna, suingamo!! !! (no.ina)
! ground (to build a house on), place
suitable for a house, !even ground | base,
foundation
! ! suinge- 'basic
sukin~suggin, sukis~suggis! ! !! (adj.)
! straight
sukli, suglimo!! !! ! (no.ina)
! protection, defence, shielding
sukno, sungoma~sukva! ! !! (no.ina/.ina)
! large isolated conifer
sumana, sumammo! ! !! (adj.)
! irritated, sore, aching
suodu, suoddu! ! !! (v.utrans. inf. suodlu)
! to bloom | to burst; tsuoddu marvahta!X
burst out into !laughter
suosa, suotta~svotta!! !! (no.ani)
! mother
suoga, suogga~svogga!! !! (no.du)
! mother and son(s)
suoba, suobba~svobba!! !! (no.du)
! mother and daughter(s)
suu, suddu!! !! (v.utrans. inf. suoru)
! to move away, to become more distant, to
distance
651

sutot, sutotta! ! !! (no.ina)

! permission
sbma, spma/smma! ! !! (adj.)
! black
smli, smdli!! !! (v.ai. inf. smlsa)
! to be wearing black, to be black
sro, shma!! !! (no.ina)
! berry bush, berry land
sbi, spima! ! !! (no.ina)
! winter house/camp
suvi, simo! ! !! (no.ina)
! stream, creek | flow, run, course
suvo, sma! ! !! (no.ina)
! berry
sdd, stma!! !! (no.ina)
! infection (inside the body), pus
simi, smi!! !! (v.adj)
! to be dry (of weather/landscape) | to be low
on (+ELAT)
site !! !! (conj.)
! as (much X) as (Y): tavvi ohho site holpo
as strong as ! (he/she is) dumb | in the same
way, by the same !(quantitiy)
sit, sitma! ! !! (no.ina)
! thank
sppi! ! !! (adv.)
! badly, poorly (COMP. sdne, SUP. siba)
stromi, strima!! !! (v.adj)
! to feel frustrated, to be frustrated
str, strma! ! !! (adj.)
! frustrated, annoyed
srna, srmmo!! !! (adj.)
! rough, uneven | coarse, prickly
svabmen, svamenta! ! !! (no.ina)
! boy, young man
(t)svabmesi, (t)svabmetta! ! !! (no.ani)
! boyfriend
svahi, svaika' ' '' (no.ina)
! neck
svahku, svahkuka!! !! (no.ina)
! skin disease
svaimera, svaimehra! ! !! (v.at. inf.
svaimehmi)
! to buy, purchase
svaltton, svaltonta, -ri-'' (no.ina)
! punishment, sentence, correction (also
soaltton)
svamenha, svamenhaka! ! !! (adj.)
! handsome

svamiskon~soamiskon, -miskonta!! !
! (adj.)
! free (of charge)
svei, sveie! ! !! (no.ina)
! distance
! ! sesveieika over long distances, from far
away
sviesta, sviestia!! !! (v.at. inf. sviestami)
! to translate, to interprete
svysi, svysui' ' !! (v.ui. inf. svysis)
! to be (easy/hard, lit. salla/sppi)
syga, sygia! ! !! (v.at. inf. sygami)
! to invite, to host
syhhi, syhdi!! !! (no.ina)
! bent tree | something bent
syll! ! !! (onom.)
! sound used to quiet someone down
Syly, Sylta! ! !! (no.ani)
! (female personal name)
syngey! ! !! (adv.)
! never
syngoga!! !! (adv.)
! nowhere
! syngoita!! nowhere (movement to)
! syngoika !nowhere (movement from)
syngymni, syngy-! ! !! (pron.)
! no one
! syngebymni!! neither
! syngetsymni!! none (of)
! synga! ! in no way
! misn! ! for no reason
synty~synt, syntyma~syntma!! !! (no.ina)
! zero
sytka!! !! (interj.)
! please
syta, sytoa! ! !! (v.at. inf. sytymi)
! to thank (honorific)
sytvi!! !! (interj.)
! please
S, Syta!! !! (no.ani)
! (female personal name)
sgaka, sahmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! branch(es) of a river | tributary

652

ahhu, astu' ' !! (v.utrans.neg. inf.

ahhoru)
! (not to be able) to stand, to bear, to endure
(+ BARE INF)
ahhuli, aulka~sahhulta! ! !
! (no.ina/.ani)
! wimp, coward, weakling, sissy, wuss
ailkko, ailkoka!! !! (no.ina)
! swelling, bulge
ainn~ainniu~ainnil~ainnir,
ainiri! ! !! (no.ina)
! courageousness, fearlessness
ainno, ainnoka! ! !! (adj.)
! courageous, brave, fearless (adv.
aigi~aigil)
aiteni, aitedi!! !! (v.ui. inf. aitentu)
! to feel hungry
aiteli, aitedli! ! !! (v.ui. inf. aitelsu)
! to starve (to death)
atilo, atilka!! !! (no.ina)
! starvation
autri, autrui! !! (v.ui. inf. autrisu)
! to (be hungry enough to) want to eat; si
maautri I am ! full, I can no longer eat
avvi, agga! ! !! (no.ina)
! courage, bravery
eima, eibma!! !! (v.at. inf. eimmi)
! to prevent from (+INF)
oeinti, oeintui! ! !! (v.usubj. inf. eintinu)
! to get hurt
engyts, engoibme! ! !! (no.ani.poet)
! maid, maiden, young girl | beautiful
daughter
evviskon, evviskos! ! !! (adj.)
! coward, cowardly
iabuna, iabundi!! !! (adj.)
! energetic, active, lively, able-bodied, good
to work
iaggeli, iaggedli! ! !! (v.ai. inf. iaggelsa)
! to stay for a while, to visit, to be a guest
iaggelibmis, -mhi! ! !! (adj.)
! permanent
iba, iba! ! !! (v.at. inf. ibmi)
! to be able (to +ILLAT/ELAT), to have enough
energy for
! (see isiibi)
iemme, iemedi! ! !! (no.ina)
! bear skin
nka, hta! ! !! (v.at. inf. nkami)

! to know how to, to be able to (because of

enough !knowledge/experience (+ INF.)
nket, inketsta' ' '' (no.ina)
! knowledge
imi, itta!! !! (no.ani)
! bear head
ini, ia! ! !! (no.ani)
! daughter
innen, ines!! !! (no.ina)
! lake
ivi, ivvi!! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. issa/issu)
! to stay, to remain
oi! ! !! (pron.)
! all
! ! AG. !! oi
! ! PAT.!ova~oko
! ! GEN.! o~oi~oko
! ! DAT. ! oi
' ' ebi!! both
! etsoi!! all (of the)
! ou! ! all the time
oia!! !! (adv.)
! everywhere
! ota'' everywhere (movement to)
! oka' ' everywhere (movement from)
ova! ! ' '' (adv.)
! completely, entirely
vi, umi~vid! ! !! (num.ani/.ina)
! seven
! net'' seventeen
! ra! ! seventy
! vivven! ! seven times
! voit! ! seventh
ygana, yammo!! !! (no.ina)
! summer gathering/camp
y!! !! (onom.)
! pfew, sound to show that one is tired (also
hyhh)

Tt
oti, otui! ! !! (v.asubj. inf. otina)
! to unite, to organize, to come together, to
pair up
ta! ! !! (pron.)
! it (ina.sg)
! ! atta PAT.
653

! ! en~taga GEN.
! ! atsi DAT.
! ' noni-' LOC.
! ! ha POSS.
! ! teta PREC
ti, tsti!! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. thsa/thsu)
! to stand up
thma, thka! ! !! (no.ani)
! heart
ti, tgi~teyvi! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. tsa/tsu)
! to stand
tiga, tmeiga~teyviga! ! !! (v.ai/.ui.semel.
inf. tksa/'tksu or thsa/thsu)
! to stand up
tabbi, tahumi! ! !! (no.ani)
! kidney(s)
tabmi, tatmi~tattima!! !! (v.ai.inconcl. inf.
tabmi)
! to think
tama!! !! (postp.)
! furthest back, last
! ! taebma' ' to
! ! taeska' ' from
tagassi, tagasta! ! !! (no.ani)
! traveler, visitor
tagen~tagil! ! !! (adv.)
! much, a lot (COMP. tainne, SUP.
taiba~taibba)
tahhangeri,
tahhangeta~tahangehka!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! team | five people
tahha, tahhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! tree (inanimate)
taa, taba!! !! (quant.)
! much (COMP. tata, COMP.GEN. tatanna/
tadna, SUP. talla, 'SUP.GEN. tahla)
taa-ahmabmot, ~bmotta!! !! (adj.)
! greedy
taamyroiha, ~myroihmo!! !! (adj.)
! where mosquitoes
taintsi, taintsika! ! !! (adj.)
! numerous, many (adv. taintsui very often)
taints, taintsuri! ! !! (no.ina)
! number, quantity, amount
taite! ! !! (adv.)
! still (then)
tau!! !! (interj.)
! then, well, in that case
tairsi, tairtta! ! !! (no.ani)

! worker, slave
taiskani, taiskaa!! !! (no.ani)
! seamstress, sewer
takeri, takehka' ' !! (no.ina)
! person
takeulmo~taklmo, takeulka~taklka! ! !
! (no.ani)
! righteous man/person, real person/man
takeumuri, takeumuta~takeumuhka!! !
! (no.ani/.ina)
! foursome, group of four, quattro
takni, takekka!! !! (no.ina)
! East
! ! taknla easternmost
taku, takau! ! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf.
takoru)
! to be worth (doing) (+ILLAT)
Talgo, Taltsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! (male personal name)y
tama, tammi!! !! (quant.)
! many (COMP. tonda, SUP. tabba, SUP.GEN.
tahba)
tamepsusi, tamepsutta! ! !! (no.ani)
! net repairer | someone who finds solutions,
problem ! solver
tamoni, tamoa!! !! (no.ani)
! female friend | female hunter
tamori, tamohka~tamota(gi)! ! !
! (no.ina/.ani)
! hunters, hunting partners, partners | close
(to each ! other)
tamosi, tamotta~tamoska!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! hunter, friend, man
tamoskari,
tamoskahka~tamoskata(gi)!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! people, nation, Siwa | inhabitants
tamyna~temyna, tamykka~temydi! ! !
! (adj.)
! joyful, cheerful, happy: tamykkia happy
tanudni, tanuda!! !! (no.ani)
! (female) singer
tanutsi, tanutta!! !! (no.ani/)
! (male) singer
tapa, taga! ! !! (no.ina)
! bulb
tara, tarka~tahka! ! !! (no.ina)
! root
taru-!! !! (pref.)
! special, private, ones own
654

' ' tarutaru-go my very own, just for me, me

myself and I
otarvi, otarvui!! !! (v.asbj. inf. tarvina)
! to specialize (in +ILAT)
! ! otarvodlima~-imo! specialized, special
tasko, taskka! ! !! (no.ina)
! woods, woodland
tamalago, ~laoka! ! !! (no.ina)
! hindrance, obstacle
tama! ! !! (adv./postp.)
! on (the surface of)
! ! tanta onto
! ! tantairi towards (the surface)
! ! tantsi along the surface/face, side-byside
! ! tanka off
tamiemi!! !! (adv.)
! alone, by ones self, on ones own
tamima, tamikka!! !! (no.ina)
! (place) on/over, surface
tamoskari, tamoskata! ! !! (no.ani)
! people, nation, inhabitants, Siwas
taneuri, taneuta~taneuhka! ! !
! (no.ani/.ina)
! threesome, group of three, trio
! taneuri taneuren !three by three
tatama, tatakka!! !! (no.ina)
! (place) inside, interior
tatami, tatatta!! !! (no.ani)
! wolf
! tatamo!! male
! tatamha!! female
tatammuri, tatammuhka!! !! (no.ina)
! many people, crowd
tata~tatsa! ! !! (adv./postp.)
! inside
! ! tadda into
! ! taddairi towards the inside, at (missing)
! ! tatsi'along the inside
! ! tatka' from inside: notsa shdi tatka to gut
a fish
Tatimra(gi), Tatimsta(gi)!! !! (no.ani)
! eastern Siwa
tatriki, tatikka!! !! (no.ina)
! wifes family
tatskairi, tatskaihka!! !! (no.ina)
! scarab beetle(s)
tatsi! ! !! (postp.)
! in addition to, along with, and

tatsini!! !! (det.)
! the additional one | additional, extra
taubmuri, taubmuta~taumuhka!! !
! (no.ani/.ina)
! group of four people
taukuna, taukukka' ! !! (adj.)
! valuable, worthy
taulhi, tautagi!! !! (no.ani.pl)
! army, force, military
tausiu, tausiri! ! !! (no.ina)
! rigidity, stiffness, difficulty, inflexibility |
firmness, !discipline
tauson, tausonta!! !! (adj.)
! rigid, stiff, hard, inflexible | firm, disciplined
tauri, tauta! ! !! (no.ani)
! soldier
taet, taedna! ! !! (num.)
! last
tavvi!! !! (equ.)
! as (much) as (~...te)
taysima, tayguima!! !! (v.adj)
! to have sore muscles/muscle aches | to
ache | to be !frozen hard: longamoa
taysima hiedi nivvos wet hair !freezes hard
in the cold
tmi, ttta! ! !! (no.ani)
! moose head
trhi, thta! ! !! (no.ani)
! sun
trhudna, trhudnari'' !! (adj.)
! sunny
teguset, teusetsta' ' !! (no.ina)
! going blind, losing ones sight
oteigldi, oteigildui! ! !! (v.asbj/.at.
teigildena/teigildami)
! to face (each other), to feud
teigia, teidia!! (teige-)! ! !! (v.at/.ut. inf.
teigemi/teigemu)
! to support, to maintain, to sustain
teivi, teivve! ! !! (no.ina)
! nit
tega, tetsa~tedda!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. tegami/
tegamu)
! to be able to see | to seem to see, to
perceive (.ut)
tehteren! ! !! (adv.)
! in pair
tehteri, tehteta~tehterre! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! pair (of people), duo
655

! tehteri tehteren !two by two

tekskon, tekskos! ! !! (no.ina)
! not poisonous
tembema, tembebma!! !! (v.at. inf.
tembemmi)
! to clean, to swipe
tembi, tembie!! !! (no.ina)
! broom, tool to clean
Temhi, Temta~Tenta! ! !! (no.ani)
! (female personal name)
temmu~temmy, temme!! !! (no.ina)
! shore, beach, waterside
temyt, temytsta!! !! (no.ina)
! moose antlers | prize, display
tenga, tentsa~tengari! ! !! (num.ani/.ina)
! eight
! tennet! ! eightteen
! tenra!! eighty
! tengen!! eight times
! tenget! ! eightth
terhekken, terhekkes!! !! (no.ina)
! mayfly
teroma, terommi!! !! (no.ina)
! twilight, nightfall | gloom, murkiness
tetka, tetunne!! !! (no.ina.pl)
! guts, bowels, innards
tetra, tetari!! !! ! (no.ina)
! mountain
teugusku, teuguskau!! !! (v.utrans. inf.
teuguskoru)
! to become blind, to lose ones sight | to
disappear, to go o
! ut of sight
teuke, teui, -i-! ! !! (no.ina)
! silhouette, outline, contour | profile, figure,
shape
teuriri, teuirre~teurita!! (no.ina/.ani)
! a few, a couple
tul, tull!! !! (v.utrans. inf. tulr)
! to subside, to dwindle, to diminish, to wane
tevu~deu~d!! !! (postp.)
! before
tevuka~teua!! !! (adv.)
! beforehand
tevuni~deuni~dni! ! !! (det.)
! the one before, the former | ancestor(s)
tevvulo, teulue!! !! (no.ina)
! relent, diminishment, subsiding, calm
tey, tme!! !! (no.ina)
! egg (archaic gen. te)

teylba, teylbari~teylu!! !! (no.ina/ani)

! cotton grass
t' ' !! (postp.)
! for (someones benefit)
tlaskon, tlaskos ! !! (adj.)
! not improving, worsening
tli, tta!! !! (no.ani)
! spring
tmu, tmme! ! !! (no.ina)
! egg (also tey)
tiebba, tiepra!! !! (v.at. inf. tiepmi)
! to have to (morally) (+COP +ILLAT)
tiebba, tiehba!! !! (no.du)
! hands
tiegibi, tieibid~teibid! ! !! (no.ina)
! twig, branch
tiemo, tieka! ! !! (no.ani)
! hand
tihheni, tihhedi!! !! (v.ui. inf. tihhentu)
! to seem fresh/young, to look young
tba, tu~tadi! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! salsify
tingi, tingid! ! !! (no.ina)
! mating period
tinin, tinis ! !! (no.ina)
! fire wood
tinni, tina!! !! (no.ani)
! partner, spouse
tiselmo, tiselka!! !! (no.ani)
! experienced person, expert
tiuhhen~tyhhyn~tyyn,
tiuhhes~tyhhys~tyys! ! !! (quant.)
! a little
to!! !! (pron.)
! he/she/it (ani.sg)
! ! otta PAT.
! ! n~h GEN.
! ! otsi DAT.
! ' neni-' LOC.
! ! ho POSS.
! ! tyta PREC
toabi, daumi!! !! (no.ani)
! older sister
toahhoko, toahhokka! ! !! (no.ina)
! sapling, little tree
toahhun, toahhunta -ri-! ! !! (no.ina)
! large tree, big tree
toaibi, toagid!! !! (no.ina)
! cap, lid | fur hat
656

toamni, to-' ' '' (pron.)

! someone (known)
! teboamni! ! either, one or the other
! tetsoamni!! some (of)
! toagu! ! (at) sometime
! toavva!in a way
! mito!! for a certain reason
otoati, otoaddi! ! !! (v.asubj. inf. toadna)
! to join, to team up with
toatti, toatka!! !! (no.ina)
! trade
! ! toatkita~toaddita! ! (in exchange) for
(postp.)
toaba, daubba! ! !! (no.du)
! twin (sisters)
tobi-, toumi-! ! !! (act.nom)
! older sister
tobimi, tobimitta! ! !! (v.act.part.pl)
! sisters
toge, tohmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! eyelash(es)
tohabmot, -bmotta! ! !! (adj.)
! skillful, dexterous
toham, toamiri!! !! (no.ina)
! skillfulness, dexterity
tohate, tohaika~toaika!! !! (no.ani)
! urine
tohhobben, tohhobbes! ! !! (no.ina)
! treehopper, little bug, bug on a tree/plant
tohhot, tohhotta! ! !! (adj.)
! green
tohhus, tohhuhi~toi!! !! (adj.)
! young
toa, toia!! !! (v.at. inf. toami)
! to know how (+COP +ILLAT)
itoi, itoui!! !! (v.aditr. inf. toanin)
! to know how (+ILLAT)
tokkilka, tokkiri! ! !! (no.ina.pl)
! fish trap
tokor, tokohma!! !! (no.ina)
! fox (when white)
tokura, tokuhmo!! !! (no.ina)
! amphibian
tona, tommo!! !! (no.ina)
! West | right (direction WEST)
! ! tonla westernmost
tonka, tonkia!! !! (v.at/.adit. inf. tonkami/
tonkanin)
! to sew clothes (on someone +ALLAT)

tonkua~tonkoma~tonk, tonkamo! ! !
! (no.ina.pl)
! sinew
t, tobo! ! !! (no.ina)
! rock
thni, thha!! !! (no.ani)
! late spring
tmba, tmmaba!! !! (act.nom)
! Siwa people, (our) people
tmo, tmma!! !! (no.ina)
! people, tribe, band
toron, toronta -ri-!! !! (no.ina)
! big bear, male adult bear
tosora, tososta!! !! (no.ani)
! reject, outlaw
tosmi, tosmiko! ! !! (no.ina)
! hay
totami, todatta! ! !! (no.ani)
! head
totomma, totoi!! !! (no.ani)
! family member, close relative
toton, totonta -ri-!! !! (no.ina)
! family (direct)
totta! ! !! (equ.)
! as (much) as (~ te)
tottamo, tottai!! !! (no.ani)
! trader, merchant
togo, tokoma! ! !! (no.ina)
! tree trunk | torso
tovvia!! !! (adv.)
! somewhere (known)
! tovvita! ! somewhere (movement to)
! tovvika!somewhere (movement from)
ttani, ttaa!! !! (no.ani)
! (female) dancer
ttari, ttahko~ttata(gi)!! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! dancers, group of dancers
ttasi, ttatta! ! !! (no.ani)
! (male) dancer
tsalbi! ! !! (adv.)
! rarely
tsammi, tsama, -i-! ! !! (no.ina)
! forest
tsasa, tsaskka! ! !! (v.ut. inf. tsasamu)
! to forget (+ ELAT)
tsaupri, tsauprui! ! !! (v.ui. inf. tsauprisu)
! to happen rarely
! ! tsatsaupri to be unheard of
tsengi~tsengin, tsengie~tsengis! ! !! (adj.)
657

! clear, comprehensible, lucid | obvious |

pure, clean, !fresh (also tsengy)
tseng~tsengul, tsengula! ! !! (no.ina)
! clarity, comprehensiveness, lucidity |
obviousness | p
! urity, cleanness, freshness
(i)tsepi, (i)tsebi!! !! (v.ai./.ditr inf. tsepsa/
tsemnin)
! to wait (.ai) | to wait for, to have the
patience to (+ELAT)
tsepu, tsepume! ! !! (adj.)
! unfrozen, defrosted, thaw
tserogi, tsestagi!! !! (no.ani.pl)
! sweat lodge (ceremony)
tse, tsee! !! (no.ina)
! cedar
tsebb ! ! !! (onom.)
! sound to encourage someone
tsut, tsutsta!! !! (no.ina)
! skeleton
tsiami, tsiandi'! ! !! (no.ina)
! cedar stripe(s) | arms
tsiauga, tsiaui!! !! (no.ina)
! cedar wood!
tsumi, tsummo!! !! (no.ina)
! worm
tsli, tsldi!! !! (no.ina)
! skull, cranium
tsieltami, tsieltandi' ' !! (no.ina)
! idiot
tsiki, tsigi! ! !! (v.ui. inf. tsiksu)
! to shine (dimmly) | to be hardly visible:
tsikimaika 'saitkisa to disappear from sight
tsoihhi, tsoihko!! !! (no.ina)
! sleigh
tsusina, tsusimmo!! !! (adj.)
! fresh | untrained, inexperienced
tsiro, tshmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! spot, place, slot, space
tulmu, tulmuma! ! !! (no.ina)
! clothing, clothes
tulvi~tulbi, tulvimo~tulbimo! ! !! (adj.)
! nutrient | nourishment | provisions
(tulvie~tulbie pl.)
tulvusta~tulbusta,
tulvustamo~tulbustamo! ! !! (adj.)
! lacking in nutrient, nourishment | without
provisions | ! infertile, barren, arid
tunna, tunnamo! ! !! (adj.)
! important, heavy, major, great

tuobi, tuovvumi, tubimo!! !! (no.ani/.ina)

! juniper tree
tuono~tvono, tuomma~tvomma!! !! (adj.)
! the same
tukvasi, tukvatta! ! !! (no.ani)
! murderer
tuvala~toala, tuvalmo~toalka!! !! (adj.)
! heavy, hefty, big, fat (adv. tuvavvi~toavvi)
tuvavven!! !! (adv.)
! heavily, very (especially negative) (also
tavven)
tuv~tuveu~tuvel, tuveri! ! !! (no.ina)
! heaviness, weight
tuva, tuvva! !! (v.at inf. tummi)
! to turn | to change
tuvi, tuvvi! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. tussa/tussu)
! to turn | to change
tni, tnima! ! !! (no.ina)
! youth
thmi, tvvima! ! !! (v.adj)
! to feel anxious, worried
thna, thnamo! ! !! (adj.)
! anxious, worried, stressed
thn~thneu~thnel, thnela!! !! (no.ina)
! anxiety, worry, stress
tlri, tlrimo! ! !! (no.ina)
! younger sibling
tnki, tnkohta~tnhta! ! !! (no.ani)
! attack leader, general
tpp~tppiu~tppi~tppil~tppir,
tppila!! !! (no.ina)
! clumsiness, awkwardness, unhandiness
tpp, tppma! ! !! (adj.)
! clumsy, awkward, unhandy
tpra, tpamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! juniper berry
treisk, treiskeu!! !! (v.utrans. inf.
treiskr)
! to shed ones fur | to mature, to come to
maturity
tr, trma!! !! (no.ina)
! fur
trpp, trppma! ! !! (adj.)
! fluffy | furry
tvelli, tveldli!! !! (v.ai. inf. tvellsa)
! to be covered in blood, to be bloody
tveli, tvelle!! !! (no.ina)
! blood (outside the body), bloodshed |
tragedy, horror
658

tveliu, tvelibi!! !! (no.ina)

! uncles and aunts (mothers brother or
fathers sister)
tveluri, tvelurre!! !! (no.ina)
! cousins (mothers sisters or fathers
brothers)
tvonna, tvonnamo~tvommo! ! !! (adj.)
! equal
tvonn~tvonneu~tvonnel, tvoneri! ! !
! (no.ina)
! equality
tvuni!! !! (adv./postp.desti)
! down
! ! tvunda down (to)
! ! tvunga (from) down
tv! ! !! (adv./postp.direct)
! down
! ! tvda down (to)
! ! tvdari downward | out to sea/away from
land
! ! tvtsti down along | along the bottom
! ! tvga down below
(o)tvdi, (o)tvtti!! !! (v.ai/.asubj. inf.
tvtsa~tvdna)
! to embark, to leave, to go fish/hunt
tvmma, tvmamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! (place) down | bottom
! ! tvmamoa safe, in a secure position/
state/place
tygi, tid! ! !! (no.ina)
! poison, toxin
tygyha, tygyhma!! !! (adj.)
! poisonous
tylla, tylmo!! !! (no.ina)
! little brother, little bro, bro
tymmi, tyvvima (tyv-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to be heavy/full/heavier | to become
(temporarily) heavy: ! tymmi bengommeibma
(rain) is heavy on the roof
tymoagon, oaonta! ! !! (no.ina)
! recording, record, account
tyry~tvoro, tolba~tvolba! ! !! (no.ani)
! son
ti!! !! (interj.)
! please, I beg you
tska, thhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! joint

T t
tadna, tanda! ! !! (v.at. inf. tadnami)
! to find | (~adna) to recover
tairri, tairka~taihta(gi)' ' !! (no.ina/.ani)
! row men
talta, taltaka! ! !! (no.ina)
! clay
taltira, taltihka!! !! (adj.)
! made of clay
tanni, taga!! !! (no.ani)
! female guest
tassi, tatta! ! !! (no.ani)
! male guest
teddet, teddetsta~teddedda!! !
! (no.ina)
! old man
tegma, tegmari~teki! ! !! (no.ina/.ani)
! child, youngster
tegni, tenga!! !! (no.ani)
! childhood
teidobi~teilobi, teilobid! ! !! (no.ina)
! torch, branch (on fire)
tengibmi, tengibmid!! !! (adj.)
! childish | immature
temi, tebi! ! !! (adj.) IRR
! small, tiny
temmi, temme!! !! (no.ina)
! animal tracks (usually in snow)
teynti, teyntui!! !! (v.ut.imp. inf.
teyntis)
! to be allergic to: tateyntika Im allergic to
it
tibi, td!! !! (no.ina)
! baby, toddler
tiella, tieladi! ! !! (no.ina)
! island
tihi, tihid!! !! (adj.)
! tiny, minute
tilu, tillu!! !! (v.utrans. inf. tillu)
! to dry, to (be hung to) dry
tirri% % !! (onom.)
! sound to make animal go away
toadun, toadunta -ri-!! !! (no.ina)
! intestines, innards, guts
toati, toatika! ! !! (no.ina)
! cooperation | harmony, accord, agreement
toatolot, toatolotta!! !! (no.ina)

659

! cooperation, teamwork, collaboration

todli, todda! ! !! (no.ani)
! last summer: toddai!! last summer
toti, totti!! !! (v.ai. inf. totsa)
! to work together, to cooperate
tnni, tna! ! !! (no.ani)
! animal that ahs not left its parents/nest |
rookie, ! beginner
tvaila, tvaila! ! !! (no.ina)
! waterfall, rapids
tvena, tvetta!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. tvemmi/
tvemmu)
! to destroy

uitse, uitsemo!! !! (adj.)

! aquatic, which lives in water
ul~uleu~ulel~u~ueu~uel,
uleri~ueri!! !! (no.ina)
! seriousness, earnestness, soberness
ulu~uu, uluma~uuma!! !! (adj.)
! serious, earnest, sober, stern
umegas, umegahi'' !! (no.ina)
! wound, being wounded
umima! ! !! (adv.)
! on the ground: umibma to ~ umiska from
~
umna, umnamo! ! !! (no.ina)
! (place) under, below | bowels (deepest
part)
umpa, ppa!! !! (no.du)
! knees
ungokeen, ungokees! ! !! (no.ina)
! effort
unka!! !! (adv.)
! from under, from below
unna! ! !! (adv./postp.)
! under
! ! unta (to) under : kimpa mhu unta a pair
of boots for ! ! your feet
! ! untairi under, not enough, not far enough,
too low
! ! untsi along the underside/back
! ! unka (from) under | without permission,
unexpectedly
uolda~volda! ! !! (sup.)
! least
ukva, ukvia! ! !! (v.at. inf. ukvami)
! to murder
utegas, utegahi'' !! (no.ina)
! support
ututa, utubmo!! !! (adj.)
! still, calm, motionless
dno, noma!! !! (no.ina)
! angelica
htakemi, htaketa~htakemmo!! !
! (no.ani/.ina)
! balsam fir
rhu, rhuma!! !! (no.ina)
! bank of (little) fish
s, hhi!! !! (no.ina)
! young fish
uvv~uvvul, ri! ! !! (no.ina)
! abundance, profusion, plentifulness

Uu
ahnoke, ahnokka! ! !! (no.ina)
! dandruff, dust | thick snowfall
ara, ahra!! !! (v.cop)
! to be (somewhere)
uba, oama!! !! (no.ina)
! knee, joint
uboko~ubboko, uohma~ubohma!! !
! (no.ina)
! pipe
eit, eitsta! ! !! (no.ina)
! quality of water | clear water:
! ' ti eitstia sebi to be in a bad situation
eis~ei, eihi!! !! (no.ina)
! young (of animal), offspring
uhkime, uhkimmo!! !! (no.ina)
! alder bark
uhku, uhkuma!! !! (no.ina)
! alder
ua, ki! ! !! (no.ina)
! water
ueisku, ueiskaa!! !! (v.utrans. inf.
ueiskoru)
! to become dehydrated | to lose water (of
lakes/rivers)
uin, uinila! ! !! (no.ina)
! truth
uino, uinoma! ! !! (adj.)
! true
660

! to be caustic, corrosive, abrasive | to smell

bad
il~ilul, ilula! ! !! (no.ina)
! pungency, power | causticity,
corrosiveness, !abrasiveness
ilve, ilvemo!! !! (adj.)
! pungent, powerful (ina) | caustic, corrosive,
abrasive
obkki, obkkei! ! !! (v.asubj)
! to fight, to quarrel
kkibba, kkibma! ! !! (no.ina)
! quarreler, someone who likes to fight
ngega! ! !! (adv.)
! anywhere
! ngeita! ! anywhere (movement to)
! ngeika!anywhere (movement from)
ngmni, ng-!! !! (pron.)
! anyone
! ngebkni! ! either
! ngetskni!! any (of)
! ngegu!! anytime
! nga! ! in any way
! min' ' for any reason
re, rmo!! !! (no.ina)
! rash, breakout, hives
ra, rra! ! !! (no.ani)
! (female personal name)
rni, ra!! !! (no.ani)
! female wolf
rkdden~rkddil! ! !! (adv.)!
! similarly, relatedly
rkt, rktsta~rkdda! ! !! (adj.)
! close, related, similar
obrki~obrki, obrgi~obrkei!! !
! (v.usubj. !rkna~rkina)
! to drown
rma, rmmo! ! !! (no.ina)
! place near, vicinity, area
rt, rtsta~rdda! ! !! (no.ina)
! nature, environment
ren~rin~rn! ! '' (adj.)
! the following, the next
ta, tta! ! !! (v.ut. inf. bm)
! (not) to be able to (because of cold) (+INF)
t, tt! ! !! (v.aux.utrans. inf. dl)
! to be too cold (for +ELAT)
ts! ! !! (postp.)
! without
tna, tmma!! !! (adj.)

adda! ! !! (proadv.)
! right here
! ! adda to ~
! ! atka from ~
adni!! !! (det.)
! like this, like such, such
ak, akma!! !! (no.ina)
! (salmon) migration
at, atta!! !! (det.)
! this (proximal) (also ut, t)
! ! aba, appa this (out of two)
! ! ats, atsta~adda this (out of many)
! ! attei!this manieth
! ! att! ! this time
bi, pimo! ! !! (no.ina)
! ungulate
bra, bhma!! !! (quant.)
! several, 2-4
dlt, dltsta~dldda! ! !! (no.ina)
! throat
dt, utta!! !! (no.ina)
! power (left), energy (left)
v, vma! ! !! (no.ina)
! whetstone | practice
hha! ! !! (proadv.)
! here
! ! hba to ~
! ! hka from ~
igs, ihi! ! !! (no.ina)
! (little) hedgehog
tatia, tatista!! !! (v.at/.ut. inf. tatimi/
tatim)
! to swallow
ii, isti! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. ihsa/ihs)
! to swallow
iki, ikid!! !! (no.ina)
! marsh, bog
ikk, ikkma!! !! (no.ina)
! fight, brawl
ilmi, idlmi!! !! (v.adj)

661

! porous, rough | spongy

vvia!! !! (proadv.)
! around here
! ! vvita to ~
! ! vvika from ~

! scar, would healing, cicatrization

vut, vutsta! ! !! (no.ina)
! ices (in river, lake)
viamua, viamaa! ! !! (v.ut/.at. inf. viamumu/
viamumi)
! to enrage, to make very angry
vihla, vihladi!! !! (no.ina)
! flesh (especially of fish/raw)
vmi, vbmi! ! !! (v.ai/.ui. inf. vmsa/vmsu)
! to scream
vnaka, vnakadi! ! !! (no.ina)
! theorem, doctrine, thesis
vrke, vrkedi! ! !! (adj.)
! stumpy | thick, fat
vike, vikedi!! !! (adj.)
! bruised, damaged, hurt
vilo, viltsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! maternal aunt
vili, vilid! ! !! (adj.)
! verdant, lush, leafy, green
vilvi, vil(l)umi! ! !! ! (no.ani)
! bird (poetic)
voakna, voaknaka!! !! (adj.)
! fearful, afraid, terrified
voalla, voadla! ! !! (v.at. inf. voalmi)
! to have still to (do/finish), to have left
(+ILLAT)
ivoalli, ivoadli!! !! (v.aditr. inf. voalnin)
! to have still to (do/finish), to have left (+COP
+ILLAT)
voammi, voavvima! ! (voavv-)!! !! (v.adj)
! to be afraid, to be frightened
voanna, voakka~voanka! ! !! (adj.)
! strange, scary, foreign, curious, odd (adv.
! voagi~voagil)
Voo, Vohtsa! ! !! (no.ani)
! (male personal name)
voho, vma! ! !! (no.ina)
! fear, fearfulness, terror
voli, volko! ! !! (no.ina)
! arthritis, bone pain
vulma, vuli~vulmamo!! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! leaf
vvv! ! !! (onom.)
! sound to calm animals/children

Vv
vadnu, vandu! ! !! (no.utrans)
! to clear up (of sky/weather)
vagon~vagka, vaonta!! !! (no.ina)
! memory, remembrance
ivala, ivalia!! !! (v.dit.itr, inf. valanon)
! to lack
vahsu, vahsau! ! !! (v.utrans. inf. vahsoru)
! to grow (in strength/power)
vaika, vaiga!! !! (v.ut. inf. vaikmu)
! to be ashamed to (+INF)
valo, vlka!! !! (no.ina)
! tea, brew (also alo)
varrua~varroma~varr, varoka! ! !
! (no.ina.pl)
! ladle
vai, vaka!! !! (no.ina)
! strength
vatro, vatoka! ! !! (no.ina)
! lichen cover
vaukke, vaukkeka!! !! (no.ina)
! hook
vauri, vauhka!! !! (no.ina)
! position, whereabouts, location | existence
(also !tamavauri) | status | thing, item, issue
vebo, vivve~viobi! ! !! (no.ina)
! knot
oveimi, oveibmi! ! !! (v.asubj. inf. veimna)
! to get married | to marry (v.asubj.tr)
Vengy, Venta! ! !! (no.ani)
! (female personal name)
velba, velu~velbari! ! !! (no.ani/.ina)
! dandelion
velken, velkes! !! (no.ina)
! moth
vellu, velume! ! !! (adj.)
! nightly, nightvessu, vessau!! !! (v.utrans. inf. vessoru)
! to abound, to be(come) abundant
vurh, vurhma!! !! (no.ina)

662

Yy
ydni, yna!! !! (no.ani)
! character, person in a story, fellow
! -ydni! ! good guy
! y-ydni! ! bad guy
yhhy, yhyma! ! !! (no.ina)
! salmon (fairly large)
yka, ykia! ! !! (v.at. inf. ykami)
! to go around collecting
yly, ylyma~l! ! !! (no.ina)
! night
ymen! ! !! (adv.)
! terribly, horribly
ymina~ymna, ymimma~ymma!! !! (adj.)
! lost, missing, not present
ymm~ymmyl, ymyla! ! !! (no.ina)
! bad fishing waters
ymni, yma!! !! (no.ani)
! early fall
ymy, ymma! ! !! (adj.)
! terrible, horrible
yi, yhta!! !! (no.ani)
! (adult) salmon
, yby ! ! !! (no.ina)
! ice
lys, lhi! ! !! (no.ina)
! little leaf, leaflet | child (endearing)
mmi, vvima (v-)! ! !! (v.adj)
! to (become/be) wide, to widen
rh, rhe'' !! (v.utrans. inf. rhr)
! to scar, to grow, to cicatrize

663

Table of vowel-final inanimate declension, abridged.

Vertical represents stressed vowel. Horizontal is the word-final vowel (see 4.1.3.1.1)
-a

-e

-i

-o

-u/-y/-

-ka or -a/-ra
A-declension
a au ai oa

tsammi : tsama forest

pagi : pakka back
takeri : takehka person
-ri/-i/-di/-li

E-declension
e ei ay

-e/-obi

helva : helvari female moose

eleba : elepri flower
teuke : teui shape
mrana : mradi difficult
biele : bielli fat

-me

tsepu :
tsepume not
frozen
ennu :
enume pole

kepsi : kebsie mushroom

benho : benhue~benhobi dog
seumi : seumme soil

-id or -di
I-declension
i ie ia

dida : diadi girl

hide : hiedi hair
k : kd new
-mo

-o- / -ou- / -oio ou oi

-ko or -o

nobba : nobmo beard

kokve : kokvemo lightweight
onona : onommo little

kori : kohko
boy
tosmi :
tosmiko hay
somi : skko
man

-ma

-mo
U-declension
u uo ui

Y-declension
y u eu i
a

butta : buttamo bad weather

nukli : nuglimo finger
nubba : nubmo eyelid
-mo

-id or -di

tylla : tylmo
little brother

kyni : kyndi nest

tsli : tsldi skull
pymi : pyndi hard bark

664

obeno : oimma smoke

nobemo : noimma fire
kydly : kylyma bell

Table of consonant final inanimate declension, abridged.

-s
Front
eiy

-t

-n

-l / -

-tsta or -dda

-s

-la

-hi or -h--i

-Vts

-Vbme

Back
aou

-tta

-nta (-r-)

-ri

Table of animate noun declension.

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-mo

-mogi

-ka or -i (if stressed

o u)

-ma

-magi

-kagi or -igi

-mi

-migi
-mi / -mhi

-ta
-tta

-tagi
-ttagi

-ba
-pa
-va

-bagi
-pagi
-vagi

-u

-ugi

-bi
-pi
-vi

-bigi / -bi
-pigi / -bi
-vigi

-umi

-umi

-bo
-po
-vo

-bogi
-pogi
-vogi

-oi

-oi

-na
-no

-nagi
-nogi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

-ni

-nigi / -ni / -nhi

-a

-agi

-ta
-to

-tagi
-togi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

-te
-ti

-tegi
-tsi

-ika

-ikagi

-sa
-so

-sagi
-sogi

-hi (-i)
-tta

-higi (-igi)
-ttagi

665

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-si

-sigi
-si

-tta

-ttagi

-i

-igi

-hta
-ohta

-htagi
-ohtagi

-ro
-ra
-la

-rogi
-ragi
-lagi

-sta

-stagi

-ri
-li

-rigi / -rhi
-ligi / -lhi

-ta

-tagi

-lu

-lugi
-lhi

-da

-dagi

-ka
-ko

-kagi
-kogi

-uni

-unhi

-ki

-kigi / -ki

-ta

-tagi

-ga
-go
-gi

-gagi
-gogi
-gigi

-ubi
-tsa

-ubigi / -ubi
-tsagi

-ha
-ho

-hagi
-hogi

-ra

-ragi

-hi
-i

-higi
-igi

-ta

-tagi

666

19 Glossing
ABL!

ablative

PROADV!

ACT!

active case (agentive subject)

PRON !

proadverb
pronoun/pronominal

ACT.NOM!

action nominal

QUANT!

quantifier

ACT.PART!

active participle

SEMELF!

semelfactive

ADV!

adverbial

SG!

singular

AG!

agentive

STAT!

stative case (unagentive/

ALLAT !

allative

subject/object)

ASS!

assertive

SUBJ!

subjective

COMP!

comparative

SUP!

superlative

COMPL!

complementizer

TR!

transitive

relativizer

TRANSLO!

translocative

CONCL!

conclusive

TRANSL!

translative

COND.IRR!

conditional irrealis

UNAG!

unagentive

COP!

copula

V.ACT.PART! !

DAT!

dative

V.ADIT !

agentive ditransitive verb

DET!

determiner

V.ADJ!

verbal adjective

DIT !

ditransitive

V.AI!

agentive intransitive verb

DIMI!

diminutive

v.ASUBJ!

agentive subjective verb

active verbal participle

ELAT!

elative

V.AT!

agentive transitive verb

EXPL.PART!

explicative particle

v.IMP!

impersonal verb

FREQU !

frequentative

V.PAT.PART!

patientive verbal participle

GEN !

genitive

V.UDIT!

unagentive ditransitive

HAB!

habitual

verb

HABIL!

habilitive

V.UI!

unagentive intransitive

ILLAT !

illative

verb

INA!

inanimate

v.USUBJ!

unagentive subjective

INCONCL!

inconclusive

verb

INESS!

inessive

V.UT!

unagentive transitive

INF !

infinitive

verb

INFER!

inferential

V.UTRANS!

(unagentive) translative

INSTRU!

instrumental

verb

ITR!

intransitive

LINK!

linking clitic

MEDI!

medial

NO.ANI!

animate noun

NO.INA!

inanimate noun

OBLI!

obligative

OBV!

obviative

PART!

particle

PASS!

passive

PASS.PART!

passive participle

PAT!

patientive

PERF !

perfective, perfect

PERSI!

persistive

PL!

plural

POSTP!

postposition

POSTP.DESTI!

destinal postposition

POSTP.DIRECT!

directional postposition

667

sira' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' fish
hemi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' bird
benho' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' dog
pa'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' louse
tsumi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' worm
tahha'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' tree
tsamma'' ' ' ' ' ' forest
nokos' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' stick
subo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' fruit
rento'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' seed
lma' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' leaf
tara'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' root
pymi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' bark
eleba'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' flower
elki' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' grass
gme' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' rope
kehma'' ' ' ' ' ' ' skin
mine~vihla'' ' ' ' flesh
amoi~tveli' ' ' ' ' blood
demo' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' bone
k~kv'' ' ' ' ' ' ' grease
tey' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' egg
gybi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' horn
atkana~raibma'' tail
kvon' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' feather
hide' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' hair
totami' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' head
sata'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ear
kita' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' eye
narri'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' nose
kuki'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' mouth
r'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' tooth
oadi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' tongue
nykki'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' fingernail
motona' ' ' ' ' ' ' claw
sieo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' foot
uba'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' knee
tiemo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' hand
moukki'' ' ' ' ' ' ' belly
svahi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' neck
sili'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' breasts

20 Siwa Swadesh List

megi!! ! ! !
negi' ' ' ' '
to' ' ' ' ' ' '
mra'' ' ' '
nri~t' ' ' '
ki' ' ' ' ' ' '
at' ' ' ' ' '
hait'' ' ' ' '
hha'' ' ' '
hahha'' ' '
mmni' ' ' '
ndni' ' ' ' '
nvva'' ' ' '
ngu' ' ' ' '
nnni' ' ' ' '
set' ' ' ' ' '
oi'' ' ' ' '
tama'' ' ' '
ktdni' ' '
euma'' ' ' '
todni-ne'' '
m'' ' ' ' ' '
ei'' ' ' ' ' '
nevi'' ' ' '
aits' ' ' ' ' '
akno' ' ' ' '
atana'' ' ' '
siehhin'' ' '
oala'' ' ' '
ota' ' ' ' '
tuvala' ' ' '
onona' ' ' '
la~itvi'' '
sarana'' ' '
sehi'' ' ' ' '
ski' ' ' ' ' '
somi' ' ' ' '
simi'' ' ' '
tegmi'' ' '
riehpi'' ' ' '
nalbi' ' ' ' '
suosa' ' ' '

!
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

!!
''
''
''
''
''
''
'
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''

! I
' you
' he
' we (inclusive)
' you (plural)
' they
' this
! that
' here
' there
' ' who?
what?
' where
' when
' how
' not
' all
' many
' some
' few
' other
' one
' two
' three
' four
' five
' big
' long
' wide
' thick
' heavy
' small
' short
' narrow
' thin
' woman
' man
' person
' child
' wife
' husband
' mother

thma' '
blin'' ' '
moi'' '
ha'' ' ' '
ra' ' ' ' '
svli'' '
higa'' '

atri' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' father
imisi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' animal

668

''
''
''
''
''
''
''

'
'
'
'
'
'
'

''
''
''
''
''
''
''

' heart
' liver
' to drink
' to eat
' to bite
' to suck
' to spit

hopsai'' ' ' ' ' '

sla' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
seyi'' ' ' ' ' '
mairui' ' ' ' ' ' '
nua'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sea'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
neta' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tabma' ' ' ' ' ' '
(k)nira' ' ' ' ' ' '
voammi' ' ' ' ' '
pohhi' ' ' ' ' ' '
ngi'~ilili' ' ' ' '
niki' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ira'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
obkki' ' ' ' ' '
mahha'' ' ' ' ' '
htva'' ' ' ' ' ' '
aka~eta~lasa''
sopra'' ' ' ' ' ' '
nima' ' ' ' ' '
rnta' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
gea'' ' ' ' ' '
noni'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
hbmi' ' ' ' ' ' '
koni'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
maki' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sii' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
neni'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ti'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tuvi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
idi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sota'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tenda'' ' ' ' ' ' '
resi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ukia~ukesta' ' '
gia' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
debba'' ' ' ' ' '

' to vomit
' to blow
' to breathe
' to laugh
' to see
' to hear
' to know
' to think
' to smell
' to fear
' to sleep
' to live
' to die
' to kill
' to fight
' to hunt
' to hit
' to cut
' to split
' to stab
' to scratch
' to dig
' to swim
' to fly
' to walk
' to come
' to lie
' to sit
' to stand
' to turn
' to fall
' to give
' to hold
' to squeeze
' to rub
' to wash
' to wipe

tekigoa' ' '

katagoa'' '
bia' ' ' ' ' '
aunta'' ' ' '
aiska'' ' ' '
atadia' ' ' '
oai' ' ' ' ' '
nori'' ' ' ' '
biohtsi'' ' '
lehhi' ' ' ' '
suvvi'' ' ' '

' to pull
' to push
' to throw
' to tie
' to sew
' to count
' to say
' to sing
' to play
' to float
' to flow

'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''

ivu'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

slk' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
trhi' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
gasi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
aihhi~aii'' ' '
ua' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
siva'' ' ' ' ' ' '
selo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
innen'' ' ' ' ' '
vetra'' ' ' ' ' ' '
hego'' ' ' ' ' ' '
misas' ' ' ' ' ' '
neo'' ' ' ' ' ' '
vihi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
seumi' ' ' ' ' ' '
kolo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
edlvi' ' ' ' ' ' '
rekken'' ' ' ' ' '
eni'' ' ' ' ' ' '
omi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ibme~hadlna' '
obena' ' ' ' ' ' '
nobemo'' ' ' ' '
asa'' ' ' ' ' ' '
sahhi'' ' ' ' ' ' '
moni' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tetra' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
pila' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tohhot' ' ' ' ' ' '
ilka' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
maga~maiki' '
sbma'' ' ' ' ' '
yly'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
kengi'' ' ' ' ' ' '
gekes '' ' ' ' ' '
hmi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
hee'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
pahla'' ' ' ' ' ' '
k' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ii' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sara' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
seba'' ' ' ' ' ' '
lona' ' ' ' ' ' '
lrha'' ' ' ' ' ' '
sukin'' ' ' ' ' ' '
rokloma' ' ' ' ' '
giges ' ' ' ' ' ' '
holpo'' ' ' ' ' ' '
kengy' ' ' ' ' ' '
669

' to freeze
' to swell
' sun
' moon
' star
' water
' rain
' river
' lake
' sea
' salt
' stone
' sand
' dust
' earth
' cloud
' fog
' sky
' wind
' snow
' ice
' smoke
' fire
' ashes
' to burn
' path
' mountain
' red
' green
' yellow
' white
' black
' night
' day
' year
' hot
' cold
' full
' new
' old
' good
' bad
' rotten
' dirty
' straight
' round
' sharp
' dull
' smooth

nivvon'' ' ' '

sogon'' ' ' '
keunenima''
ra'' ' ' ' ' '
suhha'' ' ' '
saron'' ' ' '
kamon'' ' '
nokkiu'' ' ' '

''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''

' wet
' dry
' correct
' near
' far
' right
' left
' name

670

671

672

Appendix A: Modernization
Because of its pre-Columbian historical context, the Siwa language lacks vocabulary
for some of the even most basic ideas of modern thought. For example, there exists
no word for wheel and there is no vocabulary relating to science, technology or
medecine in the language herein described. However, in an effort to make it possible
to use Siwa in a modern day context, a number of neologisms have been created.
!
Because Siwa lends itself so easily to descriptions of life and natural
phenomena, the vocabulary was developed from such a perspective. Thus, one find
neologisms derived in great number from words describing nature. For example, the
word for car is gelvis which comes from tagli X will spin and ois turtle, and the
word for computer is dionaddi which consists of (ata)dion counting and naddi
beehive.

Technology !
airplane!!
alcohol! !
arch!
!
!
!
bicycle! !
book! !
!
!
bottle! !
!
!
bus!
!
!
!
camera!!
!
!
car!
!
!
!
chair! !
clock! !
compass!
!
!
computer!
!
!
dome! !
!
!
electricity!
farm! !
glass! !
gun, riffle!
internet!!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Katageidlot
marimi'
tugai' '
komkamo !
!
!
golba' '
valtsa' '
!
!
mohh'
!
!
gelkobo'
!
!
huolus'
!
!
gelvis' '
!
!
keulme' '
itsiks' '
sibeolus'
!
!
dionaddi'
!
!
puntsli '
!
!
hallu' '
ailki'
'
vevva' '
tiemhpi''
tkkekot'
!
!

'
'
!
!
'
'
!
'
!
'
!
'
!
'
!
'
'
'
!
'
!
'
!
'
'
'
'
'
!

(from mari shield and imi raven)

(from tygy poison and ai clear)
(cf. kuomon bent and kaibmu
support)
(lit. two-wheel)
(cf. from l- leaf and -(a)tstaabsolutive descriptive)
(from mo- drink and vevva
glass)
(from gel- wheel and kobbomora
salamander)
(from hue light and olus
reader)
(from tagli X will spin and ois
turtle)
(cf. kekli X will sit in a circle)
(cf. itski X will spend time)
(from sibema north and olus
reader)
(from hdion counting and
naddi beehive)
(cf. puna deerskin and tsli
skull)
(cf. hauma bright)
(cf. ila X will grow Y)
(cf. vut ice)
(lit. hand-arrowhead)
(from tkka X will connect Y and
kekot web)

673

kettle! !
laser! !
light bulb!
machine!
microscope!
microwave!
!
!
military! !
mobile-phone!
money! !
movie! !
oven! !
paper! !
photograph!
!
!
plastic! !
press! !
telephone!
toaster! !
toilet! !
toilet! !
train! !
!
!
radio! !
refrigerator!
saw!
!
!
!
scissors!
ship!
!
shower! !
steel! !
!
!
technology!
telescope!
television!
!
!
toothbrush!
umbrella!
!
!
vaccination!
bee)
wheel! !
wool! !
zero! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

lossa' '
hurri''
thtumus'
toatus' '
pirikibi''
mukkalsa'
!
!
taulva' '
tagemun'
soami' '
teuki' '
kalsa' '
keihko' '
kehhn'
!
!
kommit''
tamotus'
kauhlun'
hinin' '
eiskun/eskona'
euna/geuna'
mahkobo'
!
!
amnon' '
geimin' '
ikurt' '
!
!
dehbi' '
tahhun''
kvilki' '
vahmit' '
!
!
katageidlot'
sukibi''
teuknomi'
!
!
vekis' '
sihmari''
!
!
sinukkon'

'
'
'
'
'
'
!
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
!
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
!
'
'
'
!
'
'
'
'
!
'
'
'
!
'
'
!
'

(cf. luhha X will boil Y)

(lit. light-arrow)
(from trhi sun and tmu egg)
(cf. toati X will work together)
(from pirin nugget and kita eye)
(cf. tamuhu X will be invisible and
kalsa oven)
(cf. taulhi army)
(lit. hand-box)
(cf. somora gold)
(lit. silouhette-time)
(lit. bowels)
(diminutive of kehhe birch bark)
(from kehhe birch bark and vume
reflection)
(from kom- bend and -mit metal)
(from tamagoa X will press Y)
(lit. thread-box)
(cf. honomi embers)
(cf. eskot empty)
(cf. gia X will bathe Y)
(from mari shield and kobbomora
salamander)
(lit. smoke-box)
(lit. frost-box)
(cf. iki axe r tooth and -(a)tstaabsolutive descriptive)
(cf. diki X will carve)
(cf. kehko canoe)
(cf. kuilva drizzle)
(cf. tvahsu X will grow stronger
and -mit metal)
(from katagedla X will work Y out)
(from su- far and kita eye)
(from teuke silouhette and
nuobmo window)
(lit. little comb)
(cf. sihhi it is raining and mari
shield)
(cf. sinukka to vaccinate, from sinni

!
!
!

geulke ''
pahmieri'
dsi'
'

'
'
'

(cf. tagli X will spin)!

(from pagi back and mieri moss)
(lit. not-counted)

674

Food
coffee! !
!
!
garlic! !
onion! !
tomato! !

!
!
!
!
!

moasa'
!
!
sahtapa''
rhtapa' '
subb' '

Science%
agriculture!
!
!
algebra!!
!
!
anatomy!
!
!
anthropology!
architecture!
!
!
astrology!
astrophysics!
biology! !
botany! !
chemistry!
CO!
!
!
!
dentist! !
dentistry!
!
!
doctor! !
ecology!!
!
!
economy!
!
!
education!
!
!
engineering!
engine! !
evolution!
gas!
!
gene! !
genetics!
geology!
geometry!
!
!
histology!
history! !

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Halonka te Kistonka
ilokadlas'
'
!
!
!
tamulgeulva'
'
!
!
!
horedenipag''
!
!
!
somukiston'
'
soketsovon' '
!
!
!
aihhuhalon'
'
aihhiosvarhalon''
ilhaon' '
'
elikiston''
'
phalon'
'
kuihletka'
'
!
!
!
rpaha
rpag''
'
!
!
!
paha'
golkakiston'
'
!
!
!
gemkot''
'
!
!
!
nition''
'
!
!
!
eiton' '
'
einsa' '
'
austas' '
'
etka'
'
'
ao'
'
'
aihalon'
meihalon'
'
erttitsovon' '
!
!
!
rhehalon'
'
unenas''
'

'
!
'
'
'

(from mo- drink and asa black

ashes)
(lit. good-bulb)
(lit. skin-bulb)
(from subo fruit and pila red)

675

(from ilon vegetation and kadlas

tradition)
(from tam number and geulva
function)
(from horet body and gena
section)
(cf. somi man)
(from osoken building a house
and katatsovon description
(from aihhi star)
(cf. tilili X is alive)
(from plant)
(from pka material)
(from kuihla X will breathe Y out
and etka gas)
(from r tooth and pag
doctoring)
(from taguolki X will live
gregariously)
(cf. gemka to make
advantageous)
(cf. nitia X will make Y (want to)
learn)
(lit. building)
(cf. omeini X will propel itself)
(cf. tysti X will develop)
(cf. ede air)
(cf. katia X will inherit Y)
(from m earth)'
(from ertto line and katatsovon
description)
(cf. rhet tissue, skin)
(cf. unynnyli X is said)

hydrogen!
law!
!
and ! !
linguistics!
!
!
logic! !
magnet!!
mathematics!
medicine!
!
!
microbe!
mycology!
nuclear fission!
!
!
oxygen!!
!
!
philosophy!
!
!
physics!!
!
!
planet! !
psychology!
radioactivity!
science!!
science!!
seismology!
silver! !
!
!
space! !
statistics!
zoology!!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tka'
'
'
ketsasko'
'
!
!
!
sauhhakiston' '
!
!
!
saskaun'
'
tekkat' '
'
diokiston'
'
pegmopag' '
!
!
!
el'
'
'
kepsukiston'
'
angilpurrn'
'
!
!
!
sametka'
'
!
!
!
galdekiston'
'
!
!
!
mangamehalon''
!
!
!
hoknun' '
'
komukiston'
'
hamiluhha'
'
halon ' '
'
kiston' '
'
guokiston'
'
omit' '
'
!
!
!
iatsio''
'
tameikiston'
'
mautsehalon' '

(cf. uo water and etka gas)

(cf. ketso according to customs
asko control)
(from sauhhas
language)'
(from tsaiskia it will follow that)
(from tek toward and kat away)
(from atadion counting)
(cf. pegme cure and pag
doctoring)
(from el- to grow and u sand)
(cf. kepsi mushroom)
(from ang pit and purrn
squeezing)
(from sam- breathe and etka
gas)
(from ogalden meditation,
discussion)
(from mangama nature of the
world)
(lit. big boulder)
(cf. komi mind)
(from hamit ore and luhha rot)
(cf. halukka to stalk)
(lit. studying)
(cf. taguurui X will growl)
(from oi moon light and -mit
metal)
(cf. ii night-sky and atsio glade)
(cf. tam number)
(cf. mautsa animal)

Society
farmer! !
government!
judge! !
politician!
politics! !
president!
professor!
school! !
soldier! !
teacher!!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tailkomi'
auskun' '
ketsotauskisi'
taiskaksi'
aiskaka''
tauskimi'
keiski' '
keinta' '
ataulmi' '
anotsvi' '
!
!

(cf. ailki farm)

(cf. asko control)
(cf. ketsasko law)
(cf. aiskaka politics)
(cf. asko control)
(cf. auskun government)
(cf. kesa X will teach Y)
(cf. kesa X will learn Y)
(cf. taulhi army)
(cf. nitia X will make Y (want to)
learn)

'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
!

676

university!
!
!
week! !
Geography
America!
'
'
Asia! !
Canada!!
US!
!
Europe! !
'
'
Finland! !
Iceland!!
'
'

!
!
!

mkeinta'
!
!
ukengi!!

!
'
!
!
!
!
'
!
!

Aimrika/Okokna''
'
'
'
sia
Kanata
Toamkena(ka)''
ropa/Maikna' '
'
'
'
Sma
Vutkala'
'

Biology
Order (similar animals) ! kenet' '
species!!
!
kemomi'
vertebrates!
!
nydheret
invertebrates! !
nydeskiret'
Chemistry
hydrogen!
helium! !
lithium! !
carbon! !
nitrogen!
oxygen!!
sodium! !
phosphore!
sulfur! !
chlorine!!
potassium!
calcium!!
copper! !
zink!
!
gold! !
silver! !
mercury!
iron!
!
lead! !
acid! !
base! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

'
!
!

(from m- specialized and keinta

school)
(from vi seven and kengi day)

(cf. oaki home and -kna

country)

(cf. toami unition)

(cf. maga white and -kna
country)
(cf. vut ices)!

'

(cf. kekna organize, put together)

tka
kekki
haukmit
h
toet
sametka, sayt
haggi
gebmit
ylmit
vasvi
halget
debmit
melmit
demit
somora
omit
oilut
bengy
tummit
bel, osil
igon
677

Months - Gaisua
january! !
february!
mars! !
april! !
may! !
june! !
july!
!
august! !
september!
october!!
november!
december!

-!
-!
-!
-!
-!
-!
-!
-!
-!
-!
-!
-!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

mitvigas
itvogas
soelkas
aylkkas
tvohkas
knas
koggas
ymas
guknas
enugas
lkkas
heogas

678

Table of vowel-final inanimate declension, abridged.

Vertical represents stressed vowel. Horizontal is the word-final vowel (see 4.1.3.1.1)
-a

-e

-i

-o

-u/-y/-

-ka or -a/-ra
A-declension
a au ai oa

tsammi : tsama forest

pagi : pakka back
takeri : takehka person
-ri/-i/-di/-li

E-declension
e ei ay

-e/-obi

helva : helvari female moose

eleba : elepri flower
teuke : teui shape
mrana : mradi difficult
biele : bielli fat

-me

tsepu :
tsepume not
frozen
ennu :
enume pole

kepsi : kebsie mushroom

benho : benhue~benhobi dog
seumi : seumme soil

-id or -di
I-declension
i ie ia

dida : diadi girl

hide : hiedi hair
k : kd new
-mo

-o- / -ou- / -oio ou oi

-ko or -o

nobba : nobmo beard

kokve : kokvemo lightweight
onona : onommo little

kori : kohko
boy
tosmi :
tosmiko hay
somi : skko
man

-ma

-mo
U-declension
u uo ui

Y-declension
y u eu i
a

butta : buttamo bad weather

nukli : nuglimo finger
nubba : nubmo eyelid
-mo

-id or -di

tylla : tylmo
little brother

kyni : kyndi nest

tsli : tsldi skull
pymi : pyndi hard bark

679

obeno : oimma smoke

nobemo : noimma fire
kydly : kylyma bell

Table of consonant final inanimate declension, abridged.

-s
Front
eiy

-t

-n

-l / -

-tsta or -dda

-s

-la

-hi or -h--i

-Vts

-Vbme

Back
aou

-tta

-nta (-r-)

-ri

Table of animate noun declension.

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-mo

-mogi

-ka or -i (if stressed

o u)

-ma

-magi

-kagi or -igi

-mi

-migi
-mi / -mhi

-ta
-tta

-tagi
-ttagi

-ba
-pa
-va

-bagi
-pagi
-vagi

-u

-ugi

-bi
-pi
-vi

-bigi / -bi
-pigi / -bi
-vigi

-umi

-umi

-bo
-po
-vo

-bogi
-pogi
-vogi

-oi

-oi

-na
-no

-nagi
-nogi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

-ni

-nigi / -ni / -nhi

-a

-agi

-ta
-to

-tagi
-togi

-va / -a
-vva

-vagi / -a
-vvagi

-te
-ti

-tegi
-tsi

-ika

-ikagi

-sa
-so

-sagi
-sogi

-hi (-i)
-tta

-higi (-igi)
-ttagi

680

unmarked

marked

singular

plural

singular

plural

-si

-sigi
-si

-tta

-ttagi

-i

-igi

-hta
-ohta

-htagi
-ohtagi

-ro
-ra
-la

-rogi
-ragi
-lagi

-sta

-stagi

-ri
-li

-rigi / -rhi
-ligi / -lhi

-ta

-tagi

-lu

-lugi
-lhi

-da

-dagi

-ka
-ko

-kagi
-kogi

-uni

-unhi

-ki

-kigi / -ki

-ta

-tagi

-ga
-go
-gi

-gagi
-gogi
-gigi

-ubi
-tsa

-ubigi / -ubi
-tsagi

-ha
-ho

-hagi
-hogi

-ra

-ragi

-hi
-i

-higi
-igi

-ta

-tagi

681

19 Glossing
ABL!

ablative

PROADV!

ACT!

active case (agentive subject)

PRON !

proadverb
pronoun/pronominal

ACT.NOM!

action nominal

QUANT!

quantifier

ACT.PART!

active participle

SEMELF!

semelfactive

ADV!

adverbial

SG!

singular

AG!

agentive

STAT!

stative case (unagentive/

ALLAT !

allative

subject/object)

ASS!

assertive

SUBJ!

subjective

COMP!

comparative

SUP!

superlative

COMPL!

complementizer

TR!

transitive

relativizer

TRANSLO!

translocative

CONCL!

conclusive

TRANSL!

translative

COND.IRR!

conditional irrealis

UNAG!

unagentive

COP!

copula

V.ACT.PART! !

DAT!

dative

V.ADIT !

agentive ditransitive verb

DET!

determiner

V.ADJ!

verbal adjective

DIT !

ditransitive

V.AI!

agentive intransitive verb

DIMI!

diminutive

v.ASUBJ!

agentive subjective verb

active verbal participle

ELAT!

elative

V.AT!

agentive transitive verb

EXPL.PART!

explicative particle

v.IMP!

impersonal verb

FREQU !

frequentative

V.PAT.PART!

patientive verbal participle

GEN !

genitive

V.UDIT!

unagentive ditransitive

HAB!

habitual

verb

HABIL!

habilitive

V.UI!

unagentive intransitive

ILLAT !

illative

verb

INA!

inanimate

v.USUBJ!

unagentive subjective

INCONCL!

inconclusive

verb

INESS!

inessive

V.UT!

unagentive transitive

INF !

infinitive

verb

INFER!

inferential

V.UTRANS!

(unagentive) translative

INSTRU!

instrumental

verb

ITR!

intransitive

LINK!

linking clitic

MEDI!

medial

NO.ANI!

animate noun

NO.INA!

inanimate noun

OBLI!

obligative

OBV!

obviative

PART!

particle

PASS!

passive

PASS.PART!

passive participle

PAT!

patientive

PERF !

perfective, perfect

PERSI!

persistive

PL!

plural

POSTP!

postposition

POSTP.DESTI!

destinal postposition

POSTP.DIRECT!

directional postposition

682

sira' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' fish
hemi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' bird
benho' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' dog
pa'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' louse
tsumi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' worm
tahha'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' tree
tsamma'' ' ' ' ' ' forest
nokos' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' stick
subo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' fruit
rento'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' seed
lma' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' leaf
tara'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' root
pymi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' bark
eleba'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' flower
elki' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' grass
gme' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' rope
kehma'' ' ' ' ' ' ' skin
mine~vihla'' ' ' ' flesh
amoi~tveli' ' ' ' ' blood
demo' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' bone
k~kv'' ' ' ' ' ' ' grease
tey' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' egg
gybi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' horn
atkana~raibma'' tail
kvon' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' feather
hide' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' hair
totami' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' head
sata'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ear
kita' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' eye
narri'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' nose
kuki'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' mouth
r'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' tooth
oadi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' tongue
nykki'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' fingernail
motona' ' ' ' ' ' ' claw
sieo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' foot
uba'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' knee
tiemo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' hand
moukki'' ' ' ' ' ' ' belly
svahi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' neck
sili'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' breasts
thma' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' heart
blin'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' liver
moi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' to drink
ha'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' to eat
ra' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' to bite
svli'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' to suck
higa'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' to spit
hopsai'' ' ' ' ' ' ' to vomit

20 Siwa Swadesh List

megi!! ! ! ! !
negi' ' ' ' ' '
to' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
mra'' ' ' ' '
nri~t' ' ' ' '
ki' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
at~dda'' '
hait~hadda'
hha'' ' ' ' '
hahha'' ' ' '
mmni' ' ' ' '
ndni' ' ' ' ' '
nvva'' ' ' ' '
ngu' ' ' ' ' '
nnni' ' ' ' ' '
set' ' ' ' ' ' '
oi'' ' ' ' ' '
tama'' ' ' ' '
ktdni' ' ' '
euma'' ' ' ' '
todni-ne'' ' '
m'' ' ' ' ' ' '
ei'' ' ' ' ' ' '
nevi'' ' ' ' '
aits' ' ' ' ' ' '
akno' ' ' ' ' '
atana'' ' ' ' '
siehhin'' ' ' '
oala'' ' ' ' '
ota' ' ' ' ' '
tuvala' ' ' ' '
onona' ' ' ' '
la~itvi'' ' '
sarana'' ' ' '
sehi'' ' ' ' ' '
ski' ' ' ' ' ' '
somi' ' ' ' ' '
simi'' ' ' ' '
tegmi'' ' ' '
riehpi'' ' ' ' '
nalbi' ' ' ' ' '
suosa' ' ' ' '

!!
''
''
''
''
''
''
'
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''

! I
' you
' he
' we (inclusive)
' you (plural)
' they
' this
! that
' here
' there
' ' who?
what?
' where
' when
' how
' not
' all
' many
' some
' few
' other
' one
' two
' three
' four
' five
' big
' long
' wide
' thick
' heavy
' small
' short
' narrow
' thin
' woman
' man
' person
' child
' wife
' husband
' mother

atri' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' father
imisi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' animal

683

sla' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

seyi'' ' ' ' ' '
mairui' ' ' ' ' ' '
nua'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sea'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
neta' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tabma' ' ' ' ' ' '
(k)nira' ' ' ' ' ' '
voammi' ' ' ' ' '
pohhi' ' ' ' ' ' '
ngi'~ilili' ' ' ' '
niki' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ira'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
obkki' ' ' ' ' '
mahha'' ' ' ' ' '
htva'' ' ' ' ' ' '
aka~eta~lasa''
sopra'' ' ' ' ' ' '
nima' ' ' ' ' '
rnta' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
gea'' ' ' ' ' '
noni'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
hbmi' ' ' ' ' ' '
koni'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
maki' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sii' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
neni'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ti'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tuvi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
idi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sota'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tenda'' ' ' ' ' ' '
resi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ukia~ukesta' ' '
gia' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
debba'' ' ' ' ' '

' to blow
' to breathe
' to laugh
' to see
' to hear
' to know
' to think
' to smell
' to fear
' to sleep
' to live
' to die
' to kill
' to fight
' to hunt
' to hit
' to cut
' to split
' to stab
' to scratch
' to dig
' to swim
' to fly
' to walk
' to come
' to lie
' to sit
' to stand
' to turn
' to fall
' to give
' to hold
' to squeeze
' to rub
' to wash
' to wipe

tekigoa' ' '

katagoa'' '
bia' ' ' ' ' '
aunta'' ' ' '
aiska'' ' ' '
hdia'' ' ' '
oai' ' ' ' ' '
nori'' ' ' ' '
biohtsi'' ' '
lehhi' ' ' ' '
suvvi'' ' ' '
ivu'' ' ' ' ' '

' to pull
' to push
' to throw
' to tie
' to sew
to count
' to say
' to sing
' to play
' to float
' to flow
' to freeze

'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'

''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''

slk' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

trhi' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
gasi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
aihhi~aii'' ' '
ua' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
siva'' ' ' ' ' ' '
selo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
innen'' ' ' ' ' '
vetra'' ' ' ' ' ' '
hego'' ' ' ' ' ' '
misas' ' ' ' ' ' '
neo'' ' ' ' ' ' '
vihi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
seumi' ' ' ' ' ' '
kolo'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
edlvi' ' ' ' ' ' '
rekken'' ' ' ' ' '
eni'' ' ' ' ' ' '
omi' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ibme~hadlna' '
obena' ' ' ' ' ' '
nobemo'' ' ' ' '
asa'' ' ' ' ' ' '
sahhi'' ' ' ' ' ' '
moni' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tetra' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
pila' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
tohhot' ' ' ' ' ' '
ilka' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
maga~maiki' '
sbma'' ' ' ' ' '
yly'' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
kengi'' ' ' ' ' ' '
gekes '' ' ' ' ' '
hmi'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
hee'' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
pahla'' ' ' ' ' ' '
k' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
ii' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
sara' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
seba'' ' ' ' ' ' '
lona' ' ' ' ' ' '
lrha'' ' ' ' ' ' '
sukin'' ' ' ' ' ' '
rokloma' ' ' ' ' '
giges ' ' ' ' ' ' '
holpo'' ' ' ' ' ' '
kengy' ' ' ' ' ' '
nivvon'' ' ' ' ' '
684

' to swell
' sun
' moon
' star
' water
' rain
' river
' lake
' sea
' salt
' stone
' sand
' dust
' earth
' cloud
' fog
' sky
' wind
' snow
' ice
' smoke
' fire
' ashes
' to burn
' path
' mountain
' red
' green
' yellow
' white
' black
' night
' day
' year
' hot
' cold
' full
' new
' old
' good
' bad
' rotten
' dirty
' straight
' round
' sharp
' dull
' smooth
' wet

sogon'' ' ' '

keunenima''
ra'' ' ' ' ' '
suhha'' ' ' '
saron'' ' ' '
kamon'' ' '
nokkiu'' ' ' '

''
''
''
''
''
''
''

' dry
' correct
' near
' far
' right
' left
' name

685

21 Map

686

687

22 A Beginners Course in Modern Siwa

What follows is a draft of a work in progress that aims at being a complimentary
course to the descriptive grammar. The language in the following lessons is
modernized for use in the modern World, however the language itself is the same.

688

Uosaui
Pronunciation
Aubbet
The Alphabet
The Siwa alphabet contains 34 letters:
abdeghiklmnoprstuvy
In addition, d, dl, t, ts and g are considered separate letters (and phonemes).
The main features of the Siwa alphabet are the accent, which shows that the vowel is long
(notice that a [a] but [:] in most dialects, and o [] but [:] in most dialects). The accent
has two functions: and are [j] and [w] while is []. The letters are pronounced [x
~] respectively. Finally, and are pronounced [ ] and written long as u and u.
Ategeuskus
Vowels
Siwa has 9 architypical vowels which exist in three forms; open, close or long. The open form is
considered the default form:
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
a!
!
e!
i%
o%
!
u%
%
y%

open!
a []%
[]%
e [e]%
i [i]%
o []%
[]%
u [u]%
[]%
y [y]%

!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

close!
a [a]%
e []%
e []%
i []%
o []%
[] %
u []%
[]%
y []%

!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

long
[:]
[:]
[e:]
[i:]
[:]
u [:]
[u:]
u [:]
[y:]

As you can see, open and close vowels are not distinguished in orthography. A close vowel
appears when followed by two phonemes (two different consonants, excluding d, g, dl, ng, ts
and t as well as two identical consonants) or word finally before a consonant (and in most
cases words in -a have a close [a]).
Consider the following examples of open, close and long vowels:
!

open%

close%

689

long

a!
!

ataka [tga]!
my father!

%
!

%
!

atkaka [atkga]% %
my fathers!
!

hppo [h:p]
broad

kmes [cms]% %
happy! !
!

kemhi [cmhi]%
happy (gen.)!

%
!

li [:li]
wound

e%
!

etsa [etsa]%
starts! !

%
!

etsta [tsta]%
started! !

%
!

[e:]
plant

i%
!

iri [iri]% %
tree bark!!

%
!

Irhi [rhi]% %
persons name!

%
!

k [ci:]
new

o%
!

mori [mri] %
a little! !

%
!

odlna [tna] %
blizzard ! !

%
!

ki [k:i]
speaks

%
!

khi [ki]%
memory!!

%
!

kkia [cia]%
in the snow!

%
!

ut [:]
fresh snow

u%
!

hummi [hum:i]%
it is cold !!

%
!

huhmi [hhmi]%
it is bright!

%
!

hdna [hu:tna]
Siwa sauna

%
!

kn [cn] %
milk !
!

%
!

lkk [lc]%
rapids! !

%
!

su [s:]
river

y%
!

tyry [tyry]%
son!
!

%
!

sytka [stka]%
please! !

%
!

nn [ny:n]
closed, shut

Ettategeuskus te neategeuskus
Diphthongs and Triphthongs
Siwa also has a number of diphthongs. As a general rule, they follow the same rules as other
vowels with respect to open or close syllables.

!
%
%
!
!
%
%
!

!
ai%
%
!

open% %
%
[i]%
%
%
haidda % [hi:a]%
right there!
!

%
%
%
!

close% !
[a] ~ [ae]%
haidni % [hatni]
like that

au%
%
!

[u]%
aurin %
fresh!

%
%
[urn]% %
!
!

%
%
!

[a]
aurko%
trout!

%
%

ay%
%

[] %
ayka%

%
%
[ga]% %

%
%

[]
aygu% [gu]

690

[ark]
!

!
!
%
%
!

wounds X!

wounded

ei%
%
!

[ei]%
kei%
lynx!

%
%
!

%
%
!

[]
keige% [ce]
helmet

%
%
!

eu%
%
!

[eu]%
%
%
eumaa% [eumja] %
youre welcome! !

%
%
!

[]
neuge% [ne]
dust

%
%
!

ey%
%
!

[e] %
tey%
egg!

%
%
!

%
%
!

[]
teylba% [tlba]
cotton grass

%
%
!

ia%
%
!

[i]%
%
%
piagi%
[piji]% %
falls asleep!
!

%
%
!

[a] ~ [ea]
piatki% [patci]
fell asleep

%
%
!

ie %
%
!

[ie]%
%
%
niebini % [niebini]%%
paternal grandmother!

%
%
!

[]
kieska% [cska]
watches

%
%
!

io%
%
!

[i] %
%
%
iohha% [ih:ja]% %
over there!
!

%
%
!

[] ~ [e]
iohka% [hka]
from over there

%
%
!

iu%
%
!

[iu]%
%
%
tiuhhen %[tiuh:n]%%
a little! !
!

%
%
!

[] ~ [e]
miudna % [mtna]!
less

%
%
!

i%
%
!

[i] %
%
%
mmi% [mmi]%
I felt sick!!
!

%
%
!

[]
mit%
[m]
because

%
%
!

oa%
%
!

[]%
%
%
soaki% [si] % %
house! !
!

%
%
!

[a] ~ [wa]
soakkia %[sacia]
in the house

%
%
!

oi%
%
!

[i] %
%
%
roihho% [rih:]% %
droplet! !
!

%
%
!

[]
loippo%
flat

%
%
!

ou%
%
!

[u] %
ouu %
hook !

%
%
!

[]
loubmo% [ljpm]
fin (gen.)!

%
%

ua%
%

[u]%
%
%
rikkuami%[rkumi]%

%
%

[a] ~ [wa]
neskuahmi [nskahmi]

%
[cei]%
!

%
[te]%
!

%
%
[uxu]% %
!
!

691

[lp]

!
!
%
%
!

!
!
ui%
%
!

I opened it!

I want to ask you

[ui]%
%
%
belmui% [blmui]%%
worked! !
!

%
%
!

[]
suikna% [sa]
ground, base

%
%
!

uo%
%
!

[u] %
%
%
piguoma [pij:uma]%
goodbye!!
!

%
%
!

[] ~ [w]
puolhia% [plhia]
in focus

%
%
!

a%
%
!

[]%
%
%
tavven% [tw:n]%
very!
!
!

%
%
!

[a]
at %
this

[aa]

%
i%
[i] %
%
%
%
[]
%
%
sit%
[sid]% %
%
ikk% [c]
!
!
thank! !
!
!
fight
!
Triphthongs are rarer, perhaps with the exception of oai and uei. They also have open-close
counterparts, though the difference is much less marked. Some speakers always use close
vowels in triphthongs.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

iau!
iai!
iei!
iue!
oai!
uoi!
uei!

tsiauga!!
biaibakin!
nieiga! !
niue!
!
goaia! !
huoibmui!
benhueita!

[tsxiua]!
[babgn]!
[nieij:a]! !
[niue]! !
[gixa]!!
[hpmui]!
[bnhueida]!

cedar wood
throw X at me
grandmothers
of sand
talkative
lurks
to the dog

Oageuskus
Consonants
Siwa has 24 consonants, whose Pronunciation can be quite complex. Similarly to vowels,
consonants pronunciation varies depending on their environment. However with consonants, it
is their position relative to stress that affects the pronunciation.
!
Stress is found on the first syllable of a word, excluding prefixes such as ta- ma- o- iu- and many others.
First we shall look at the consonants whose pronunciation is not affected by stress.
!

m!

[m]!

mamma! !
692

[mm:a]!!

leg

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

b!
v!
n!
s!
!
t!
d!
!
r!
l!
dl!
ng!
n!
!
h!

[b]!
[v]!
[n]!
[s]!
[]!
[]!
[]!
[]!
[r]!
[l]!
[t]!
[:]!
[]!
[x]!
[h]!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

biali!
vilvi!
neta!
somi!
ini!
tihi!
hda!
kemi!
rekken!
leba!
dla!
kengi!
nunni!
sg!
hni!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

[bili]! !
[vlvi]! !
[neta]! !
[smi]! !
[ini]! !
[ii]! !
[hj a]!
[cmi]!!
[rcn]!!
[lba]! !
[i:ta]! !
[ce:i]! !
[un:i]! !
[sxj:]! !
[hni]! !

speaks
bird
knows
man
daughter
tiny
!
pregnant
guest
sky
mittens!
late
day
child
never
up

Other consonants are pronounced differently depending on where they are found in the word.
We need to distinguish three positions for a consonant. These include the following
consonants:
p b t d k g g
1.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Word-initial consonants. These are always stressed, and the consonants p t k are
pronounced with aspiration (a puff of air): [p t k]. Here, g is pronounced [dz] before
i e y .
!
poai% [p:i]%!
sleep
%
peyma% [pema]!
table
%
t%
[t:]%
!
rock
%
tohhus% [th:s]%!
young
%
kemi% [cemi]%!
morning
%
kolkon% [kkn]!
bread
!
gosin! [sn]! !
tired
!
gegi! [dzej:i]! !
those (polite)

2.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
3.

Consonants that form the coda (last sound) of a stressed syllable that does not
contain a long vowel or a diphthong or tripthong. These consonants are said to be
stressed. They have the ford #VC- where # marks the initial sound. The consonants
p t k are pronounced without aspiration: [p t k]. In this position, the sound [] is
written h. Here, g is always pronounced [j:], and [h] is always found long as hh [h:].
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kika!
[cika]! !
neta!
[neta]! !
tatami! [ttmi]!!
tsepu! [tsepu]! !
vihi!
[vii]! !
sagoba![sj:ba]!
huhhi! [huh:i]! !

over
knows
wolf
thaw
dirt
better
shines

Consonants found anywhere else are said to be unstressed. This includes

anywhere inside a word other than in the first, stressed syllable as well as any
693

consonant following a long vowel or a diphthong (of the form #VVC-). The
consonants p t k are pronounced [b d g] in this position, and the sound [] is written
. In this position, the consonants t d g are pronounced differently before i, though
not when double:
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

!
t!
d!
g!

before i%
[]!
[]!
[j]!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

elsewhere
[d]
[]
[]

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

opa%
helps!

[pa]%
!

%
!

%
!

oapi%
help

[bi]

ata%
open!

[ta]%
!

%
!

%
!

gauta%
color

[guda]

%
!

%
!

kika%
over!

[cika]% %
!
!

%
!

keika% [ceiga]
lynx (plural)

%
!

%
!

keda%
[ceda]% %
carries! !
!

%
!

keida% [ceia]
starts a fire

!
!

!
!

odena! [dena]! !
looks at! !
!

!
!

oadi!
[i]
tongue

!
!

!
!

eidda!
built!

!
!

eiddie! [eit:ie]
would have built

[eit:a]!
!

!
!

%
%
gegi%
[ei]%
%
%
geiga% [eia]
!
!
is open at one end!
!
shares !
!
In addition, words ending in -Vt are pronounced [VV] or [Vht]:
%
%
%
!

hait%
elet%
lungit%

[ha]% [haht]! !
[el]% [elht]% !
[lu:]% [lu:ht]% !

that
meadow
steam

The consonants pp tt kk are pronounced with preglottalization, meaning a glottal stop [] is

heard just before the actual consonant to produce [p t k]. Similarly, bm dn kn are
pronounced [m n ] or [pm tn k]. All preglottalized sounds are considered to be a two
phonemes and thus close the preceding syllable.
!
!
!
!
!

tpp! !
tt!
!
soakke!!
sokubmue!
saupdna!

[tp]!
[t]! !
[sxace]!
[skpmue]!
[sapi:tna]!

!
!
!
!
!
694

clumsy
it was too cold
ghost
welcome
grammar

voakna! !

[vaa]!

afraid

Other consonants can be written twice to show that they are geminated (long), which count as
a single phoneme.
!
vv%
[w:]%
huvvi% %
[huw:i]% %
cool, cold
%
bb%
[p:] %
tiebbami%%
[tiep:mi]%
I have to
%
dd%
[t:]%
oddo% %
[t:]% %
white reindeer
%
%
[:] %
miea% %
[mie:a] %%
wants
%
ss%
[s:]%
hesse% %
[hes:e]% %
paddle
%
%
[:] %
aekken%
[:cen]%
damselfly
%
dd%
[:]%
kdd% %
[c:]%
sometimes
%
rr%
[r:] %
merru% %
[mjer:u] % %
blueberry
!
ll%
[l:] %
hollu%
%
[hl:u]% %
chosen, decided
%
gg%
[k:]%
pegg% %
[pec:] % %
girl
%
%
[:] %
toami% %
[t:mi]%
I know how
%
hh%
[h:] %
tahha% %
[th:a]% %
tree
!
!
Siwa is very rich in consonant clusters, for example the place name Teltsvi [ttsxwi] or
dlt [tx] throat. Most clusters appear inside a word but never at the end of a word
(only -s -n -l -ts -t are found at the end of words in Siwa). A limited number of clusters are found
at the beginning of words.
!
Notice the difference between g [g] and d [x].
!
!
!
!
Uotiepro
Orthography

!
!

nigi!
nedi!

[ni]! !
[nxi]! !

died
sit dow

Siwa orthography aims at representing a fairly conservative yet universal orthography for the
continuum of pronunciations, accents and dialects that make up the language. The standard
for modern Siwa is based off the Pronunciation of Aingo and assumes a formal register.
More relaxed orthography also exists. Some common traits of more relaxed registers and
orthography is the omission of word final -t (though without opening the syllable! to counter this
ambiguity some people use a dot below or above the vowel to signify that it is still closed, for
example estot first can be esto~est). Another feature of more relaxed Siwa is the omission of
unstressed -i- in some positions:
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
%
%
%

!
!
!
%
%
%
%
!
%
%
%

-mita%
-mika%
-kita%
-kika%
-kkita%
-aita-%
-aika-%
-oita-%
-oika-%
-eita-%
-eika-%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

-mda, -nda
-mga, -ngga
-gda
-gga
-kta
-eta-, -eda-, -ela-eka-, -ega, -ea-uta, -uda, -ula-uka, -uga, -ua-eta, -eda, -ela-eka, -ega, -ea-

695

!
!

!
!

-di%

%
!
!
%
!
%
%
!
%

sopmita%
aymika% %
Aingokita%
Aingokika%
soakkita%%
tamottaita%
nokkiuttaika%
ehru deita%
piekodi%%

-t

sopmda~sopnda!
aymga, ayngga% !
Aingogda!
!
Aingogga%
!
soakta! !
!
tamotteta!
!
nokkiutteka!
!
ehru deda!
!
piekot%!
!

for supper
I feel sick
to Aingo
from Aingo
into the house
to a friend
about a name
can be
pain (gen.)

Hsaui
Stress
Siwa words bear the stress on their first syllable. However, to make matters more complicated,
the first syllable of a word may in fact be a prefix, of which there are dozens in Siwa. Although
prefixes may also bear stress, the main stress of a word is always on its initial root syllable.
Some words may have more than one prefix.
!
Some prefixes to be aware of include:
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

oiuatamasatamatatakatakeugahtuo-

Words with these prefixes will thus have a secondary stress on the prefix and a primary stress
on the root-words initial syllable. The consonants p t k may or may not be aspirated after
prefixes.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

ehhama!!
hengy! !
longamoa!
tatamanta!
tamaleurrontu!

seam
toxin, poison
in the cold
to come in
untouched

696

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

otve ! !
ipendidna!
oda!
!
tamokaiki%
ikahaikagga!
katakaui!

please
returned (home)
which is
swears
we need it
need, requirement

697

1 %

NIETAT ESTOT

First Lesson

Pge, unokkika...
Hi, my name is
1 NIETAT ESTOT - First Lesson: Hi, my name is.!!
1.1 TAMOSI II
%
An Old Friend
Koni mi tsamia na, ogetildi ei tamosi ii ki Oke te Talgo.
OKE:!

!
TALGO: ! !
OKE:!
!
%
%
TALGO: ! !
OKE:!
!
TALGO: ! !

Isallusi, 1Taddalgo!
Isallusi te -Oke, tamosi-go ii. Nnni nta kendai?
Salla mta hh, sara Talgo. Tuts unua hha dana, sahne-a.
S-maki oakibma dana-a?
Inta, maki oakibma dami. udni lolumi. Gagomonke!
Stta, omonke, ii Talgo. Kokmi nuimi.
Tontasi. Gassa-dni rekkot!

Oke and Talgo, two old friends, meet while walking in the forest.
OKE:!

!
!
OKE:!
!
!
!
TALGO: ! !
OKE:!
!
TALGO: ! !

Hello, Talgo!
Hello, Oke, my old friend. How are you today?
I am good thank you, dear Talgo. I am better now that you are here.
Are you going home?
Yes, I am going home. I must go now. Goodbye!
Ok, goodbye, old Talgo. Nice to see you.
Same to you. Goodbye now!

Pronunciation:
!
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

[isl:usi tt:alg]
[isl:uside :ce tmsig ii][ni:n:i nta cndai]
[sl:a mta i:h:j sra talg][t:tsunua h:ja dna sahnea][smci
pma dna:]
[nta mci pma dmi][:tni llumi][ggmce]
[si:ta mce ii talg][kkm:i nuimi]
[tntsi][gs:atni rk()]

TALGO: !

1 When addressing someone in Siwa, reduplicating the first syllable of consonant-initial names or adding - to vowelinitial names shows endearment and is a type of vocative.

698

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

isallusi!!
te!
!
tamosi! !
-go!
!
ii!
!
nnni!
!
nta!
!
kendai% !
salla!
!
sahne! !
mta! !
hh! !
sara!
!
tuts unua!
hha! !
dana! !
dami! !
-a!
!
s-.-a% !
maki% !
oakibma!
inta%
!
udni% !
lolumi% !
(gag)omonke%
stta%
!
kokmi nuimi!
tontasi% !
gassa-dni rekkot !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Hello! (lit. may you be good)

also, and (often pronounced de)
friend, hunter
my
old
how
you, your turn, about you
today
well
better
me, my turn, about me
thank you (when inside a phrase)
good, dear
now that (X is) standing (t-)
here
you (na) are (da)
I (mi) am (da)
in fact, you see, it is true
question marker
go
home (to)
so, yes
now
X must (um) leave/go (loli)
see you/goodbye (lit. may we path ourselves together)
yes, ok, understood, alright
nice to see (you) (lit. it is pleasing to see)
same to you (si)
goodbye (lit. travel safely now)

1.2 OAKIMA
699

At Home

Da udni oakima Oke. Gatsoviri to te riehpi-ho, Syly. Olluhhi hmha.

OKE:!
SYLY:!
OKE:!
SYLY:!
OKE:!
SYLY:!

!
!
!
!
!
!

Isallusi Syly, oakibma mandlimi. Nnni nta?

Sokubmue! Salla mta hh, nta-a?
Mta te salla, sta. Kitana nhr?
Obolluhhimi. S-gamouana-a vlka?
Kyminaei hait. Sarva on valo, heia ko katsa.
Seppen on sarva valo, seppen ka heia katsa!

Oke is now at home. He talks with his wife. She is making tea.
OKE:!
SYLY:!
OKE:!
SYLY:!
OKE:!
SYLY:!

!
!
!
!
!
!

Hello Syly, Im home. How are you?

Welcome! Im good, and you?
Im also good, thank you. What are you doing?
I am boiling tea for myself. Do you want to drink tea with me?
That would be nice. Tea is good, because it is cold outside.
Tea is very good. And it is very cold outside!

Pronunciation:
%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%

[isl:usi syly pma mantimi][ni:n:i nta]

[sokpmue][sl:a mta ih:j, nta:]
[mtade sl:a i:sta][citna ni:hr]
[bl:uh:imi][sgamxxuna: v:ka]
[cyminjei ha()][sarw: vl hejiak ktsa]
[spn sarw:a vl spka hejia ktsa]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
'
!

oakibma!
mandlimi!!
sokubmue!
sta!
!
kitana! !
nhr! !
obolluhhimi%
gamguana!
vlka! !
valo!
!
kyminaei!
hait!
!
sarva! !
on...!
!
...ko!
!
...ka!
!
heia! !

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

home (to)
I (mi) have come (mandli)
welcome
thank you
you (na) do (kita)
what (also nt)
I (mi) boil (luhhi) tea (ol) for myself (ob)
you (na) want (ua) to drink (mo) with X (ga)
(some) tea
tea (unmarked form)
would be (ei) nice (kymina)
that
is (a) good (sarv)
particle linking the next phrase
particle linking the previous phrase (because)
particle linking previous phrase (and)
is (a) cold (hei)

700

!
!

katsa! !
seppen! !

!
!

outside
very

Greetings
When speaking Siwa, one can choose to greet people in an informal way. The most common
greetings are sare kengi, isallusi and pge. The last greeting exists in a variety of versions such
as pdde, pt-p, pihie, pe, po.

Sokubmue!
Tatagakvenra!
Gakvuame!
Isallusi% %
Isalluhi% %
Sare kiras% % % %
Sare kengi% % % %
Sare soos%% %
Sare yly%% % % % %
Pge%% % % % % % %

!
!
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

%%
%%
%%
%%
%%

%
%
%
%
%

Welcome
Welcome, come in (lit. [come] in as a friend)
Welcome, come in, go ahead (lit. be as a friend)
Hello (to one person) (lit. [may it go] well for you)
Hello (to more than one person)
%%
%%
%%
%%
%%

%
%
%
%
%

%%
%%
%%
%%
%%

Good morning
Good day
Good evening!
Good night
Hi/Hello

To ask how someone is doing, the following phrases are used. Those using the pronouns
nta/ntra (you sg./pl.) and mta/mtra (me/us) are quite informal, to be reserved for family
and friends.
Salla sngi?%
Salla sngi?%
S-isallasi-a?%
S-isallahi-a?%
Salla nta?'
Salla ntra?'

'
'
'
!
'
'

How are you? (sg)

How are you? (pl)
How are you? (sg)
How are you? (pl)
How are you? (sg)
How are you? (pl)

However, if you are addressing someone older or higher in rank or if you simply want to be
polite, Siwa has a single word for greeting and inquiring about the persons health. The word
piegvahi works as a hello and a how are you at the same time. The answer to piegvahi is
simply piegvahi te or piegvahi-e.
When parting, the following phrases are used:
!
!

Gagomonke!
Omonke!!

!
!

See you (lit. may we path together again)

See you (as an answer)

!
!

Onuigga!!
Onuigga-e!

!
!

See (each other) (lit. [may] we see each other)

reply

'
!

(Kl)nuidneta%
%
(Kl)getildedneta! !

See you (next time/again)

See you (next time/again) (lit. to meeting again)

!
!

Gassa rekkot!
!
Gassa-dni rekkot!!

Goodbye (to someone leaving) (lit. travel open~safe)

Goodbye now (more familiar)

701

Ungiseskvosi gassa!

Goodbye (more formal) (lit. travel safe)

!
%
!
!
!
!
%

euo plda~piilda!
Sieuo plda~piilda!
Plda~piilda!
!

Goodbye (to someone leaving) (lit. remain in health)

Goodbye (to many leaving)
Byebye

Piguoma!
!
Pge, pdde, pt-p%
pihie, pe, po

Goodbye, a dieu
Bye!

Consider the following practice dialogues:

!
!

Sokubmue Aingokita!%
Isallusi, sta.% !

!
!

!
!

Welcome to Aingo!
Hello, thank you.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Piegvahi.!
Piegvahi-e!

!
!

!
!

How are you?

Good, thank you.

Pge, nnni unokkisa?!

Ratelbi unokkika.!
Kokmi getildina.!!
Kokmi te.!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

Hello, whats your name?

My name is Ratelbi.
Nice to meet you.
Likewise.

!
!
!
!

Doa, udni lolumi.!

Stta, gagomonke!!
Inta, onuigga. Pe!!
Gassa rekkot.! !

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

Well, I have to go now.

Ok, see you!
Yes, Ill see you. Bye!
Goodbye.

!
!

Pge. Dami Padlmi. Dana mmni?%

!
Pgepge. Dami Eillu Eillaityl. Nnni sngi?!!
Salla mngi ihh. %
!
!
!
Kokmi getildina. Te klgetildedneta.!
!
Kokmi te. euo plda. % !
!
!
Plda nta te!% !
!
!
!

Hey. Im Padlmi. Who are you?

Hey. Im Eillu Eillaityl. Who are you?
Im good, thank you.
Nice to meet you. And see you again.
Likewise. Goodbye.
Goodbye to you too.

Isallusi. Da tamosi-go evvat, Kaigga. %

Kokmi getildimi, Kaigga. Mo oami.%
Kokmi getildimi, Mo. Doa, lolumi.%
!
!
!
!
!
Onuigga. !
!
!
!
Onuigga-e% !
!
!
!

Hello. This is my friend, Kaigga.

Nice to meet you, Kaigga. I am Mo.
Nice to meet you too, Mo. Well, I
have to go
See you!
Bye!

!
!
!
!
!
!

Grammar
Nouns and Adjectives
Siwa nouns and adjectives do not have gender and are rarely found in the plural. Adjectives
generally follow the nouns they qualify, but numerals precede them. They can be followed by

702

a hyphened possessive pronoun (-go my, -so your, -ho his/her). Siwa also lacks
determiners such as the and a/an. Adjectives follow their noun in Siwa, unlike in English.
!
!
!
!
!

tamosi! !
tamosi ii!
ei tamosi ii!
tamosi-go ii!
tamosi-so ii%

!
!
!
!
!

a/the friend, friends

a/the old friend(s)
two old friends
my old friend(s)
your old friend(s)

riehpi-ho irela%

his beautiful wife

!
!

soaki-ho onona% !
soaki-so atana% !

his small house(s)

your big house(s)

!
!
!

valo!
!
valo sara!
valo-ho sara%

a/the tea
good tea
his/her good tea

!
%
%

kengi kulu!
!
aits kengi kulu! !
tama kengi kulu% !

cloudy day(s)
four cloudy days
many cloudy days

!
%
!

somi!
!
!
somi te ski!
!
somi sise te ski la!

a/the man, men

a/the man and a/the woman
a/the tall man and a/the short woman

!
!
!

Many speakers pronounce -ho his, her as [w]. In more relaxed language, the endings -go
my and -so your are often reduced to - or -t and -s.
!
!

soaki-go
soaki- or soaki%or soaki-t!

my house

%
%

tiemo-so
tiemo-s or tiemos%!

your hand

Verbs
In the first dialogue, the verb to be is found as dami and dana. These respectivelly I am and
you are and are made up of the root of the verb to be da- and the personal endings -mi for
I and -na for you. Although Siwa verbs are complex, these simple endings will work with
the majority of the verbs you will encounter here. For the third person, there is no ending
required except for the verb to be (then -ta). Consider the following verbs:
t-!
!
%
!

tmi!
dami%
dana%
data%

!
!
!
!

to be
I am!
!
you are! !
he/she/it is!

(also ami, da, a~au)

(also ana, dan, an)
(also dat~det, at~et)

The forms ami/ana/a(t) are quite common in colloquial speech but may be seen as impolite if
used improperly. The form au I am is especially common outside of Aingo.
!
Other verbs follow the same pattern with the exception of the third person having no
ending.
kita-%

kibmi%

to do

703

%
!
!

kitami% !
kitana! !
kita!
!

I do
you do
he/she/it does

mani-!
!
!
!

manta! !
manimi% !
manina! !
mani! !

to come
I come
you come
he/she/it comes

maki-!
%
!
!

maksa! !
makimi! !
makina! !
maki%
!

to go
I go
you go
he/she/it goes

olluhhi-!
!
!
!

olluhsa! !
olluhhimi!
olluhhina!
olluhhi! !

to boil tea
I boil tea
you boil tea
he/she/it boils tea

Siwa verbs usually come at the very beginning of a phrase. The word order of Siwa is
VO(V)S, whereas English has SVO word order. Compare the following phrases:
!
!
%

ha bb to somi! !

ta ipendi oakibma Temhi!

the man is eating food

Temhi arrived late at home

In fact, the actual word order of Siwa phrases is this:

adverb% verb% time%
%
place % %
ta%
biohtsa% mt%
%
tomria% %
late!
playing! yesterday night! in the street!
!

object% copula% %
hokko% mari%
%
ball!
they were!

subject
ki ey
the kids

Yesterday night the kids were playing ball late in the street

Another system entirely is necessary to use with adjectives, however. The most basic form of
the verb to be ADJ is -a which is added directly to the adjective. Some sound changes
occur when this is done, which they will be explained later. Here, you are introduced to three
such endings, namely -a (is), -ei (would be) and -i (was). Notice that adding -a to a word in a produces -ua (not -aa), and words ending in -e become -ia (not -ea).

!
!
!

kymina! !
kyminua!
kyminaei!

nice
X is nice !
!
X would be nice

(-aa -ua)

!
!
!

tunna! !
tunnuata%
tunnaeite!

important
it is important!
!
it would be important

(-aa -ua)

!
!

mrana! !
mranua!

difficult
is difficult !

704

(-aa -ua)

%
!
!
!
!

mranai!!

was difficult

hee!
!
heia! !
heeei! !

cold
X is cold!!
!
X would be cold

!
!
!

ii!
!
iiana! !
ina! !

old
you are old!
you were old!

!
!
!

sara!
!
sarvata!!
saraeigga!

good
it is good!
!
we would be good

!
!

(-ea -ia)

!
(-ii -)
(irregular -aa -va)

The same endings as for the verb to be cam be found (like the copula, the third person has ta):
%
!
%
!
but
!

sarvami!
sareeita!
mranaita!
iiana! !

!
!
!
!

dana tamosi ii% !

I am good
he/she/it would be good
he/she/it was difficult
you are old
you are an old friend

Asking and Answering Questions

To ask a yes/no question in Siwa, the circumfix s(o)--a is used on the focus of the question
(usually just the verb). The prefix can be found as a word (then so) or hyphenated to the verb
(then s-). When the verb da- be is involved, there suffix -a may be placed on the attribute of
the verb. The suffix -a usually has a rising intonation. Some speakers use -o instead of -a.
!
!
sarvana! !
!
you are good
!
so sarvana-a?% !
are you good?
!
!
minguana!
!
you are ready
!
s-minguana-a?% !
are you ready?
!
!

heia katsa!
!
so heia-a katsa?! !

it is cold outside
is it cold outside?

!
or!
!

s-da Talgo-a tamosi?!

s-da-a Talgo tamosi?!
s-Talgo-a oa tamosi?!

is Talgo (your) friend?

is Talgo (your) friend?
is it Talgo who is (your) friend?

!
%

gamouana!
!
s-gamouana-o?!

you want to drink with (me)

do you want to drink with (me)?

%
!

moana vlka% !
so moana-a vlka1!

you drink tea

do you drink tea?

mandlina oakibma!

you have come/arrived home

The verb -mo- to drink is usually only heard as -mo- if prefixed or preceded by a clitic like so-. In
other cases, the verb is found as -mo-.
1

705

s-mandlina-a oakibma?!

have you come home/arrived?

s-kyminua-a riehpi-ho?!

is his wife nice?

The form s-da-a is often found and written as stoa, st or d, with the latter being most
familiar.
!
!
!

dta hait?!
!
stoana Siura?% !
st uogova dda?!

that it?
are you a Siura?
is this right? (lit. the truth)

To answer a question positively, you can say inta yes, ihna of course, onda yes, correct or
oni like this. To strengthen the answer, the suffix -a can be added, for example ihna-a
absolutely, yes when agreeing with someone. Other ways of answering positively include
stta (understood), or often ai (clear). In addition, the verb is often repeated in the right
person.
!
%

s-dana-a hha?% !
inta, dami!
!

are you here?

Yes, I am

!
!

s-da tamosi-so dda?!

oni data% !
!

is this yoru friend?

yes, he/she is

!
!

so saana-a Sdi?!
ihna saami!
!

do you speak Siwa?

yes I do

To answer a negative question positively, one commonly uses de-e or dee (or det-e).
The verb is generally repeated and can also be found with the suffix -e, often missing
personal pronouns.
!
!

set mano!
dee, mano!

!
!

!
!

si saana-i Sdi?! !
de-e, saami-e!!

he/she will not come

yes, he/she will come
dont you speak Siwa?
yes, I do speak it

%
set kegvuanga% !
you didnt call me
%
dee kegvua-e!
yes (I) did call you
For a negative answer, there are even more possibilities. The word set no also exists in
various other forms such as see, sem, senda or sedda. A more emphatic no is hayt
(sometimes pronounced [hj]).
!
The negating not is set/s/sem. Set is used before words starting with m- l- n- t- ks- -. Sem is used before vowels, and s is used elsewhere and before the particle on. Note
however that the verb da- be has a special negative form in atsa-. Both s dami and atsami
I am not can be used, though s dami is not usually found in longer sentences and is more
restricted to a simple negative answer.
!
!

s-dana-a kinagi?% !
hayt, s dami ~ atsami%

are you a foreigner?

no(t at all), I am not

!
%
!

so saana-a Sdi?!
set, set saami! !
saami ihha Eiglehi!

do you speak Siwa?

no, I dont (speak it)
I only speak English

706

%
!

so siboaki-a vvika?!
sedda, set miboaki!

are you from around here?

no, I am not (from)

!
!

s-da-a benho-so dda?!

sedda! !
!

is this your dog?

it isnt

Adjectives use a different construction, where instead of having the verb attached directly to
the stem (heia it is cold), negation is introduced with the verb sia, with the normal adjective
standing after it (sia hee it is not cold):
!
!

irelua soaki!
sia irela soaki!

!
!

the house is beautiful

the house is not beautiful

!
!

kyminuata!
siata kymina!

!
!

he/she is nice
he/she is not nice

!
!

s-iia-a tyry-so?! !
set, siata ii!
!

is your son old?

no, he is not old

!
!

so hmia-a ua?! !
set, siata hmi! !

is the water warm?

no, it is not warm

!
!

s-goasua-a Sia?!
sia goasa Sia, hayt!

is Siwa easy?
Siwa is not easy, no

Here are a few examples of positive and negative phrases with adjectives.
the water is cold !!
the water is not cold

(hee+a heia)

ononua soaki%
!
sia onona soaki% !

the house is small!

the house is not small

(onona+a ononua)

!
%

aurina sira!
sia aurin sira%

!
!

the fish is fresh! !

the fish is not fresh

(aurin+a aurina)

!
%

sarva b%!
sia sara b!

!
!

the food is good! !

the food is not good

(sara+a sarva!)

%
%

tselia harra!
sia tseli harra%

!
!

the weather is bad!

the weather is not bad

(tseli+a tselia)

!
!

oalua selo%
sia oala selo!

!
!

the river is broad!!

the river is not broad

(oala+a oalua)

!
%

heia ua!!
sia hee ua!

!
!

!
!

!
The question circumfix s(o)--a can be changed to si -i to form a negative question. Any
positive answer is generally followed by the particle -a.
!
!

si dana-i kinagi?! !
dami-a%!
!

arent you a foreigner?

yes, I am

707

inta-a, dami!

yes, I am

!
!

si saana-i Sdi?% %
oni da-a, saami!

dont you speak Siwa?

yes I do speak it

!
!
!

si sitkvina-i?!
!
set, set sitkvimi% !
sitkvimi-a!
!

dont you want to fish?

no, I dont want to fish
I do want to fish

!
!

si irelua-i riehpi-go?!
ihna-a oni da-a%!

isnt my wife beautiful?

oh yes, she is

1.3 TAMOSI K
%
A New Friend
Klogetildi on Oke te Talgo, tsova ka tamotta-nen iid Elkeri to Talgo.
OKE:!
TALGO: !
OKE:!
TALGO: !
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
TALGO: !
EDLKE:!

!
TALGO: !
OKE:!
TALGO: !
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Isallusi klda, Talgo.

Pge, Oke. Kokmi klnuimi.
Tonta. Da mmni at?
Da tamosi-go k at.
Kokmi getildina.
Kokmika te. Nnni unokkisa?
Unokkika on Edlke, unoksika katta Elho-mi.
Makidda na?
Makigge inesta. Sitkvigge. Submi Elkeri.
Inta, seppen submika. Huami shdi sara.
S-da-a inesia sira sara?
Inta, da inesia taa sira sara.
Ungiseskvohi innen!
sta.
sta ednet kokmi getildina.
Piguoma!

Oke and Talgo meet again, and Talgo introduces his new friend Edlke.
OKE:!
TALGO: !
OKE:!
TALGO: !
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
TALGO: !
EDLKE:!

!
TALGO: !
OKE:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Hello again, Talgo.

Hello, Oke. Good to see you again.
Likewise. Who is this?
This is my new friend.
Nice to meet you.
Nice to meet you too. What is your name?
My name is Edlke, but people call me Elho.
Where are you going?
We are going to the lake. We want to fish. Edlke is hungry.
Yes, I am very hungry. I want to eat good fish. Is there good fish in
the lake?
Yes, there is a lot of good fish in the lake.
Good luck!

708

TALGO: !
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

!
!
!

Thank you!
Thank you and nice to meet you.
Bye!

Pronunciation:
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

[isl:usi ci:lda talg]

[pi:j:e ce][kkm:i ci:lnuimi]
[tnta][da tmn:i a(a)]
[da tmsig ci: a(a)]
[kkm:i etlina]
[kkm:igade][ni:n:i uncisa]
[uncig tc:e unks:igakata lhmi]
[mcit:a ni::a]
[mcic:e insta][stkw:ic:e][si:pmi ceri]
[nta spn si:pmiga][humi si:hi sarxa]
[sta: inesia tja sira sra]
[u:isskw:hi in:n]
[i:sta]
[i:sta tn() kkm:i etlina]
[pij:uma]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!

klda!
!
kl-!
!
tonta! !
mmni! !
at!
!
k!
!
kokmika te!
nnni!
!
unokkisa!
unokkika!
unoksika!
(on)...katta!
makidda!
makigge!
na! !
inesta! !
inesia! !
innen% !
sitkvigge!
submi-% !
submika!
submisa!
Elkeri% %

again
again (with verbs)
same way, likewise
who?
this
new
nice (to meet you) too (lit. it pleases me (ka) also)
how
you (sa) are called
I (ka) am called
I am usually (-s-) called
however, but
you (pl., dda) are going
we (you and me, gge) are going
where to?
to the lake
in the lake
lake
we (gge) want (vi) to fish (sitk)
X is hungry
I am (ka) hungry
you are (sa) hungry
marked form of Edlke
709

!
!
!
!
!
!

huami% !
shdi sara!
sira sara!!
taa!
!
ungiseskvohi!
ednet! !

I (mi) want (ua) to eat (h)

(some) good fish
good fish
much, a lot
good X to you (pl.)
and, in addition

Introductions
When speaking Siwa, one must be mindful of what type of politeness shows through
language. Siwa handles certain nouns, especially kinship of older relatives, in a
different way than other nouns. As such, when speaking in an informal context, one
uses the words at~dda this and da is, whereas in a more formal context, the words
evvat 1 this (older person and ue (apparently) is. To inquire about someone, the
pronouns mmni who and mkni who (pl.) are used.
Informal:!!
!
!
Formal:! !
!
!

da.at~dda%
da.eygi%
.ue evvat!
.ue egit%

!
%
!
%

this is.
these are.
this is.
these are.

Note that ue evvat is routinely pronounced [weiw:aa] and ue egit [weij:ii] (as if
written eivvaa and eigii)
The pronunciation of the demonstrative pronouns in -t (at this evvat this (person),
hait that, iot that (not visible) is quite varied. The final -t can be pronounced as would
be expected, [-V] ([aa, ew:aa, ha, ]) or as [-ht] (then [aht, ew:aht, haht,
ht]). The pronoun at is also commonly found as dda [t:a], ut [:, :ht] or simply
[].
The words that require the formal construction include the following:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

ataka! !
ska! !
kosoka% !
tobika! !
nieaka!!
pittaka!!
kmaka!!
smaka!!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

my father
my mother
my older brother
my older sister
my paternal grandmother
my maternal grandmother
my paternal grandfather
my maternal grandfather

Note that you can replace the ending ka with sa to mean your. !

Introducing someone in Siwa is often preceded by one of the following variations,

starting with more formal (si when introducing to one person, hi to many people):
itsovbasi, itsovasi, tsovami. All these are forms of the verb itsov- to introduce X
to Y.

1 Its not uncommon to hear at, hait, iot and evvat pronounced aa, haii, ioo and evvaa.

710

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

Informal!!
!
da tamosi-go dda!
da Talgo dda! !
da mmni dda?! !
da mmni Talgo?% !

this is my friend
this is Talgo
who is this?
who is Talgo?

!
!
!

!
%
!

Formal or polite
ataka ue evvat! !
atasa ue evvat! !

this is my father
this is your father

!
!

!
!

ska ue evvat!
ssa ue evvat!

!
!

this is my mother
this is your mother

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

kosoka ue evvat%
tobika ue evvat !
!
!
mmni ue evvat?!
mkni ue egit?%

!
!
!
!
%

this is my older brother

this is my older sister!
!
!
!
who is this?
who are these?!

!
!

The most common answer when being introduced is kokmi getildina (lit. meeting
pleases), to which one can answer kokmika te (pleases me too). In honorific contexts,
one usually says rogyts viteis or rogyts vitego (lit. he to my honor) to a man, hmhets
viteis or hmhets vitego (lit. she to my honor) to a woman, and egit viteis og egit
vitego (lit. these to my honor) to many people. The words rogyts and hmhets mean
sir and mam or miss on their own.

Compare the two registers:

Informal! !

Formal

Pge! Tsovami, da tamosi-go dda.%

Kokmi getildina. %%
%
%

Isallusi. Itsovbasi, ska ue evvat.

Hmhets vitego.

!
Hey! This is my friend.!
Nice to meet you. !!

Hello. Allow me to introduce my friend.

It is a pleasure to meet you.

!
!

!
!

Grammar
Pronouns
In the dialogue above, we encounter new pronouns, namely dda for you(pl.) and gge for we (exclusive). Let us now look at the paradigm for a verb. Notice that Siwa
distinguishes between inclusive we (you and I) and exclusive we (me and others).
!

konimi! !

I walk
711

!
!

!
!

konina% !
koni!
!

!
!

you walk
he/she/it walks

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

konigge!!
konigga!!
konidda1!
koniri! !

!
!
!
!

we walk
you and I walk
you (pl.) walk
they walk

This set of pronouns is called the active or agentive pronouns. Siwa verbs can take
on three different sets of pronouns. You have already seen two of them in unokkika I
am called and unokkisa you are called:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
%
!
!

unokkika!
unokkisa!
unokki! !
unokkibe!
unokkiba!
unokkiha!
unokkia!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

I am called
you are called
he/she/it
we are called
you and I are called
you (pl.) are called
they are called

This second set of pronouns is called the object pronouns. They can be placed
before the agentive pronouns. Because both the active and object 3rd person
pronoun are empty (--), an empty verb (usually ending in -a) may hide both a third
person subject and object. Thus, nua can be seen as nua-- he/she/it sees him/
her/it:
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
%

nokkasagge %
nokkagge!
nokkaberi!
nokkaari!

!
!
!
!

we call you
we call him/her/it
they call us
they call them

!
!
!

!
!
!

tsovaami !
tsovahami!
tsovabami!

!
!
!

I introduce them
I introduce you (pl.)
I introduce us (you and me)

!
!
nuabami!
!
I see us
!
!
nuasami!
!
I see you
!
!
nuahami!
!
I see you (pl.)
!
!
nuakari!
!
they see me
!
!
nuaami!
!
I see them
!
!
nuakadda!
!
you (pl.) see me
!
!
%
moami%!
!
I drink it
!
!
moagga!
!
we drink it
!
!
The object pronouns are also used where English would use an adjective, as can be
seen from the word submika I am hungry:
!
!

!
!

submika!
submisa!

!
!

I am hungry
you are hungry

1 The second person plural has a variety of forms, including -a, -d (pronounced []), -t and -lla or -l.

Some speakers may feel that -dda is very formal and prefer -d, -t or -l(la).

712

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

submi! !
submibe!
submiba!
submiha!
submia!

!
!
!
!
!

he/she/it is hungry
we are hungry
you and I are hungry
you (pl.) are hungry
they are hungry

The verbs which show these patterns are often involuntary states, which is why Siwa
seems to consider the person experiencing the state to be an object. The vast
majority of these verbs end in -mi.
!
!

!
!

submika!
lemnika%!

!
!

I am hungry
I am thirsty

!
!

!
!

nubmika!
kmmika!

!
!

I am angry!
I am happy

!
!

!
!

motommika!
gosmika!

!
!

I am sad
I am tired

!
!

!
!

kokmika!
stromika!

!
!

I am pleased!
I am annoyed

Pronouns may be found outside the verb, in which case they are:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

megi!
negi!
to!
ta!
mri!
mra!
nri!
ki!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

I
you
he/she
it
we
you and me
you (pl.)
they

Exercises
Insert the correct word or ending:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Isallusi. Nnni ___ngi?

Isallusi. Salla ___ngi, sta.
So submi____-a?
Koni____ tsamia ataka te megi
Sitkvi____ negi te megi

Translate the following phrases into English:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

So submi-a Elkeri?
Da innen atana at.
S-da-a hha taa valo sara?
Maki na tamosi-so?
udni kita nt kososa?
udni makina na?

713

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

So sitkvina-a hha inesia?

Hua shdi sara mmni?
Kyminua hha.
S-mranua-a Sia?
So sarva-a sira-so?
klnuuahami
S-nuakana-a?
S-mouana-a vlka-go?
S-makvina-a inesta?

Translate the following phrases into Siwa:

1. These are my parents (nirhi-go).
2. I see you (pl.) in the lake.
3. The lake is nice.
4. The lake is cold.
5. I call him Elho.
6. My father is not (atsa) here.
7. I want to drink good tea (vlka sara).
8. Who is this?
9. We walk to the lake.
10. Let me introduce my mother.
11. Who is your friend?
12. You are happy outside.
13. What (nhr~nt) do you see?
14. Where are our friends going?
15. Who wants (ua) to drink good tea?

Conversation Drills
!
%

Isallusi.
Isallusi te.

Nnni unokkisa nta?

Unokkika Talgo mta.

%
%

S-isallasi-a?
Inta, isallaki.

Nnni unokki tyta?

Syly unokki tyta.

%
%

Sare kengi.
Saresi kengi.

Itsovami, da tamosi-go %Syly.

Kokmi getildina.

%
%

Sare soos.
Saresi soos.

Kokmi getildina, hmhets (miss)

Seppen kokmika te.

%
%
%

Pge.
Pddi.

%
%

Salla sngi?
Salla mngi hh.

%
%

Salla nta?
Salla mta, sta.

Kokmi getildina, rogyts (sir)

Seppen kokmika te, hmhets.
Itsovbami, ska ue evvat.
Hmhets vitego.
Itsovbami, ataka ue evvat.
Rogyts seppen vitego.

714

udni lolumi. Gagomonke!

Omonke!

Nee, gassa-dni rekkot!

Onuigga!

Onuigga!
Onuigga-e!

715

2 !

%%

NIETAT EUT Second Lesson

Tamosi-go oa dda
This is my friend
2 NIETAT EUT - Second Lesson: This is my friend!
%

2.1 DA MMNI DDA?

'
Who is This?
Isyga on Edlke oakibma-nen Oke, itsovati ka toton-nen to.
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Tatamanin Edlke. Sokubmue soakkita-go.

Tatamanimi hh. Irelua soaki-so. Da mmni at?
Da riehpi-go at. Unokki Syly.
Kokmi getildina, Syly. Ednet da mmni hait?
Da tyry-go ikari hait.
Te da mmni iot?
Da ini-go iot. Unokki on Vengy tyta, unoksi ka Vivots-mi.
Irelua toton-so. Irelua soaki-so. Dana somi blitse!
Dami seppen blitse. Gamooa vlka te ogauldoa.
Oni, lemnika te gosmika. Nedoa te ogauldoa.

Oke invites Edlke to visit him at his place and introduces his family to him.
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Come in, Edlke. Welcome to my house.

Thank you. Your house is beautiful. Who is this?
This is my wife. Her name is Syly.
Nice to meet you, Syly. And who is that?
That my son ikari.
And who is that over there?
That is my daughter over there, her name is Vengy but we call her Vivots.
Your family is beautiful. Your house is also beautiful. You are a lucky man!
I am very lucky. Lets drink tea and lets talk.
Yes, I am thirsty and tired. Lets sit down and talk.

716

Pronunciation
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

[ttmnn tc:e][skpmue sacidag]

[ttmnimi i:h:j][irelua sis][da tmn:i a(a)]
[da rhpig a(a)][unci syly]
[kkm:i etlina syly][tnt:a tmni: ha()]
[da tyryg xikri ha()]
[de da tmni: ()]
[da inig ()][unci ve:y tyta unks:ika vivtsmi]
[irelua ttns][irelua sis][dna smi bi:litse]
[dmi spn bi:litse][gamxxa v:ka de galda]
[ni lmn:iga de smiga][nxa de galda]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

tatamanimi!
-manin% %
soakkita%%
soaki% %
irela!
!
ednet! !
tonta! !
mmni! !
tyry%
%
at!
!
hait!
!
iot%
%
ini!
!
otta!
!
unoksi! !
toton! !
somi!
!
blitse! !
gamooa!
ogauldoa!
oni!
!
lemnika!!
gosmika!
nedoa!

I (mi) come (mani) in (tata)

come! (imperative)
to the house
house
beautiful
and, also
same way, likewise
who?
son
this (closer to me) (often [aa])
that (closer to you) (often [ha])
that (over there) (often [])
daughter
he/she/it
is usually called
family
man
lucky
lets (oa) drink (mo) together (ga)
lets (oa) talk (ogauld)
yes, this way
I am (ka) thirsty (lemni)
I am (ka) tired (gosmi)
lets (oa) sit down (ned)!

Unokki Syly tyta - Her name is Syly

When talking about names, Siwa people use two forms of the same verb, -nokk- to call:
unokki- and unoksi-. The former means is called and the latter means is usually called and is
used for peoples nicknames. The second set of pronouns is used with this verb (because it is
a passive verb, as can be seen by the u- prefix: -ka, -sa, -, -ba/-be, -ha and -a). Earlier you
717

were told that the pronoun for he/she/it when standing alone was simply to, but when inquiring
about someone in particular, Siwa uses so called pronouns of precedence who original
meaning is Xs turn.
!
!

da Syly to!
!
unokki Syly tyta! !

!
!

she is Syly
she is called Syly (lit. her is called)

!
!

nnni unokkisa, nta?!

unokkika Movani mta!

!
!

what about you, what is your name?

my name is Movani

!
!

nnni unokki atta~tten?! !

unokkita Aidlnu! !
!

what is his/her name?

her name is Aidlnu

!
!
!

nnni unokki khha?!

!
unokkia Pelhy te Eero! !

what is the twins name?

they are called Pelhy (f.) and Eero (m.)

Let us look at the pronouns we have seen so far:

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
subject pronoun! !
I!
!
megi%
-mi%
%
%
you!
!
negi%
-na%
%
%
he/she/it!!
to, ta%
-/-ta% %
%

-mi adjective pronouns

object pronoun! !
-ka%
%
%
-sa%
%
%
-%
%
%

precedence
mta
nta
tyta

we (you+me)!
we (me+others)%
you (pl.)! !
they!
!

-ba%
-be%
-ha%
-a%

mtra
mtri
ntra
keta

mra%
mri%
nri%
ki%

-gga%
-gge%
-dda%
-ri%

%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%

Compare the following two verbs, each using different pronouns:

!
!
%

dami Talgo mta% %

dana etvi nta% %
da Irhi tyta%
%

%
%
%

unokkika Talgo mta

unokkisa etvi nta
unokki Irhi tyta

%
!
!

dagga Siuragi mtra%

dadda kinagi ntra%
dari Siuragi keta% %

%
%
%

unokkiba Talgo te etvi mtra

unokkiha John te George ntra
unokkia Menho te ikari keta

718

Siwa Names
Here are some common Siwa names arranged by gender:
!
Female
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

Aidlnu
Hale
Irhi
Mtvibi
Movani
Nlkka
Oii
Padlmi
Pelhy
Ratelbi%
Syly
S
Temhi
Vengy
ra!

%
%
%
%

Male

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

Edlke (Elho)
Eero
ikari
Kumho
Itselo
Menho
Natsu
Pengo
Oke
Samho
Sappa
Sotso
etvi
Talgo
Voo

Siwa people rarely have surnames and instead simply state the name of both their parents with
the suffix -ini (daughter, also -in, -en or -ei) or -tyry (son, also -tyl or -dyl) on the latter name
(usually the mothers):
!
!
%
Vengy ikaru- te Aidlneini
%
%
%
Samho Samhi- te Oiutyry
%
%
%
Pengo Voi- te Styl

2.2 DA NDNI DDA?

%
What is This?
Neineli on te gamoa vlka Oke te Edlke, eiskla ka Oke to Edlke.
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

%
EDLKE:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!

ngina-a hha. Da soaki kymina dda. Da ndni dda?

ngimi hha. Da keulme eila dda.
Te hahha, da ndni hadda?
Da peyma eila-t kilura hadda.
Ednet da ndni dda?
Da valtsa eila dda.
S-kokkasa-a valtsa olmi?
Kokkaka, ska olami valtsa. Kokkaka olmi. S-netana-a, da ndni-a dda?
Set netami, da ndni-a dda. S-da kysibi-a? Kokkaka kidli kosami.
Oni da. Mta te kokkaka kidli kosami. Kokkaka valtsa olmi te kidli
kosami. Kokkaka vlka gamomi te gauldina.
Inta, komma kokmi!

719

Oke and Edlke sit and drink tea. Edlke asks Oke questions.
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

!
EDLKE:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

So you live here. This is a nice house. What is this?

I live here. This is an old chair.
And that over there, what is it?
That is a big wooden table. We have dinner there.
What is this here?
This is an old book.
Do you like to read books?
Yes, I often read books. I like reading. Do you know what this is?
I dont know what this is. Is it a carving knife? I like to carve wood.
Yes it is. I like to carve wood too. I like to read books and carve wood. I like
drinking !tea with you and talking with you.
Yes, it is a lot of fun!

Pronunciation
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

[i::inaa h:ja][da si cymina t:a][da ni:tni t:a]

[i::imi h:ja][da clme jeila t:a]
[de hh:ja da ni:tni ht:a]
[da pma jeilacilura ht:a]
[tnt:a ni:tni t:a]
[da vat:sa jeila t:a]
[skksa: vatsxa jlmi]
[kkga ska jlmi vatsxa][kkga jlmi][snetna: da ni:tnia
t:a]
[stnetmi da ni:tnia t:a][sd csxibia][kkga cti ksxmi]
[nida][mtade kkga citi ksxmi][kkga vatsxa jlmi de citi
ksxmi][kkga v:ka gamxxmi de galina]
[nta km:a kkm:i]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

neineli% !
eiskla! !
ngina% !
keulme% %
eila%
%
hha% %
hahha! !
peyma! !
-t!
!
kilura! !
kokkasa%%

!
!
!
%
%
%
!
!
!
!
%

sit around, sit for a while

asks about, asks many questions
you (na) live (ngi)
chair
old (for objects; for people, use ii)
here
there
table
and (shorter version of te)
wooden (cf. kili, kidli wood)
you (sa) like (kokka)
720

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kokkaka%%
%
valtsa! !
!
olmi! !
!
olami valtsa! !
valtsa olmi!
!
ska!
!
!
netana! !
!
netami% %
%
-a%
%
%
set!
!
!
kygibi! !
!
kogami!kidli!
!
kidli kosami!
!
oni da% !
!
kidli!
!
!
vlka gamomi!!
gamoami vlka!
gauldina!
!
ogauldigga!
!
komma! !
!
!

I (ka) like (kokka)

book (marked form valtsa)
to read
I read (the/a) book(s)
to read (the/a/) book(s)
often
you (na) know (neta)
I (mi) know (neta)
indirect question marker
not, do not
carving knife (tools often end in -bi)
I carve wood
to carve wood
yes (lit. so it is)
wood (unmarked form is kili)
to drink tea with (someone)
I drink it (with you)
to talk together
we talk together
very, much, a lot

Grammar
This, that and infinitives
By now you should be familiar with simple phrases in Siwa. Youve seen that there are
at least two sets of pronouns, and you may have an idea as to when use one or the
other. Youve now also encountered the three words to point at things:
!
!
!

at, dda!
hait, hadda!
iot, udda!!

this (here)!
!
that (there)!
!
that (over there)! !

pron. [a], [t:a]

pron. [h], [ht:a]
pron. []~[],[ut:a]

You also saw their forms in -hha for pointing at places and -vvia for approximate
location:
!
!
!

ahha% %
%
hahha (rarely haihha)!
iohha% %
%

%
!
%

here
there
over there

!
!
!

vvia! !
havvia! !
iovvia! !

!
!
!

around here (close to here)

around there (close to there)
over there (close to over there)

!
!
!

Youve also seen that Siwa word order does not change when asking questions:
!
!
or!

da hha soaki! !
s-da-a hha soaki?!
s-da hha-a soaki?!

!
!
!

there is a house here

is there a house here?
is it here that theres a house?

721

!
!
!
!

da vvia tvaila unokkiu Teltsvi!

!
!
!
!
isotveki, s-d-a vvia tvaila-a?!
!
!
!
!

there is a waterfall called Teltsvi close

to here
excuse me, is there a waterfall close to
here?

%
!

ara hahha eiskun!

!
s-ara-a ahha eiskun?! !

there is a toilet there

is there a toilet here?

Word order in Siwa is very important and can help distinguish between two otherwise
identical phrases. You can see this in the previous dialogue, where the infinitives in mi (to talk, to go, to walk) can be identical to the first person ending -mi. You can
distinguish them however by the fact that infinitves have their objects before (kidli
kosami to carve wood) but non-infinitive phrases have the word order VOS
(kosami kidli I carve wood).
!
Here is quick look at Siwa infinitives:
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

-mi!
!
-sa or -ta or -ha!
-(ki)nin! !
-(i)na! !

to something
to
to go and or to to/from/at X
to each other/together

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

verbal root!
ola!
!
oli%
%
kosa-! !
koni-! !
noni-! !
noniki-! !
ogauldi-!

infinitive! !
olmi! !
olha% !
kosami!
konta! !
nonta! !
nonikinin!
gauldina!

English
to read something
to read
to cut something
to walk
to swim
to go and swim
to talk together

Kokkaka konta - I like walking

To expression what one likes in Siwa, the verb kokkaka (lit. pleases me) is used. You
can see the ending ka which is the of the second set of pronouns, the objective
pronouns. Using the subject set of pronouns yield a very different meaning:
!
!

kokkaka!
kokkami!

!
!

I like.
I please him/her/it

However, the verb which follows kokkaka is an infinitive. Compare the following
phrases:
!
!
!

kokkaka konta! !
konimi! !
!
set kokkaka konta!

!
!
!

I like to walk
I walk
I dont like to walk

!
!

kokkaka nytsyma seimi! !

seami nytsyma% !
!

I like to listen to music

I listen to music

!
!

kokkaka sauhhahi kesmi! !

kesami sauhhahi!!
!

I like to learn languages

I learn languages

722

!
!

kokkaka valtsa olmi!

olami valtsa%
!

!
!

I like to read books

I read books

!
!

kokkaka Sdi sami!

saami Sdi!
!

!
!

I like to speak Siwa

I speak Siwa

!
!

s-kokkasa sitkisa?!
so sitkina-a?!
!

!
!

do you like to fish?

do you fish?

!
!

kokkaka bb pelekmi!
pelekkami bb ! !

!
!

I like to cook food

I cook food

Konoa - Lets walk

The expression lets X in Siwa is created by adding -oa to the stem of a verb. The
ending -oe is used if the pronoun excludes the addresse (me and others, not me
and you). These endings may also be found as -kioa- or -kioe- then meaning lets
go and X
!
%

kesoa sauhhahi%!
oloa valtsa!
!

!
!

lets learn languages

lets read books

!
!
!
!

seoa nytsyma% !

lets listen to music

nonoa! !
nonikioa!

!
!

!
!

lets swim
lets go and swim

!
!
!

hoha (or hoa)! !

mooa!!
!
pelekkoa bb% !

!
!
!

lets eat
lets drink
lets cook food

!
!
!
!

makoa inesta! !
sitkikioa!
!
saoa Sdi!
!

!
!
!

lets go to the lake

lets go fishing
lets speak Siwa

Just as easily, you can create imperatives. The plural imperative for you is simply -uri
(or -unni if you are being polite).

!
!

konoa! !
konuri! !

!
!

!
!

lets walk
walk! (pl.)

!
!

eikioa!
eikiuri!

!
!

!
!

lets go and run

go and run! (pl.)

!
!

saoa Sdi!
sauri Sdi!

!
!

!
!

lets speak Siwa

speak Siwa! (pl.)

tatamanunni!

come in (please) (pl.)

For the singular, the imperative is made by replacing the first person -mi by -n.

723

!
!

olami valtsa!
olan valtsa%

!
!

!
!

I read books
read books!

!
!

nuami benhue ! !
nuan benhue! !

!
!

I see the dog

see/look at the dog!

%
!

saami Sdi!
saan Sdi!

!
!

I speak Siwa
speak Siwa!

!
!

The imperative for the verb to be is irregular and has the form nent- and neist- in the
negative:
!
!
%

nentoa katsa! !
nentan hha!
!
nentunni suhua% !

!
!
!

lets be outside
be here!
be quiet, please

!
!
!

neistan hahha! !
neisturi kuohhidna!

!
!

dont be (stand) there

dont be noisy

Toton - Family
Lets take a look at the words related to family in Siwa. Notice how older relatives use
not the possessive -go (my) but the object pronoun ka (me).
%
!
!
!
!
!

toton-go%!
toton-so!!
toton-ho!!

!
!
!

!
!
!

my family
your family
his/her family

riehpi-go!!
nalbi-go% !

!
!

!
!

my wife
my husband

!
!

tyry-go! !
ini-go% !

!
!

!
!

my son
my daughter

!
!

kosoka% !
!
karsa-go or karha-go!

!
!

my older brother
my younger brother

!
!

tobika! !
dapsa-go!

!
!

!
!

my older sister
my younger sister

!
!

ska! !
ataka! !

!
!

!
!

my mother
my father

!
tegmagi-go!
!
!
my children
!
To express that you have a family member, Siwa uses daki (lit. it is to me) with the socalled recipient pronouns:
!
!
!

daki!
dasi!
dati!

!
!
!

I have
you have
he/she/it has

724

!
!
!

dabi! !
dahhi! !
dai!
!

we have
you have
they have

!
!
!
!
!

daki m kosoka! !
s-dasi-a dapsa?! !
dati ini on tyry on!
dai aits tegmagi!
dati nalbi!
!

!
!
!
!
!

I have one older brother

do you have a younger sister?
he/she has both a daughter and son
they have four children
she has a husband

Reading
Try reading the following short texts.
Unokkika on Itselo, daki ka m kosoka te m tobika, daki te
ei dapsa, nevi karsa. Daki toton atana. Siikua ska,
Kanatemmua ne ataka. Oakima saagge on Sdi, on
Eiglehi.
My name is Itselo, and I have one older brother and one
older sister, and I also have two younger sisters and three
younger brothers. I have a large family. My mother is Siwa,
but my father is Canadian. At home, we speak both Siwa
and English.

Pge, unokkika Oii. Daki toton onona. Daki ihha m dapsa.

Siikua on ska, on ataka, saagge ka ihha Sdi.
Hi, my name is Oii. I have a small family. I only have one
younger sister. Both my mother and father are Siwa, and
we only speak Siwa.

Piegvahi. Padlmi oami, te ini-go ue evvat, Hale. Tamiemi

ngigge. Daki on tobika te, Mtvibi, set ka ngi vvia.
Hi. Im Padlmi (f.) and this is my daughter, Hale. We live
alone. I also have an older sister, Mtvibi, but she does not
live around here.
!

2.3 KITUANA KENDAI NHR?

%
What do you want to do today?
Neska Elkeri to Oke, kituat kendai nt-a.
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

!
!
!

Sare kiras. Kendima!

Oni da. Saresi kiras. Nnni nta?
Gimmika. Kituana kendai nhr?

725

EDLKE:!

!
%
OKE:!
!
%
%
EDLKE:! !
OKE:!
!
EDLKE:! !
OKE:!
!
%

Kokkieka inesta nonikinin. Kokkieka e bb sara hami te denari nuimi.

S-atanua-a dedna?
Nonikioa na inesta! Hammuaka nonta. Pelekka g bb to Syly.
Kite sopma sara. Salla pelekka. Tagen sia atana dedna. ai ononua.
Makoa inesta. S-ara-a suhha?
Set, ara ra.
So heia ua?
Inta. Killu heia ua.

Oke asks Edlke what he wants to do today.

OKE:!

!
!
OKE:!
!
EDLKE:! !
!
!
OKE:!
!
!
!
!
!
EDLKE:! !
OKE:!
!
EDLKE:! !
OKE:!
!
EDLKE:!

Good morning. It is early!

Yes it is. Good morning. How are you?
I am excited. What do you want to do today?
I would like to go swim in the lake. I also would also like to eat good food
and see the village. Is the village big?
Lets go swim in the lake, then! I love swimming. Syly cooks food tonight.
She will make a good supper. She cooks well. The village is not very big. It
is rather small.
Lets go to the lake. Is it far?
No, it is close to here.
Is the water cold?
Of course. The water is always cold.

Pronunciation
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[sre ciras][cnima]
[nida][sresi ciras][ni:n:i nta]
[im:iga][cituna cndai ni:hr]
[kciega insta nniinn][kciegaxwe bb sarxa hmi de denri
nuimi][stnua: dtna]
[nniianja insta][hm:juga nnta][peljka j: bb t syly][cite
spma sarxa][sl:a peljka][tj:n sia tna dtna][xai nnua]
[mka insta][swra: suh:ja]
[s(), wra rja]
[s hejia uja]
[nta][cil:ju hejia uja]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
!
!
!

kendima%!
gimmika%%
kituana%%
kendai% %
nhr! !

!
%
%
%
!

it is early
I am (ka) excited (gimmi)
you (na) want (ua) to do (kit)
today
what? (also nt)

726

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

kokkieka!
nonikinin!
e!
!
bb! !
sara! !
hami! !
denari nuimi!
na!
!
hammuaka!
nonta! !
pelekka!!
g!
!
kite!
!
sopma! !
salla!
!
tagen! !
ai!
!
onona! !
ara! !
suhha! !
ra!
!
ua!
!
killu!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

I (ka) would (ie) like (kokk)

to go and (kinin) swim (non)
also, too, as well
food (unmarked form is b)
good (unmarked form is sara)
to eat
to see (nuimi) the village (denari, unmarked is dedna)
then, well, so
I love, I am fond of
to swim
X cooks Y
tonight
(will) do
dinner (unmarked form is sob)
well
much, a lot
quite, rather
small
is (in a location), lies (somewhere)
far away
close by
water
always

!
Exercises
Insert the correct word or ending:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

tekni ____?
So saa____ Sdi?
Mta, kokka____ nytsyma se____,
Nta, s-kokkiesa denari nui____?
Se___ salla pelekka riehpi-go.

Translate the following phrases into English:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Nta, s-kokkasa-a inesta sitkikinin?

Konoa tsamia kendai.
Hoa g bb sara te mooa e vlka.
S-iia-a atasa?
S-atanua-a toton-so?
So salla-a pelekka ssa?
Tagen s pelekkami bb.
ara ines ra soaki onona t-irela.
ara denaria (-ia in) soaki-go.
Si ara-i denari suhha soaki-so?
Inta, ara denari ai suhha soaki-go.
S-gimmisa-a ga denarita (-ita to) maksa (to go)
727

13.
14.
15.
16.

Seppen on gimmika, s on netami, kituami iohha nt-a.

So heia katsa?
So heia ua?
Tagen sia hea ua.

Translate the following phrases into Siwa:

1. Isnt your house quite small?
2. The village (dedna) lies close by
3. Lets walk to the lake.
4. Isnt the lake quite close by?
5. Isnt the water very cold?
6. Lets read books tonight.
7. Lets speak Siwa in the village.
8. My mother makes very good food.
9. My father makes very bad (sepri) food.
10. The old table is outside.
11. My father will make (kite) a big chair.
12. My younger brother and my older brother speak Siwa.
13. My brother is in the village today.
14. Does he like to eat good food (bb sara hami)?
15. He always asks (neska) me (ka) many questions.
16. What do you want to eat tonight?
17.I want to eat good meat (magga) and good fish (shdi).

Reading
Da soaki dda - This is a house
Da soaki dda. Det temme arrui. Temme ra da selo. Seluea da tiella. Tielaima da tahhua.
Da oula hadda te da kehno udda. Tahhia da vulma vili te okhi tohhot. Umima da neivie.
Soakki loala da tetra. Da nokkiu tetari Biekna. Da ylkymia tetari taa omi. Da ka temme arrui
ede aurin te leyma. uga komi, nori hemie. Sarva oakima tmi.

This is a house. It is by the shore. Next to the shore there is a river. In the river there is an
island. On the island there are trees. That is a birch and that is a pine. In the tree there are
green leaves and green pine needles. On the ground there are cones. Behind the house there
is a mountain. The name of the mountain is Biekna. At the top of the mountain there is a lot of
snow. By the shore the air is fresh and warm. Now it is summer, the birds are singing. It is
good to be home.

728

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
'
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!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

temmy, temme%
arrui%
%
selo, selue!
seluea! !
tiella, tieladi%
tielaima%!
tahha, tahhi'
tahhua! !
oula, ousta'
kehno, kehha'
tahhia! !
vulma, vulmamo!
vili!
!
okhi, okehko!
tohhot, tohhotta!
umima! !
neivi, neirri!
neivie! !
soakki loala!
tetra, tetari!
ylky, ylkyma!
taa!
!
omi, kko!
ede, eteri!
aurin, aurinta!
leyma, leymari!
uga! !
komi!
!
nori!
!
hemi, hemme!
hemie! !
sarva! !
oakima! !
tmi!
!

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!
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!
!
!
'
!
'
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

shore'
next to, by
river
in (a) the river
island
on (ima) the island
tree
trees
birch
pine
in (ia) tree(s)
leaf
(leafy) green, light green
pine needle(s)
green, dark green
on (ima) the ground
cone
cones
behind (loala) the house (soaki)
mountain
sumit, top
a lot
snow
air
fresh
warm
now
it is summer
sings
bird
birds
is (a) good (sara)
at home
to be

729

NIETAT NEVUT Third Lesson

Set miboaki vvika

Im not from around here
3 NIETAT NEVUT - Third Lesson: Im not from around here

3.1 SIBOAKI NGA?

%
Where are you from?
eilgila Sylta to Edlke. Netua, niboaki nga-a.
EDLKE:!
SYLY:!

%
EDLKE:!
SYLY:!
EDLKE:!

%
%
SYLY:!
EDLKE:!

%
%
SYLY:!

%
EDLKE:!
SYLY:!

%
OKE:!
SYLY:!

!
!
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!
!
!
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!
!
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!
!
%
!
!

Nee, Syly. Neskuasami. Siboaki nga, nta?

Miboaki on denarika onommo, unokki Kevvi, iboaki ka tnsamoika
smaka.
Te atasa, tiboaki nga?
Ukeddi vvia. Ukeddisa nvva nta?
Ukeddika on Toamkemmoa, iboaki ka vvika smaka. Nuuami kisitsta-ho
te kesuami sahne saa Sdi deita. nn mandlimi vvita Aingokita.
Gagototri Talgo te ska. Dari tveluri.
Tagen salla saana Sdi. K, sagi Toamkemmoa, sda?
Oni, magi iovva Toamkemmoa, kokkaka netta vvia ngisa. Hammuaka
tsama. ara vvia tama tahha: siula, oula te niedas. ara vvia medde
kunna.
Mta te, hammuaka tsama. Seppen tsengia ede. Heetai on hehmi,
kobai ka hmmi.
Oni da, udni hmmi. So soheimeni-a?
Set, set moheimeni, mohigeni, Miullen atemika, tabmimi. Moumami tadna
vlka.
Inta, te lolumimi. Gagomonke, te opiagukum!
Gagomonke!

Edlke gets to know Syly better.

EDLKE:!

!
!
EDLKE:! !
SYLY:!

So, Syly. I want to ask you. Where are you from?

I am from a small village called Kevvi, but my mother is from the city.
And what about your father, where is he from?

730

SYLY:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
SYLY:!
!
EDLKE:! !
!
!
SYLY:!
!
!
!
EDLKE:! !
SYLY:!
!
!
!
OKE:!
!
SYLY:!
!
EDLKE:!

He was born here. Where were you born?

I was born in the US but my mother is from Riekna. I want to see her culture
and learn to speak Siwa better. This is why I have come to Aingo. Talgo
and my mother are related. They are cousins.
You speak Siwa very well. So you grew up in the US?
Yes, I grew up there, in the US. But I like living here. I love the forest. There
are many trees here: spruce, birch and fir. There is even oak here.
I love the forest too. The air is very fresh. It is cold in the winter and hot in
the summer.
Yes, it is hot right now. Are you hot?
No, I am not hot, I am cold, I am a little bit sick, I think. I need to drink more
tea!
Yes, and I need to go. See you, and get well soon!
See you!

Pronunciation
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[ne:e syly][nskusmi][sibi ni:ga nta]

[mibi denriga nm: unkwi cew:i ibika tnsmiga
s:mga]
[de tsa tibi ni:ga]
[ucet:i w:ia][ucet:isa ni:w:a nta]
[ucet:ig amgem:ja, ibika w:iga s:mga][nujumi cistst:aw
de cesumi sahne sa sy:i deida][n: mantimi w:ida
i:ida][ggttxi talg de s:ka][dri tveluri]
[tj:n sl:a sna syi][k: sjj:i amgem:ja sda]
[ni mjj:i w:a amgem:ja kkga nta w:ia i::isa]
[hm:juga tsamxa][wra w:ia tma th:a sijula jula de nieas][wra
:wia me:te kun:a]
[mtade hm:juga tsamxa][spn tse:ia xe][hejeai hhmi,
kbaika hi:m:i]
[nida :tni hi:m:i][sshjeimenia]
[s() spmhjeimeni mhij:ni][miul:n temiga tapmimi][mxummi
tatna v:ka]
[nta de llumimi][ggmce de pij:ugum]
[ggmnce]

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%
UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
!
!
!

eilgila% !
niboaki%%
nga% %
nee% %
neskuasami%

X will get to know Y

he/she/it comes from
where from?
well,so
I (mi) want (ua) to ask (nesk) you (sa)
731

!
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%
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!
!
!
!
!

miboaki!
siboaki%!
tiboaki%!
niboaki%!
dedna! !
denarika!
onommo!!
unokki!!
tnsa! !
tnsamoika!
ska! !
smaka%!
vvia! !
vvita! !
vvika! !
nvva! !
na! !
nga! !
ukeddika!
Tsamkena!
Tsamkemmoa!
nuuami!
kisitsta-ho!
kesuami!
sahne! !
saa.deita!
Sia!
!
Sdi!
!
nn! !
Aingo! !
Aingokita!
gagototri!
gagitotrasimi!
gagitotrakina!
tveluri! !
tagen! !
sagi% !
magi% !
tgi% !
iovva! !
netta! !
ngisa! !
tsammi% !
tsama% !
tama tahha!
siula! !
oula!
!
niedas! !
medde! !

I come from
you come from
he/she/it comes from
he/she/it comes from (not same subject as previous one)
village
from a village (ta to ~, a in ~)
small (unmarked form is onona)
which (i) is called
city
from the city
my mother (is, walks, talks.)
my mother (comes from, is born, is called, is cold, is hot.)
here
to here
from here
where
where to
where from
I was born
the US
in the US (ita to ~, ika from ~)
I (mi) want (ua) to see (nu)
his/her/its culture (marked form)
I (mi) want (ua) to learn (kes)
better
to learn.
Siwa
Siwa (marked form)
for this reason, this is why
main Siwa city
to Aingo
X are related to each other
I am relate to you
you are related to me
cousins
very (+ADV)
you grew up
I grew up
he/she/it grew up
over there
however, but, on the other hand, of course
to (sa) live (somewhere)
forest
forest (marked form)
many tree(s)
spruce
birch
fir
even
732

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
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kunna! !
tsengia% !
ede! !
heetai! !
kobai! !
hmmi! !
hehmi! !
moheimeni!
mohigeni!
miullen% !
atemika%!
tabmami%!
moumami!
tadna vlka!
lolumimi!
opiagukum!

oak
is (a) fresh (tsengi)
air
in the winter
in the summer
it is hot
it is cold
I feel hot
I feel cold
a little
I am sick
I think
I must (uma) drink (mo)
more tea
I must (umi) leave (lol)
get well soon (m do X soon)

Miboaki.-ka - I am from.
Siwa has a fairly simple system to indicate location. Weve already seen the three most
common endings used to show location. We have not talked about declension yet, but be
aware that nouns change when these endings are added to them.
!
!
!
!
%

!
!

IN!

!
!

!
!

-(i)ka

!
%

where?! !
nvva% %

where to?!
na% %

!
%

where from?
nga

house!
soaki !

!
!

in the house!
soakkia! !

into the house!

soakkita! !

!
!

from the house

soakkika

forest !
tsammi!
!
lake!
innen%

!
!

in the forest!
tsamia! !

into the forest!

tsamita!!

!
!

from the forest

tsamika

!
%

in the lake!
inesia% %

into the lake!

inesta% %

!
%

from the lake

ineska

-(i)a!

!
!

INTO!

-(i)ta!

FROM

When saying where one is from, one needs to know the -(i)ka form. Here are countries, the
words for the nationality (in -mma) and the country in the -(i)ka form.

Place! !
Toamkena%
Kanata% %
Ransi% %
Eikla%
%
Derma% %

Nationality!
Tsamkemma%
Kanatemma%
Ransumma%
Eiklemma%
Dermemma%

!
%
%
%
%
%

From! !
!
Toamkemmoika% %
Kanatakaika~Kanateika%
Ransikaika~Ransuika%
Eiklarika~Eiglarika%
Dermarika%
%
733

English
USA
Canada
France
England
Germany

Svdda% %
Espani% %
Denmrki%
Suomi% %
Mehhiko%%
Russi% %
ina%
%

Svdemma%
Espanumma%
Denmrkumma%
Suomumma%
Mehhikemma%
Russumma%
inemma%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%

Svddaika%
%
Sweden
Espanneika~Espanuika% Spain
Denmrkikaika~-mrkuika% Denmark
Suomidika~-ka~-uika%
Finland
Mehhikueika%
%
Mexico
Russimoika, Russuika%
Russia
indika~inadika~-eika% China

You can form languages from the nouns for places by adding -Vs (marked form in -Vhi):
!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Eikles! !
Ransus! !
Dermes!!
Espanus!!
Denmrkus!
Suomus!!
Russus! !

!
!
!
!

So saana-a Eiglehi?!
!
So saana-a Ransuhi?!
!
Set saami Suomuhi.!
!
Isotveki, ihha miullil saami Sdi!

English! !
French! !
German! !
Spanish! !
Danish! !
Finnish! !
Russian! !

I speak
saami.
...Eiglehi
...Ransuhi
...Dermehi
...Espanuhi~Espanhi
...Denmrkuhi (also Dnus : Dnuhi)
...Suomuhi~Suomhi
...Russuhi
!
!
!
!

Do you speak English?

Do you speak French?
I dont speak Finnish.
Sorry, I can only speak a little Siwa

Compare the following:

!
%

miboaki Kanateika%
dami Kanatemma%%

%
%

%
%

I am from Canada
I am Canadian

%
%

So siboaki-a Eiklarika?%
Oni, dami Eiklemma%

%
%

%
%

Are you from England?

Yes, I am English

Tiboaki Espanneika te da Espanumma%

S/he is from Spain and is Spanish

Grammar
Verb types
By now you have encountered four different types of verbs with three different sets of
pronouns, both as prefixes and suffixes. This system of pronouns reflects one of the
most basic characteristic of the Siwa language, which is that classifies verbs
according to the state of the agent of actor of the action. You have already seen three
different types.
AG VERBS
The first class of verbs, the agentive verbs (AG) is made up of two subgroups that you
can easily tell apart. One subgroup called transitive agentive verbs (AG.TR) have a
stem in -a-, which can be understood to be -a-- where -- is him/her/it. The other

734

subgroup of agentive verbs are the intransitive agentive verbs (AG.ITR) which have a
stem in -i- and do not have any object. These verbs take the subject pronouns and
nearly exclusively have conscious or willing actors.
!
!
!
!
!

-imi '
AG.ITR!
!
!
!

'
conscious actions (no object)
konimi! !
!
I walk
moimi% !
!
I drink
pelekkimi!
!
I cook
olimi% !
!
I read!

!
-ami! !
conscious actions (object)
!
AG.TR! neskami!
!
I ask him/her/it
!
!
kitami! !
!
I do it
!
!
pelekkami!
!
I cook it!
!
!
olami! !
!
I read it
!
!
kesami! !
!
I learn it
!
!
saami! !
!
I speak it
!
!
nuami! !
!
I see it
!
PAT VERBS
The second class of verbs is composed of various verbs who all use only the objecte
pronoun set and they are called patientive verbs (PAT). Most of the verbs ending in mi are part of this group and are associated with feelings, emotions and often
correspond to adjectives in English.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

-(mi)ka! !
feelings, emotions, adjectives
%
gimmika!
!
I am excited
%
hammuaka!
!
I love
%
kokkaka!
!
I like
!
kokkieka!
!
I would like
!
kmmika!
!
I am happy
%
gosmika!
!
I am tired
%
lemnika%!
!
I am thirsty
!
submika%
%
I am hungry
!
atemika%!
!
I am sick
!
aymika! !
!
I feel unwell
!
voammika!
!
I am afraid

PASS VERBS
Very similar to patientive verbs and often considered a subcategory, the passive
verbs (PASS) are characterized by the prefix u- and the object pronoun set.

uika% !

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

unokkika!
ukeddika!
usygeika!
umaskika!

I am/was -ed (passive)

!
!
!
!

I am called
I was born
I was invited
I was asked

735

!
UNAG VERBS
Finally, the third class of verbs is opposite to agentive verbs. They are the unagentive
verbs (UNAG) and imply an unconscious agent or actor, lack of control or lack of
volition. They use the unagentive set of pronouns, which are shown below.
Unagentive verbs also include verbs of sensations (ending in -eni or -uni). Youve
encountered this type of verb in the expression salla sngi? how are you?.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

m(a)!
!
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!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
involontary actions/sensations
moheimeni!
!
I am hot
mohigeni!
!
I am cold
miboaki!
!
I come from
magi% !
!
I grew up
salla mngi!
!
I am doing/living good
midi!
!
!
I fall
mapohhi!
!
I sleep
masaski(a)!
!
I (suddenly) wake up
maihi% !
!
I am wrong

The unagentive pronoun set:

!
!
!
singular! !
1st person!
!
m(a)! !
2nd person!
!
s(a)!
!
3rd person!
!
t(a)!
!

plural
m(a) / m(e)
s
ts(e)

Compare to the common expression salla ngi X is well:!

%
%
%

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salla mngi%
salla sngi%
salal tngi%

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salla mngi
salla sngi
salla tsngi

Pronoun Review
Let us look at the pronouns we have seen so far:
!
!
!
subj.pro!!
obj.pro!
I!
!
megi%
-mi%
%
-ka%
you!
!
negi%
-na%
%
-sa%
he/she/it!!
to%
-/-ta% %
-%

!
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unag. pro!
m(a)1% %
s(a)%
%
t(a)%
%

precedence
mta
nta
tyta

we (you+me)!
we (me+others)%
you (pl.)! !
they!
!

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m(a)%
m(e)%
s(a)%
ts(e)%

mtra
mtri
ntra
keta

mra%
mri%
nri%
ki%

-gga%
-gge%
-dda%
-ri%

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-ba%
-be%
-ha%
-a%

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1 In many dialects, m(a) is replaced by en before t- d- ts- ts- di- k- g-, em- before b- p-, ed- before n-

and ent- before s- s- (then ents- or ents-) and g- but ma- elsewhere.

736

3.2 KOKKASA NHR KITAMI?

%
What do you like to do?
udni netua Syly, kokka nt-a kitami otta Elkeri, alliuts da.
SYLY:!

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EDLKE:!
SYLY:!
EDLKE:!

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SYLY:!
EDLKE:!

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SYLY:!

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EDLKE:!
SYLY:!
EDLKE:!
SYLY:!

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!

Oa-a tohhusana Edlke. Unte, oa tagen allotuna. Atsa sosia tegma.

Kokkasa na nhr kitami, alliuts dana?
Keuneni, soa atsa gogia tegma. Alliuts dami, kokkaka nytsyma seimi.
Kokkasa ni nytsyma-uli seimi?
Kokkasa nytsyma eiladi, tonta seota iovva oakima Toamkemmoa to
ataka. Kokkaka oi nytsyma-uli.
Alliuts dana, kokkasa nhr-ne kitami?
Hammuaka konikinin oina hemme te tahhi te ela te kebsie taga deitami,
alliuts dami. Kokkaka rddia tami. Kokkaka te valtsa olmi te sauhhahi
kesmi, sihhiuts da. Nta, kokkasa nhr, alliuts dana?
Kokkaka pelekkami. Hammuaka tsamika kebsie pelekkami, egi
loleleddika sma. Eli loleleddia-uri taba sma. Kokkaka te nonta, valtsa
olmi te tamottagi-go gagi neinelha, alliuts dami. Bntatstimi te.
S-iomu-a, ibntatstotakina?
Nenna! Ibntatstasimi sevvo irela.
sta
Eumaa, h-Edlke.

Now Syly wants to know what Edlke likes to do, when he has free-time.
SYLY:!

!
EDLKE:!
SYLY:!
EDLKE:!

!
SYLY:!
EDLKE:!

!
!
!
SYLY:!

!
!
EDLKE:!
SYLY:!
EDLKE:!
SYLY:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Edlke, you are still quite young. You must have a lot of free time still. You
have no children. So what do you like to do in your free-time?
It is true, I dont have children yet. In my free-time, I like to listen to music.
What kind of music do you like to listen to?
I like old music, like my father listens to back home in the US. I like all kinds
of music.
What else do you like to do in your free time?
I love going out to walk and look at the birds, the trees, the plants and the
mushrooms when I have the time. I like being in nature. I also like to read
books and I like to learn languages when it rains. What about you, what do
you like to do in your free time?
I like cooking. I love cooking mushrooms from the forest, or berries from the
yard. There is a lot of berries in our yard. I also like to swim, read books,
see my friends when I have time. I also knit.
Can you knit me a shirt?
Of course! I will knit you a beautiful shirt, when I have time!
Thank you!
Youre welcome, dear Edlke.

737

Pronunciation
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[aa th:usna tc:e][nte a tj:n l:duna][tsa sia :ma]

[kk:sanja ni:hr citmi l:tsdna]
[ceuneni sa atsa ia :ma][l:utsdmi kkga ntsxyma seimi]
[kksa ni:wi ntsxymauli seimi]
[kkga ntsxyma jeili tnta sejda w:a ima amgem:ja
t tga][kkga :i ntsxymauli]
[l:tsdna kksa ni:hrne citmi]
[hm:juga kniinn ina hem:ede th:ide ela de cpsietga deidmi
l:tsdmi][kkga r:ia tami][kkgade vatsxa jlmi de
suh:jhi csmi sih:utsda][nta, kksa ni:hrne l:tsdna]
[kkga peljkmi][hm:juga tsamiga cpsie peljkmi egi ll
ele:iga sy:ma][eli llele:iauri tba sy:ma][kkgade nnta,
vatsxa jlmi de tmtjig gi neinlha l:tsdmi][bu:ntatst:imide]
[sijmua ibu:ntatst:dina]
[nen:a][ibu:ntatst:aina sew: irela]
[i:sta]
[eumja :tc:e]

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UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

netua% !
otta%
%
alliuts da-%
-uts da-% !
oa-a% %
tohhusana%
unt.-ot-!
allotuna%
atsa%
!
da sosia!!
da gogia!!
tegma% !
soa!
!
nytsyma seimi!
ni -uli!!
eiladi! !
tonta! !
seota! !
oi -uli!

!
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%
!
%
%
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

X wants to know
patient form of to he/she/it
when X has time
when
still (as you know)
you (na) are (a) young (tohhus)
it must be.that
that (ot) you have time
there is not (neg. of da)
you have (lit. is in you)
I have (lit. is in me)
child(ren)
not yet
to listen to music
what kind
old (marked form)
as, in the same way
that (ot) he/she/it listens
all kinds of
738

!
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!
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!
!
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!
!

konikinin%
%
oina...deitami!
!
hemme! !
!
tahhi!
!
!
kebsie! !
!
te...te...taga!
!
rddia tami!
!
sihhiuts da!
!
tsamika!
!
egi!
!
!
loleleddika!
!
!
!
!
taba sma!
!
tamottagi-go gagi%!
neinelha!
!
bntatstimi!
!
ibntatsasimi% !
ibntatstakina! !
iomu, -ot-!
!
ibntatstotakina!
nenna! !
!
sevvo! !
!
eumaa! !
!

to go and walk
(in order for me) to see
bird(s) (unmarked for is hemi)
tree(s) (unmarked form is tahha)
mushroom(s) (unmarked form is kepsi)
used for longer enumerations
to be (tami) in nature
when it rains
from the forest
or
from the backyard (ia in ~, unmarked form is
lolelet)
a lot (taba) of berries
with (gagi) my friends (plural is -gi-)
to sit, to meet for a while
I knit
I knit it for (i) you (si)
you knit for (i) me (ki)
it is possible that...
that (ot) you knit for (i) me (ki)
of course
shirt, clothing
youre welcome (lit. (it) was little)

Kiba mialha oailata - S/he has blue eyes

When talking about physical attributes, Siwa uses the following construction, with the
special form of the verb to be. Note that because this uses the relativizer o-, the word
oaila bears its accent on the a: oila.
!

odaila~oaila X1

NOUN ADJ

Let us look at the words hide hair, kiba eyes or narri nose and some basic
adjectives pairs:
!
!

!
!

siehhin! !
long! !

la
short

!
!

!
!

atana ~ vivi!
big!
!

onona ~ temi
small

!
!

!
!

hanna!
pale!

lhi
dark

!
!

!
!
Now we can make the following sentences:

1 The origin of this expression is the verb to be and the suffix -il- is wearing, is characterized by.

739

!
!

!
!

hide siehhin oaila on toabi-ho.

his/her older sister has long hair

!
!

!
!

...hide la oaila ka karsa-ho.

...and/but his/her younger brother has short hair.

!
!

!
!

narri ai atana oaila

he/she has a rather big nose

!
!

!
!

kiba lhi odailari

they have dark eyes

!
!

!
!

kiba vivi set oailami

I dont have big eyes

!
!

!
!

mppa vivi oaila-a

he/she does have big feet

!
!

!
!

moukki te nobba oaila to somi-t

this man has a belly and a beard! !

Exercises
Answer the following questions in Siwa.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Si tiboaki Toamkemmoika-i to John?

So sahigeni-a?
So saana-a Sdi?
So saheimeni-a hha?
Iboaki nga smasa?
gi nvva? (gi = sagi)
Si gi vvia-i?
Neskuana nt?
S-oluana voltsa-a, alliuts dana?
oluana ni voltsa-uli?
Sta-i Pentsaa tegma?
hide siehhin s-oaila suosa-a?
kiba lhi s-odailari tegmigi-so?
S-vivia-a soaki-so?
Spohhi nvva heetai? (spohhi = sapohhi)

740

Reading
Tiebo tamottaita - A Letter to a Friend
Edlke is writing a letter to a friend about his stay in Aingo.
Tamosi sara,
Itiprasimi Aingokika. ivi ptta riki dami. Unokki Talgo te data somi seppen kymina. Sarva vvia
ngisa. Robakken, kendita masaski te gahagge kirhuba mri Talgo. Haga konikigge kadda
tsamita egi inesta. Irelua tsammi. Ien tohhusa te tsengia oi. Heia on innen, inoniagge
kade. Itsovvaka Syltsaita te Okemoita to Talgo. Dari omna. ngi vvia Aingokia ki te. Hide
siehhin-t lhi te kiba mialha oaila on Syly, lua ka Oke te hide lhi oaila. Iomu, eyvrotami
Sdi saami, nuauts daami. Kokka kebsie nummi Syltsa, te tabmimi, kokkota haami Okemo.
Seppi pelekk ue hmhets. En ukendaima-t, ilolegge gesseita, e oi. Makigge nua
tvaila te tetari atakka deita. Noai Oke, arote on noton atana, arote on iovvia tami mhra
te saigi. Kokkaka vvia issa. Kyminua maski, irelua tnsa te eluria rt.
Lugu,
Edlke

Dear Friend,
I write to you from Aingo. I am staying at my uncles house. His name is Talgo and he is a very
nice man. It is good to live here. Every day, I wake up early and eat breakfast with Talgo. Then,
we usually go out to walk in the forest or walk to the lake. The forest here is beautiful.
Everything is so green and fresh. The lake is cold but we swim in it anyways. Talgo introduced
me to Syly and Oke. They are a couple. They also live here in Aingo. Syly has long dark hair
and pale blue eyes, and Oke is short and has dark hair. I can practice speaking Siwa when I
see them. Syly likes to pick mushrooms and I think that Oke likes to eat them. She is a very
good cook (formal). This week, we are going on a trip, everyone together. We will go see a
waterfall and big mountains. Oke said there is a also a big valley, and there are many bears
and moose there. I like staying here. People are nice, the city is beautiful and the nature is
amazing.
With love,
Edlke

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
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tiebo% %
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itiprasimi%
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itiprakina!
!
tiprami valtsa%
!
Aingokika!
!
ivi...dami!
%
ptta ! !

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!
!
!
!
!
!

letter, writing'
I (mi) write (tipra) to (i) you (si)
you (na) write (tipra) to (i) me (ki)
I (mi) write (tipra) a book
from (ka) Aingo
I am (dami) staying
maternal uncle (unmarked form is psi)

741

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...riki!
!
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data! !
!
robakken!
!
akken! !
!
kendita masaski! !
ga--gge.mri% X!
gahagge!
!
mri!
!
!
kirhuba!
!
haga! !
!
konikigge!
!
kadda! !
!
tsamita%!
!
egi!
!
!
inesta% !
!
ien! !
!
tohhusa%!
!
tsengia% !
!
oi!
!
!
inoniagge!
!
kade! !
!
!
!
!
itsgvvaka%
%
Syltsaita te Okemoita!
omna! !
!
ki te!
!
!
siehhin-t lhi!
!
lua% !
!
iomu...ot-!
!
eyvrotami% !
Sdi saami%
!
nuauts daami% !
kebsie nummi% !
tabmimi%!
!
kokkota%!
!
haami% !
!
pelekk%!
!
ue hmhets !
!
en ukendaima-t%!
ilolegge!!
!
gesseita!
!
e!
!
!
oi!
!
!
makigge!
!
nua.deita!
!
tvaila! !
!
tetari atakka!
!
noai!
!
!
arote% !
!

at Xs place
he/she/it is (other verbs do not take ta!)
everyday
today (also kendai)
I (ma) wake up (saski) early (kendita)
X and I do -- together
X and I eat together
X and I
breakfast (lit. morning-foood)
then, at that time
we (gge) walk (koni) out/away (ki)
(to) out
to (ta) the forest (tsammi)
or
to (ta) the lake (innen)
so, very much
is (a) green
is (a) fresh
everything
we (gge) swim (noni) into it (ia)
anyways, despite (connects with previous phrase
through on)
he/she/it introduced (tsgvva) me (ka) to (i)
to (ita) Syly and Oke
married couple
they (ki) also (te)
long and (-t) dark
is (a) short (la)
it is possible (iomu) that (ot-)
that (ot) I (mi) practice (eyvra)
to speak Siwa (cf. saami Sdi I speak Siwa)
when (uts da-) I (mi) see (nua) them (a)
to (mi) pick (num) mushrooms (kepsi)
I think
that (ot) X likes (kokka)
to (mi) eat (ha) them (a)
someone good at () cooking
she is (formal, polite form)
this (en -t) week (ukengi)
we (gge) will leave (lole) somewhere (i)
on a trip (gesi)
with, along, together
everything, everyone
we (gge) go (maki)
(going) to (VERB) (deita) see
waterfall (tvaili)
big mountain (tetra atana)
said
that (ot) there will be (are)
742

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

on...on! !
tami mhra!
saigi!
!
noton atana!
vvia issa!
maski! !
tnsa! !
eluri!
!
rt!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

both...and, X and Y
many (tami) bear (mhra)
moose
big valley
to (sa) stay (iv) here
people
city
fantastic, wonderful, amazing
nature, surroundings

743

NIETAT AITSET Fourth Lesson

Ndna otva?
What would you like?
4 NIETAT AITSET - Fourth Lesson: What would you like

4.1 Pevuana i nhr ?

!
What would you like to eat?
Isvaimeri tnsamoa sopmita inuhmo nari ki Edlke te Oke. Ineska Elkerita to Oke, pevuet
nt-a.
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

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EDLKE:!
OKE:!

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EDLKE:!
OKE:!

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EDLKE:!
OKE:!

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EDLKE:!

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ara nvva btoatkina?

adda arata, sarodderi. Btoatkina neta sara oata. Hahka iomu
nghr bb-uli tadnami. Utotki hahha roamid magga-uli ketsil siikodi.
Na, ai tsereni, oi dda. Pevuana i nhr? Set kommil pelekkimi.
Kira sara. Set netami. Ndna otva? S-mavvu-a? S-kikin-a? S-nallana-a
situdi ketsil siikodi? Isyvvieisimi, nnni-a nidlumi gielsimi.
Sereni hait te. Sarva sira. Nnni nidlumi situdi gielsimi? Svaimeruma nhr?
Doa, seppen on tunnua sira sara aurin, svaimeroa de shdi sara aurinta.
lami toahm, iomu shdi saisilda tnsamo totkibinin ode. Data siretotkamo
saisla, la odemi.
S-ikahagga-a situdita tsika-ne?
Ikahagga. Ikahagga rhtagika, toarilkadika, bielleika, te hevvueika taga.
Ketso pevagen te kolkonta te kolsotta situdi e. Gakkioa u esten
totkamotta gagi.
itatta. Makoa.

Edlke and Oke are in the city shopping for food for this evenings supper. Oke asks Edlke
about what he would like to eat.
EDLKE:!

!
!
!
!
EDLKE:! !
!
!
OKE:!
!
!
!
OKE:!

Where is the foodstore?

It is is right here, to the right. It is a very good foodstore. You can find all
kinds of food there. They sell all types of traditionally Siwa meats.
Wow, it all sounds good. What would you like to eat this evening? I dont
cook much.
Good question. I dont know. What would you like? Meat? Soup? Have you
tasted traditional Siwa fish soup (sitru)? I could show you how to prepare it.

744

EDLKE:!

!
!
OKE:!
!
!
!
!
!
EDLKE:! !
OKE:!
!
!
!
EDLKE:! !

That also sounds good. Fish is good. How do you prepare sitru? What shall
we buy?
Well, good fresh fish is very important. So lets buy good fresh fish. I know
someone who can sell us the best fish in the city. He is the best fishmonger
that I know.
Do we need anything else for the sitru?
We do. We need onion, carrots, fat (butter) and salt. Sitru is traditionally
eaten with bread and cheese. First lets go talk with the fishmonger.
Alright, lets go.

Pronunciation
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[wra ni:w:a by:tatcina]

[:a wrda srt:eri][by:tatcina nt:xa sra da][hahka
ijmu :hr bbwli atnmi][uttci hh:ja rm mk:awli
ctsxl siwigi]
[ny:a xa tserjeni i ][pevuna :i ni:hr][skm:l peljcimi]
[cra sra][stnetmi][ni:tna t:wa][smw:ua][scicina][snjl:na:
situi ctsxl siwigi][isyw:ieis(i)mi ni:n:ia nitumi lsimi]
[serjeni hat:e][sarw:a sira][ni:n:i nitumi situi lsimi][svimeruma
ni:hr]
[da spn tun:ua sira sra urn svimerade si:hi sarxa urnta]
[i:lmi tahm ijmu si:hi sislda tnsm ttcibinn de][dta
sire ttkm sasta i:la demi]
[sikk:a: situida xtsigane]
[ikk:a][ikk:a ri:htaiga tarxkiga biel:eiga de hew:ueiga
tga][ctsx pevj:nde kkntade klsta situixwe][g
k:giaju stn ttkmta gi]
[itta][mka]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
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ndna% %
otva%
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pevuana!
i!
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nhr! !
isvaimeri!
tnsamoa!
sopmita!
inuhmo!

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!

what'
would you like (lit. that (o) wants to be (dua (-tva))
you (na) want (ua) to eat (pev)
this evening
what (when object, also nt)
X buys (svaimer) for/to Y (i)
in the city (tnsa)
for supper (sob)
of (nuha) this evening (i)!

!
!
%
!

nari%
!
ineska%
Elkerita!

!
!
!
!

they (ri) are -ing (na, here isvaimeri...nari they are

buying)
asks (neska) X to Y (i)
to Edlke

!
!
!
!

745

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
%
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

pevuet% %
%
ara nvva!
!
btoatkina!
!
adda% !
!
arata% !
!
sarodderi!
!
neta sara!
!
oata! !
!
hahka% !
!
iomu! !
!
nghr%-uli% !
bb! !
!
tadnami!
!
utotki% !
!
hahha! !
!
roamid.-uli!
!
magga ! !
!
ketsil! !
!
siikodi! !
!
na!
!
!
ai!
!
!
tsereni% !
!
oi!
!
!
dda! !
!
set kommil!
!
pelekkimi!
!
kira sara!
!
set netami!
!
kikin!
!
!
nallana%!
!
situdi% !
!
isyvvieisimi! !
nidlumi% !
!
nnni%
!
!
gielsimi% !
!
hait te! !
!
sarva! !
!
svaimeruma!
!
doa!
!
!
seppen! !
!
tunnua% !
!
sira sara aurin%
!
shdi sara aurinta!
lami toahm! !
iomu.ode!
!
shdi saisilda!
!
totkibinin!
!
data siretotkimo%!
saisla, la odemi% !

would like (ue) to eat (pev)

where (nvva) is (ara, lit. lies)
food (b) store (toatkina)
right here
it (ta) is/lies (ara)
to the right (to the left is kamodderi)
really (neta) good (sara)
it (ta) is (oa)
from (ka) there
is possible
any kind of (also ngt-uli)
food (b when unmarked)
to (mi) find
is sold (totk- sell)
there (cf. hahka from there)
all kinds of
meat(s) (mavvu when unmarked)
traditionally, typically
Siwa (adj) (siiko when unmarked)
wow, well, huh
quite, very
it (t) sounds/seems good
all
this
not much
I (mi) cook
good question, good point, important issue
I (mi) dont know
meat soup
you (na) have (la) tasted (nal)
fish soup (sitru when unmarked)
I (mi) could (iei) show (syvv) to you (isi)
must (umi) be done (a certain way)
how
to (mi) prepare
that too
is good
must (uma) buy
well, hm
very
is (a) important (tunna)
good (sara) fresh (aurin) fish (sira)
good fresh fish (marked form)
I (mi) know (la) someone (toa)
that (o) ...may be able to (iomu)
best (saisilda) fish
to (nin) sell (totk) to us (bi)
he (ta) is (da) fish (sire) seller (totkimo)
best (saisla) that (o) I (mi) know (la)
746

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

ikahagga!
situdita% !
rhtagika!
toarilkadika!
bielleika!!
te...taga! !
hevvueika!
ketso! !
pevagen!
kolkonta!!
kolsotta! !
e!
!
gakkioa!
esten! !
gagi!
!
itatta! !
makoa!!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

we (gga) need (kaha) [from (i)]

for the sitru
from (ika) onion (rhtapa)
from (ika) carrot (toarilka)
from (ika) fat/butter (bieli)
and as well
from (ika) salt/spice (hego)
traditionally
one (gen) eats
bread (kolkon)
cheese (kolsot)
with
lets (oa) go (ki) speak (k) with (ga)
first(ly)
with
yes, ok, understood, lets go
lets (oa) go (mak)

Mantuemi. I would like

To express that you would like to get something, for example when ordering or buying food,
the verb mant to get, to receive is used. The segment ue expresses polite wish such as
would want something or would like something. The less polite form is ua and simply means
want something.
!
!
!

!
!
!

moami ki %
mouami ki!
mouemi ki!

!
!
!

!
!
!

I drink water
I want to drink water
I would like to drink water

Adding the ending utta to a verb stem such as mo drink and pev eat creates a noun
equivalent to something to .
!
%
%
mantuemi moutta!
!
I would like something to drink
!
!
s-mantuena-a pevutta?%
!
would you like something to eat?
!
%
mantuegga ki% !
!
we would like some water
!
%
mantue oago% !
!
I would like some help
%
%
mantuemi situdi% !
!
I would like some sitru
!
%
s-mantuedda-a kolkonta?% !
would you like some bread?
!
%
s-mantuedda-a magga?! !
would you like some meat?
!
%
pevuemi tadna kolsotta%
!
I would like to eat more cheese
!
%
s-mouena-a tadna vlka?%!
would you like to drink more tea?
!
%
svaimeruemi shdi aurinta% !
I would like to buy fresh fish
!
!
ipelekkuesimi bb sara!
I would like to cook good food for you
!
%
s-naluena-a?%
!
!
would you like to taste?
!
%
s-pevuena tadna-a?!
!
would you like to eat more?

747

Similarly, to ask what someone would like, the expression ndna otva/otve1 is used. Because
this question is emphatic (a relative clause with the relative marker o that, lit. what that [it]
wants to be?), the thing that is being asked for is found first in the answer, which usually
contains otve rather than otva (corresponding to the more polike ue would like). Demands in
Siwa are commonly followed by ti, sytka or sytvi, all more or less corresponding to the English
please:
!
!
ndna otva?%
!
!
!
sira aurin otve ti% !
!
!
Compare the two dialogues below:
!
!
!
Pge, ndna otva dne?! !
%
Sare kengi. Yi otve sytvi. !
%
Ni taa yi otve?!
!
!
M sira atana, ti.!
!
%
Ive, m yi atana. !
!
%
sta% !
!
!

!
!

what would you like?

(I would like) fresh fish please

!
!
!
!
!
!

Hello, what would you like today?

Hello. I would like salmon please.
How much salmon would you like?
One big fish, please.
There you go, one big salmon.
Thank you

!
!
%
%
!
%
%

!
!
!
!
!
!

Hello, what would you like today?

Hello. I would like salmon please.
How much salmon would you like?
One big fish, please.
There you go, one big salmon.
Thank you

Pge, mantuena dne nhr?!

Sare kengi. Mantuemi yhta sytvi.!
Mantuena ni taba yhta?!
M sira atana, ti.!
!
Ive, m yi atana. !
!
sta% !
!
!

Noun Marking
Notice in the previous dialogue how the word order differs:
!
!

yi otva~otve%
mantue yhta%

%
%

I would like salmon

I would like to take/have a salmon

You should also notice the different in the word yi salmon, appearing both as yi and yhta.
This is because Siwa has a dual system of marking, where each noun exists in two slightly
different forms one unmarked, one marked. We have already seen a few of these dual forms:
!
!
unmarked!
!
marked
!
!
yi%
%
%
yhta!
!
salmon
!
!
sira%
%
%
shdi%
!
fish
!
!
aurin%
%
%
aurinta! !
fresh
!
!
sara%
%
%
sara% !
good
!
!
kolkon% %
%
kolkonta%!
bread
!
!
kolsot% %
%
kolsotta% !
cheese
!
!
b!
!
!
bb! !
food

1 Note that because the relative marker is unstressed, otve and otva are pronounced with the second

syllable stressed: otva [t:va]

748

%
%
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!

%
%
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
%

tnsa%
tsammi%
hemi!
somi%
kori%
ski%
dida%
Edlke%
Oke%
Sia%

%
%
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%
!
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

tnsamo%!
tsama% !
hemme! !
skko! !
kohko! !
skid!
!
diadi!
!
Elkeri
Okemo
Sdi

city
forest
bird
man
boy
woman
girl

You may wonder whether there is any logic to these changes at all, and why they occur in the
first place. Although a number of nouns change unpredictably (or rather, they bend the rules,
such as sira:shdi fish), the great majority of nouns follow a relatively small number of rules
when forming their marked form. That is to say, if you learn a couple of rules, you can predict
how words will change.
In general, the marked form is used for three purposes:
1. !
!

When the noun is the object of many verbs (especially when not talking about the
whole object):

!
!

!
!

2. !
!
!

When the noun is the subject of verbs, but is not in control, or is experiencing
emotions. In other words, with the subject of patientive (many adjectives, mental
states), passive and unagentive verbs (involontary actions/sensations):

!
!
!
%
%
!

!
%
!
%
%
!

da kolsot sara ! !
pevami kolsotta sara!

heimeni!skid!
!
higeni skko!
!
heimeni Elkeri! !
submi kohko!
!
iboaki kanatakaika skko%
so salla-a ngi smasa?!

!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

there is good bread (subject)

I (will) eat [some] good bread (object)

the woman (ski) is hot

the man (somi) is cold
Edlke is hot
the boy (kori) is hot
the man (somi) is from Canada
is your mothing doing well?

3.!
When the noun is the possessor of something. In other words, when the noun is in
!
the genitive:
!
!
!
sob skko!
!
!
the mans (somi) supper
!
%
tamosi kohko!
!
!
the boys (kori) friend
!
%
sira siretotkamotta!
!
the fishmongers (siretotkamo) fish
!
!
soaki Okemo! !
!
Okes house
!
This idea of alternating marking will be explored in more detail later, but for now it is enough to
know that nouns and adjectives do change, depending on their function in the phrase. This is
called declension, but in the context of Siwa grammar, it is refered to as marking.

749

!
The general idea behind marking is that a noun will change based on its stressed
vowel (first) and final vowel. For example, all nouns with the shape e--o have marked forms in
-ue.
!
!
benho! !
benhue ! !
dog
!
!
hego ! !
hevvue ! !
salt
!
!
neidno! !
neidnue !!
wise
!
!
neo ! !
niue !
!
sand
Similarly, all words of the shape --a or y--a have marked forms in -(a)mo:
!
!
!

!
!
!

tnsa! !
bra! !
ndna! !

tnsamo!!
bhmo!!
nnamo!!

city
several
wave

As a very general overview, let us look at some categories of declensions:

!
!

A-declenions
!
Characterized by an ending in -ka, -a or -ra.

%
!
!
!

%
!
%
%

!
!

E-declensions
!
Words in -a have -ari, -o have -ue and others have -CCe/-ie or -Ci.

!
!
!
%

%
%
!
%

!
!
!
%
%
!
!
!
!
!

I-declenions
!
Simplest of them all, words in -i generally have -id or -di.

!
!
!
!

%
%
!
%

tsammi%
saumi%
bana%
takeri%

dida%
ede%
benho%
ekni%

%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%

tsama! !
saumka! !
banka% !
takehka% !

diari!
eteri!
benhue%
engie!

!
!
!
!

forest
caribou
place
person, individual

tear
air
dog
path

%
ski%
%
skid%
!
woman
%
dida%
%
diadi%
!
girl
%
k%
%
kd!
!
new
%
giga%
%
gii!
!
goose
!
O-declenions
!
Words in o--i have -ko, while others have -mo or -ma.
somi%
kori%
dotsa%
onona%

%
%
%
%

skko! !
kohko% !
dotsamo!
onommo%!

750

man
boy
idea
small

!
!

U-declensions
!
Words in u--i have -id or -di (like I- nouns), others like O-nouns.

!
!
!
!

!
!
%
%

!
!

Y-/-declenions
!
Nearly identical to U-declensions.

!
!
!
!

%
%
%
%

butta%
tuvala%
nunna%
puilo%

ndna%
pbma%
kymina%
tygi%

%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%

buttamo! !
tuvalmo% !
nummo! !
puilma% !

nnamo! !
pmamo!!
kymimmo!
tid!
!

bad weather
heavy
angry
nerve

wave
point, spot
nice, pleasant
poison

This is the basis of all marking in Siwa. However, you will soon find out that there is a second,
parallel marking system used in special cases (some personal names and nouns). We will see
these nouns in detail later.
!
4.2 Mantuemi m kadlka yi
'
I would like a whole salmon
Gaki siretotkemotta gagi ki Edlke te Oke.
TOTKAMO:!
OKE:!

!
%
%
%
%
TOTKAMO:!
%
%
OKE:!
!
%
%
TOTKAMO:!
EDLKE:! !
TOTKAMO:!
EDLKE:! !
TOTKAMO:!
OKE:!
!

Sarehi kengi, tyddyrygi-go. Opiimi nnni?

Saresi kengi, tamosi. Doa, kendai on gielsivvagge eukka situdi siikodi,
ikahagge de shdika-so saisilda. S-dasi kendai dni yi-a egi aurko-a
aurin?
Nenna daki. Pkka onta pendiki roahkika atakka shdi seppen aurinta.
Ikahadda ni tammika? S-ikahadda mita-a shdika?
Set, ikahagge aubmika. Itummeki ni komma haitta? Sira edles pilra otve
ti.
S-eygni-a?
Da ni sira-uli eygni? Set netami komma sirenokkiuttaika.
Aurko hanna oa adni. Retro oa haidni. Set sahtena-i vvika oahnon.
Set-a miboaki. Sugami Okemo.
Me. Tatummie nets dolri. Tata s-otve-a?
Atsa, hh.

Edlke and Oke talk with the fishmonger.

SELLER:!

!
!
!
!
SELLER:! !
!
!
OKE:!

Hello to you, boys. How can I help?

Hello, friend. Well, today we want to prepare a little bit of Siwa fish soup, so
we need your best fish. Do you have any fresh salmon today?
I do indeed. I just received a big shipment of very fresh fish. How many fish
do you need? Do you need (only) one fish?

751

OKE:!

!
SELLER:!
EDLKE:!
SELLER:!

!
EDLKE:!
SELLER:!
OKE:!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Pronunciation
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

No, we need four. How much will that cost me? Id like quite red(fleshed)
fish please.
These ones?
What type of fish are these ones? I dont know much about fish names.
This one is a nice lake trout. That one is cod. You musnt be from around
here, huh?
No I dont. Im visiting Oke.
How nice. That will be ten dollars. Was there anything else?
No, thank you.

[srehi ce:i tyt:yryjig][piimi ni:n:i]

[sresi ce:i tmsi][da cndaj glsiw:c:e ka situi siwigi
ikc:ede si:higas sislda][stsi cnda xtni yia ei arka
urn]
[nen:a dci][pi:knda pnii rahciga taka si:hi spn
urnta][ikt:a ni:wi tm:iga][sikt:a mia: si:higa]
[s, ikc:e apmiga][itum:ei ni:wi km:a hata][sira ets plra
t:ve ty:i]
[s:nia]
[da ni:wi sirawli :ni][stnetmi km:a sirenctiga]
[ark hn:a a tni][rtx a hadni][stsxahtena w:iga ahnn]
[sa mibi][sugmi cem]
[me:e][ttum:ie nts dldri][tta st:vea]
[tsa i:h:j]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
%
%
%
%
%
%
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
%

tyddyrygi-go%
opiimi%!
gielsivvagge%
eukka! !
on...de! !
dni% !
egi%
!
aurko! !
nenna! !
pkka! !
pendiki% !
roahkika!!
atakka! !
mita! !
ikahadda!
ni tammika!
aubmika!
itummeki!

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

my (-go) sons (tyrygi)

I (mi) can (i) help
we (gge) want (vva) prepare
a little
, so...
any
or
lake trout
of course
just now
arrived to me (ki)
shipment, sending (um. roahki)'
big (um. atana)
one (um. m)
you (dda) need (ikaha)
(of) how many (um. ni tama)
(of) four (um. aits)
will cost (tumme) [to] me (iki)
752

%
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

ni komma!
haitta! !
edles ! !
pilra!
!
adni! !
haidni! !
ni sira-uli!
netami! !
sirenokkiuttaika%
hanna! !
retro!
!
set sahtena-i%
vvika% !
oahnon! !
miboaki!!
sugami% !
me! !
tatummie!
nets dolri!
tata!
!
s-otve-a% !
atsa!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

how (ni) much

that (um. hait)
quite (+ ADJ.)
red
this one
that one
what kind (ni...-uli) of fish
I (mi) know (neta)
fish names (um. sirenokkiuki [pl.])
nice, pretty
cod
you (na) (seemingly) mustnt
from around here
to originate (root iboaki-)
I (m) originate (oaki) from X (ib)
I (mi) visit
I see, nice, interesting
it (ta) would (ie) cost (tumm)
ten dolars
more
would there be?
it is not

Ni komma s-otve-a? - How much would you like?

You have already seen a few question words in Siwa:
!
!
nnni!
!
how (which way)
!
!
ni!
!
how (what degree)
!
!
ndni!
!
what (unmarked)
!
!
nt or nhr!
what (marked)
Let us look at how they are used:
!
nnni!
!
Because nnni is an adverbial question pronoun, and adverbs precede the verb in Siwa, it will
always be found before the main verb. Because nnni asks about how an action happens, the
answer will be an adverb, such as salla well, sppi badly and koakken~kvakken or
koakkil~kvakkil well, enough, quite.
!
Verbs may also be transformed into adverbs (by -ing) by adding:
!
!
-ren~-oben ! !
for verbs in -a
!
!
-osen ! !
!
for verbs in -i
!
!
-edlen ! !
!
verbs in -u

!
!
!
!

!
!

nnni sngi?!
salla mngi!

!
!

nnni hbmi hemie?!

how are you (lit. how do you live)

I am good (I live well)
how do birds fly?
753

!
!

!
!

sepsiosen hbmiri!
sepsiri% %
%

they fly by beating their wings

they flap their wings

!
!
!

!
!
!

nnni dagi?!
salla dagi!
sppi dagi!

how did it go?

it went well
it went poorly

!
!
!

!
!
!

nnni nstettana?% !
nonaki! !
!
seren nstettami!

how did you find out (nstena-)

he/she told me
I found out by listening (sea-)

!
!

%
!

nnni somaygi?! !
idosen momaygi!

how did you injure yourself?

I hurt myself falling (idi-)

!
!

%
%

nnni kehana Sia?!

kistosen kehami%!

how did you learn Siwa?

I learned by studying (kisti-)

%
%

%
%

nnni mansina hba?!

konosen mansimi!

how did you come here?

I came by walking (koni-)

%
!

%
%

nnni pelekkiana sira?!

how did you cook the fish?
kvumoben pelekkiami! I cooked it by frying it (kvuma-)

!
!
!

!
ni
Ni, also found as just n or n asks about the degree to which an action happens. Thus, it
appears with adverbs of quantity (adverbial quantifiers), many verbal adjectives (ending in -i or
-mi), and impersonal or intransitive verbs.
!
In addition, ni -uli (where is a noun) what kind of and ni (where is an
adjective) how.

!
%
!
!
!
!
%
%
!
%

ni tagil guhina ogia? % %

ni kommil~kommen sihri?!
ni kommil~kommen atemisa?!
ni tagil gosmisa?!
!
ni eukkil sevvima?!
!

how much did you travel there?

how much did it rain?
how sick are you?
how tired are you?
how little did he/she seem eager?

ngi hha ni tama?!

lana ni tammi siustagi?%
negana ni tammi?%
maski ni eura?% !

!
!
!
!

how many live here?

how many Siwa people do you know?
how many did you see?
how few left?

!
%
%
%
!

ni suhha ngina?!
ni suta oa makumi?!
ni khloita hhndi?!
ni kendita saskuisa?!
ni tita pokuina?!

!
!
!
!
!

how far away do you live?

how far still do (we) have to go?
how high (khloita) did it fly up?
how early (kendia) did you wake up (sask-)?
how late (tita) did you go to sleep (pok-)?

ni sinta%ivena?!!

how long will you stay?

754

!
%
!

ni sidne koba?! !
!
ni sinka nedlana?!
!
ni sinka itsebina gogika?!

how long will summer last? (sidn- to last)

for how long~since when have you known?
how long did you wait for me?

!
!

ni somi-uli oata?%
somi sara oata! !

what kind of man is he?

he is a good man

!
!
!
!

ni sauhhahi-uli saana?% !
kokkasa ni byby-uli?!
!
ngina ni bania-uli?%
!
negana ni hemi-uli?!
!

what kind of languages do you speak?

what kind of food do you like?
what kind of place do you live in/at?
what kind of bird did you see?

!
!
!
!
!
!

ni iiata!
ni temiata?!
ni vivta?%
ni heia?!
ni sarvata?!

how old is he/she?

how small is it?
how big was it?
how cold is (it)?
how good is it?

!
!
!
!
!

%
!

!
!
!
!
!

Adverbial quantifiers should not be confused with normal quantifiers, which replace nouns
(thus usually used for objects of verbs, called pronominal quantifiers), not adjectives or verbs.
Ni is also used with those. They can be found in the marked or unmarked form. For this
reason, we will look at them better later. However, notice the difference:
!
!
%

!
!
%

adverbial quantifiers%
tagen~tagil%
%
kommen~kommil% %

%
%
%

pronominal quantifiers
taa : taba
kolla : komma

The difference between tagen~tagil (how much) and taa is that tagen can be replaced by
another adverb (a lot, a little) while taa can be replaced, for example, by a quantity (two, half,
a few).
ADVERBIAL!

PRONOMINAL!

!
!

!
!
ADVERBIAL%
!
!
PRONOMINAL%

ADVERBIAL%

PRONOMINAL%

ni tagil sihhi?! !
tagil sihhi!
!

!
!

how much is it raining?

it is raining a lot

ama ni taba?% !
ama eukka!
!

!
!

how much did he/she drink?

he/she drank a little

ni kommen gosmisa?!
seppen gosmika! !

!
!

how tired are you?

I am very tired

bana ni komma kebsie?!!

bami ihha m % !
!

how much mushroom did you eat?

I only ate one

ni kommen takokkasa?! !
miullil takokkaka! !
!

how much do you like it?

I like it a little

tatumma ni komma?!

how much does it cost (tumma-)?

!
755

komma tatumma% !

it costs a lot

!
!
ndni and nt~nhr
The question word ndni has the marked form nt or nhr. The unmarked form ndni is found
with the verb da- to be and in some cases as the object of verbs. However, much more
common with other verbs are nt (usually pronounced [niht:] or [ni:i]) or nhr. Certain verbs
require the patientive form nbma (namely unagentive verbs), but it is quite common to use the
form nt instead.
!
!
!

!
!
%

da ndni dda!
mouana nt?!
pevuana nt?!

!
!
!

!
!
!

what is this?
what do you want to drink?
what do you want to eat?

!
!
!
!
!

%
%
!
!
!

negana nt?!
!
noa(i)na nt?!
!
seskku nt~nbma%!
aiska nt?!
!
kkiadda nhr?% !

!
!
!
!
!

what did you see?

what did you say?
what happened?
what did he/she ask?
what did you (pl.) bring?

4.3 Ndni unokkis tten?

!
What is this called?
Eiskla Oke oli kihmo nokkiutta toatkekkima to Edlke.
EDLKE:!

%
OKE:!

%
%
EDLKE:!
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

%
EDLKE:!

%
OKE:!
EDLKE:!
OKE:!

!
%
!
%
%
!
!
!
!
%
!
%
!
!
!

Da toatkekkima tama vauri totku, neta nokkiutta atsaikomi. Da ndni ta

vauri-t mialha, gasivvi-mi? S-det subo-a?
Atsa subo ta vauri-t mialha. Uokesen da suvo hait. Atsa kira tvono suvo
te subo. Utsovvi smika shmia te suovvika tahhia. S-mranua-i a ta
Sia.
Nette det. Ba da ni suvo-uli ta mialha-ut?
Merru oa ta suvo-t. Elusalla tanalu. S-nallana-a?
Oh, merru. Nallami ihna. Ednet hait, da ndni hait kongesia?
Da kepsie hait. Noksaagge knabi. Elusarvari ki te. Tonoonari te komma
danhuari.
Hammuaka kebsie goakmi. Set nuhlami hhu kebsie haa. Ednet totka nt
to somi-t?
Da mavvetotkamo to. Totka heihemme, eltsei, mnylyma te salmagga.
u submika. Hakioa.
Mta te submika. Hakioa a!

Edlke asks Oke about the names of all kinds of things at the market.
EDLKE:!

!
OKE:!

!
!

!
!
!
!
!

There are many things sold at the market, whose names I dont know. What
is this blue thing, for example? Is it a fruit?
The blue thing is not fruit. Actually, it is a berry. Berry (suvo) and fruit (berry)
is not the same thing. We talk about berry (suvo, sma) in a berrybush and
fruit (subo, suovvi) in trees. Siwa is a hard language, isnt it?
756

EDLKE:!

!
!
EDLKE:! !
!
!
OKE:!
!
!
!
EDLKE:! !
!
!
OKE:!
!
!
!
EDLKE:! !
OKE:!
!
Pronunciation
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
OKE:!

It sure is. But what kind of berry are those blue ones?
They are blueberries (merru). They taste delicious. Have you tasted?
Oh, blueberries. Yes, Ive tasted them. And what about that, whats that in
the basket?
Those are mushrooms. We call them knabi. They are delicious as well.
They are hard to find and very expensive.
I love picking mushrooms. Ive never seen mushrooms like that. And what is
the man over there selling?
He is a butcher. He sells chicken (heihemi), beef (eltseke), porc (mnyly)
and caribou meat (salmavvu).
Now Im hungry. Lets go eat.
Im hungry as well. Lets go eat!

[da tatccima tma vuri ttku neta ncta tsigmi][da ni:tni

ta vur malha gsiw:imi][sttsuba]
[tsa subo ta vur malha][ujk:sxn da suv h][tsa cira
tvn suvde sub][tsxw:i sy:miga su:hmiade suw:iga tah:ia
[smrnuaia ta siwa]
[nted][bada ni:wi suvli ta malha]
[mjer:uwa ta suv][elusl:a tnjlu][snjl:na:]
[h mjer:u][njl:mi hna][tnh:][da ni:tni ha c:esia]
[da cps:ie hai][nks:jc:e knbi][elusarw:ari cide][nxnri de
km:a danhuri]
[hm:juga cpsie gakm:i][stnhlmi i:h:ju cpsie h:a]%
[tn ttka ni:t sm]
[da mw:ettkm t][ttka heihem:e tsexi mnylyma de salmk:a]
[j: si:pmiga][hcia]
[mtade si:pmiga][hciaja]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
%
!
%
!
%
%
%
!
!
%
!
!
!
!

oli%
%
kira, kihmo!
neta!
!
atsaikomi%
vauri, vauhka!
ta vauri-t!!
mialha! !
gasivvi-mi!
subo, suovvi'
atsa!
!
uokesen%
suvo, sma!
hait, haitta!
tvono, tvomma!
atsa kira tvono!

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!

%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!

all types of, all kinds of (ADJ comes before noun)

thing, issue, matter (NO)
know (VERB)
which (iko) I (mi) dont (atsa)
item, thing (for sale) (NO)
that (ta -t) thing
blue (ADJ)
for example
fruit (NO)
is not (not *set da)
actually, strictly speaking (ADV)
berry
that (is, PRON)
same (ADJ)
its not the same thing
757

!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

utsovvi!!
!
smika! !
!
sro, shma!
!
shmia! !
!
suovvika%
%
tahha, tahhi!
!
tahhia! !
!
merna, mradi! !
s-mernua-i a! !
nette det ~ netteret!
ba!
!
!
ni -uli%!
!
ta mialha-ut!
!
elusalla!!
!
tanalu! !
!
nallana!!
!
ihna!
!
!
merru, merue! !
ednet! !
!
koknen, konges! !
kepsi, kebsie!
!
noksaagge!
!
knabi, knaika'
'
elusarvari!
!
ki te!
!
!
tonoonari!
!
danhuari!
!
komma + ADJ!
!
kebsie goakmi! !
nuhlami!!
!
set...hhu!
!
havva, haa!
!
totka! !
!
to somi-t%!
!
mavvetotkamo% !
heihemi, heihemme!
eltseki, eltsei! !
mnyly, mnylyma!
salmavvu, magga!
g!
!
!
hakioa!
!
a~u~o% !
!

!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

it is talked about, one says (of X)

from/about berries
berry bush (NO)
in (ia) berry bush(es)
from/about fruit
tree (NO)
in tree(s)
difficult (ADJ)
isnt X difficult, huh?
yes (emphatic)
but, so, well
what kind of X
that blue on over there
excellent (ADV)
it (ta) tastes (nalu)
you (na) have (la) tasted (nal) (it, VERB)
of course, yes
blueberry (NO)
and, what about, but
woven basket, basket (NO)
mushroom (NO)
we (gge) call (noksa) them (a)
a type of mushrooms
they (ri) are (va) excellent (elusara)
they (ki) too (te, pron. [de])
they (ri) are (a) hard to find (tonoon)
they (ri) are (a) expensive (danha)
very + ADJ
to (mi) gather (goakka) mushrooms
I (mi) have seen (nuhl)
never
like that (cf. hait that)
X sells
that (to -t) man (somi)
meat (mavvu) seller, butcher
chicken (NO)
beef (NO)
pork (NO)
caribou meat (NO)
now
lets (oa) go (ki) eat (ha)
then, now

Grammar
Siwa is a pronoun-heavy language, much more so than English. We have already
encountered many sets of pronouns, such as those for agents (doers) and patients.
But weve only briefly looked at how these different sets of pronouns combine within
the Siwa verb. This is called pronoun coalescence.

758

Pronoun coalescence
Because both subjects and objects are incoded in the verb, students of the language
must familiarize themselves with the various ways by which subjects and objects
interact together. Below is a table showing each of the 7 pronouns weve seen so far
(we are in fact missing a few, which will be introduced later, namely the 4th person
and the obviative 3rd person). You will notice that when two identical pronouns
combine, for example I and me, the table gives a different form. This is called the
subjective and describes actions where the agent and the patient are one and the
same. We will review this type of pronoun marking later.
!
You may also notice that an ending in -a- is assumed for all verbs. That is
because only verbs in -a (so called transitive verbs) can take an object.
subject
h
object

you

he/she/it

we incl

we excl

you pl

they

me

o--imi

-kana
-kna
-nga

-aka

-akagga

-akagge

-akadda

-akari

you

-asami,
-ahmi

o--ina

-asa

-asagga
-askka

-asagge
-skke

-asadda

-asari

him/her/it

-ami

-ana

(-au, -at),
o--i

-agga

-agge

-adda

-ari

us incl

-abami

-abana

-aba

o--igga

-abagge

-abadda

-abari

us excl

-abemi

-abena

-abe

-abegga

o--igge

-abedda

-aberi

you pl

-ahami

-ahana

-aha

-ahagga
-ahka

-ahagge
-ahke

o--idda

-ahari

them

-aami

-aana

-aa

-aagga

-aagge

-aadda

-aari,
o--iri

Let us look at a few transitive verbs in -a that we have encountered up to now and use this
table to make SUBJ-OBJ verbs.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

neska- ask
!
neskami!!
!
neskanga!
!
neskahmi!
!
naskaberi!
!
naskahka!
!
naskaana!

nua- see

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
%
!

nuaari! !
s-nuakna-a?!
nuahmi! !
set nuami!
nuahke! !

!
!
!
!
!
!

I ask him
you ask me
I ask you
they ask us
we ask you (pl.)
you ask them

!
!
!
!
!

they see them

do you see me?
I see you
I dont see him/her/it
we see you

759

!
!

!
!

nuabedda!
nuaadda!

sea- hear

!
!
!

!
!
!

biala- speak with, talk to

so seakna-a?!
seabari% !
seaagga!

!
!

you see us
you see them

!
!
!

do you hear me?

they hear us
we hear them

!
!
bialasagga!
!
we speak with you
!
!
set bialabari!
!
they do not speak with us
!
%
bialumahmi%
!
I must (um) speak with you
!
!
bialumahami! !
I must (um) speak with you (pl.)
!
Finally, compare the previous verbs to a so-called subjective verb such as ogauldi- talk
together, where only one set of pronouns is used.
%
!
!
!
!

ogauldi- to talk together

%
%
%

ogauldigga!
ogauldiri%!
ogauldidda!

!
!
!

we talk together
they talk together
you talk together

Numerals
We have already seen a few numerals, namely m one and aits four. Let us look at
numbers 1-10 in Siwa. Numerals 1-9 have two different marked forms depending on whether
what is being counted is alive (animate) or non-living (inanimate).
!
!

!
!

unmarked%
!
!

%
!

%
marked
animate! !
inanimate

0!

synt%

!
!
!
!
!

1!
2!
3!
4!
5!

m%
ei%
nevi%
aits%
hakno%

%
%
%
%
%

%
%
%
%
%

mita% %
ehta%
%
neumi%%
aubmi% %
hanga% %

syntma
md
etta
netta
aidda
hangoka

!
6!
sudna% %
%
sutva% %
sunamo
!
7!
vi%
%
%
umi%
%
vid
!
8!
tenga% %
%
tentsa% %
tengari
!
9!
boari% %
%
boata% %
boahka
!
10!
nets%
%
%
%
nedda
!
The distinction between animate and inanimate is important and Siwa and follows its own
logic. It will be introduced better later, but for now, when using verbs that require a marked
form, such as ikaha- -ika need, remember that the numerals will change depending on
the animacy of the thing you are counting:

760

%
%
ikahami mita shdika!
!
I need one fish (sira) (alive)
!
!
s-ikahana netta-a nmika?!
do you need three knives (n)?
!
!
ikahagge tengari keulmehka%
we need eight chairs
Numerals do not require a plural marking and they precede their noun:
!
!

!
!

m sira! !
ei sira% !

!
!

one fish
two fish

!
!

%
!

vi dida% !
hakno soaki!

!
!

seven girls
five houses

Reading
Da toton-go evvat - This is my family
Daki toton vivi. Da to Betevi suoka te to Natsu ataka. Golkigge oi soakkia tvomma. Dagge
aits kemomami, daki u m karsa, m kosoka te m dapsa. Unokka karta Karre, kottaka tyta
Miskvi, te unokki daa Padlmi. Mta unokkika Eillu. Dari veibmu baki Miskvi te Padlmi. Da
veibmu Temtaita to Miskvi, te da veibmu eddumita to Padlmi. ngiri ri gagi soakkia-uri
onommo. Dati Miskkumita tegmagi, ngi te ri gagi odari. Dati m tyry, Aikkero te m ini,
Aidlnu. Oa temiari ki nunnie. Dabi te benho unokki Tabbu, nevoammi ka n Aikkesta. Aidlnu
tyta, luguau. Kadlkadlka u golkigge nets mta, minesta hdadiaen benho.

I have a big family. My mother is Betevi and my father is Natsu. We all live together in the same
house. We are four siblings, so I have one younger brother, one older brother and one younger
sister. My younger brother is called Karre, my older brother is Miskvi, and my younger sister is
called Padlmi. My name is Eillu. Miskvi and Padlmi are both married. Miskvi is married to
Temhi, and Padlmi is married to etvi. They live with us in our small house. Miskvi has children,
who also live with us. He has one son, Aikkero and one daughter, Aidlnu. The children are still
small. We have a dog called Tabbu, but Aikkero is afraid of it. As for Aidlnu, she loves it. So all
in all, we are living 10 together, 11 if one counts the dog.

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
'
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

daki%
%
vivi, vivid'
golkigge%%
oi%
%
soaki, soakki'
tvono, tvomma!
soakkia tvomma!
aits !
!
kemomami%
u!
!

I have (lit. is (da) to me (ki))'

big (ADJ)
we (gge, exclusive) live together (golki)
all
house (NO)
same
in the same house
four
siblings
then, so

761

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

karsa, karta'
kosoka, kottaka'
dapsa, daa!
m!
!
tyta!
!
veibmu! !
baki!
!
Temtaita!
eddumita!
ngiri! !
ri gagi! !
-uri!
!
onona, onommo!
Miskkumita!
dati! !
tegmagi, teki!
ngi...odari!
tyry, tolba!
ini, ia!!
oa!
!
temiari!
nunnie! !
dabi!
!
benho, benhue!
nevoammi!
ka!
!
n!
!
Aikkesta!!
luguau! !

younger brother (NO)

my older brother (your: sa) (ACT.NOM)
younger sister (NO)
one
as for him/her/it (also tydda, tdda)
married
both of them, they two
to (ita) Temhi
to (ita) etvi
they (ri) live (ngi)
with (gagi) us (ri, exclusive)
our (exclusive)
small (ADJ)
to (ita) Miskvi
he/she/it has (lit. is (da) to him/her/it (ti))
children (gi is a plural) (NO)
who (o) [they (ri)] live (ngi...da)
son (NO)
daughter (NO)
still
they (ri) are (a) small (temi)
children (e is a plural) (NO)
we have (lit. is (da) to us (bi))
dog (no)
it (ne, just mentioned) scares
but, and
her/him/it
[it scares] Aikkero
she [Aidlnu] loves it [the dog]

762

NIETAT HAKNET Fifth Lesson

Nnni sageki kendai?

How do you feel today?
5 NIETAT HAKNET - Fifth Lesson: How do you feel today
5.1 Toa aymika
!
I feel a little bit sick
Aymi on tva Mairra, set ko ehru nuaki tamotta-ho deitata. Igekkora Ittaita to Mairha. Sean
geukkoskembaulonta-hi.
IMI:!

!
Imi Pengytyl, kengi.
!
Ta, sare kengi. Mairha Voiin dda.
IMI:!
!
o pge Mammairha. Nnni sageki kendai? Si-salla-i sngi? Toa ndden
%
%
sasengi.
MAIRHA:! !
Oni tr da. Toa on aymika, tabm ko atemika. Matma te tmappen,
%
%
magoki te gokippen kenda maiai. Pikimaki todatta, pikimaki plka,
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taysimaka. Kendai atsaki kengi sara. Da kengi ymy. eumi kendai
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oakibma, bhnakia.
IMI:!
!
Si, sara Mairha. Yma-a tten seimi. Seppi aubmi, salla netta smi.
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eun oakibma te sprrue. Igekkorakin kinoi, sahne gekiuts meddil desa.
MAIRHA:! !
Isotveki-h, hammueka on getildina, komma ka sppi mageki. %
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Tamokaikimi, igekkorasimi kenka.
IMI:!
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Syngydni rymyry-yli. Oseigga o. Higvai sprrue Mairha.
MAIRHA:! !
Ai ta. Higvai oseigga.
MAIRHA:!

Mairha is feeling ill, so she cannot go see her friend. She calls Imi. Listen to their phone
conversation.
IMI:!

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IMI:!
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MAIRHA:! !
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MAIRHA:!

Imi Pengytyl, hello.

Huh, hello. This is Mairha Voiin.
Oh, Hi Mairha. How do you feel today? Is everything alright? You sound a
little bit sick.
Unfortunately yes. I feel a bit unwell, in fact I think Im sick. I sneeze and
sneeze, cough and cough all day long. My head aches, my stomach
aches, my muscles hurt. Today is not a good day for me. Its a terrible day.
I have to stay home today, in bed.

763

IMI:!

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MAIRHA:! !
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IMI:!
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MAIRHA:! !

Ow, dear Mairha. That is terrible to hear. What bad luck (lit. quite a knot),
but I understand, of course. Stay at home and get better. Call me as soon
as you feel better.
Im sorry, I would love to see you. But I feel unwell. I promise that I will call
you tomorrow.
No problem. Hear from you then. Get better soon, Mairha.
Alright. Hear from you soon.

Pronunciation
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[m:i pe:ydl ce:i]

[ta, sre ce:i][marha vx:in t:a]
[jpi:j:e mm:arha][ni:n:i seci cndi][sisl:ai si::i][a :t:n
sse:i]
[ni trda][ miga tapmk temiga][mmxa de
mxapn, mgci de gcpn cnda mii][pk:imi tdata
pk:imi pka tsximga][cndai tsi ce:i sra][da ce:i
ymy][jexumi cndai pma b:hnia]
[se:i sra marha][ymaa tn seimi][spi apmi sl:a nta
si:mi][jexn pma de spi:r:ue][ikrgn cin:i sahne ects met:l
desa]
[ist:veia hm:jujeg etlina km:aka spi meci][tmkiimi
ikrsimi cka]
[sytni rymyry:li][seik:aj][hkvai spi:r:ue marha]
[ajita][hkvai seik:a]

!
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UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
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aymi% %
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tva Mairra%
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Mairha, Mairra! !
ko%
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ehru...-ita%
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nuaki! !
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tamosi, tamotta' '
deitata! !
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igekkora!
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Ittaita! !
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Imi, Itta%!
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sean! !
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geukkon, geukkos !
kembaullon, -baulonta!
-hi!
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ta!
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Mammairha!
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sageki% !
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kendai% !
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feel unwell (patientive)'

Mairha (patientive)
name
so, for that reason, then, you see
can, be possible to
go and (ki) see (nua)
friend
[be possible] for X (ta) to (ita) (copula)
calls/phones (gekkor) to (i) X (a)
[call] to Imi
name (lit. Raven)
listen!
telephone
conversation, dialogue
their
huh, well, hm (hesitation word)
dear Mairha (reduplicated to show endearment)
you (sa) feel (geki) (UNAGENTIVE)
today
764

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toa!
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ndden !
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ndna, ndnamo%!
sasengi%!
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tr!
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on...ka! !
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on...ko% !
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tabm! !
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atemika%!
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entma!
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tmappen!
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engoki%!
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gokippen!
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kenda maiai!
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pikimaki!
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totamo, todatta! !
plla, plka!
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taysimaka!
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atsaki% !
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ymy, ymyma!
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eumi % !
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oakibma%!
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bhna, bhnaka! !
bhnakia!
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si!
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yma-a!
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tten seimi!
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seppi! !
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aubmi, aumika% !
seppi aubmi!
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netta! !
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smi!
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eun! !
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sprrue! !
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igekkorakin!
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kinoi! !
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-uts meddil de! !
sahne! !
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gekiuts meddil desa!
isotveki! !
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hammueka!
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komma! !
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sppi! !
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engeki! !
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tamokaikimi!
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igekkorasimi! !
kenka! !
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syngydni rymyry-yli!
oseigga!!
!

a little
sick, unwell (ADVERBIAL FORM)
sick, unwell (ADJ)
you (sa) sound (sengi)
unfortunately
linking particles
(introducing explanation)
I think that (ADVERB)
I am (ka) sick (atemi)
I (en) sneeze (tma)
keep sneezing
I (en) cough (goki)
keep coughing
all day long
hurts (me, ki)
head (NO)
stomach (NO)
my (ka) muscles ache
I dont have, it is not for me
terrible (ADJ)
must (umi) stay (e)
at home
bed (NO)
in bed
sound to show concern
is (a) terrible (ymy)
to hear this
quite the, very
knot, difficult/unpleasant situation
what a shame, sorry
but, however, of course
I (mi) understand (s)
stay!
get better (also saprrue)
call me!
immediately (ADV)
as soon as
better (ADV)
as soon as you feel
Im sorry
I (ka) would (e) love (hammu)
very
ill, unwell, badly
I (en) feel (geki)
I swear
I will call you
tomorrow
no problem (lit. no mosquito at all)
lets hear from each other
765

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higvai!
ta!
ai ta!

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soon, quickly
it
it (is) clear, ok

Aymi
Feeling unwell
Siwa has many ways of expressing feelings of the type where the person experiencing them is
not in control. Many of those are patientive verbs using patientive pronouns (ma- sa- ta), and
we have seen a few of them already in previous lessons. A great deal of these verbs end in -mi
or -ima and are actually a type of verbal adjectives. When the verb involves a body part, the
person involved will often appear as the beneficiary of the verb, meaning the pronouns of the
type -ki -si -ti instead of -ka -sa -ta.
Verbal adjectives% !

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aymika% !
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pikimaki!
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...todatta%!
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...svaika% !
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...paika~pakka%
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...ppa! !

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horimiki!
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...dldda!
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...nrt! !
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atemika%!
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gosmika!
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Patientive verbs
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I feel unwell
my X hurts
head
neck
back
knees

or
daki pieko todattaa, svaikia, paikia~pakkia, ppia
I have pain in my X
my X is sore
throat
nose (can mean runny)
I am sick
I am tired

maiteli! !
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moaiteni!
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mohipseni!
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magoki!!
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matma!
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midagi nautita!!
daki nauta!
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I feel very sick

I feel sick (about to get sick)
I need to vomit
I cough
I sneeze
I feel nauseous
I feel nauseous

Other ways of talking about health:

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siiabunuami!
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dami demea%
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idagaki demeita!
daki totapieko% !

I feel like Im about to get sick

I have a cold
I caught a cold
I have a headache
766

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daki pllepieko%
omoskonami!
amoulenami!
dami biloika!

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I have a stomach ache, upset stomach

I feel weak
I feel weak
I have no apetite

Paraita gekkohnin
Calling the doctor
Look at the following short conversation. Notice how time is expressed in Siwa.
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Plkiskon Aingoka, Sare Kengi

Saresi kengi. Sayrimi soaggo Saimnu para gedna.
Ihna. Nmaska, deiskestami?
Tabm dami demea.
Ai. S-tamiasi pulemhima-a?
Ngoma? Sovo minet salla tamiaki.
Kemou. Sovo minet, pulemhima Saimnu para gedna.
sta. eue plda.
Plda.

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Aingo Health Clinic, hello.

Hello. I would like to schedule a visit with dr. Saimnu
Yes. For what reason, if I may ask?
I think I am coming down with a cold.
Ok. Would Monday be good for you?
What time? At 11 oclock would be good for me.
Ok (agreed). At 11 oclock on Monday with dr. Saimnu.
Thank you. Good bye.
Bye.

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VOCABULARY
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sayrami soaggi ! !
I want to make an appointment
soaggo, soagoka~soakka! appointment, visit
para gedna!
!
with a doctor, at the doctors office
paha, para!
!
doctor
nmaska!
!
why, for what reason, on what grounds
deiskestami!
!
if (d) I (mi) am allowed to ask (eiskesta)
tamia! !
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it suits, it fits
ngoma! !
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at what time
pulemhima!
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on Monday
pulemis!, pulemhi!
Monday
sovo, smma!
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at X oclock, time
kemou!!
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agreed, ok
767

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Sovo
Time
Siwa is a complicated language when it comes to talking about time. The word time itself,
sovo, is used to mean oclock and can be the answer to questions like ngoma at what time,
ngu when. Note that when talking about time, numerals do not decline at all and may take
endings like -ima at or -ita at (future), -iska at (roughly) directly. The word koho half is used,
followed by -ita.
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ngoma manina?% !
sovo m% !
!

when are you coming?

at one oclock

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ngu noaksisi belmue?!

sovo hakno !
!
sovo koho haknoita!

when are you done at work?

at five oclock
at 4:30

An hour is kimo (marked kimodi), a half-hour is kohekimo or koi (marked kokko~koiko), a

quarter is aiddut (marked aiddudda), a minute is minot (marked minodda) or tibbi (marked
tibid) and a second is segguni (marked segunne) or neybbi (marked neybie~neybbe). In Siwa,
when minutes are past a certain hour, that hour is marked with -ika (from), while time until the
next hour is counted with -ita (to).

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m segguni manylymita!
m segguni manylymika!

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one second to midnight (manyly)

one second past midnight !!

You can add kimra in the morning or sohma in the evening or ylma at night.
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da sovo hakno tibbi aitsika!

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da sovo% koi vika!
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da sovo nea te hakno minot mka%!
da sovo iesa te hakno minot eita! !
da sovo hakno kohoika eita!
!

it is 4:05 (five from four)

it is 7:15 (quarter from seven)
it is 1:35 (35 from one)
it is 1:35 (25 to two)
it is 1:35 (5 from half to two)

makin sovo neviska!

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pokuimi sovo aits kimra! !
saskuimi gkimodima!
!

come at around three oclock

I went to sleep at 4 in the morning
I woke up at noon (gkimo)

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Here is a list of words relating to time, including months, days of the week and other useful
words:

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gekes, gekehi! !
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gaisa, gaisaka! !
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mitvigas, mitvigahi!
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itvogas, itvogahi! !
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soelkas, soelkahi!
768

year
month
January (frost month)
February (short month)
Mars (wet month, no-burn month)

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soatka, soatta!
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aylkkas, aylkahi! !
tvohkas, tvohkahi! !
knas, ngahi!
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koggas, kogahi! !
ymas, ymahi! !
guknas, gungahi! !
enugas, enugahi!
lkkas, lkahi!
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heogas, heogahi!!
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heeri, heeta!
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heetai! !
tli, tta!!
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ttai! !
ko, koba!!
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kobai! !
~ihhi, ita!
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itai! !

ukengi, ukenda!!
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pulemis, pulemhi!
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eemis, eemhi!!
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kelhegemis, -gemhi!
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aitsemis, -emhi!!
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misemis, -emhi!!
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ervausi, ervausie!
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paggemis, pagemhi!
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mongemis, mongehmi!
kengi, kenda!
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kenka! !
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kendai! !
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kisi!
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soi!
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g!
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mtka! !
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dni~udni~uga~u!
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haga, hau, u! !
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kinoi! !
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higvai! !
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April (early spring month)

May (sapling? month)
June (early summer month)
July (summer month)
August (early fall month)
September (late fall month)
October (early winter month)
November (darkness month)
December (cold month)
seasons
winter
in the winter
spring
in the spring
summer
in the summer
fall
in the fall
week
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday!
Friday
weekend
Saturday
Sunday
day
tomorrow
today
this morning
this evening
tonight
yesterday
now
then
right away
soon

5.2 Para gedna

!
At the doctors
Da on kendai soaggo para gedna nenia Mairraa, maski ko pahegmmita. Ipedni mauntikita
plkiskos to. Tatapiegukka n Mairra to mauntuski.
MAUNTUSKI:!

Tatagakvenra Plkiskosta Aingoka. Nnni opaihami?

769

MAIRHA:!

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MAUNTUSKI:!
MAIRHA:!

MAUNTUSKI:!

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MAIRHA:!
PAHA:!
MAIRHA:!
PAHA:!
MAIRHA:!

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PAHA:!
MAIRHA:!
PAHA:!

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MAIRHA:!
PAHA:!
MAIRHA:!
PAHA:!

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Kengi. Unokkika Mairha Voiin te daki soaggo Saimnu para gedna

kendai, sovo minet.
Agil. S-dahhi gagi-i ninsoausivvi-a?
Nette oaki. Gemi-i.
sta (ttipra nokkiu, iul, seskengi te miteus soagoka). Gemi. Sytka tsepin
haga. Ukegvioha.
(nedi keulmehta to Mairha te tsepi)
Mairha Voisin, gemi. Tatamanin gmmita-go te nedin.
Tatamanimi hh.
u, n io-uli oasi?
Huh, set netami. Mieuemi nebmi. Mimi negakihami. Pikimaki todatta,
horimiki dldda, dami kadlken biloika. Omoskonami. Tabm dami
demea.
Hyhh, hayt sereni tten. Oinoa. Rekkohkan ata te gokin.
(Rekka vivita ata to Mairha te goki)
Oooni. Nuami. Huoo, dasi dlddia euma lemi. Voammika, donasi
dltsdd. Isotasimi on pegme, hatro ko piekodi dlddia-go te
totepiekodi gelami. Notsan even kenda si m hekkis. Itiprasimi
pegmohoto, tadnaki pengedika odeina.
Tagen hhami. Higvai tadnakimi.
Eumaa. euo plda. Igekkorakin, tloskekkauts t desa.
Hanni kitami. Tagen sta. Onuigga!
Plda!

Today, Mairha has an appointment with the doctor so she goes to the doctors office. She
arrives at the health clinic. The woman in the reception welcomes her.
RECEPTIONIST:!
MAIRHA:!

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RECEPTIONIST:!
MAIRHA:!

RECEPTIONIST:!

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DOCTOR:!!
MAIRHA:! !
DOCTOR:!!
MAIRHA:! !
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DOCTOR:!!
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MAIRHA:! !
DOCTOR:!!
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MAIRHA:!

Welcome to the Health Clinic of Aingo. How can I help you?

Hello. My name is Mairha Voiin and I have an appointment with doctor
Saimnu today at eleven.
I see. Do you have ID?
Yes I do. There you go.
Thank you (writes down name, age, date and reason of visit). There you go.
Please wait over there. You will be called.
(Mairha sits down in a chair and waits)
Mairha Voisin, go ahead. Come into my office and sit down.
Thank you.
So, what is wrong?
Well, I dont know. I would like to know. That is why I came to see you. My
head aches, my throat is sore, I have lost all apetite. I feel weak. I think I
have a cold.
Ouch, that doesnt sound good at all. Lets see. Open your mouth and
cough.
(Mairha opens her mouth wide and coughs)
Yes, I see. Hm, you seem to have a little bit of infection in your throat. Im
afraid that you have a throat infection. I will give you medicine which should
sooth the pain in your throat and your headaches. Take one pill twice a

770

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MAIRHA:! !
DOCTOR:!!
MAIRHA:! !
DOCTOR:!!

day. I will write you a prescription, which you can go and find at the drug
store.
Thank you very much. I will fetch it soon.
Youre welcome. Get well. Call me if things worsen.
I will. Thank you so much. See you!
Bye!

Pronunciation
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[ttgak:vndra pi:lcsksta i:ga][ni:n:i pihmi]

[ce:i][unciga marha vx:in de dci sk: sam:nu pjra tna
cndi sv min]
[j:l][sth:i gii nnsx:usiw:ia]
[nte ci][emii]
[i:sta][tpxa nciu il ssce:i de mits sga][emi][stka
tsepn hj:a][ukwkviha]
[nxi clmhta t marha de tsepi]
[marha vx:in emi][ttmnn m:idag de nxn]
[ttmnimi i:h:j]
[ju ni: iwwli si]
[huh stnetmi][mie:uemi npmi][mimi negihmi][pk:imi
tdata hrimii tx:a dmi katkwn biljiga]
[msknmi][tapm dmi dmeja]
[hjyhj: hj serjni tn][ina][rkhkan ta de gcn]
[rka xvivida ta t marha de gci]
[::ni][nujmi][hu: dsi tx:ia euma ljemi][vm:iga dnsi
txtst:][istsimi p:me hatxk pk:i tx:iag de
ttepk:i eljmi][ntsan vn cndasi mi: hcs][ipxmi
p:mht atni pe:eiga deina]
[tj:n i:h:jmi][hkvai atnimi]
[eumja][exu pi:lda][ikrgn tlsckuts tx desa]
[hn:i citmi][tj:n i:sta][nuik:a]
[pi:lda]

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
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nenia% !
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maski! !
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gni, gmma!
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pahegmmita! !
ipedni% !
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maunti, mauntika% %
plkiskon, -kiskos% %
tatapiegukka!
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n Mairra!
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mauntuski, -skid%%

he/she has, on him/her

went (past of maki)
office, room
to the doctors office
arrives
reception
health clinic
welcomes X in
Mairha (as the object of tatapiegukka)
receptionist (woman)

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opaihami!
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agil!
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gagii! !
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ninsoausivvi! !
oaki = odaki!
!
gemi! !
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ttipra! !
!
iul, iula!
!
seskengi, -kenda! !
miteus, miteuhi! !
sytka! !
!
nedin! !
!
tsepin! !
!
haga! !
!
ukegvioha!
!
keulme, keulmera!!
keulmehta!
!
n io-uli = ni io-uli!
oasi = odasi!
!
set netami!
!
mieuemi!
!
nebmi! !
!
mimi!
!
!
negakihami!
!
kadlken%%
%
hayt!
!
!
sereni! !
!
oina!
!
!
oinoa! !
!
rekkohkan ata! !
vivita! !
!
nuami! !
!
euma! !
!
lemi, lemme!
!
voammika!
!
donasi!!
!
sdd, sdma! !
isotasimi!
!
pegme, pegmera! !
hatro! !
!
gelami! !
!
notsan! !
!
even! !
!
kenda si!
!
hekkis, hekkihi! !
itiprasimi!
!
pegmohoto, -hobma!
tadnaki!!
!
peknena, pengedi!

I (mi) can (i) help (opa) you (ha, polite)

ok, I see (similar to ai)
with you (polite)
ID
that (o) I have
there you go, go ahead
writes down
age
date
reason
please
sit down!
wait!
there
you (ha) will (o) be called (ukegvi)
chair
into a chair
what kind of problem
that (o) you have
I dont know
I (mi) would (ue) like (mie)
to know
for that reason, that is why
I (mi) came to (ki) see (nega) you (ha, polite)
completely
not at all
looks/seems good
see, look
lets see
open your mouth
(to make) big
I see
a little
pus, infection (visible)
I (ka) am afraid
that (on) you have (dasi)
infection (symptome)
I (mi) give (isota) to you (si)
medicine
should
to sooth
take!
twice
per day
pill
I (mi) write (itipra) to you (si)
prescription
go and (ki) find (tadna), fetch
drugstore
772

!
!
!
!

odeina!
!
tagen hhami~sta!
tloskekkauts t...da!
...desa% !
!

which (ode) you (na) can (i)

thank you very much
if ever (uts t...da) [you] worsen (tloskekka)
you will

Horedenua
Bodyparts
We have already seen a few words for body parts, like totamo head and plla stomach.
Many such words in Siwa are irregular and often there are specific words for pairs of body
parts and the body parts considered separately.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

totamo, todatta! !
!
!
!
ndla, nldi!
!
!
!
hide~hile, hiedi! !
!
!
tsli, tsldi!
!
!
!
ilkima, ilkia!
!
!
!
ilkilet, ilkiledda! !
!
!
kiba, keubba! !
!
!
!
kita, kivva!
!
!
nrri~narri, nrt~naret! !
!
lisi, lihhet!
!
!
!
ata, atra! !
!
!
!
kuki, kuta!
!
!
!
milmi(gi), miltta(gi)!
!
!
!
r(gi), rita(gi)!
!
!
!
oadi, vaika!
!
!
!
dlt, dldda!!
!
saba, saubba! !
!
!
!
sata, savva!
!
!
pivi, pd! !
!
!
!
aba, aubba!
!
!
!
svahi, svaika!
!
!
horet, horetta!
!
!
!
!
kelba, kema!
!
!
!
!
ketku, ketkume! !
!
kppa, khu!
!
!
!
!
tea, tevva! !
!
!
tssr, tshma! !
!
tiebba, tiehba!
!
!
!
!
tiemo, tieka!
!
!
nukli, nuglimo! !
!
!
nykki, nykkid!
!
!
!
shpa, sma! !
!
!
!
shta, shha! !
!
plla, plka!
!
!
!
moukki, moukkiko!!
!
!
miebi, mieumi!
!
!
!
!
mamma, mami! !
773

head!
!
!
ani
face!
!
!
ina
hair!
!
!
ina
skull!
!
!
ina
forehead, temples !
ani
eyebrows!
!
ina
eyes (both)!
!
ani
eye!
!
!
ani
nose!
!
!
ani
nostrils! !
!
ani
mouth (especially open)! ina
mouth (especially closed)! ani
lip(s)!
!
!
ani
tooth (teeth)!
!

tongue! !
!

throat ! !
!
ina
ears (both)!
!
ani
ear!
!
!
ani
cheek(s)!!
!
ina
jaw!
!
!
ani
neck!
!
!
ina
torso!
!
!
ina
shoulders (both)! !
ani
shoulder!!
!
ina
arm!
!
!
ani
forearm! !
!
ani
wrist!
!
!
ina
hands (both)!
!
ani
hand!
!
!
ani
finger! !
!
ina
nail!
!
!
ina
lungs (both)!
!
ani
lung!
!
!
ani
stomach!!
!
ina
belly!
!
!
ina
leg!
!
!
ani
leg (lower part or whole)! ani

!
!
!

!
!
!

mppa, mhu!
!
!
feet (both)!
sieo, sievva! !
!
foot!
!
kmaitsa~maitsa, kmaitsa~maitsa!toe(s)! !

!
!
!

ani
ani
ina

If the declension patterns of these words seem difficult to grasp, it is because a great deal of
the words for body parts are irregular. The logic behind which noun is animate and which noun
is inanimate has more to do with the way the words decline in their marked form than any real
logic.

Grammar
Up to this point weve discussed a few details of Siwa grammar we saw that nouns
have two main forms (marked and unmarked), from which one can form more forms
that have meanings of location:

!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!

soaki!
soakka!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
soakkia%!
soakkita!
soakkika!

house! !
house ! !
in the house!
into the house!
out of the house!

!
!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!

soakkima!
soakkibma!
soakkiska!

on the house!
ADESSIVE
onto the house! ALLATIVE
off the house!
ABLATIVE

UNMARKED
MARKED
INESSIVE
ILLATIVE
ELATIVE

It is now time to discuss this phenomenon in greater detail.

Marking and Cases
You will now be introduced to some of the words used to describe what marking
does. Siwa is a language with cases grammatical function of a noun is encoded by
some sort of change in the word. Besides the 6 locative cases, Siwa has 4 main
cases. What complicates these things is that nouns only have two visible cases. So it
means that cases share forms of the word. The four cases are as follow:
!
!
!

!
!
!

unmarked%
active! !
dative! !

marked
patientive
genitive

So both the active and the dative look the same, and the patientive and genitive also
have a shared form. Knowing which case belongs where in a sentence will answer
the question of whether a noun should be marked or not.
The active case is the default form of a noun. It is used when the doer of an action is
conscious, willing or in control. It is also used with the verb tmi to be. The active
corresponds to the pronoun endings we have seen on verbs in -mi -na -.
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

koni somi!
!
pevvi benho!
!
da mhki%
!
kesa Sdi to pegg!

!
!
!
!

774

the man is walking

the dog wants to eat
there is frost
the girl studies Siwa

Opposite the active case is the patientive case, which shows that the doer of an
action is not conscious, not willing, not in control or otherwise experiencing the action
against his or her will. This is very common with verbs of states and experiences.
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

piagi skko!
!
ohigeni benhue% !
pey mhkid!
!
atemi pegme ! !

!
!
!
!

the man is falling asleep

the dog is cold
the frost disappeared
the girl is sick

The other pair of cases are the dative and the genitive.
The dative is the case of the object of a verb which has been affected by the action
either completely or has undergone some sort of change of state to the end. In other
words, the dative is used with conclusive verbs.
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

nega somi to kori%!

!
totkiagge tsi benho!
!
kaiksua mhki igi elepra% !
oveibma pegg to pyddi-go!

the boy saw the man

we bought the dog
the flowers escaped the frost
my cousin married the girl

The genitive on the other hand is opposite to the dative, and is used when only part of
the object of a verb is affected, or when any type of change of state does not reach
its conclusion or does not affect the object entirely. For that reason, it is very common
in negative phrases.
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

negsami n skko-t!
set totkiagge benhue!
negaimi oia mhkid!
s-lana-a n pegme-t?!

!
!
!
!

I used to see that man

we did not buy a dog
I could see frost everywhere
do you know this girl?

The genitive has a second function, that of a proper genitive case showing a
possessor. This is similar to English s, though Siwa uses it more frequently than
English. The genitive can show other relationships to the head noun. It nearly always
follows its head noun:
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

tyry skko!
tamosi tolba!
benho tamotta!
rgi benhue !

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

the mans son

the sons friend
the friends dog
the dogs teeth

It can also be found before adjectives to qualify them in one way or another:
!
!
!
!

kehka hanna!
!
mhu timo!
!
!
!
!
merume mialha! !

!
!
!
!

fair of skin (kehmo skin)

independent, strong (mppa feet, lit.
standing of/on both feet)
blueblerry blue!

Now we can look at what we have learned about verbs and cases and draw a better
picture of how marking and verbal types intertwine in Siwa.
We have seen four different verb types:

775

Agentive verbs%
!
Agentive verbs in -a%
!

CASE%

%
!

AGENTIVE TRANSITIVE VERBS

%
!
!

PRONOUNS

SUBJECT! !

ACTIVE!

OBJECT!

DATIVE/GENITIVE!

-mi -na - -gga/-gge -dda -ri

-ka -sa -ta -ba/-be -ha -a

!
!
!
!

Verbs with a conscious (agentive) subject and an object. The

subject is in the active case, the object in the dative or genitive. Because
they have an object, these verbs are called !transitive.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

nuami! !
nuana! !
nua!
!
nuagga!
nuagge !
nuadda!
nuari! !

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!

nua somi!
!
saa Sdi pegg% !
kesa sauhhahi kori!
bialaa paha!
!

Agentive verbs in -i%

AGENTIVE INTRANSITIVE VERBS

%
!
!

CASE%

%
!
!

I see him/her/it
you see him/her/it
he/she/it sees him/her/it (X sees Y)
we (you and me) see him/her/it
we (others and I) see him/her/it
you see him/her/it
they see him/her/it
the man sees him/her/it
the girl speaks Siwa
the boy studies languages
the doctor speaks to them

PRONOUNS

SUBJECT! !

ACTIVE!

OBJECT!

!
!
!

Verbs with a conscious subject and no object. Uses the same set of
pronouns as agentive verbs in -a. Because they lack an object, these
verbs are called intransitive.

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
%
%

konimi% %
gui benho!
sengi hemi!
tsti ski!!
iaggeli suoka!
ontai omna!

-mi -na - -gga/-gge -dda -ri

I walk
the dog barked
the bird sings
the woman stood up
my mother is visiting
the married couple dances

The same pattern can be found with verbs in -a with an object and verbs in -i
without an object, but with a different set of pronouns. They are the unagentive verbs.
!
!
Unagentive verbs%
!
Patientive verbs in -a! !
UNAGENTIVE TRANSITIVE VERBS
!
!
CASE%
%
%
PRONOUNS
SUBJECT! !
PATIENTIVE!
!
ma- sa- ta- ma- sa- tsaOBJECT (TOPIC)! GENITIVE! !
!
-ka -sa - -ba/-be -ha -a
%
!

Patientive verbs are verbs whose experiencer is seen as the object (the
topic of the verb is its patient). The subject of such verbs corresponds to

776

!
!
!
!
%

the object in English. You can think of these verbs are reverse verbs to
English. The phrase I like it in Siwa is takokkaka or it pleases me. Both
subjects and objects of patientive verbs are in the marked form. This
means that the subject is in the patientive case while the object is in the
genitive case.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!

takokkaka%
%
%
kokka pegme igi elepra%%
makokka pegme!
!
neutva skko sauhhahi! !
seitkva tva nobmo!
!
tvoavvaka la! !
!
s-mavoavvasa-a?!
!
s voavva Siusta tva tsama!
hammua kohko tva tieladi-t!
tahammua!
!
!
pikima todatta! !
!

!
%
!

Patientive verbs in -i ~ -mi!

%
%
%
%
!
CASE%
%
%
SUBJECT! !
!
!
!
OBJECT (TOPIC)! GENITIVE! !
!

I like it
the girl likes the flowers
the girl likes me (lit. I please the girl)
the man is interested in languages
he is ashamed of his beard
I am afraid of the dark
are you afraid of me? (lit. do I scare you?)
a Siwa is not afraid of the forest
the boy loves this island
he/she/it loves him/her/it
(my) head aches

UNAGENTIVE INTRANSITIVE VERBS

~ VERBAL

ADJECTIVES
PRONOUNS

-ka -sa - -ba/-be -ha -a

%
!
!
!

Patientive verbs without a subject are in many cases very similar to those
with a subject. A great deal of these verbs have an ending in -mi or -ima.
These are actually called verbal adjectives and are somewhere between
English verbs and adjectives. They only have genitive objects.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
%
!
!
!
!
!

gimmika!
!
gimmi benhue% !
s-gosmisa-a?! !
lemni kibid!
!
s-aymi-a kesamotta?!
ymeskima Pentsa!
tihmi kistamotta%

I am excited
the dog is excited
are you tired?
the cat is thirsty (kibbi)
is the teaching feeling ill?
Pengo is feeling depressed
the student is stressed

Finally, building on unagentive intransitive verbs by adding the prefix u-, one can
form passive verbs from both agentive and unagentive transitive verbs (those in -a):
!
!
-a!
becomes!
u--i
!
!
!
!
!

%
%
%
!
!

unegika!
!
usai hha Sdi!!
ubiali kohko%
!
ukokki en magga-t %

I was seen
Siwa is spoken here
the boy was spoken to
this meat is liked

Two other subgroups of verbs involve the prefixes o- and i-. The o- prefix shows
that a subject acts upon itsself (onuimi I see myself), while the i- shows that either
someone receives an object (isotasimi pegmera I will give you medicine) or that
there is a destination (ipedni oakibma arrive home). These verb types will be
introduced better later.

777

!
A last group of verbs we have not touched upon are translative verbs in -u.
They show a change of action...sometimes.

Reading
ukengi-go My week
Lagu md ukendaa tava seslu, tten onaimi-a. Salla on etsti ukenda, tamuhimi ko
vangihita kd, arona gaulkkia ireldi te gosulhamo. Ga pulemhima udda. Belmuimi eemhima
kadlka kenda, sete mallia ahkigitseta tamusitse ahha. Ga hagu seppi butta. Da kendai harrauli tvono sihmi, daimmi, hehmi te kvelmi, o te emmi-a. Sarilda set nukvemi, sarva dda!
Kelhegemhima u, ga toumiaka ikketkengi, maskimi o genta-ho suga movvasakita deitami.
Eren kyminaita. Set neglami sinka ubma. Istatimi on rybmy te ippihi, kmesil ka tagegi. Iogu
hbmima eteria te ga trhutsieo eren irela. Kodigge on Gekkostsamita, kieskivvagge ko
iohka trhutsieodi. Tsavireltai. Aitsemhima u, maskumimi soamkekkita vangihi kd kuka.
En ahha, benda tatabahsa, maski ko bangamoita te totkia bb. Misemhima on te belmuimi
kadlka kenda, trrima vi. Da kendai
paggemis, sete kituami t-uli. Kenka onta te daki belmo. Kendai katta munimi.
A lot can happen in one week, I can tell you that. The week started well off, because I moved
into a new apartment, which is in a beautiful and quite neighborhood. That was on monday. I
worked on tuesday, all day, and I didnt have time to clean up after moving. There was bad
weather then. Today as well there is similar weather it rains, its humid, its cold and cloudy,
and its windy on top of that. At least its not hailing, that is good! On Wednesday, my sister had
a birthday, so I went to visit her at her house for coffee. It was very nice. I hadnt seen her in a
long time. I gave her a dress and candy, she seemed happy. That day the air was warm and
the sunset was beautiful. We walked to Gekkostsamma (hillside-forest) to watch the sunset
from there. It was gorgeous. On Thursday, I had to go to the bank because of the new
apartment. After that, I had to buy food, so I went to the store and bought food. On Friday I
worked all day long too, but fortunately it was sunny. Today is Saturday and Im not going to do
anything. Tomorrow I have work. Today though, I relax.

UNNAKA
VOCABULARY
'
!
'
!
!
!
!
!
!

lagu% %
taa, tava~taba'
seslu% '
onaimi%!
etsti!
!
tamuhimi!
vaknis, vangihi!
arona%!
gagulki, gaulkki%

%
%
'
!
!
!
!
!
!

can, happen to
much'
to happen
I (mi) can (i) tell (ona)
started (pres. etsi)
I (mi) moved (tamusi)
appartment
that (on) lies (ara)
neighborhood, community

778

!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
%
!

irela, -ldi%!
!
gosulha, -hamo! !
ga!
!
!
udda, utten!
!
belmuimi!
!
kadlka kenda%
!
sete!
!
!
mallia! !
!
ahkigi! !
!
ahkigitseta!
!
tamusitse ahha% !
hagu! !
!
seppi, seppen! !
butta, buttamo! !
harra, harka!
!
-uli tvono!
!
sihmi! !
!
daimmi! !
!
hehmi! !
!
kvelmi! !
!
o te -a!
!
sarilda! !
!
nukvemi!
!
toumiaka!
!
ikketkengi!
!
maskimi%!
!
genta-ho%!
!
suga...deitami! !
movvasakita! !
eren!
!
!
kyminaita!
!
neglami%!
!
set...sinka ubma% !
istatimi!
!
rybmy, rymyma! !
ippis, ippihi!
!
kmes, kmehi! !
kmesil! !
!
tagegi% !
!
iogu!
!
!
hbmima!!
!
eteria! !
!
trhutsie, -sieodi!
trhi, thta!
!
kodigge%!
!
kieskivvagge! !
iohka! !
!
tsa(v)--ta!
!
tgavireltai!
!

beautiful
quiet
was
that
I worked (pres. belmi)
all day long
and not
I had no time, did not manage (pres. malla)
picks up, cleans up
in order to (tseta) pick up
after (ahha) moving (tamusi)
at that time, then
quite the, very (-en)
bad weather
weather
the same kind
rains
it is humid
it is cold
it is cloudy
and to boot/on top of that, in addition to
at least, however, on the bright side
it hails
my older sister has (ia, lit. in her)
birthday
I (mi) went (pres. maki)
to his/her place
(for me) to go (itami) visit (suga)
for (ita) coffe (moasa)
very
it (ta) was (i) nice (kymina)
I (mi) have seen (negla, pres. nua, past nega)
not for a long time
I (mi) gave (ista) to her (ti)
dress
candy
happy
(seem/appear/look/sound) happy
he/she (ta) seemed (gegi, pres. geki)
at that time
it was warm (pres. hmmi)
in the air (ede)
sunset
sun (ANI)
we walked (pres. koni)
we (gge) wanted (vva) to look at (pres. kieska)
from over there
very, exceedingly, so
was very beautiful
779

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
%
!
%
%
!
!
%
!

maskumimi!
!
soamkena, soamkekka!
kuka!!
!
en ahha% !
!
benda! !
!
tatabahsa!
!
bakna, bangamo!
totkia bb!
!
b, bb%!
!
trrima% !
!
vi!
!
!
kituami%!
!
set...t-uli%!
!
onta...katta!
!
munimi! !
!

I (mi) needed (umi) to go (maski, pres. maki)

bank
because of (+GEN)
after it/that
needed (pres. bedna)
to buy groceries
food store, grocery store
bought (pres. totka) food
food
it was sunny (pres. thmi)
fortunately
I (mi) want (ua) to do (kit)
not anything at all
while A, B however (onta pron. [ta])
I (mi) relax

780

NIETAT SUDNET Sixth Lesson

S-mitsnta gamakvidda-a?
Do you want to come to the cabin
with us?
5 NIETAT SUDNET - Sixth Lesson: Do you want to come to the cabin with us?
5.1 Kobai mitsnta mimiei.
!
In the summer I like going to the cabin.
Da mitsni temme arrui nenia Nllunia. Isygua on mitsnta-nen tsi tamosi-nen tsi Oii to Nlkka,
igekkorati ko te neska, nimieo-a ukendaita taskkita gamaksa. Salla sean
geukkuskembaulonta-hi.
OII:!

NLKKA:!

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NLKKA:!
OII:!
NLKKA:!

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OI:!

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NLKKA:!

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OII:!
NLKKA:!
OII:!

Oii Ohhukkiini, sare.

Saresi kengi -Oii. Nlkka mta.
Ninnlkka! Sinka ubma! Ka ndni?
Kadlka ketso. Sean, so smieo-ahte en ukendaita-t taskkita mitsnta-go
gamaksa? Mta onta iguseitami, tamiemi katta demi, de ne tvdari
nalvi-go.
Ai n kymina tten seimi. Tsaggemuta gamakoimi. Hammueka taskkita
tahnin, oltami ka au sinka ubma temme arrui. Si ara-i temme arrui
mitsni-so? Tsereni, daki netta n ukendaima-t m komi, tamosi
belmueika. S-eomu-a gamakoto?
Dee ara-e. inis onomma arrui, biekkia. Sete io-uli, gadamaki to
tamosi-so. Koniigga tsamita, goakka kebsie te numa sma deitagga.
Inoniigga te inista, idiegggiigga hnamoita, eui tadda te katatemma
noimma. Egi u kitieigga sasame egi keulieigga sikvut te pohhoii aika
unna, tuts dae harra sara de.
Elusereni tten. S-itsvaoina-a iohta?
Itsvaoimi inta. o, onana nt? S-makioa-a?
Sihi makioa. Igekkorahmi, tahhiuts tevu sovo tenga oakibma demi.
Kemou. Onuigga u!

781

Nlkka has a cabin by a lake. She wants to invite her friend Oii to her cabin, so she calls her
and asks if she would feel like coming along into the woods. Listen well to their phone
conversation.
OII:!
NLKKA:!
OII:!
NLKKA:!

!
!
OI:!

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NLKKA:!

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OII:!
NLKKA:!
OII:!
NLKKA:!

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!

Pronunciation
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Oii Ohhukkiini, hello.

Good day to you dear Oii. This is Nlkka.
Nilkka! Its been a while. Whats new?
Nothing out of the ordinary. Listen, I was wondering if you felt like coming
along into the woods to my cabin this weekend ? I will be going there, but
my husband is abroad so I will be alone.
Oh how nice to hear. I would come with great pleasure. I love going into the
woods, I havent been by the shore for quite some time. Isnt your cabin by
a lake? It sounds good, but I have a guest visiting me over the weekend, a
friend from work. Could she come along?
Yes it is by the shore. Next to a little lake, in the north. And its not problem
at all if your friend comes along. We can walk into the forest and pick
mushrooms and berries. We can go swimming into the lake, go into the
steamhut, stay in and enjoy a fire. Or we could set up a sasame or have a
bonfire and sleep outside, if the weather is good.
That sounds great. Will you be driving there?
Yes, I would drive. So, what do you say? Shall we go?
Alright, lets go! I will call you before I leave home tomorrow at 8.
Ok, see you then!

[ii h:ciini sre]

[sresi ce:i :ii][ni:lk:a mta]
[ni:ni:lk:a][ska pma][ci:a ni:tni]
[katka ctsx][sejan ssmie:ahte n ucndid tasc:ida
mtsn:i:dag gmaks:a][ng(n)ta iguseidmi tmiemi kata demi
denede tvdri nalvig]
[i ni: cymina tn seimi][tsx:emuda gmcjimi][hm:jujega
tasc:ida thknn ska tmi ux snka pma tem:e r:ui][si wrai
tem:e r:ui mtsn:is][tserjeni dci nta n ucndim mi:
kam:i tmsi blmueiga][sejmua gmkd]
[dee wrae][ins nm:a r:ui bcia][sete iwwli gdmci t
tmsis][kniik:a tsamida gaka cpsie de numa sy:ma deidk:a]
[inniik:a de insta idiec:iik:a hu:nmida jexui tt:a de kttem:a
nim:a][eiju citieik:a ssme ei ceulieik:a sk:v de ph:jii
aka un:ja t:tsdxe hr:a sra de]
[eluserjeni ten][sitsvx:jina: hta]
[itsvax:jimi nta][j ina ni:i][smcia:]
[sii macia][ikrahmi th:tstevu sv te:a pma demi]
[cemxu][nuik:aju]

UNNAKA

782

VOCABULARY
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mitsni, mitsnid, -ta!

temmy, temme! !
arrui!
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nenia! !
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Nlkka, Nlluni%
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isygua%!
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-nen!
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tsi!
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nimieoa% !
ukendaita!
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amaksa!!
!

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cabin, vacation house

shore
next to, by
in/on him/her/it, he/she/it has
personal name (f)
wants to (ua) invite X to Y (isyga)
his/her/its (refering to subject/topic)
him/her/it (dative)
if (a) he/she/it (n) would feel like (imieo)
for the weekend (in the future)
to go (maksa) with/along (ga)

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ka!
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kadlka ketso!
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-ahte, -ahre, -ahle%!
onta...katta!
!
iguseitami!
!
tamiemi! !
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demi! !
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ne!
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de!
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tvdari! !
!
nalvi, nalumi!
!
n kymina!
!
tsaggemuta! !
gamakoimi!
!
tahnin! !
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olami! !
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oltami% !
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au!
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komi, koa!
!
belmueika%
!
eomu.-ot-! !
gamakoto!
!
onona, onomma! !
biekkia! !
!
gadamaki!
!
koniigga!
!
goakka kebsie! !
numa sma!
!
deitagga!
!
inoniigga!
!
idieggiigga!
!
hnamoita!
!
hdna, hnamo! !
eui! !
!
tadda! !
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is (a) new (k)

everything as per usual, nothing particular
I wonder if
X but Y, X, however Y
I (mi) will travel (guse) to it (iita)
alone
I will be
because, you see
will be
away from home
husband
how nice
with great pleasure
I (mi) would (oi) come along (gamak)
to leave (itahhimi I leave)
I have been
I have not been
quite
guest
from work (belmo)
is possible that
that (ot) X comes (mako) along (ga)
little!
!
!
in the north
if (da) X comes (maki) along (ga)
we (gga) can (i) walk (koni)
pick mushrooms
pick berries
to (go and) X (pick mushrooms, berries)
we (gga) can (i) swim (to a place, inoni)
we (gga) can (i) go (and come back, idieggi)
to the steam hut
steam hut
can (i) stay (somewhere, eu)
(to) inside
783

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katatemma!
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nobema, noimma%!
egi!
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kitieigga!
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sasame, sasakka%!
keulieigga%
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sikvut, sikvudda! !
pohhoii!
!
aihhi, aika!
!
unna! !
!
aika unna!
!
tuts dae...de% !
harra, harka!
!
elusereni!
!
itsvaoina!
!
onana! !
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sihi...oa!
!
tahhiuts tevu...de%!

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enjoy
fire (inside, generally)
or
we (gga) could (iei) make (kita)
a siwa tipi
we (gga) could (iei) make (lit. observe, keula)
bonfire
could (oii) sleep (pohhi)
star
under
under the stars, outside
if ever (uts dae) there is (t.de)
weather
sounds great
you (na) would (oi) drive (itsvoi)
you (na) say (ona)
lets just X
before (uts tevu.de) X leaves (tahhi)

To be continued..

784

785

Appendix A: Modernization
Because of its pre-Columbian historical context, the Siwa language lacks vocabulary
for some of the even most basic ideas of modern thought. For example, there exists
no word for wheel and there is no vocabulary relating to science, technology or
medecine in the language herein described. However, in an effort to make it possible
to use Siwa in a modern day context, a number of neologisms have been created.
!
Because Siwa lends itself so easily to descriptions of life and natural
phenomena, the vocabulary was developed from such a perspective. Thus, one find
neologisms derived in great number from words describing nature. For example, the
word for car is gelvis which comes from tagli X will spin and ois turtle, and the
word for computer is dionaddi which consists of (ata)dion counting and naddi
beehive.

Technology !
airplane!!
alcohol! !
arch!
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bicycle! !
book! !
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bottle! !
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bus!
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camera!!
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car!
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chair! !
clock! !
compass!
!
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computer!
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dome! !
!
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electricity!
farm! !
glass! !
gun, riffle!
internet!!
!
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Katageidlot
marimi'
tugai' '
komkamo !
!
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golba' '
valtsa' '
!
!
mohh'
!
!
gelkobo'
!
!
huolus'
!
!
gelvis' '
!
!
keulme' '
itsiks' '
sibeolus'
!
!
dionaddi'
!
!
puntsli '
!
!
hallu' '
ailki'
'
vevva' '
tiemhpi''
tkkekot'
!
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(from mari shield and imi raven)

(from tygy poison and ai clear)
(cf. kuomon bent and kaibmu
support)
(lit. two-wheel)
(cf. from l- leaf and -(a)tstaabsolutive descriptive)
(from mo- drink and vevva
glass)
(from gel- wheel and kobbomora
salamander)
(from hue light and olus
reader)
(from tagli X will spin and ois
turtle)
(cf. kekli X will sit in a circle)
(cf. itski X will spend time)
(from sibema north and olus
reader)
(from hdion counting and
naddi beehive)
(cf. puna deerskin and tsli
skull)
(cf. hauma bright)
(cf. ila X will grow Y)
(cf. vut ice)
(lit. hand-arrowhead)
(from tkka X will connect Y and
kekot web)

786

kettle! !
laser! !
light bulb!
machine!
microscope!
microwave!
!
!
military! !
mobile-phone!
money! !
movie! !
oven! !
paper! !
photograph!
!
!
plastic! !
press! !
telephone!
toaster! !
toilet! !
toilet! !
train! !
!
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radio! !
refrigerator!
saw!
!
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!
scissors!
ship!
!
shower! !
steel! !
!
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technology!
telescope!
television!
!
!
toothbrush!
umbrella!
!
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vaccination!
bee)
wheel! !
wool! !
zero! !

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lossa' '
hurri''
thtumus'
toatus' '
pirikibi''
mukkalsa'
!
!
taulva' '
tagemun'
soami' '
teuki' '
kalsa' '
keihko' '
kehhn'
!
!
kommit''
tamotus'
kauhlun'
hinin' '
eiskun/eskona'
euna/geuna'
mahkobo'
!
!
amnon' '
geimin' '
ikurt' '
!
!
dehbi' '
tahhun''
kvilki' '
vahmit' '
!
!
katageidlot'
sukibi''
teuknomi'
!
!
vekis' '
sihmari''
!
!
sinukkon'

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(cf. luhha X will boil Y)

(lit. light-arrow)
(from trhi sun and tmu egg)
(cf. toati X will work together)
(from pirin nugget and kita eye)
(cf. tamuhu X will be invisible and
kalsa oven)
(cf. taulhi army)
(lit. hand-box)
(cf. somora gold)
(lit. silouhette-time)
(lit. bowels)
(diminutive of kehhe birch bark)
(from kehhe birch bark and vume
reflection)
(from kom- bend and -mit metal)
(from tamagoa X will press Y)
(lit. thread-box)
(cf. honomi embers)
(cf. eskot empty)
(cf. gia X will bathe Y)
(from mari shield and kobbomora
salamander)
(lit. smoke-box)
(lit. frost-box)
(cf. iki axe r tooth and -(a)tstaabsolutive descriptive)
(cf. diki X will carve)
(cf. kehko canoe)
(cf. kuilva drizzle)
(cf. tvahsu X will grow stronger
and -mit metal)
(from katagedla X will work Y out)
(from su- far and kita eye)
(from teuke silouhette and
nuobmo window)
(lit. little comb)
(cf. sihhi it is raining and mari
shield)
(cf. sinukka to vaccinate, from sinni

!
!
!

geulke ''
pahmieri'
dsi'
'

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'

(cf. tagli X will spin)!

(from pagi back and mieri moss)
(lit. not-counted)

787

Food
coffee! !
!
!
garlic! !
onion! !
tomato! !

!
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moasa'
!
!
sahtapa''
rhtapa' '
subb' '

Science%
agriculture!
!
!
algebra!!
!
!
anatomy!
!
!
anthropology!
architecture!
!
!
astrology!
astrophysics!
biology! !
botany! !
chemistry!
CO!
!
!
!
dentist! !
dentistry!
!
!
doctor! !
ecology!!
!
!
economy!
!
!
education!
!
!
engineering!
engine! !
evolution!
gas!
!
gene! !
genetics!
geology!
geometry!
!
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histology!
history! !

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Halonka te Kistonka
ilokadlas'
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tamulgeulva'
'
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horedenipag''
!
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!
somukiston'
'
soketsovon' '
!
!
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aihhuhalon'
'
aihhiosvarhalon''
ilhaon' '
'
elikiston''
'
phalon'
'
kuihletka'
'
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!
!
rpaha
rpag''
'
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paha'
golkakiston'
'
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gemkot''
'
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nition''
'
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!
eiton' '
'
einsa' '
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austas' '
'
etka'
'
'
ao'
'
'
aihalon'
meihalon'
'
erttitsovon' '
!
!
!
rhehalon'
'
unenas''
'

'
!
'
'
'

(from mo- drink and asa black

ashes)
(lit. good-bulb)
(lit. skin-bulb)
(from subo fruit and pila red)

788

(from ilon vegetation and kadlas

tradition)
(from tam number and geulva
function)
(from horet body and gena
section)
(cf. somi man)
(from osoken building a house
and katatsovon description
(from aihhi star)
(cf. tilili X is alive)
(from plant)
(from pka material)
(from kuihla X will breathe Y out
and etka gas)
(from r tooth and pag
doctoring)
(from taguolki X will live
gregariously)
(cf. gemka to make
advantageous)
(cf. nitia X will make Y (want to)
learn)
(lit. building)
(cf. omeini X will propel itself)
(cf. tysti X will develop)
(cf. ede air)
(cf. katia X will inherit Y)
(from m earth)'
(from ertto line and katatsovon
description)
(cf. rhet tissue, skin)
(cf. unynnyli X is said)

hydrogen!
law!
!
and ! !
linguistics!
!
!
logic! !
magnet!!
mathematics!
medicine!
!
!
microbe!
mycology!
nuclear fission!
!
!
oxygen!!
!
!
philosophy!
!
!
physics!!
!
!
planet! !
psychology!
radioactivity!
science!!
science!!
seismology!
silver! !
!
!
space! !
statistics!
zoology!!

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tka'
'
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ketsasko'
'
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sauhhakiston' '
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!
saskaun'
'
tekkat' '
'
diokiston'
'
pegmopag' '
!
!
!
el'
'
'
kepsukiston'
'
angilpurrn'
'
!
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!
sametka'
'
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!
galdekiston'
'
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!
mangamehalon''
!
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!
hoknun' '
'
komukiston'
'
hamiluhha'
'
halon ' '
'
kiston' '
'
guokiston'
'
omit' '
'
!
!
!
iatsio''
'
tameikiston'
'
mautsehalon' '

(cf. uo water and etka gas)

(cf. ketso according to customs
asko control)
(from sauhhas
language)'
(from tsaiskia it will follow that)
(from tek toward and kat away)
(from atadion counting)
(cf. pegme cure and pag
doctoring)
(from el- to grow and u sand)
(cf. kepsi mushroom)
(from ang pit and purrn
squeezing)
(from sam- breathe and etka
gas)
(from ogalden meditation,
discussion)
(from mangama nature of the
world)
(lit. big boulder)
(cf. komi mind)
(from hamit ore and luhha rot)
(cf. halukka to stalk)
(lit. studying)
(cf. taguurui X will growl)
(from oi moon light and -mit
metal)
(cf. ii night-sky and atsio glade)
(cf. tam number)
(cf. mautsa animal)

Society
farmer! !
government!
judge! !
politician!
politics! !
president!
professor!
school! !
soldier! !
teacher!!
!
!

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!

tailkomi'
auskun' '
ketsotauskisi'
taiskaksi'
aiskaka''
tauskimi'
keiski' '
keinta' '
ataulmi' '
anotsvi' '
!
!

(cf. ailki farm)

(cf. asko control)
(cf. ketsasko law)
(cf. aiskaka politics)
(cf. asko control)
(cf. auskun government)
(cf. kesa X will teach Y)
(cf. kesa X will learn Y)
(cf. taulhi army)
(cf. nitia X will make Y (want to)
learn)

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789

university!
!
!
week! !
Geography
America!
'
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Asia! !
Canada!!
US!
!
Europe! !
'
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Finland! !
Iceland!!
'
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!
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mkeinta'
!
!
ukengi!!

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Aimrika/Okokna''
'
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'
sia
Kanata
Toamkena(ka)''
ropa/Maikna' '
'
'
'
Sma
Vutkala'
'

Biology
Order (similar animals) ! kenet' '
species!!
!
kemomi'
vertebrates!
!
nydheret
invertebrates! !
nydeskiret'

'
!
!

(from m- specialized and keinta

school)
(from vi seven and kengi day)

(cf. oaki home and -kna

country)

(cf. toami unition)

(cf. maga white and -kna
country)
(cf. vut ices)!

'

(cf. kekna organize, put together)

Derivation suffixes used in neologisms include:

-etka% %
-halon% %
-haulu% %
-kiston% %
-kiesti% %
-mit%
%
-tsovon%
-un/-in% %
-%
%
-heret/-ret%

gases, elements
science
scientist, -ist
science (usually soft)
scientist, -ist
metals, elements
description, -graphy, -metry
box, encased thing
particle
group

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