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Modeling and Optimization of A Binary Geothermal Power Plant
Modeling and Optimization of A Binary Geothermal Power Plant
Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, MIT 3-158, Cambridge, MA, USA
ENEL Ingegneria ed Innovazione S.p.A., Area Tecnica Ricerca, Via Andrea Pisano, 120, 56122 Pisa, Italy
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 1 August 2012
Received in revised form
8 October 2012
Accepted 16 October 2012
Available online 17 November 2012
A model is developed for an existing organic Rankine cycle (ORC) utilizing a low temperature geothermal
source. The model is implemented in Aspen Plus and used to simulate the performance of the existing
ORC equipped with an air-cooled condensation system. The model includes all the actual characteristics
of the components. The model is validated by approximately 5000 measured data in a wide range of
ambient temperatures. The net power output of the system is maximized. The results suggest different
optimal operation strategies based on the ambient temperature. Existing literature claims that no
superheat is optimal for maximum performance of the system; this is conrmed only for low ambient
temperatures. For moderate ambient temperatures (Tamb 1.7 C) superheat maximizes net power
output of the system. The value of the optimal superheat increases with increasing ambient temperature.
The optimal operation boosts the total power produced in a year by 9%. In addition, a simpler and semianalytic model is developed that enables very quick optimization of the operation of the cycle. Based on
the pinch condition at the condenser, a simple explicit formula is derived that predicts the outlet
pressure of the turbine as a function of mass ow rate of working uid.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Geothermal energy
Organic Rankine cycle
Optimization
Binary plant
1. Introduction
Strategies for the sustainable energy development are based on
efciency improvement in existing energy systems and the introduction of renewable energy sources instead of fossil fuel ones [1].
Although the global contribution of renewable energy systems to
the total energy supply is small, due to their potential for sustainability, renewable energy sources have received enormous interest
in the last decade. Of particular interest are low and medium
temperature thermal energy sources due to their ubiquitous
availability. This omnipresence and feasibility of utilization in
small-scale power cycles promote decentralized applications of
these energy sources. The organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is one of the
promising cycles used to extract thermal energy from various
energy sources such as solar, biomass and geothermal [2e9].
A thermal energy resource can be characterized by four
parameters: reservoir vs. stream, temperature (T), rate of energy
transfer (Q_ ) (size) and cost. The characteristics of a thermal energy
source affect the optimal choice of working uid (WF) for an ORC
(e.g. [10e20]) Different objective functions have been used for WF
selection, such as the ratio of net power output to heat exchanger
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hghasemi@mit.edu (H. Ghasemi), amitsos@alum.mit.edu
(A. Mitsos).
0360-5442/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.10.039
hI
_ net
W
GB
Q_
GB
hII
_ net
W
GB ;
DX_
(1)
where Q_
denotes the extracted thermal energy by the ORC from
GB
the geothermal stream and DX_ the exergy difference between the
inlet and outlet geothermal streams. In addition to the choice of
WF, cycle conguration is another important factor for optimal
performance. A common enhancement to the standard Rankine
cycle is incorporating an internal heat exchanger (recuperator) [23].
WFs are divided in two categories based on the shape of their
saturation dome in the T-s diagram: bell-shaped T-s (B-type or
normal) which has negative slope of the saturation vapor line for all
temperatures (Fig. 1(a)) and overhanging coexistence T-s (O-type or
retrograde) which shows a positive slope of the saturation vapor
line for a temperature range (Fig. 1(b)) [6]. Typically organic uids
composed of small molecules (Number of C atoms ( 3) are mostly
Nomenclature
Latin
_ air
m
_ WF
m
_
V
_
W
Ao
Atot
ACC
Cpair
D
Db
f
Fb
Fp
ff
fp
G
GB
h
hc
hc,f
hfg
L
LB
NB
Ns
NT
Nu
P
Pc
PT
Pr
RD
Rcon
Re
s
T
t
UD
W
WF
X
x
413
Greek
DTp
DTtu
hs
hw
hII,g
hII
hI
k
m
mw
r
Superscript
air
air
L
liquid
sat
saturation
V
vapor
Subscript
max
min
amb
b
i
n
nb
o
pa
s
sl
tu
tub
w
maximum
minimum
ambient
boiling
inside
nozzle
nucleate boiling
outer
parasitic
shell side
sleeve
turbine
tube
wall
414
Fig. 1. A schematic of two types of T-s diagrams are shown. Fluids such as water, ammonia, Pentauoroethane (R125), Methylene Fluoride (R32), Triuoroethane (R143a),
Chlorodiuoromethane (RE125) are of B-types and uids such as Octauoropropane (R218), Pentauoropropane (R245fa), n-Butane (R600), Isobutane (R600a), n-Pentane (R601)
and Isopentane (R601a) fall in the category of O-type.
Fig. 2. (a) A schematic of an Isobutane ORC with a recuperator is shown utilizing a low temperature geothermal source. (b) The T-s diagram of Isobutane in the range of temperature
and pressure considered in the current study is presented. Since Isobutane is an O-type WF, as shown, the outlet WF of the turbine is always in a superheated state. Note that the
inclination of step 6-1 in the diagram is caused by the pressure drop in the condensers. (c) The h-s diagram of Isobutane in the range of extensive properties of the considered
system is shown.
415
Fig. 3. A schematic of the existing ORC in the power plant (ENEL) utilizing a low temperature GB is shown. The inlet temperature and pressure of the GB are T 135 C and
P 897 kPa. The WF, the GB and the air streams are depicted in blue (Solid line), red (Dotted line) and black (Arrow), respectively. The system is equipped with three pumps, two of
them are constant frequency drive and one is VFD. Two recuperators are used in parallel to preheat the WF. The GB ows through two heat exchangers, vaporizer and preheater, to
provide the thermal energy to the ORC. The WF is expanded in turbines each connected to a separate condensation system. The condenser fans are designed as combinations of
constant and variable frequency drive systems. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
2. Model development
As aforementioned, the focus of this study is a binary
geothermal system utilizing an ORC, shown illustratively in Fig. 2
along with the T-s diagram. Fig. 3 shows a more detailed owsheet of the cycle considered, in particular illustrating the parallel
units, e.g., turbines, recuperators and condensers. The process is
based on a Geothermal Power Plant operated by ENEL.
Fig. 4. The performance curves of the pumps considered in this study at several drive
frequencies are shown. On the left-hand axis, the head of the pump and on the righthand axis the isentropic efciencies of the pumps are shown as a function of the mass
ow rates. The drive frequencies are given as the labels.
416
Table 1
The properties of the streams at optimal operation for DTtu 32 C and P 2137 kPa
at Tamb 26.7 C are presented.
Stream
Fluid
T C
P kPa
m_ Kg/s
VFrac
h kJ/kg
IBL-1
IBL-3
IBH-1
IBH-4
IBH-6
IBH-8
IBH-9
IBH-10
IBL-6
IBL-8
IBL-10
IBL-11
Air1
Air2
Air3
Air4
Air5
Air6
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Isobutane
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
39.5
39.5
40.7
40.7
69.3
69.3
102.0
132.2
93.5
56.2
40.4
40.3
26.7
41.0
26.7
39.2
26.7
39.3
532.6
532.6
2137
2137
2126
2127
2061
1994
541
540
537
535
87.9
87.9
87.9
87.9
87.9
87.9
1426
475
475
713
713
1426
1426
1426
713
713
713
713
6478
6478
6512
6512
5566
5566
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.084
1
1
1
0.68
0.31
1
1
1
1
1
1
2632
2632
2628
2628
2553
2553
2437
2164
2213
2288
2418
2534
1.7
16.0
1.7
14.3
1.7
14.3
Table 2
The constants of Eq. (19) are determined at three ambient temperatures (Tamb 10, 21.11 and 37.77 C). The values of a and b for Isobutane are 0.0844 and 357.3, respectively.
The value of DTP is 1 C.
Tamb C
P5o kPa
_ WFo Kg/s
m
_ air Kg/s
m
Cpair kJ/(kgK)
Dx
DhL kJ/kg
C1 105
C2
C3
10
21.11
37.77
384
518
777
190.8
190.51
191.39
1201
1154
1095
1.006
1.007
1.007
0.0916
0.0731
0.0544
0.31
0.31
0.31
2.3
2.3
2.3
8.72734
9.53116
11.00868
4229.92
3238.77
2289.85
4321.32
4321.32
4321.32
DTtu ( C)
P
(kPa)
V_ WF
(m3/hr)
V_ A
(m3/hr)
fr(A)
(rpm)
V_ B
(m3/hr)
V_ C
(m3/hr)
32
2137
1838
472
1700
682
682
417
The isentropic efciency of the turbines is obtained from manufacturer data. For these turbines, the maximum value of hs is 86%.
However, as discussed in the following, deviations of operating
condition from this maximum adversely affects the performance of
the turbine and consequently hs. This deviation can be expressed as
a function of ratio of enthalpy drop (rT) and ratio of volumetric ow
rate (rVT) [24]. For the considered turbine in this study, the
dependence of hs on these parameters is written as
rT
q
h4 h5 =h4 h5 max
(2)
rVT
r
. max
V_
V_
hs 0:86 rh rv
(4)
hs
h4 h5
h4 hs5
(5)
Table 4
The dimensions of the heat exchangers (Fig. 21).
Component
Type
Material
L mm
Ds mm
Do mm
t mm
NT
PT mm
B mm
Recuperator
Preheater
Vaporizer
ACC
C-Steel
C-Steel
C-Steel
C-Steel
Al
5486.4
17678.4
15849.6
18288
63.5
1981.2
1990.7
1930.4
e
1.90
31.75
15.88
15.88
31.75
0.41
2.11
1.65
1.65
2.11
31.75
2060
6137
5180
6930
39.69
20.64
20.64
69.85
600.08
1574.8
1936.75
e
418
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
60
110
1000
100
Measurem
Measurements
Simulation
90
100
60
40
50
30
40
30
20
90
o
WTu (kJ/kg)
70
TBRS-3 ( C)
50
80
80
70
20
60
10
10
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0
1000
50
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Fig. 5. The isentropic efciency curve of the turbine considered in this study is shown
as a function of the outlet pressure on the right-hand side axis. This turbine is designed
for an ORC with Isobutane as its WF. This curve is calculated for a xed inlet state:
_ WF 201.60 kg/s, T4 101.11 C and P4 1654.74 kPa. Also, the corresponding power
m
of turbine is shown on left-hand side axis. Note that the maximum in isentropic
efciency and power output are obtained at different outlet pressures.
Tamb ( C)
Fig. 7. The simulated values of outlet temperature of GB (line) are compared with the
measured ones (dots). For a xed operation, the value of thermodynamic properties
should be constant for a given Tamb. However, due to off-operation and error in the
measurements, different values of TBRS3 are measured for a given Tamb. On the basecase operation, the simulated results represent the measured data with a good
accuracy.
1.0
0.9
0.8
Efficiency
0.7
Isentropic (s)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Geothermal (
0.2
II,g
Thermal (I)
0.1
0.0
-20
_ net (line) are compared with the measured ones
Fig. 6. The simulated values of W
(dots). The measurements are divided in to two categories: the measurements in the
base-case operation with a good agreement with the simulated values and the offoperation measurements. These off-operation data are measured during the mainte_ net at a given Tamb.
nance of one of the turbines and thus give lower values of W
-10
10
20
30
40
Tamb( C)
Fig. 8. For the considered ORC in Fig. 3, the values of hI, hII,g and hs of turbine for
_ net of
a range of Tamb at the base-case operation are shown. The hI and consequently W
the system offer maximum values at low ambient temperatures.
20
Two fans
Three fans
Four fans
Five fans
18
16
WNet (MW)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Tamb ( C)
Fig. 9. The performance of the ORC in different congurations of the ACC system are
compared: two, three, four and ve fans in each bay. The results suggest that increase
in the cooling capacity of the system can signicantly affect the performance of the
system at high Tamb.
1.940E4
19.0
1.910E4
1.880E4
1.850E4
1.820E4
18.5
W Net (M W )
1.790E4
1.760E4
1.730E4
18.0
1.700E4
17.5
2100
17.0
2000
10
15
o
T (
C)
1900
20
P(
kP
a)
25
30
1800
Fig. 10. The value of the net work as a function of the two independent variables, DTtu
and P2 is shown for ambient temperature of 1.11 C. The contour of the objective
function is plotted on the XeY plane.
419
420
0.14
0.370
0.12
0.11
0.365
0.3700
0.3644
0.3587
0.3531
0.3475
0.3419
0.3362
0.3306
0.3250
0.360
0.355
II,g
0.1400
0.1338
0.1275
0.1213
0.1150
0.1088
0.1025
0.09625
0.09000
0.13
0.350
0.345
0.340
0.10
0.335
2100
0.09
2000
10
15
o )
C
T (
20
1900
25
30
P(
kP
0.330
2100
0.325
a)
2000
10
15
C)
T (
o
1800
Thermal Efficiency
1900
20
25
P(
kP
a)
1800
30
Geothermal Efficiency
0.78
0.7800
0.7719
0.7638
0.7556
0.7475
0.7394
0.7313
0.7231
0.7150
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.73
2100
0.72
2000
10
15
20
C)
T (
o
1900
25
P(
kP
a)
1800
30
Isentropic Efficiency
Fig. 11. The values of hI, hII,g, and hs of turbine are shown as functions of the two independent variables at Tamb 1.11 C. The colored mesh represents the magnitude of the
efciencies.
_
W
;
hI GB net
_
m
hGB
hGB
out
in
(6)
11
1.100E4
1.031E4
10
9625
8938
8250
W Net (M W )
7563
6875
6188
5500
hII;g
_
W
;
net
GB
GB X GB
_
m
Xin
min
2100
(7)
2000
10
15
1900
o
GB
Xin
GB
Xmin
where
and
denote the inlet exergy and minimum outlet
exergy before reinjection to the wells, respectively. The values of hI,
hII,g and hs of turbine for a range of Tamb are shown in Fig. 8 for basecase operation. The hI of the ORC varies in the range of 1e11%. When
Tamb 1.7 C, the inlet and outlet state of the turbine is xed (P5 is
T (
C)
20
25
30
P(
kP
a)
1800
Fig. 12. The value of the net work is plotted as a function of the two independent
variables for Tamb 26.7 C. The maximum is attained close to the boundary of the
feasible set. Note that the maximum occurs close to the different corner of the feasible
set compared to Fig. 10.
WF
_ pa W
_ V_ ; f W
_ GB m
_ WF m
_ WF W
_ GB
W
air f
f
p
p
(8)
and,
_ tu m
_ net W
_ pa m
_ GB
_ WF ; T4 ; P4 ; T5 ; P5 W
_ WF ; V_ air ; ff ; m
W
(9)
421
max
_ net T
_ WF ; T4 ; P2 ; T5 ; P5 ; V_ air ; ff ; m
_ GB
W
amb ; m
s:t: P5 P5 Tamb ; ff
_ WF ; T4 ; P4 ; T5 ; P5 0
g m
_ WF m
_ WF T4 ; P2
m
V_ air V_ air Tamb ; ff
_ WF ; P2
P4 P4 m
T4 T sat P4
(10)
422
Fig. 13. The values of hI, hII,g, and hs of turbine are shown as functions of the two independent variables for Tamb 26.7 C. The colored mesh represents magnitude of the
efciencies.
max
DTtu ;P2
s:t:
_ net T
W
amb ; DTtu ; P2
(11)
DTtu 0
1792 P2 2137
kPa
T=0 C 0 0
20
Optimized Operation
Base-case Operation
18
16
13.9
W net (MW)
14
12
26.4
10
32
8
32
Frequency distribution(%)
423
0
-20
-10
10
20
30
-10
40
130
Optimal operation
120
20
30
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-10
0
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Tamb ( C)
Fig. 14. (a) The optimum values of objective function are compared with the base-case
operations as a function of Tamb. The value of P2 for optimal operation is shown and the
value of DTtu is indicated for some optimum conditions. As mentioned above, the value
of DTtu for the base-case is 8 C. Note that at high Tamb, the value of DTtu is limited by
the inlet temperature of brine in the vaporizer. (b) The percentage increase in the net
power output of the system compared to the base-case operation is shown. Note that
at high Tamb, optimal operation of the system offers a signicant increase in the net
power output.
_ net
DW
Optimal operation
Base-case operation
110
W net (%)
b
Electricity Generation (10 MWhr)
10
T amb ( C)
Tamb ( C)
_ Opt W
_ net
W
net
100
_
W net
10
20
30
Tamb ( C)
Fig. 15. (a) The frequency distribution of the ambient temperature for one year is
shown. (b) The total electricity generation in the base-case operation and the optimal
operation are compared. The optimal operation offers 9% increase in the total electricity generation.
424
240
140
220
Geothermal Brine
WF
130
200
In
120
Temperature ( C)
180
260
160
140
120
110
100
90 Out
80
70
100
-20
-10
10
20
30
60
40
3
50
Tamb ( C)
40
60
80
100
120
140
42
TP
Tsat
44
Temperature ( C)
20
Fig. 16. The optimal values of drive frequency of VFD fans are shown as a function of
Tamb. When Tamb 1.7 C, all the VFD fans should be kept at the maximum load.
However, when Tamb 1.7 C, the drive frequency of VFD fans should be adjusted to
_ net .
obtain the optimal values of outlet pressure of turbine and the maximum of W
Out
40
38
36
34
32
30
WF
Air
28
26 In
0
10
15
20
GB GB
_ GB hGB
m
hGB
TpGB ; PpGB
p
in Tin ; Pin
_ WF h4 T4 ; P4 hp P4
m
(12)
(13)
a
390
Explicit formula
Detailed Model by AspenPlus
Explicit formula
Detailed Model by AspenPlus
520
510
Pressure, P5 (kPa)
380
Pressure, P5 (kPa)
425
370
360
350
500
490
480
470
340
140
150
160
170
180
190
460
140
200
150
160
170
180
T amb =10 C
T amb =21.11 C
790
190
Explicit formula
Detailed Model by AspenPlus
Pressure, P5 (kPa)
780
770
760
750
740
730
720
710
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
T amb =37.77 C
Fig. 18. The predicted outlet pressures of the turbine as a function of the mass ow rate from Eq. (19) is compared with the simulated values by Aspen Plus at three ambient
temperatures. Note that the values of mass ow rate can be converted as the values of DTtu through Eq. (12).
TpWF T sat P4
(14)
_ GB ,
Since for a given geothermal energy source, the values of m
GB and P GB are given, the left hand-side of the Eq. (12) is known.
Tin
in
Thus, for a given P4, there are two unknowns in Eq. (12). For
a turbine designed for a specic ow rate and enthalpy drop, there
is a correlation between the independent variables at the inlet and
the outlet of the turbine.
WF
_
g m
; T4 ; P4 ; T5 ; P5
0:
(15)
This equation along with Eq. (12) provide two equations with
_ WF ). Another equation should be
three unknowns, (T4,P5 and m
added to this system of equations to solve for the unknown variables and this is the functional dependence of outlet pressure of the
turbine to the mass ow rate of WF.
Once a pinch condition occurs in the condenser, the outlet
pressure of the turbine and consequently the condensation
temperature is limited by the outlet temperature of cooling
medium, Fig. 17(b). Here, we consider an ACC for the analysis, but
this approach can be applied to other condensers as well. For the
pinch condition at the condenser, assuming constant properties of
air, one can write
Optimization in AspenPlus
Optimization in EES
18
16
W net (MW)
20
14
12
10
8
6
4
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Tamb ( C)
_ net at P4 2137 kPa is determined by two
Fig. 19. The maximum value of W
approaches; detailed model in Aspen Plus and shortcut approach implemented in EES.
The difference is related to the pressure drop effect considered in Aspen Plus model.
Note that method 2 has much shorter convergence time.
426
35
!
sat
dT
P5 P5o DTp Tamb
T sat P5o
aDx
dP5 P0
5
L
b Dh
WF
_
m
P5
a aDx
_ air Cpair
m
Optimization in AspenPlus
Optimization in EES
30
Superheat, ( C)
25
(18)
20
15
or equivalently
10
P5
_ WF
C1 C3 m
_ WF C2
m
(19)
where
0
C1
-5
-10
10
Tamb ( C)
20
30
40
Fig. 20. The optimal values of DTtu determined by two independent approaches are
compared at different Tamb. The agreement between the results suggest that the
second approach which is faster can be used instead of optimization by Aspen Plus to
determine the optimal operation. However, the second approach is not as detailed as
the rst approach.
C2
_ air Cpair
m
Dxa
!
sat
!
sat
o
dT
o
P5
P DTp Tamb
dP5 Po 5
!
dT sat
Dxa
dP5 P o
_ air Cpair
m
C3
DhL
a Dxa
(20)
_ air Cpair T sat
m
_
DTp Tamb m
WF
Dxhfg Dh
(16)
(17)
Flow
Baffle
_ pa
_ net 2 m
_ WF h4 h5 W
W
B
Do
t
Tube
PT
Front-view
Eq. (19) suggests a simple correlation between the outlet pressure of turbine and the mass ow rate of WF. According to this
equation, at a given Tamb, by having base-case operation data (by
Aspen Plus simulator), one can determine the outlet pressure of the
turbine based on the mass ow rate of WF in different operations.
This equation should be validated before coupling with the equations derived above (Eqs. (12) and (15)). In the geothermal system
studied above, the last air-cooled condenser is chosen to examine
Eq. (19). For three ambient temperatures, Tamb 10, 21.11 and
37.77 C, the value of C1, C2 and C3 are determined from a simulation
of base-case operation. These values are tabulated in Table 2. We
note that the value of C1 is sensitive to the T sat P5o and DTp. Thus, to
keep high accuracy in the predictions, the value of C1 is determined
_ WF at the base-case operation. The
by the given values of P5o and m
predicted outlet pressure of turbine as a function of mass ow rate
by Eq. (19) and the simulated values by Aspen Plus are compared
and shown in Fig. 18. There is a good agreement between the
predicted outlet pressure of turbine with the simulated values,
Fig. 18.
Eq. (19) is considered with Eqs. (12) and (15) to form a system of
equations for a given T4 and P4 (or DTtu and P4). This system of
equations can be solved numerically. Here, we have used EES
software for this calculation, since libraries of thermodynamic
_ net of the
properties for different uids are built in. The value of W
ORC is expressed as
L
Right-view
Fig. 21. A layout of tubes in a shell and tube heat exchanger is shown. The geometrical
dimensions of the heat exchangers in the studied system are listed in Table 4.
(21)
427
Acknowledgment
This work is conducted with the nancial support from ENEL.
Hadi Ghasemi gratefully acknowledges his Postdoctoral Fellowship
through the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada (NSERC). Aspen Plus was generously provided by Aspen
Technology. The authors would like to thank Randall Field and
Nicola Rossi and his team at ENEL for their useful inputs.
Appendix
For the tube side of the heat exchangers including recuperators,
preheaters, and vaporizers, the ow is a single phase. Thus, the heat
transfer coefcient may be determined using Sieder-Tate and
Hausen equations: [26] For Re > 104
Nu 0:023 Re0:8 Pr0:33
m
mw
0:14
:
(22)
DP
fnp LG2 ar G2
;
2rD
2r
(23)
2
f 0:790 ln ReDh 1:64
;
(24)
ar 1:6np 1:5:
For the shell side of heat exchangers, the heat transfer coefcient may be expressed as [26]
L
jH 0:5 1 B 0:08 Re0:6821 0:7 Re0:1772
Ds
0:14
m
Nu jH Pr 1=3
;
(25)
mw
DP
(26)
mw
where
De
4 bPT2 pD20 =4
pD0
(27)
The value of b for square and triangular pitches are 1 and 0.86,
respectively. The above correlations are for a single-phase ow.
Once a phase change occurs in the heat exchangers, the transport of
thermal energy depends on the thermodynamic states of all the
present phases. For the boiling on the horizontal tubes, one may use
Mostinski Eq. [29]
2:333 3:333
hc;nb 1:167 108 Pc2:3 DTw
Fp
;
(28)
428
where
DTw Tw T sat
References
(29)
where
Fb 1 0:1
!0:75
0:785Db
CPT =Do 2 Do
1
where C is 0.866 and 1 for triangular and square layouts, respectively. For the condensation in horizontal tubes, one may use the
Shah correlation [26] that can be written
0:4
hc 0:023 C Re0:8
L PrL
kL
Di
(30)
Nu 0:38 Re0:6 Pr 1=3
Atot
Ao
0:15
(31)
Once the heat transfer coefcients, for both sides of tubes are
determined, the overall heat transfer coefcient for the heat
exchangers may be written as
"
UD
Do
Do ln Do =Di
1
hc;i Di
2k
hc;o
#1
!1
RD
(32)
!
#
1
Atot Atot lnDo =Di Atot ln Do;sl =Di;sl
RDi
2pksl L
Ao
hc;i
2pktub L
RDo
Rcon Atot
1
pDo L
hw hc;o hw
"
UD
(33)
This correlation is introduced for bimetallic tubes. If the tube
and n are made of a same material, the term pertinent to sleeve