EEE 545:SATELLITE

COMMUNICATIONS

Danson Njue

Satellite speed and attitudes (1)

Speed and altitude of satellites in circular orbits

Altitude (Km)

Orbital speed (Km/s)

200

7.8

500

7.6

1,000

7.4

5,000

5.9

10,000

4.9

20,200 (Semisynchronous)

3.9

35,800 (Geosynchronous)

3.1

The speed needed to keep a satellite in orbit does not depend on the mass of the
satellite
Once a satellite has been accelerated up to orbital speed by a rocket, it does not need to
be continually powered to stay in orbit - Newtons first law of motion, which states that in
the absence of forces such as friction and air resistance, an object at rest will stay at rest
and an object in motion will stay in motion with same speed and in the same direction.
As a result, once put in motion by a rocket, a satellite will stay in motion, with the Earths
gravity bending its path from a straight line into an orbit
As such, satellites can stay in orbit for long periods of time, since they do not need to
carry large amounts of fuel to keep them moving. It also means that once in orbit, other
objects (debris) will stay in orbit essentially indefinitely, unless they are at low enough
altitudes that atmospheric drag slows them over time and they fall to Earth.

Orbital periods of satellite

Orbital Period: Time it takes for the satellite to travel around the Earth once (complete

one orbit)
As the altitude of the orbit increases, the satellite moves more slowly and must travel
farther on each orbit, hence the period increases with the altitude of the orbit
Altitude (Km)

Orbital period (Minutes)

200

88.3

500

94.4

1,000

104.9

5,000

201.1

10,000

347.4

20,200 (Semisynchronous)

718.3 (12 hours)

35,800 (Geosynchronous)

1436.2 (24 hours)

Orientation of the Plane of the Orbit

A satellites orbit always lies in a plane, and that plane passes through the center of the

Earth and the description of a satellites orbit requires specifying the orientation of this
orbital plane
Equatorial orbit: Occurs when the plane of the orbit includes the Earths equator
Polar orbit: When the inclination angle is 90 degrees, the orbital plane contains the
Earths axis and the orbit passes over the Earths poles
Inclination angle: Angle at which the plane of the orbit lies with respect to the Earths
equatorial plane

Circular and elliptical orbits

Circular Orbits:
For a satellite travelling in a circular orbit at an altitude h and speed V, the centifugal

force equals the gravitational force on the satellite.

Where m is the mass of the satellite, G is the gravitational constant, Me is the mass of the
Earth (GMe=3.99 x 1014 m3/s2) and Re is the average radius of the Earth (6.370 Km)
The speed of the satellite can be expressed as follows;

If we let r be the distance from the satellite to the center of the Earth, so that

Then V can be written as;

NB; The mass of the satellite does not appear in the above equation

Circular Orbits:
The period can be found by dividing the distance the satellite travels in one

orbit (in this case, the circumference of a circle with radius h + Re) by the
speed of satellite, V. The period Pcirc of a circular orbit is therefore given by;

Elliptical Orbits:
Assignment 1
Derive equations for the speed, V and the period, Pcirc of
a satellite travelling in an elliptical orbit

Escape Velocity
If an object is launched from Earth with a speed of 11.2 km/s or greater, the

Earths gravity is not strong enough to keep it in orbit and it will escape into
deep space. This speed is called the escape velocity
The escape speed is the minimum speed necessary for an object to escape
permanently from a gravitational field.

SATELLITE LINK
DESIGN
Satellite Link Design and Link Budget
Calculations

Satellite link
The satellite link is the most basic microwave

communications link since a line-of-sight (LOS) path

typically exists between the Earth and space.
The LOS exists in some form of an imaginary line
extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth
station and the satellite antenna and passing through the
atmosphere as opposed to the ground.
As such, such a link is governed by free-space
propagation with only limited variation with respect to time
due to various constituents of the atmosphere.

Satellite link- Attenuation

Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse

square law;
The power received, Pr is inversely proportional to the square of the

distance, d.

Other effects that produce a significant amount of signal

degradation and time variation in a satellite link include; Rain

Terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls

Other impairments produced by unstable conditions of the air and

ionosphere.

Satellite link- parameters

Important parameters of interest during design of a

satellite link include; Performance of the satellite

The configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink

Earth stations
The impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of
interest.
Efficient transfer of user information across the relevant interfaces
at the Earth stations, involving such issues as the precise nature of
this information, data protocol, timing, and the telecommunications
interface standards that apply to the service.

Satellite link- Elements

Satellite link- Elements

Baseband

The basic direct output signal in an intermediate

frequency obtained directly from a source (TV camera,
satellite television receiver, or video tape recorder).
Baseband signals needs to be modulated to convert them
to a format which a terminal equipment can be tuned to
(e.g VHF or UHF television channels which the television
set can be tuned to receive).
Carrier
The carrier is an analog signal which is modulated by
manipulating its amplitude (making it louder or softer) or
its frequency (shifting it up or down) in relation to the
incoming signal. Satellite carriers operating in the analog
mode are usually frequency modulated.

Satellite link- Elements

LNB (LOW NOISE BLOCK DOWN CONVERTER)

A device mounted in the dish, designed to amplify the satellite signals and convert
them from a high frequency to a lower frequency. LNB can be controlled to receive
signals with different polarization. The television signals can then be carried by a
double-shielded aerial cable to the satellite receiver while retaining their high quality.
A universal LNB is the present standard version, which can handle the entire
frequency range from 10.7 to 12.75 GHz and receive signals with both vertical and
horizontal polarization.
Demodulator
A satellite receiver circuit which extracts or "demodulates" the "wanted "signals
from the received carrier.
Decoder
A box which, normally together with a viewing card, makes it possible to view
encrypted transmissions. If the transmissions are digital, the decoder is usually
integrated in the receiver.
Modulation
The process of manipulating the frequency or amplitude of a carrier in relation to
an incoming video, voice or data signal.
Modulator
A device which modulates a carrier. Modulators are found as components in
broadcasting transmitters and in satellite transponders.

Satellite link- Elements

Most transponders operate on a "bent pipe" principle,

referring to the sending back of what goes into the conduit

with only amplification and a shift from uplink to downlink
frequency, as opposed to a 'regenerative' system
whereby the signal is modified to its original format
through re-modulation.
Bidirectional (duplex) communication occurs with a
separate transmission from each Earth station.
Due to the analog nature of the radio frequency link, each
element contributes a gain or loss to the link and may add
noise and interference as well.

Satellite link- Elements

Carrier to Noise Ratio (C/N)

The ratio of the received carrier power and the noise power in a
given bandwidth, expressed in dB. This figure is directly related
to G/T and S/N; and in a video signal the higher the C/N, the
better the received picture.
G/T
A figure of merit of an antenna and low noise amplifier
combination expressed in dB. "G" is the net gain of the system
and "T" is the noise temperature of the system. The higher the
number, the better the system.
The link budget analysis can predict if the link will work with satisfactory

quality based on the specifications of the ground and space components.

Any uncertainty can be covered by providing an appropriate amount of link

margin, which is over and above the C/N needed to deal with propagation
effects and nonlinearity in the Earth stations and satellite repeater.

Satellite link- Design process

Define Requirements for each link
Design Each Link
Select frequency
Select modulation & coding
Apply antenna size & beam width constraints
Estimate atmospheric, rain attenuation
Estimate received noise, interference power
Calculate required antenna gain & transmitter power

Size the Payload Payload antenna configuration, size &

mass Estimate transmitter mass & power Estimate

payload mass & power

Satellite link - propagation factors

Atmospheric losses
Different types of atmospheric losses can perturb radio

wave transmission in satellite systems:

Atmospheric absorption;

Atmospheric attenuation;
Traveling ionospheric disturbances.

Atmospheric absorption
Energy absorption by

atmospheric gases, which

varies with the frequency of
the radio waves.
Two absorption peaks are
observed:
22.3 GHz from resonance

absorption in water vapour

(H2O)
60 GHz from resonance
absorption in oxygen (O2)

Atmospheric attenuation
Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation (hail,

ice and snow have little effect on attenuation because of

their low water content).
Total attenuation from rain can be determined by:
A=

L [dB]
where [dB/km] is called the specific attenuation
where L [km] is the effective path length of the signal through the
rain; note that this differs from the geometric path length due to
fluctuations in the rain density.

Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances

Traveling ionospheric disturbances are clouds of

electrons in the ionosphere that provoke radio signal

fluctuations.
The disturbances of major concern are:
Scintillation;
Polarisation rotation.

Scintillations are variations in the amplitude, phase,

polarisation, or angle of arrival of radio waves, caused

by irregularities in the ionosphere which change over
time. The main effect of scintillations is fading of the
signal.