NAME :- SHARVIN SHRIKANT RANE

MIS NO :- 111105051
CLASS:- FINAL YEAR B-TECH
SUBJECT :- WIND AND SOLAR

ASSIGNMENT FOR TEST 1

Q1) EXPLAIN THE HISTORICAL PRESENCE OF USE OF WIND

POWER BY MANKIND
ANS) 1st Wind Energy Systems
Ancient Civilization in the Near East / Persia
Vertical-Axis Wind-Mill: sails connected to a vertical shaft connected to a grinding stone for
milling
Wind in the Middle Ages
Post Mill Introduced in Northern Europe
Horizontal-Axis Wind-Mill: sails connect to horizontal shaft on a tower encasing gears and
axles for translating horizontal into rotational motion
Wind in 19th century US
Wind-rose horizontal-axis water-pumping wind-mill found throughout rural America

Since early recorded history, people have utilized wind energy. It propelled boats along the Nile River as early as
5,000 B.C., and helped Persians pump water and grind grain between 500 and 900 B.C. As cultures harnessed the
power that wind offered, the use of windmills spread from Persia to the surrounding areas in the Middle East, where
windmills were used extensively in food production.
Eventually, around 1,000 A.D., wind power technology spread north to European countries such as The
Netherlands, which adapted windmills to help drain lakes and marshes in the Rhine River Delta.
Through history, the use of wind power has waxed and waned, and nowhere in history is that more evident than in
the last century and a half. Read on to discover many of the remarkable advances that wind power has made over
this period of time.
1850
U.S. Wind Engine Company Established
Daniel Halladay and John Burnham start the U.S. Wind Engine Company and build the Halladay Windmill, which is
designed for the landscape of the American West.
1890

Wind Power Used for Pumping Water and Electricity

Wind power in North America is used to help farmers and ranchers pump water for irrigation and windmills generate
electricity for homes and businesses.
1890
Steel Blades Invented for Windmills
The invention of steel blades for windmills makes them more efficient and as homesteaders move west, more than
six million windmills are erected throughout the countryside.
1893
Wind Power is Showcased at the Worlds Fair
The Chicago Worlds Fair showcases 15 windmill companies and their wind turbine designs.
1941
Largest Turbine Powered Local Utility During WWII
The largest wind turbine of the time operates on a Vermont hilltop known as Grandpas Knob. Its 1.25 megawatts
feed electric power to the local utility network for several months during World War II.
1980
First Large Wind Farms are Installed
The first large (utility-scale) wind farms are installed in California. As a result, many important lessons are learned,
such as greater awareness of environmental affects and proper siting--where wind turbines are installed--which lead
to the development of lower impact designs.
1981
NASA Scientists Developed Method to Predict Turbine Performance
National Aeronautics and Space Administration scientists Larry Viterna and Bob Corrigan develop The Viterna
Method, which becomes the most common method used for predicting wind turbine performance, thus increasing
the efficiency of turbine output to this day.

Q2) EXPLAIN CORIOLIS EFFECT IN DETAIL

ANS)The Coriolis effect is one of those terms that you hear used from time to time, but it never seems to get fully
explained, so you are left wondering what is the Coriolis effect? The Coriolis effect is the apparent curvature of
global winds, ocean currents, and everything else that moves freely across the Earths surface. The curvature is due
to the rotation of the Earth on its axis. The effect was discovered by the nineteenth century French engineer Gaspard
C. Coriolis. He used mathematical formulas to explain that the path of any object set in motion above a rotating
surface will curve in relation to objects on that surface.

If not for the Earths rotation, global winds would blow in straight north-south lines. What actually happens is that
global winds blow diagonally. The Coriolis effect influences wind direction around the world in this way: in the
Northern Hemisphere it curves winds to the right; in the Southern Hemisphere it curves them left. The exception is
with low pressure systems. In these systems there is a balance between the Coriolis effect and the pressure gradient
force and the winds flow in reverse.
Satellites appear to follow curved paths when plotted on world maps because the Earth is a sphere and the shortest
distance between two points on a sphere is not a straight line. Two-dimensional maps distort a three-dimensional
surface in some way. The distortion increases with closer to the poles. In the northern hemisphere a satellites orbit
using the shortest possible route will appear to follow a path north of the straight line from beginning to end, and
then curve back toward the equator. This occurs because the latitudes, which are projected as straight horizontal
lines on most world maps, are in fact circles on the surface of a sphere, which get smaller as they get closer to the
pole. This happens simply because the Earth is a sphere and would be true if the Earth didnt rotate. The Coriolis
effect is of course also present, but its effect on the plotted path is much smaller, but increases in importance when
calculating a trajectory or end destination. The effect becomes very important when you need to plot trajectories for
missiles or artillery fire.
To sum up what is the Coriolis effect, it is an important meteorological force that is used to predict the path of
storms and explains why a projectile will not hit a target at a great distance if the Earths rotation is not accounted
for.
Which way does the coriolis effect deflect wind in the northern hemisphere?
1.

The Earth's rotation means that we experience an apparent force known as the Coriolis effect. The
direction of the wind is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere

What is the coriolis effect and what does it do?

1.

the result of Earth's rotation on weather patterns and ocean currents. The Coriolis effect makes storms swirl
clockwise in the Southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. force that
explains the paths of objects on rotating bodies.

What is the cause of the coriolis effect?

1.

The Coriolis effect is caused by the rotation of the earth and the inertia of the mass experiencing the
effect. Newton's laws of motion govern the motion of an object in a (non accelerating) inertial frame of
reference.

How does the rotation of the earth affect wind?

1.

Our planet's rotation produces a force on all bodies moving relative to theEarth. Due to Earth's
approximately spherical shape, this force is greatest at the poles and least at the Equator. The force, called
the "Coriolis effect," causes the direction of winds and ocean currents to be deflected.

Q3) EXPLAIN THE LOCAL WIND GENERATION CAUSES AND EFFECT

ANS)Local Winds at the Seashore
During the day along the coast, the land and water absorb radiant energy from the sun. They do
not,however, change temperature at the same ratebecause they are made of substances with

differentspecific heat values. Specific heat is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature
of one gram of a substance one degree Celsius. Water has the highest specific heat of common
substances, which means it takes more energy to increase the temperature of water than to raise the
temperature of the same quantity of other substances.
Because of its lower specific heat, land heats faster and cools more rapidly than water; and the air over
the land also heats more rapidly than air over the water. The heated air over the land rises, creating an
area of low pressure. The air over the sea is cooler, creating an area of higher pressure. The cooler air in
the high-pressure area over the sea moves to the area
of low pressure over land. This is called a sea breeze because the wind is coming from the sea toward the
land. At night, the land cools more rapidly than the water, which means the sea is now warmer than the
shore,and the air over the sea becomes warmer than the air over the land. The warm, rising sea air
creates an area of low pressure, and the cooler air over the land creates an area of higher pressure. The
air again moves from higher to lower pressure, from land to sea .This breeze is called a land breeze.
Generation of electricity by wind energy has the potential to reduce environmental impacts
caused by use of fossil fuels to generate electricity because, unlike fossil fuels, wind energy
does not generate atmospheric contaminants or thermal pollution, thus being attractive to
many governments, organizations, and individuals. Others have focused on adverse
environmental impacts of wind-energy facilities, which include aesthetic and other impacts
on humans and effects on ecosystems, including the killing of wildlife, especially birds and
bats. Some environmental effects of wind-energy facilities, especially those from
transportation (roads to and from the plant site) and transmission (roads or clearings for
transmission lines), are common to all electricity-generating plants; other effects, such as
their aesthetic impacts, are specific to wind-energy facilities.it also effects rainfall in that
area adversely.
Wind energy system operations do not generate air or water emissions and do not
produce hazardous waste or deplete natural resources such as coal, oil, or gas, or
cause environmental damage through resource extraction and transportation. Wind's
pollution free electricity can help reduce the environmental damage majorly caused
by conventional power generation.
The most important thing about wind energy is it does not emit Green House Gases
.The build-up of greenhouse gases is not only causing a gradual rise in average
temperatures, but also seems to be increasing fluctuations in weather patterns and
causing more severe droughts. Particulate matter is of growing concern because of
its impacts on health. Its presence in the air along with other pollutants has
contributed to make asthma one of the fastest growing childhood ailments in
industrial and developing countries alike, and it has also recently been linked to lung
cancer. Similarly, urban smog has been linked to low birth weight, premature births,
stillbirths and infant deaths. Use of large scale wind generation will bring about a
significant alleviation to this problems.
Wind farms can revitalize the economy of rural communities, providing steady
income through lease to the landowners. Farmers can also grow crops or raise cattle
next to the towers. Wind farms may extend over a large geographical area, but their
actual "footprint covers only a very small portion of the land, making wind
development an ideal way for farmers to earn additional revenue.
Wind power plants, like all other energy technologies, have some environmental
impact. However, unlike most conventional technologies (which have regional and
even global impacts due to their emissions) the impacts of wind energy systems are
local. This makes them easier for local communities to monitor and, if necessary, to
mitigate.
The local environmental impacts that can result from wind power development

include:
1. Erosion: which can be prevented through proper installation and landscaping
techniques. Erosion can be a concern in certain habitats such as the desert, where a
hard-packed soil surface must be disturbed to install wind turbines.
2. Bird and Bat kills: Birds and bats occasionally collide with wind turbines, as they
do with other tall structures such as buildings. Winds overall impact on birds is low
compared with other human-related sources of avian mortality. No matter how
extensively wind is developed in the future, bird deaths from wind energy are unlikely
to ever reach as high as 1% of those from other human-related sources such as
hunters, buildings, and vehicles. The number of accidents caused by wind is very
negligible. Still, areas that are commonly used by threatened or endangered species
should be regarded as unsuitable for wind development.
3. Visual impacts: This can be minimized through careful design of a wind power
plant using turbines of the same size and type and spacing them uniformly generally
results in a wind Plant that satisfies most aesthetic concerns. Computer simulation is
helpful in evaluating visual impacts before construction begins.
4. Noise: This was an issue with some early wind turbine designs, but it has been
largely eliminated as a problem through improved engineering and through
appropriate use of setbacks from nearby residences. Aerodynamic noise has been
reduced by adjusting the thickness of the blades' trailing edges and by orienting
blades upwind of the turbine tower. A small amount of noise is generated by the
mechanical components of the turbine. A wind turbine 250 meters from a residence
is no noisier than a kitchen refrigerator

Q4) WHAT IS BETZ LAW EXPLAIN THE RELATION FOR POWER

AVAIABLE AT A TIPICAL HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE
ANS)According to Betz law even when all the ideal conditions of energy generation are prevalent we can only
derive 59% energy from wind turbines. 100% wind energy generation is simply not possible. Herein the capacity or
ability of a generator to convert kinetic energy into electric energy is not under question. Rather the structure and
mechanism of wind turbine has limitations in converting the wind energy into 100% kinetic energy owing to which
we cannot take full benefit of wind energy.

Although we are always inclined to get 100% of everything, its not always possible and most of the times nature
has its genuine reasons for confining man from achieving his own will. Betz law although was invented in 1919 has
been known unknowingly to mankind but in a simpler way. How? Well what happens when you extract 100%
energy from any source? The energy becomes empty or dried out. Similarly, if we are successful in deriving 100%
kinetic energy from wind energy will there be any air or wind left? No! And then what will rotate the wind turbine?
So at least to keep the velocity enough so as to make the wind turbine rotate for energy generation its important that
100% efficiency is not achieved.
Betz law basically talks about how a wind turbine cannot extract more than 59.3 % of Kinetic energy from the wind.
Under Ideal conditions or theoretically the maximum energy that can be extracted from the wind is called the Power
coefficient which is a ratio between the amount of energy that can be extracted by a Wind turbine to the total energy
in the Wind.
Power Coefficient(Beth's Coefficient ) = Kinetic Energy that is extracted by a Wind
turbine/Total energy in the Wind

Betz Limit & Power Coefficient:

Power Coefficient, Cp, is the ratio of power extracted by the turbine to the total contained
in the wind resource Cp = PT/PW
Turbine power output PT = * * A * v 3 * Cp
The Betz Limit is the maximal possible Cp = 16/27
59% efficiency is the BEST a conventional wind turbine can do in extracting power from
the wind

Q5) WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT METHODS FOR CONTROLLING THE

WIND TURBINE.DISUSS THE ISSUES RELATED TO PITCH CONTROL
AND STALL CONTROL
ANS)

Pitch Controlled Wind Turbines

On a pitch controlled wind turbine the turbine's electronic controller checks the power
output of the turbine several times per second. When the power output becomes too high, it
sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns) the rotor
blades slightly out of the wind. Conversely, the blades are turned back into the wind
whenever the wind drops again.
The rotor blades thus have to be able to turn around their longitudinal axis (to pitch)
as shown in the picture.
Note, that the picture is exaggerated:
During normal operation the blades will pitch a fraction of a degree at a time - and
the rotor will be turning at the same time.
Designing a pitch controlled wind turbine requires some clever engineering to make
sure that the rotor blades pitch exactly the amount required. On a pitch controlled wind
turbine, the computer will generally pitch the blades a few degrees every time the wind
changes in order to keep the rotor blades at the optimum angle in order to maximise output
for all wind speeds.
The pitch mechanism is usually operated using hydraulics.

Stall Controlled Wind Turbines

(Passive) stall controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a
fixed angle.
The geometry of the rotor blade profile, however has been aerodynamically designed
to ensure that the moment the wind speed becomes too high, it creates turbulence on the
side of the rotor blade which is not facing the wind as shown in the picture on the previous
page. This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from acting on the rotor.
If you have read the section on aerodynamics and aerodynamics and stall, you will
realise that as the actual wind speed in the area increases, the angle of attack of the rotor
blade will increase, until at some point it starts to stall.

If you look closely at a rotor blade for a stall controlled wind turbine you will notice
that the blade is twisted slightly as you move along its longitudinal axis. This is partly done
in order to ensure that the rotor blade stalls gradually rather than abruptly when the wind
speed reaches its critical value. (Other reasons for twisting the blade are mentioned in the
previous section on aerodynamics).
The basic advantage of stall control is that one avoids moving parts in the rotor itself,
and a complex control system. On the other hand, stall control represents a very complex
aerodynamic design problem, and related design challenges in the structural dynamics of
the whole wind turbine, e.g. to avoid stall-induced vibrations. Around two thirds of the wind
turbines currently being installed in the world are stall controlled machines.

Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbines

An increasing number of larger wind turbines (1 MW and up) are being developed
with an active stall power control mechanism.
Technically the active stall machines resemble pitch controlled machines, since they
have pitchable blades. In order to get a reasonably large torque (turning force) at low wind
speeds, the machines will usually be programmed to pitch their blades much like a pitch
controlled machine at low wind speeds. (Often they use only a few fixed steps depending
upon the wind speed).
When the machine reaches its rated power, however, you will notice an important
difference from the pitch controlled machines: If the generator is about to be overloaded,
the machine will pitch its blades in the opposite direction from what a pitch controlled
machine does. In other words, it will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades in order
to make the blades go into a deeper stall, thus wasting the excess energy in the wind.
One of the advantages of active stall is that one can control the power output more
accurately than with passive stall, so as to avoid overshooting the rated power of the
machine at the beginning of a gust of wind. Another advantage is that the machine can be
run almost exactly at rated power at all high wind speeds. A normal passive stall controlled
wind turbine will usually have a drop in the electrical power output for higher wind speeds,
as the rotor blades go into deeper stall.
The pitch mechanism is usually operated using hydraulics or electric stepper motors.
As with pitch control it is largely an economic question whether it is worthwhile to
pay for the added complexity of the machine, when the blade pitch mechanism is added.
Other Power Control Methods
Some older wind turbines use ailerons (flaps) to control the power of the rotor, just
like aircraft use flaps to alter the geometry of the wings to provide extra lift at takeoff.
Another theoretical possibility is to yaw the rotor partly out of the wind to decrease power.
This technique of yaw control is in practice used only for tiny wind turbines (1 kW or less), as

it subjects the rotor to cyclically varying stress which may ultimately damage the entire
structure.

Q6) EXPLAIN THE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES TO ESTIMATE THE

WIND SPEED AT A GIVEN LOCATION . HOW THE CAPACITY FOR THE
WIND TURBINE IS DECIDED
ANS)Statistical prediction methods are based on one or several models that establish the relation between historical
values of power, as well as historical and forecast values of meteorological variables, and wind power
measurements. The physical phenomena are not decomposed and accounted for, even if expertise of the problem is
crucial for choosing the right meteorological variables and designing suitable models. Model parameters are
estimated from a set of past available data, and they are regularly updated during online operation by accounting for
any newly available information (i.e. meteorological forecasts and power measurements).Statistical models include
linear and non-linear models, but also structural and black-box types of models. Structural models rely on the
analysts expertise on the phenomenon of interest while black-box models require little subject-matter knowledge
and are constructed from data in a fairly mechanical way. Concerning wind power forecasting, structural models
would be those that include a modeling of the diurnal wind speed variations, or an explicit function of
meteorological variable predictions. Black-box models include most of the artificial-intelligence-based models such
as Neural-Networks (NNs) and Support Vector Machines (SVMs). However, some models are in-between the two
extremes of being completely black-box or structural. This is the case of expert systems, which learn from
experience (from a dataset), and for which prior knowledge can be injected. We then talk about grey-box modeling.
Statistical models are usually composed by an autoregressive part, for seizing the persistent behavior of the wind,
and by a meteorological part, which consists in the nonlinear transformation of meteorological variable forecasts.
The autoregressive part permits to significantly enhance forecast accuracy for horizons up to 610 hours ahead, i.e.
over a period during which the sole use of meteorological forecast information may not be sufficient for
outperforming persistence.
Today, major developments of statistical approaches to wind power prediction concentrate on the use of multiple
meteorological forecasts (from different meteorological offices) as input and forecast combination, as well as on the
optimal use of spatially distributed measurement data for prediction error correction, or alternatively for issuing
warnings on potentially large uncertainty.
To estimate the energy production of a wind farm, developers must first measure the
wind resource on the selected location. Meteorological towers equipped with
anemometers, wind vanes, and sometimes temperature, pressure, and relative
humidity sensors are installed. Data from these sensors / equipments must be
recorded for at least one year to calculate an annually representative wind speed
frequency distribution.
Since onsite measurements are usually available for a short period, data are also
collected from nearby long-term reference stations (like airport, metrological stations
etc.) if available. These data are used to adjust the onsite measured data so that the
mean wind speeds are representative of a long-term period for which onsite
measurements are not available
There are three basic steps to identify and characterize the wind resource in a given
region. In general, they are prospecting, validation and optimization. In prospecting,
the identification of potential windy sites within a fairly large region, in the range of
several square kilometers areas would be considered. Generally this is carried out
by meteorologists who depend on various sources of information such as
topographical maps (in India, Survey of India map), climatological data from

meteorological stations (e.g. India Meteorological Department), and satellite

imageries, etc. A site visit also will be conducted at this stage and a representative
location for wind measurement would be identified.
Validation process involves a more detailed level of investigation like wind
measurements and data analysis. The most imperative and final step is micro survey
and micrositing. The main objective of this step is to quantify the small scale
variability of the wind resource over the region of interest. In micro survey, a small
region in and around a wind monitoring station ( generally 10 km radius) will be taken
as a reference station for horizontal and vertical assessment. Finally, micrositing is
carried out to position the wind turbines on a given area of land to maximize the
overall energy output of the wind farm. In complex terrain, micrositing may involve
two or more measurements, as a single site wind data cannot give good results.
There are several industry standard Software in the market for resource modeling
over a small region (micro survey) and later for micrositing. Wind Atlas Analysis
Application Programme (WAsP), Resoft Wind Farm, Wind PRO and GH Wind
Farmer are some of the models available in the market. As the mathematical
equations used in these models are linearised, there are some limitations in using
these models in all atmospheric and topographic conditions. Even if these models
have some limitations, they can give good results if handled circumspectly
The ability of a turbine to generate electric power is measured in Watts (The rate of
energy transfer equivalent to 1 Ampere of electric current flowing under a pressure of
1 Volt at unity power factor). Watts being a small unit of power, kilowatts (kW = 1000
Watts) and Mega Watts (MW = 1 million Watts) are the most commonly used units to
describe the generating capacity of wind turbines and any power generating unit in
general.
Electricity production and consumption are most commonly measured in kilowatthours
(kWh). A kilowatt-hour means one kilowatt (1,000 Watts) of electricity
produced or utilized in an hour (To light up a 100 Watts bulb for 10 hours requires 1
Kilowatt-hour of electricity).
Watt-hour is the electrical energy unit of measure equal to 1 Watt of power supplied
to, or taken from, an electric circuit steadily for 1 hour.
The power produced by a wind turbine depends on the turbines size and the wind
speed through the rotor. In India, we have the commercial large wind turbines from
225 kW to 2.5 MW. In the global market, 6 MW wind turbines are operating and
turbines of 10 MW are in laboratory stage.
Wind speed and a wind turbine size are the factors that determine the power
generation capacity of a wind turbine installation. Usually, wind resource assessment
is done prior to a wind systems construction.
The power (energy/second) available in the wind will be given by the formula Power
= 0.5 x rotor swept area (m2) x density (kg/m3) x velocity3 (m/s)
It can be noted that the power generated is cube of the wind velocity and because of
this, even a small difference in wind speed will bring about a large difference in
available energy and in electricity produced and therefore, a large difference in the
cost of electricity generated.