Tlcom SudParis

VAP EOE

Research on new technologies for 5G:

bibliographic study about millimeter waves

Caio Morel Nogueira

January 2014

Contents

1 Introduction

p. 4

2 Generations of Mobile Wireless Technology

p. 6

2.1

1G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 6

2.2

2G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 6

2.2.1

2.5 - GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 7

2.2.2

2.75G - EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) . . .

p. 7

3G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 8

2.3.1

3.5 G - HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) . . . . .

p. 8

2.3.2

3.75 G - HSUPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Access) . . . . . .

p. 9

4G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 9

2.3

2.4
3 5G

p. 12

3.1

Migration from 4G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 12

3.2

Key terms and Features of 5G technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 13

4 Radio Over Fiber (RoF)

p. 16

4.1

Advantages of RoF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 17

4.2

Disadvantages of RoF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 17

5 Basic concepts of Millimeter Waves

5.1

p. 19

Characteristics of the 60 GHz band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 20

5.1.1

p. 21

Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2

5.1.2

Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 23

5.1.3

Losses from the vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 23

5.1.4

Losses due to rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 25

5.1.5

Losses due to water vapor and oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 26

5.1.6

Loss due obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 27

Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 28

6 Modulation and signal detection systems in RoF

6.1

Evolution and trend technology of RoF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 29
p. 30

7 Conclusion

p. 32

8 Bibliography

p. 33

Introduction

With the advent of mobile technologies, communication is now an element which is

always evolving. In addition, with the improvement of technologies and research nowadays
its possible to use communication for more than just voice, for example now we can use
mobile communication for video and live streaming while the host are moving. Various
researches are going to improve this technology and this project was developed to describe
and explain some features and some new technologies which are been studied and will
be used in the next generation of mobile telecommunications, the 5G. Also, nowadays
users require a permanent wireless connection from mobile devices to a high-speed data
transmission without contact wired access points . However, wireless services do not
have enough bandwidth to provide high transmission capacity. Currently , the Ethernet
networks provide up to 1 Gb for wireless systems.
For transmissions at speeds of multiGbps , is studied possible deployment scenarios
of wireless systems operating at extremely high carrier frequencies ( EHF , extremely
highfrequency ) , which range between 30 and 300 GHz , this frequency range is known
as the band are studied millimeter wave (MMW) , which has more bandwidth in the GHz
range of North and South Korea frequency of 60 GHz has a width of 7 GHz band , in
the range of 57 - 64 GHz , and in Japan , the range is 59-66 GHz and this details will be
seen in previous chapters . Consequently , the bandwidth of wireless systems operating
around 60 GHz are being studied as a solution for the lack of available bandwidth and to
fill the requirements related to data rate of the 5G technology.
For the development of systems operating in bands MMW is possible to see problems,
such as the cost of the electronic equipment used and the increase of the base stations
should be implemented . Moreover, the MMW signal transmission needs higher power due
to the high losses in the wireless medium , which creates drawbacks in the implementation
. It is one of the most promising solutions for access networks . The advantages of using
fiber optics to transmit signals as a means of MMW is its immunity to electromagnetic
interference , the large transmission capacity , propagation losses between 0.2-0.5 dB /

km, depending on the type of fiber used and the wavelength of operation , these being very
low values with respect to copper and air . Moreover, the RoF systems operating in the
MMW band require small cells due to the short propagation distance , in fact , the radio
links MMW are being considered for the implementation of micro systems or cell peak
broadband access networks and internal wireless networks. The convergence of wireless
communications and optical fiber systems have become a promising technique to provide
services for broadband wireless access , in a range of applications including access network
solutions in extending coverage and capacity radio networks . In this sense, the RoF
systems provide adequate synergy between optical and radio , allowing the fusion of these
technologies, which have been instrumental in the development of telecommunications
, in which wireless networks and fiber are requiring updates, in order to respond to the
exponential increase in bandwidth demand of modern information societies . It is expected
that the next generation access networks ensure the provision of broadband services and
multimedia applications to end users anytime , anywhere.

Generations of Mobile Wireless

Technology

2.1

1G

The first generation of mobile communication made use of analog radio signals. In
terms of connection quality, 1G is worse than its successors. It has unreliable handoff, low
capacity, poor voice links, and no security at all since voice calls were played back in radio
towers, making these calls susceptible to be heard by third parties. However it has a few
other advantages if we compare to the second generation. The digital signal of 2G are very
reliant on location and proximity. So for large distances, the 2G signal may not be strong
enough to reach it and the 1G signal, even with a worse quality, can reach longer distances.
For the technologies used by the 1G system we have frequency modulation. The mains
reasons for the development of the second generation of mobile communications was the
low capacity of 1G, the high demand of the market and the existence of several standards.
The standards of 1G were used in various countries, for example the NMT (Nordic Mobile
Telephone), for the Nordic countries, Eastern Europe and Russia, the AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone System) for the United States, the TACS (Total Access Communications
System) for the United Kingdom, C-Netz in West Germany, the Radiocom 2000 in France
and the RTMI in Italy.

2.2

2G

2G is the second generation of wireless telecommunication and its the mark of the
transition between analog signals for digital signals. In this generation the use of sms to
send data started to be available. It first appeared with the standard GSM which were
commercially launched in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991. The
GSM service is used by over 2 billion people in more than 212 countries and territories.

About the technologies used in 2G we can divide in Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) based and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) based standards depending
on the type of multiplexing used. Also, the 2G technology uses a CODEC (CompressionDecompression Algorithm) to compress and multiplex digital voice data and with this a
2G network can pack more calls per amount of bandwidth than a 1G network. Another
advantage over 1G is that the 2G cellphones were usually smaller because they emitted
less radio power. And since the 2G uses digital signals it has a lot of other advantages
like it consume less battery power, so it helps mobile batteries to last long, the digital
coding improves the voice clarity and reduces noise and the digital encryption has provided
secrecy and safety to the data and voice calls.

2.2.1

2.5 - GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

2.5G, is a cellular wireless technology developed in between the 2G, the 3G. This 2Gsystems have implemented a packet switched domain to complement the circuit switched
domain. Its important to remark that the term "2.5G" is an informal term, created only
for marketing purposes, so it was not an officially defined standards. The GPRS system
could achieve data rates between 56 kbit/s and 115 kbit/s and it can be used for several
services like Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia Messaging Service
(MMS), and for Internet communication services. The data transfer of a GPRS is charged
per megabyte of traffic while the data communication in a system with circuit switching is
billed per minute of connection time. 2.5G networks may support services such as WAP,
MMS, SMS mobile games, and search and directory.

2.2.2

2.75G - EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution)

EDGE is a digital mobile phone technology which gives an improvement to the 2G and
the 2.5G General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) networks. This technology is a extended
version of GSM networks. This technology permit clear and fast transmission of data and
information and was invented and introduced by Cingular (AT& T). Its main advantages
over the GSM its the flexibility to carry packet switch data and circuit switch data and
the advantages over the GPRS is that its transfers data in only a fewer seconds. Another
advantage of using EDGE technology is that its not necessary to install any additional
hardware and software in order to make use of this technology.

2.3

3G

3G is the third generation of mobile telecommunication and its based on the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) family of standards under the International
Mobile Telecommunications programme, IMT-2000. This technology permit several more
advanced services than its predecessor while it achieves much bigger capacity of its network because of its high spectral efficiency. Services include wide area wireless voice
telephony, video calls, broadband wireless data, mobile television, GPS (global positioning system), all in a mobile environment.As it was explained before, the basic reason for
the development of 3G Technology is to achieve fast data transfer rates, more coverage
and growth with minimum investment.
The 3G uses as radio technologies CDMA, TDMA and FDMA. CDMA holds for
IMT-DS (direct spread), IMT-MC (multi carrier). TDMA accounts for IMTTC (time
code), IMT-SC (single carrier). FDMA has only one radio interface known as IMT-FC or
frequency code.
To compare the 2G with the 3G consider the figure 1

Figure 1: Comparative between 2G and 3G

As we can see on figure 1, the development of the 3G technology gives a big improvement of data rates and also several new services.

2.3.1

3.5 G - HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access)

This technology gives an evolution for UMTS-based 3G networks and it was developed to achieve higher data transfer speeds. Its a packet-based data service in W-CDMA
downlink with data transmission up to 8-10 Mbit/s (and 20 Mbit/s for MIMO systems)
over a 5MHz bandwidth in WCDMA downlink. HSDPA implementations includes Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC), Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO), Hybrid
Automatic Request (HARQ), fast cell search, and advanced receiver design.

2.3.2

3.75 G - HSUPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Access)

The 3.75G refer to the technologies beyond 3G mobile technologies. High Speed
Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) is a UMTS / WCDMA uplink evolution technology. The
HSUPA technology is related to HSDPA and the two are complimentary. HSUPA will
enhance advanced person-to-person data applications with higher and symmetric data
rates, like mobile e-mail and real-time person-to-person gaming. Traditional business
applications along with many consumer applications will benefit from enhanced uplink
speed. HSUPA will initially boost the UMTS / WCDMA uplink up to 1.4Mbps and in
later releases up to 5.8Mbps.

2.4

4G

4G is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications defined by the ITU which

has created the requirements that must be achieved to be considered a technology for 4G
as we can see next:
Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility such
as mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access.
Be able to dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell.
Using scalable channel bandwidths of 5 to 20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz.
Have peak link spectral efficiency of 15 bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and 6.75 bit/s/Hz
in the uplink (meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the downlink should be possible over less
than 67 MHz bandwidth).
System spectral efficiency of up to 3 bit/s/Hz/cell in the downlink and 2.25 bit/s/Hz/cell
for indoor usage.
Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.
The ability to offer high quality of service for next generation multimedia support.

10

About the requirements, we can conclude that for the 4G technology we have basically
an improvement on data rates and improvement of spectral efficiency. However nowadays
many services are offers with a minimum implementation of 4G technology or with just
an improvement of 3G technology. 3 of these technology will be analyzed:
LTE
Developed by the 3rd generation partnership project (3GPP) this technology has as
main characteristics: Downlink with OFDM access or multiple carriers and Uplink with
single-carrier FDMA. Alto, LTE support multi-antennas technology as multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO) and has been adopted by AT&T, T-Mobile, and Sprint. The
current work on LTE Advanced will result in real 4G speeds and bit rates.
HSPA+
Also developed by 3GPP, this technology is based on W-CDMA and uses MIMO. The
current rates are 2 to 10 Mbps, but it can offer 22 to 168 Mbps. It was adopter by AT&T
and T-Mobile and AT&T claims that HSPA+ can deliver speeds four to 10 times higher
than 3G speeds.
WiMax
This technology was developed to be fixed wireless system (IEEE 802.16a, b, c, and
d), but also it has a standard for mobility support (IEEE 802.16e). WiMax is based on
OFDM (multiple carriers) and support the use of MIMO. The main advantages are high
bandwidth and great coverage (approximately 30 miles from the antenna).
On figure 2 we can see some characteristics of each technology.

Figure 2: Characteristics of 4G technology

To conclude this first chapter we can see a resume of the evolution of mobile telecommunications on figure 3.

11

Figure 3: Evolution of mobile telecommunications

12

5G

5G (5th generation mobile networks or 5th generation wireless systems) is being developed to be a new revolution in mobile market. If we observe the evolution of mobile
communication on figure 3 we can see that a new generation is created in each 10 years and
the 5th generation will probably start in 2020 (Samsung has already realized some tests in
this technology). Currently 5G is not a term officially used for any particular specification
or in any official document yet made public by telecommunication companies. The lack
of an official standard makes the 5G have limitless possibilities. The 5G technology will
be a new technology that makes users able to access different Radio Access Technologies
(RATs) using one mobile. 5G has been proposed to assemble the existing wireless and
wired communication techniques into an all IP (Internet Protocol) high performance world
wide network. The 5th wireless mobile multimedia internet networks can be completed
wireless communication without limitation, which bring us perfect real world wireless,
World Wide Wireless Web (WWWW). WWWW is an attempt to make the subscriber to
experiment the great quality and quick access of internet, dynamic movement, favorable
Bit Error Ratio (BER) and great security as on wired communications in their wireless
communication devices. The 5G technologies include all type of advanced features and it
will be in huge demand in near future. 5G technology has extraordinary data capabilities
and has ability to tie together unrestricted call volumes and infinite data broadcast within
latest mobile operating system.

3.1

Migration from 4G

During the transition between two generation, its necessary to analyze what is necessary to realize this migration. So in this section, some challenges will be discussed.
Multi mode user terminals: As a feature of 5G is necessary to design a single user
terminal to operate in different wireless networks. By doing this some restrictions as the
size of the device, its cost and power utilization will be mitigated. This trouble can be

13

solved by using software radio approach.

Security: Its necessary to design a reconfigurable, adaptive and lightweight protection mechanisms.
Network infrastructure and QoS support: Integrating the current non-IP and
IP-based systems and providing QoS assurance for end-to-end services that engage different systems is a challenge.
Charging and Billing: It is hard to accumulate and, handle the consumers account
information from many service providers. In the same way consumers billing is also a
difficult task.
Attacks on Application Level: Software applications which will offer an new
feature to the consumer but will commence new bugs.

3.2

Key terms and Features of 5G technology

In this section the key terms of the 5G technology and the its features will be presented:
(por referencia 5G Technology of Mobile Communication: A Survey)
Key terms of 5g Technology:
5G is a completed wireless communication with almost no limitation; somehow
people called it REAL wireless world
Additional features such as Multimedia Newspapers, also to watch T.V programs
with the clarity as to that of an HD T.V.
We can send Data much faster than that of the previous generations.
5G will bring almost perfect real world wireless or called WWWW: World Wide
Wireless Web
Using of 60 Ghz band
Real wireless world with no more limitation to access and zone issues.
Wearable devices with AI capabilities
Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6), where a visiting care-of mobile IP address is
assigned according to location and the connected network.

14

One unified global standard.

Pervasive networks providing ubiquitous computing: The user can simultaneously
be connected to several wireless access technologies and seamlessly move between
them. These access technologies can be a 2.5G, 3G, 4G or 5G mobile networks, WiFi, PAN or any other future access technology. In 5G, the concept may be further
developed into multiple concurrent data transfer paths.
Cognitive radio technology, also known as smartradio: allowing different radio technologies to share the same spectrum efficiently by adaptively finding unused spectrum and adapting the transmission scheme to the requirements of the technologies currently sharing the spectrum. This dynamic radio resource management is
achieved in a distributed fashion, and relies on software defined radio. See also the
IEEE 802.22 standard for Wireless Regional Area Networks.
High altitude stratospheric platform station (HAPS) systems.
Features of 5G Technology:
5G technology will offer high resolution for crazy cell phone user and bi-directional
large bandwidth shaping.
The advanced billing interfaces of 5G technology will makes it more attractive and
effective.
5G technology will provide subscriber supervision tools for fast action.
The high quality services of 5G technology based on Policy to avoid error.
5G technology will provide large broadcasting of data in Gigabit which supporting
almost 65,000 connections.
5G technology will offer transporter class gateway with unparalleled consistency.
The traffic statistics by 5G technology will make it more accurate.
Through remote management offered by 5G technology a user can get better and
fast solution.
The remote diagnostics will be a great feature of 5G technology.
The 5G technology will provide up to 25 Mbps connectivity speed.

15

The 5G technology will support virtual private network.

The new 5G technology will take all delivery service out of business prospect
The uploading and downloading speed of 5G technology will touch the peak.
The 5G technology network will offer enhanced and available connectivity just about
the world.

16

Radio Over Fiber (RoF)

One possibility studied to achieve the high levels of data rate required by the 5G
technology, is the use of fiber optics because its has low losses and so is possible to have
high data rates. When we have the transition between fiber and radio we use a system
called Radio over Fiber. The technique of radio over fiber (RoF) is basic the transmission
of radio signals (RF) in optical fiber, where the RF carrier is modulated in an optical
carrier. RF signals are thus transmitted in optical fiber from a central station (CS) and
several base stations (BS) or Radio Access Point (RAP) and then sent to the transmitting
antenna and radiated for various devices.

Figure 4: Example of RoF

One way to increase the capacity of wireless communication systems is reducing the
size of the cells (which is a requirement for 5G systems), by reducing the power radiated
by and the use of antennas operating bands in the 60 GHz the attenuation zone where the
atmosphere is greater. Thus, to implement a communication system is required a higher
number of base stations because the covering areas have higher dimensions. Installation
and maintenance cost of such a system can be prohibitive, however technology of RoF is
a solution to this problem. Centralizing the processing of RF signals allows the sharing of
equipment, dynamic resource allocation, as well as operation and simplified maintenance,
reducing costs. Thus, the RoFs allows to simplify the BS Architecture, as they only have

17

to perform optoelectronics conversion functions and amplification.

4.1

Advantages of RoF

The technique RoF is recognized for having as main advantages the ability to centralized operation , the use of small BS, simplicity and low power consumption . Networks
based in such systems take advantage of the huge bandwidth of the optical fiber. Current
systems use only a fraction of the capacity offered by the fiber. The low attenuation on
fiber allows the transmission of RF signals over long distances reducing the need to use
repeaters. There are three transmission windows in fiber with a low optical attenuation
at wavelengths of 850 nm, 1310 nm and 1550 nm . The current fibers have attenuation
between 0.2 dB / km ( 1550 nm ) and 0.5 dB / km ( 1310 nm ) . Compared to coaxial
cables , these losses are much smaller , especially at high frequencies , since the losses
increase with frequency. Thus, the use optical signals can transmit signals much greater
distances and with the benefit of using lower transmission power. Once the signals are
transmitted in the form of light in the optical fiber, there is a important property in transmission, the immunity to radio frequency interference and immunity to eavesdropping ,
which allows for secure communication and more privacy (colocar referencia broadband).
This technology reduces the cost of deploying of wireless networks, enabling its integration with current fiber optic networks and using techniques of wavelength multiplexing
(WDM) . The use of simple and small base stations ( BS) and small , transferring some
of the equipment and complex transactions for central stations , allows you to share these
resources with various BS and thereby reduce costs.

4.2

Disadvantages of RoF

Despite the numerous advantages of this technology , there are some limitations in
implementation of these systems . The carriage of analog signals suffers from distortion
of intermodulation due to the nonlinearity of the optical / microwave components , and
require an available bandwidth greater than the frequency of the RF carrier. Furthermore,
the dynamic range of an analog optical link decreases linearly with distance transmission
, due to the attenuation of the optical fiber. The RoF systems are fundamentally analog
systems , where noise and distortion are characteristics that affect communication . There
are several sources of noise in systems analog communication, such as laser intensity noise
( RIN ) , the quantum noise photodiode and thermal noise of the amplifier . In RoF

18

systems using single-mode fiber (SMF) , the transmission distance is limited by chromatic
dispersion , while in systems that use multimode fiber (MMF ) modal dispersion limited
transmission distance and bandwidth .

19

Basic concepts of Millimeter

Waves

As it was explained before the main objective of this project is to realize a bibliographic
study on millimeter waves because its related to 5G. Also, we are interested in the 60Ghz
band because future systems are supposed to operate in the unlicensed band (from 57 to
64 GHz) and could support data rates above 1 Gbit/s which is something important for
the 5G technology. The main advantage of this frequency band is the large bandwidth
available without comparably restrictive power limits as for UWB transmission. We can
explain the benefits of using 60GHz band by analyzing the Shannon equation for capacity
in equation 5.1:

C = B log2 (1 +

PS
)
PN

where C is the capacity of the channel, B the bandwidth and the relation

(5.1)
PS
PN

is the

Signal-to-Noise ratio. And since we want a high capacity (1 Gbit/s) and also a low
power consumption its necessary a large bandwidth. Two bands with sufficiently large,
unlicensed bandwidth are available: The Ultra Wideband (UWB) and the 60 GHz band.
The advantage of the 60 GHz band over other technologies in small distances can be seen
on figure 5.
The use of millimeter wave has more advantages as:
License: It is also an unlicensed band, so it can be used freely.
Bandwidth: They can handle large band widths (5-9 GHz), which also implies higher
speeds.
Equipment: The equipiment for base stations are small (antennas) and they can be
easily installed.
Maintenance and installation: The installation and maintenance of the equipment

20

Figure 5: Advantages of 60 GHz

of the base station are simple.
Coverage: They can help cover areas which is usually not possible due to the density
of users and it can serve more users in the MHz band due to the higher bandwidth.
But it also has a disadvantage:
Propagation conditions: The MMW, unlike the lower frequency waves are characterized by having high attenuation by vegetation and atmospheric absorption, so can
only operate over short distances and highly directional, although this does not is always
a disadvantage since it can protect the information in this way.

5.1

Characteristics of the 60 GHz band

This section presents the physical conditions of communication in the unlicensed

60GHz band. Some properties of this band came from the fact that the free space wavelength at 60GHz of 60GHz = 5mm (according to the equation 5.2 )is much smaller than
at frequencies previously used. In this

c
f

(5.2)

where is the wavelength, c the speed of light in vacuum ( 3108 m/) and f the frequency. So are called "millimeter wave" frequencies whose wavelengths in vacuum is of the
order of millimeters, which in practice corresponds to the frequencies included between
30 GHz and 300 GHz. In this range of frequency is important to analyze the attenuation
of the signal because it increases for high frequency as we can see on equation 5.4:

21

A=(

4d 2
)

(5.3)

and if we convert to dB we have:

A = 87.56 + 20logf + 20logd

(5.4)

Considering a distance of one kilometer, the attenuation in the frequency of 2.4 GHz
is 100 dB, whereas the frequency of 60 GHz the attenuation is 128 dB. In this case we
have 630 times greater attenuation for the same distance. Furthermore, for millimeter
wave there are additional transmission loss factors (which will be described after), such
as absorption by molecules of oxygen, water vapor and other gases which comprise the
atmosphere.

5.1.1

Antenna

The small wavelength has a strong influence on the performance of the antennas in
the 60GHz band. As an antenna to obtain power from an electromagnetic field depends
more on the effective area Ae than on directivity or gain we will start by analyzing this
parameter which is defined by the equation 5.5

Ae =

20 G
4

(5.5)

if we consider a lossless isotropic radiator (with gain G = 1, that is 0 dBi). Ae decreases

quadratically with decreasing wavelengths so the size of a simple antenna, which is related
to its effective area, decreases if we increase the frequency. Also we can analyze the power
obtained by a receiving antenna from electromagnetic wave of power spectral density S
by the equation 5.6:

Pr,max = SAe,r

(5.6)

where Pr,max is the maximum power that can be received from the incident wave by
a lossless receiving antenna in case of power match. The consequence is that a receiving
antenna with a given gain Gr,1 at 60GHz obtains less power from a field of electromagnetic
power density S than an antenna with the same gain Gr,1 at lower frequencies. This can
be seen if we put the equations 5.5 and 5.6:

22

Pr,max = S

20 Gr,1
4

(5.7)

The electromagnetic power density S(r) in free space, which was originated by the
transmit antenna, must to follow a different law: it decays equally fast at all frequencies
as a function of distance r as we can see in equation 5.8.

S(r) = Pt

Gt,1
4r2

(5.8)

where Gt,1 is the gain of the transmitting antenna and Pt the transmit power. So
according to equation 5.6, the antennas need to have the same effective area at 60 GHz
as at lower frequencies (and not the same gain) to receive the same power. And for an
antenna with smaller effective area (often considered for the 60 GHz band) is, if we consider
the possibility for a higher gain, followed by a higher path loss. The Friis transmission
formula, which results when putting together the equations 5.5, 5.6 and 5.8 shows this:
0 2
Pr
= Gr Gt
Pt
4r

(5.9)

As this equation is often used for antennas which are characterized by their gain, the
bigger loss at 60GHz is usually assigned to the channel and not to the antenna. However,
as illustrated by 5.5, the part of the transmission formula including 0 is introduced by
the antenna, whose effective area depends on the wavelength according to the equation
5.5. As the gain of an antenna of the same effective area is higher at higher frequencies, in
the 60 GHz band a much higher antenna directivity is required to obtain the same path
loss as at lower frequencies. In practice, this often results in the use of aperture antennas,
parabolas or antenna arrays.
The higher directivity of 60GHz links demands a continuous effort to align the antenna
beams for mobiles. The standards for communication in the 60GHz band consequently
provide beam steering technology in the different communication layers.
Another approach to increase the total antenna area can be the use of Multiple-Input
Multiple-Output (MIMO) systems, where each antenna is associated with a separate
transceiver circuit. While complexity increases in this situation, a high level of integration
can make these kind of solution feasible.

23

5.1.2

Channel

The basic phenomena for the signal attenuation in the radio links are:
Fading: Is generally due to obstruction in the path of a signal obstacles in adverse
propagation conditions such as attenuation due to gases or, signal propagation , etc..
Scattering: Scattering is a physical phenomenon waves which separate two wave with
different frequency when they pass through a material. For millimeter wave is considered
minimum, if compared with other variables such as transmission distance , although this
is mainly due to the size of the wavelength .
Refraction: Refraction is the change of direction experienced by a wave passing
from one material medium to another. Only occurs if the wave is incident obliquely on
the surface of separation of the two mediums and if they have different refractive indices
. The refractive originates from the change of speed of the wave propagation and to the
millimeter waves happens mainly with vegetation .
Absorption: Every atom has a discrete number of energy levels. At the environment
temperature is in its lowest energy level called the ground state. When a radio Electromagnetic interacts with an atom of the shock wave energy can be absorbed if exactly
matches the energy required to carry the chemical species in question from the ground
state to one of the higher energy levels.
Beside this, there are others lost which should be analyzed.

5.1.3

Losses from the vegetation

Vegetation is one of the factors causing higher losses compared to others which affect
millimeter waves . These losses depend mainly on the following factors : frequency ,
type of foliage, vegetation density ( leaf density ) , the movement that is generated due
to wind, the distance that the signal pass through the vegetation , the beam width and
the polarization of the signal .

The foliage affect because the leaves vary in size and

shape depending on the type of vegetation. The vegetation density is focused primarily
on whether the vegetation is only trunks and branches or if there are leaves and how
they are populated . Of course this depends on the season ( summer or winter) . If the
vegetation has leaves , the attenuation depends on the its size. If they are larger than
the wavelength of the signal is most likely greater attenuation. It also affects how many
sheets are together in the same space .

24

It is also important to consider the geometric dimensions of the plant (the height,
thickness of the trunk and the section where there are branches with leaves). It should
also be noted that vegetation is not uniform and this makes it complicated to calculate
the theoretical attenuation of vegetation .

The ITU in recommendation ITU -R P.833

- 4 describes an empirical model of attenuation vegetation for frequencies above 5 GHz

This is a function of factors before mentioned and is expressed as follows :

Aveg = R d + k(1 + exp

(R0 R )
d)
k

(5.10)

where:

R0 = af

(5.11)

b
fc

(5.12)

and

R =

f is the frequency in GHz, d the distance in meters,

k = k0 10log10 (A0 (1 exp

Amin
)(1 exp Rf f ))
A0

(5.13)

and the parameters a,b,c, k0 , Rf and A0 can be seen on table 1.

Parameter With foliage
a
0.2
b
1.27
c
0.63
k0
6.57
Rf
0.0002
A0
10

Without foliage
0.16
2.59
0.85
12.6
2.1
10

Table 1: Parameters of losses caused by vegetation

Amin is defined as the product of the minimum width of vegetation illuminated and
minimum height , corresponding to the smaller of the zones lighted of the antenna in the
front and rear parts of the vegetation areas.

25

5.1.4

Losses due to rain

Many MMW links do not work properly because the calculation of rates of rain in
an area is not properly applied. It is for this very reason that the rainfall intensity (rain
rate in mm / h) should be carefully evaluated, since many cities have microclimates
where rates of temperature and rainfall differ significantly from one location to another.
This calculation becomes critical when links are designed in the bands of MMW because
they are so sensitive to environmental effects.

The ITU-R Recommendation P.838-2

to calculate the attenuation caused by rain from values of rain intensity at the known
frequency range of 1 to 400 GHz from the following equation:

YR = kR

(5.14)

where YR is the atenuation in dB/km, R is the intensity of rain and k and for the
polarization horizontal and vertical can be calculated by:

logk =

3
X

(aj exp[(

j=1

4
X

(ai exp[(

i=1

logf bj 2
) ]) + mk logf + ck
cj

logf bi 2
) ]) + m logf + c
ci

(5.15)

(5.16)

and the values for a, b, c, mk , ck , m , c can be obtained from the tables 2 and 3.
a
j = 1 0.3364
2
0.7520
3
-0.9466
i=1
0.5464
2
0.2237
3
-0.1961
4
-0.02219

b
1.1274
1.6644
2.8496
0.7741
1.4023
0.5769
2.2959

c
mk
ck
m
c
0.2916 1.9925 -4.4123
0.5175 1.9925 -4.4123
0.4315 1.9925 -4.4123
0.4011
-0.08016 0.8993
0.3475
-0.08016 0.8993
0.2372
-0.08016 0.8993
0.2801
-0.08016 0.8993

Table 2: Coefficients for vertical polarization

Also in the same recommendation a table with sample values for the coefficients
and K in the equation 5.14. As we are interested in the 60 GHz band only this will be
show on table 4.

26

a
j = 1 0.3023
2
0.7790
3
-1.0022
i=1
0.5463
2
0.2158
3
-0.1693
4
-0.01895

b
1.1402
1.6723
2.9400
0.8017
1.4080
0.6353
2.3105

c
mk
ck
m
c
0.2826 1.9710 -4.4535
0.5694 1.9710 -4.4535
0.4823 1.9710 -4.4535
0.3657
-0.07059 0.8756
0.3636
-0.07059 0.8756
0.2155
-0.07059 0.8756
0.2938
-0.07059 0.8756

Table 3: Coefficients for horizontal polarization

Frequencia
60

KH
Kv
h
v
0.7039 0.6347 0.8266 0.8263

Table 4: Coefficients for the estimation of attenuation due to rain

5.1.5

Losses due to water vapor and oxygen

The molecular absorption experienced during the propagation of radio waves through
the atmosphere , at wavelengths of the order of millimeters , is mainly due to water vapor
and oxygen present in the atmosphere. However, the waste gas contribute to a significant
attenuation in the absence of water vapor at frequencies above 70 GHz. Other residual
gases have absorption lines . Among them are the oxide of nitrogen ( N2 O) , dioxide of
sulfur (SO2 ), ozone (O3 ) , dioxide of nitrogen (N O2 ) and ammonia (N H3 ) , but due to
their low concentration in the atmosphere are negligible effects on the spread.
If the water is heated above its boiling point , it turns to steam , or water gaseous state.
However, not all vapors are equal. Steam properties vary depending on the pressure and
the temperature to which it is subject . On this basis there are several types of steam:
saturated steam, wet steam and superheated steam.

The computing attenuation by

water vapor can be based on the ITU -R Recommendation P.676 -6 , which provides the
maximum frequency range up to 1000 GHz and proposes a pressure of 1013 hPa and a
temperature of 15 C for the case of water vapor density of 7.5 g/m3 and dry atmosphere.
In the spectrum of absorption due to atmospheric gases, as we can see on figure 6, a peak
around 60GHz is seen. However, while the absorption in this frequency band is quite high
relative to other frequencies, since we have this in logarithmic scale, it remains below 0.2
dB at 10m and is thus negligible with respect to free space loss in a WPAN context. The
same is true for attenuation due to rain, which is on the same order of magnitude as oxygen
attenuation. Besides, this second mechanism applies only to outdoor environments.

27

Figure 6: Absorption of mm-waves due to atmospheric gases at sea level and 15.000 feet
altitude

5.1.6

Loss due obstacles

For the calculation of the received power when there are obstacles in the trajectory
specifically for the frequency 60 GHz we use a model. This equation includes a term that
is not included in other to perform the calculation of the received power which is known
as: partition dependent attenuation, and thus generates a model that assumes free space
propagation with additional losses based obstacles traversed by a single beam going from
the transmitter to the receiver. this model is as follows:
N

X
4d
PR (d) = PT + GT + GR 20log1 0(
)
(ai Xi )

i=1

(5.17)

where PR (d) is the received power in dBm, d is the distance of the transmitter to the
receiver in meters, PT is the transmitting power in dB, GT is the antenna gain transmitting, GR is the gain of the receiving antenna, Xi are the values of the attenuation in dB
for the i-th partition inserted that crosses a line from transmitter to receiver, ai

is the

number of times that the beam intercepts each partition, N is the number of partitions
on the link and is the wavelength in cm.

Partitions refer to the types of materials

which may include an office environment: drywall, office whiteboards, transparent glass,
metal mesh objects the first Fresnel zone, and so on. On tables ?? and 6 we can see the
influence of these materials for 60 GHz:

28

Average attenuation (dB)

Standard deviation (dB)
Average attenuation standardized (dB / cm)

drywall white blackboard office clear glass

6.0
9.6
3.6
3.4
1.3
2.2
2.4
5.0
11.3

Table 5: Loss due obstacles

Average attenuation (dB)
Standard deviation (dB)
Average attenuation standardized (dB / cm)

glass with mesh metal object in the office

10.2
1.2
2.1
1.8
31.9
-

Table 6: Loss due obstacles

5.2

Regulations

This band is unlicensed but there are some regulation which must be followed and
this regulations depend on the region. We can see the regulation on the allocation of the
band on figure 7 and the power emission specification of table 7.

Figure 7: Unlicensed band around 60 GHz for different countries and regions
Region
Max Tx Power (dBm) Max EIRP (dBm) Gain (dBi)
Australia
13
51.76
Australia (indoor)
13
43
Canada
27
43
Europe
10
55
30 (Min)
Europe (indoor)
40
30 (Min)
Germany
40
35 (Min)
Japan
10
47 (Max)
Korea
10
USA
27
43
Table 7: Emission Power specifications around 60Ghz for different countries and regions

29

Modulation and signal detection

systems in RoF

Another important part to be analyzed in this project is how the RoF systems works
with Millimeter Waves. The modulation in the RoF system is generated from an electrical
and an optical modulation. First, there is the electrical in amplitude , phase or frequency
as in a conventional electrical system . The electrical signal must have the specifications
required by wireless applications , such as GSM , UMTS , WLAN , WiMAX , among
others. In this RoF architecture , the optical carrier is modulated by a radio signal with
a radio frequency carrier (RF ) , then transmitted by a fiber optic link between a CS
and a set of BSs . The process of electrical - optical conversion is done by using laser
modulation , the electrical signal enables the laser module optical intensity in an " On
- Off" state , and commonly a photodetector is used in the receiver , where the signal
is converted from the optical domain to the electrical domain before being amplified and
radiated by an antenna . These systems are known as IM / DD ( intensity modulation /
direct detection ) . The IM / DD systems are the simplest and the most widely deployed
, but to achieve higher than 10 GHz frequency modulate this technique causes problems ,
because the bandwidth of this device is limited. For this reason, to achieve greater than
10 GHz the IM / DD systems use external modulation . In this type of modulation the
Mach Zender modulator (MZM) and the electro - absorption modulator (EAM) is widely
used . Another method used for transmission and transport of RF signals by the optical
fiber is the form remote heterodyne generation . It is a method in which more than one
optical signal is generated by the light source , one is modulated by the signal that carries
the information , then its mixed by a photodetector or an external mixer to form the
signal RF output. The optical heterodyne generation has the advantage of generating
high frequency signals and is only limited by the bandwidth of the photodetector. The
generation of heterodyne detection supports higher power (high link gain ) and higher
carrier to noise ratio (CNR , carrier-to-noise ration ), since under certain conditions the
optical powers of the two optical fields interfere , which contributes to increase the power

30

of the generated optical signal.

Furthermore, the RoF links which are phase modulated (PM) have advantages over
the IM / DD systems , and allows the implementation of a more simple BSs . However,
the links RoF - PM requires a combined coherent optical receiver DSP modules for detecting and demodulating linear signals . Coherent detection in optical systems have been
demonstrated to perform demodulation of linear MMW signals coded on the phase of an
optical carrier . The main advantages offered by the RoF -PM systems with coherent
detection over RoF IM / DD systems are:
1) more free dynamic range of stimulus
2 ) optical data transmission more effectively spectral in advanced modulation formats
3) higher bandwidth and channel selectivity
4 ) lower requirements on the power transmission signal .
The main advantages of the digital coherent receiver compared to conventional receivers :
1) effective cost and reduced size
2) adaptive compensation of the imperfections in the channel in the electronic domain
using signal processing techniques
3) design versatility and robustness in operation , allowing different formats using the
same receiver hardware in.

6.1

Evolution and trend technology of RoF

End users of wireless and wired networks are demanding large volumes of information
at high speeds. In this scenario, based RoF systems and fiber to the home ( FTTTH
, Fiber to the Home) are the most promising candidates to support these requirements
of access networks . Access networks of next generation progress towards convergence of
wired and wireless services, in order to efficiently provide services of high bandwidth at
low cost. The RoF systems lead the progress of the access networks through significant
advances in areas such as : the increase in transmission capacity and bandwidth and lower
costs of fixed and mobile networks.
Nearly two decades ago began the study of MMW RoF systems , but these are not
modulated MMW signal within the optical carrier in the fiber , so its necessary a complex

31

BS for conversion. Using radio signals over fiber distributed antenna systems (F - DAS
) moves the electronic processing of the antenna to a central station , opening new opportunities for the creation of hybrid networks , which have not yet been fully exploited
. Change the location of the equipment means that the ability can now be reassigned to
any point in the network , instead of being fixed by the equipment that is installed in a
particular BS .
The huge bandwidth offered by fiber have other benefits besides high capacity to
transmit microwave signals . The large optical bandwidth enables the processing of signals
at high speed which could be more difficult to do in electronic systems , such as the
MMW signal filtering can be achieved by converting the electrical signal to optical and
perform filtering using optical component networks based on optical fiber Bragg ( FBG
fiber Bragg Gratting ) or Mach Zender interferometer (MZI , Mach Zender interferometer
) . However, the major problem when transmitting signals on optical fiber mmw is the
signal degradation due to fiber dispersion . One of them, the chromatic dispersion is
the most important phenomenon affecting these systems, because it causes intersymbol
interference ( ISI ) due to temporal broadening of the pulses at the receiver . This
phenomenon depends on the spectral components of the light source , the frequency of
the carrier and the length of the fiber . Mmw wireless systems with channel bandwidth
above 10 GHz could easily provide multi - Gbps capabilities even with simple formats or
qpsk and ask modulation .
The main challenges of photonic systems based on mmw are to improve the performance of devices that integrate , adapt these systems to the spectral region of operation
, increase the conversion efficiency of the devices optoelectronic and increase dynamic
range, offset dispersions of the fiber, and in turn, reduce the costs of these technological
advances.

32

Conclusion

Throughout this project, we tried to analyze, understand and reflect on the present
value of the mobile telecommunications systems and technologies that support them. Was
given special attention to the study of its evolution and features of new technology for
the 5G. Among the technologies we had special interest in millimeter waves because of its
great potential of study and development.
In the first chapter was given the motivation of the project and a little introduction
about the subject. The second chapter explains the evolution of mobile telecommunication with the difference among each generation, advantages, disadvantages and some
technologies. In the third chapter was finally introduced the new 5G technology, with
its feature and requirements. In fourth chapter was initiated the relation with optical
technology, starting with some basic concepts of RoF. Then, in the fifth chapter was discussed about the basics of millimeter wave technology and finally in the sixth chapter was
explained about modulation and signal generation for millimeter waves.
After finishing this project its possible to analyze and see the importance of the study
of RoF technology because it has a great future for 5G.

33

Bibliography

[1] Young Kyun, Kim; Prasad, Ramjee (2006), 4G Roadmap and Emerging Communication Technologies. Artech House 2006.
[2] Q. Zhao and J. Li, Rain attenuation in millimeter wave ranges, in Proc. IEEE Int.
Symp. Antennas, Propag. EM Theory, Oct. 2006.
[3] T. S. Rappaport, J. N. Murdock, and F. Gutierrez, State of the art in 60 GHz
integrated circuits & systems for wireless communications, Proc. IEEE.
[4] T. S. Rappaport, S. Sun, R. Mayzus, H. Zhao, Y. Azar and F. Gutierrez Millimeter
Wave Mobile Communications for 5G Cellular: It Will Work!, Proc. IEEE.
[5] Christopher R. Anderson, and Theodore S. Rappaport, In-Building Wideband
Partition Loss Measurements at 2.5 and 60 GHz, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications.
[6] N. Guerrero, Digital Photonic Receivers for Wireless and Wireline Optical Fiber
Transmission Links, Ph. D. dissertation, Dept. Fotonik, Denmark Tech. Univ., Copenhagen, 2011.