Electronics Project Sheet 2

Counting Circuits
Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders | Display drivers |

Linking counters
Next Page: Quantities and Units Logic states

Also See: 4000 series ICs | 74 series ICs | Logic Gates
True False
1 0
Binary numbers High Low
Electronic circuits count in binary. This is the simplest possible +Vs 0V
counting system because it uses just two digits, 0 and 1, On Off
exactly like logic signals where 0 represents false and 1
represents true. The terms low and high are also used for 0
and 1 respectively as shown in the table. Seen on a T-shirt:
Counting one, two, three, four, five in binary: 1, 10, 11, 100, There are 10 kinds of
101. people - those who
understand binary,
Binary numbers rapidly become very long as the count and those who don't.
increases and this makes them difficult for us to read at a
glance. Fortunately it is rarely necessary to read more than 4 binary digits at a time in
counting circuits.
In a binary number each digit represents a multiple of two (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 etc), in the
same way that each digit in decimal represents a multiple of ten (1, 10, 100, 1000 etc).
For example 10110110 in binary equals 182 in decimal:
Digit value: 128 64
32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary number: 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
Decimal value: 128 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 182
Bits, bytes and nibbles
Each binary digit is called a bit, so 10110110 is an 8-bit number.
A block of 8 bits is called a byte and it can hold a maximum number of 11111111 = 255
in decimal. Computers and PIC microcontrollers work with blocks of 8 bits. Two (or
more) bytes make a word, for example PICs work with a 16-bit word (two bytes) which
can hold a maximum number of 65535.
A block of 4 bits is called a nibble (half a byte!) and it can hold a maximum number of
1111 = 15 in decimal. Many counting circuits work with blocks of 4 bits because this
number of bits is required to count up to 9 in decimal. (The maximum number with 3 bits
is only 7).
Hexadecimal (base 16)
Hexadecimal (often just called 'hex') is base 16 counting with 16 digits. It starts with the
decimal digits 0-9, then continues with letters A (10), B (11), C (12), D (13), E (14) and F
(15). Each hexadecimal digit is equivalent to 4 binary digits, making conversion between
the two systems relatively easy. You may find hexadecimal used with PICs and
computer systems but it is not generally used in simple counting circuits.
Example: 10110110 binary = B6 hexadecimal = 182 decimal.

Binary Decimal Hex
D C B A base 16
0000 0 0
0001 1 1
0010 2 2
0011 3 3
0100 4 4
0101 5 5
0110 6 6
0111 7 7
1000 8 8
1001 9 9
1010 10 A
1011 11 B
1100 12 C
1101 13 D
1110 14 E
1111 15 F
Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders |

Display drivers | Linking
4-bit numbers
The table on the right shows the 4-bit numbers and their decimal values.
The labels A,B,C,D are widely used in electronics to represent the four bits:
 A = 1, the 'least significant bit' (LSB)

 B=2
 C=4
 D = 8, the 'most significant bit' (MSB)
Binary Coded Decimal, BCD
Binary Coded Decimal, BCD, is a special version of 4-bit binary where the count resets
to zero (0000) after the ninth count (1001). It is used by decade counters and is easily
converted to display the decimal digits 0-9 on a 7-segment display.
Several decade counters using BCD can be linked together to separately count the
decimal ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. This is much easier than attempting to
convert large binary numbers (such as 10110110) to display their decimal value.
Do not confuse BCD which stands for Binary Coded Decimal with the labels A,B,C,D used to represent
the four binary digits; it is an unfortunate coincidence that the letters BCD occur in both!
A square wave clock signal
The bouncing output from a switch

A 4-bit counter and clock input

In this example counting advances on
the falling-edge of the clock signal
LED on = 1 LED off = 0

Counters
All counters require a 'square wave' clock signal to make them count. This is a digital
waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs), such as the output
from a 555 astable circuit.
Most switches bounce when the contacts close giving a rapid series of pulses.
Connecting a switch directly to a clock input will usually give several counts when the
switch is operated once! One way to 'debounce' the switch is to make it trigger a
555 monostable circuit with a short time period (such as 0.1s) and use the monostable
output to drive the clock input.
The animated block diagram shows a clock signal driving a 4-bit (0-15) counter with
LEDs connected to show the state of the clock and counter outputs QA-QD (Q indicates
an output).
The LED on the first output QA flashes at half the frequency of the clock LED. In fact the
frequency of each stage of the counter is half the frequency of the previous stage. You
can see this pattern too in the table above showing the 4-bit numbers.
Notice how output QA changes state every time the clock input changes from high to
low (that is when the clock LED turns off), this is called the falling-edge. If you watch
the counting closely you can see that QB changes on the falling-edge of QA, QC on the
falling-edge of QB and so on.
You may be surprised to see the diagram drawn with the input on the right and signals flowing from right
to left, the opposite way to the usual convention in electronics! Drawing counter circuits like this means
that the outputs are in the correct binary order for us to read easily and I think this is more helpful than
rigidly sticking to the usual 'left to right' convention.
Ripple and synchronous counters
There are two main types of counter: ripple

and synchronous. In simple circuits their
behaviour appears almost identical, but their
internal structure is very different. The operation of a flip-flop
Notice how the output frequency
is half the input frequency
A ripple counter contains a chain of flip-flops
with the output of each one feeding the input of
the next. A flip-flop output changes state every time the input changes from high to low
(on the falling-edge). This simple arrangement works well, but there is a slight delay as
the effect of the clock 'ripples' through the chain of flip-flops.
In most circuits the ripple delay is not a problem because it is far too short to be seen
on a display. However, a logic system connected to ripple counter outputs will briefly
see false counts which may produce 'glitches' in the logic system and may disrupt its
operation. For example a ripple counter changing from 0111 (7) to 1000 (8) will very
briefly show 0110, 0100 and 0000 before 1000!
A synchronous counter has a more complex internal structure to ensure that all its
outputs change precisely together on each clock pulse, avoiding the brief false counts
which occur with ripple counters.
Rising-edge and falling-edge clock inputs

Counting occurs when the clock input changes
state.
 Most synchronous counters count on

the rising-edge which is the low to high
transition of the clock signal.
 Most ripple counters count on the falling-edge which is the high to low
transition of the clock signal.
It may seem odd that ripple counters use the falling-edge, but in fact this makes it easy to link counters
because the most significant bit (MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This works
because the next bit must change state when the previous bit changes from high to low - the point at
which a carry must occur to the next bit. Synchronous counters usually have carry out and carry in pins
for linking counters without introducing any ripple delays.

Resetting a counter
Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum

count by connecting one (or more) of their outputs to
their reset input, using an AND gate to combine
outputs if necessary.
If the reset input is 'active-low' a NOT or NAND gate

will be required to produce a low output at the desired
count. If you see a line drawn above reset it means it
is active low, for example: (say 'reset-bar').
The reset function normally occurs immediately

and you should reset on the next count above the
maximum you require. For example to count 0-5
(0000-0101) you should reset on 6 (0110).
Some synchronous counters have a synchronous

reset which occurs on the next clock pulse rather than
immediately. This is important because you must reset
on the maximum count you require. For example to
count 0-5 (0000-0101), reset on 5 (0101).
Presetting
Some counters can be preset by presenting a number to their inputs A-D and activating
a preset input to load the number into the counter. By making inputs A-D all low you can
also use this to reset the counter to zero.
Frequency division
Counters can be used to reduce the frequency of an input (clock) signal. Each stage of
a counter halves the frequency, so for a 4-bit (0-15) counter QA is 1/2, QB is 1/4, QC is 1/8
and QD is 1/16 of the clock frequency. Division by numbers that are not powers of 2 is
possible by resetting counters.
Frequency division is one of the main purposes of counters with more than 4 bits and
their outputs are usually labelled Q1, Q2 and so on. Qn is the nth stage of the counter,
representing 2n. For example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock frequency) and Q12 is
212 = 4096 (1/4096 of clock frequency).

Decoders
The most popular type is a 1-of-10 decoder which

contains a network of logic gates to make one of its ten
outputs Q0-9 become high (or low) in response to the
BCD (binary coded decimal) inputs A-D. For example
an input of binary 0101 (=5) will activate output Q5.
Decoders can be used for a simple counting display and

for switching LEDs in sequences. The outputs must
never be directly connected together, but diodes can be
used to combine them as shown in the diagram.
For example using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and

4th (Q3) outputs will make an LED flash twice followed
by a longer gap. The top diagram shows this for a
decoder where the outputs become low when activated (such as the 7442), and the
bottom diagram for a decoder where the outputs become high when activated (such as
the 4028).

7-segment display drivers
The inputs A-D of a display driver are connected to the

BCD (binary coded decimal) outputs QA-D from a decade
counter. A network of logic gates inside the display driver
makes its outputs a-g become high or low as appropriate
to light the required segments a-g of a 7-segment display.
A resistor is required in series with each segment to protect
the LEDs, 330 is a suitable value for many displays with
a 4.5V to 6V supply. Beware that these resistors are
sometimes omitted from circuit diagrams!
Decade counter with display
There are two types of 7-segment displays: driver and 7-segment display

 Common Anode (CA or SA) with all the LED
anodes connected together. These need a display
driver with outputs which become low to light each segment, for example the
7447. Connect the common anode to +Vs.
 Common Cathode (CC or SC) with all the cathodes connected together. These
need a display driver with outputs which become high to light each segment, for
example the 4511. Connect the common cathode to 0V.
The common anode/cathode is often available on 2 pins. Displays also have a decimal
point (DP) but this is not controlled by the display driver. The segments of larger
displays have two LEDs in series. For display connections please see your supplier's
catalogue or manufacturer's datasheet.
Multiplexing
If there are many 7-segment display digits multiplexing is usually used. This is a
system of switching so that of all the decade counters share a single display driver
which is connected to all of the displays. The output of each counter is connected in turn
to the inputs of the display driver and at the same time the common anode/cathode of
the corresponding 7-segment display is connected so that only one display lights at a
time.The switching is done very rapidly (typically 400 - 1000Hz) and the segment
current is larger than normal so the display appears continuous and of normal
brightness. Multiplexing requires ICs to do the switching, but the complete circuit has
fewer ICs than having one display driver for each display.

Linking Counters
Counters may be linked together in a chain to count larger numbers. It may seem
tempting to use a 12-bit or 14-bit counter, but it is not practical to convert their large
binary numbers to decimal. You should use a chain of decade (0-9) counters which use
BCD (binary coded decimal) to make the conversion to decimal very easy: the first
counts the units, the second counts the tens, the third the hundreds and so on.
Some dual counter ICs are available with two separate counters on the same IC, the
two counters must be linked externally if required (there is no internal link).
The way that counters are linked depends on the nature of the counter. The diagrams
below show the general arrangements for standard ripple and synchronous counters but
it is important to read the detailed information for particular counters, consulting a
datasheet if necessary.
Linking ripple counters
The diagram below shows how to link standard ripple counters. Notice how the highest
output QD of each counter drives the clock (CK) input of the next counter. This works
because ripple counters have clock inputs that are 'active-low' which means that the
count advances as the clock input becomes low, on the falling-edge.
Remember that with all ripple counters there will be a slight delay before the later
outputs respond to the clock signal, especially with a long counter chain. This is not a
problem in simple circuits driving displays, but it may cause glitches in logic systems
connected to the counter outputs.
Linking synchronous counters
The diagram below shows how to link standard synchronous counters. Notice how all
the clock (CK) inputs are linked, and carry out (CO) is used to feed the carry in (CI) of
the next counter. This ensures that the entire counter chain is synchronous, with every
output changing at the same time. Carry in (CI) of the first counter should be made low
or high to suit the particular counter IC being used.
Usual Unit
Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
Voltage V volt V
Current I amp* A
Charge Q coulomb C
Resistance R ohm
Capacitance C farad F
Inductance L henry H
Reactance X ohm
Impedance Z ohm
Power P watt W
Energy E joule J
Time t second s
Frequency f hertz Hz
* strictly the unit is ampere, but this is
almost always shortened to amp.
Quantities and Units in Electronics

Next Page: Books about Electronics
Quantities
The table shows electrical quantities which are used in electronics.
The relationship between quantities can be written using words or symbols (letters), but
symbols are normally used because they are much shorter; for example V is used for
voltage, I for current and R for resistance:
As a word equation:
voltage = current × resistance
The same equation using symbols: V = I × R
To prevent confusion we normally use the same symbol (letter) for each quantity and
these symbols are shown in the second column of the table.
Please click on the quantities in the table for further information.

Prefix
Prefix Symbol Value
milli m 10-3 = 0.001
micro µ 10-6 = 0.000 001
nano n 10-9 = 0.000 000 001
Units pico p 10-12 = 0.000 000 000 001
The first table shows the unit (and unit kilo k 103 = 1000
symbol) which is used to measure each mega M 106 = 1000 000
quantity. For example: Charge is giga G 109 = 1000 000 000
measured in coulombs and the symbol for tera T 1012 = 1000 000 000 000
a coulomb is C.
Some of the units have a convenient size for electronics, but most are either too large or
too small to be used directly so they are used with the prefixes shown in the second
table. The prefixes make the unit larger or smaller by the value shown.
Some examples:
25 mA = 25 × 10-3 A = 25 × 0.001 A = 0.025 A
47µF = 47 × 10-6 F = 47 × 0.000 001 F = 0.000 047 F
270k = 270 × 103 = 270 × 1000 = 270 000
Why not change the units to be better sizes?
It might seem a good idea to make the farad (F) much smaller to avoid having to use
µF, nF and pF, but if we did this most of the equations in electronics would have to have
factors of 1000000 or more included as well as the quantities. Overall it is much better
to have the units with their present sizes which are defined logically from the equations.
In fact if you use an equation frequently you can use special sets of prefixed units which
are more convenient...
For example: Ohm's Law, V = I × R
the standard units are volt (V), amp (A) and ohm ( ),
but you could use volt (V), milliamp (mA) and kilo-ohm (k ) if you prefer.
Take care though, you must never mix sets of units: using V, A and k in Ohm's Law would give you
wrong values.
Soldering | Study | Components | 555 | Symbols | FAQ | Links
Books about Electronics

For Study and Projects.
Next Page: Studying Electronics
Books for Studying Electronics
The table below shows a selection of books about electronics which may be of interest if
you are studying electronics as part of a course at school, or if you have been building
projects and wish to learn how the circuits work. Some of the project books explain the
operation of their circuits and this can be a good way to learn how they work.
Please note that some books are now out of print but you may still be able to obtain
them from secondhand bookshops and suppliers such as Amazon.
Textbooks
Books for beginners, GCSE courses and AS/A level courses.
Book Title and
ISBN and Publisher Comments
Author
Basic Skills: ISBN: 0 7195 4449 1
Electronics Publisher: This is a suitable textbook for a beginner.
by Tom Duncan John Murray
Starting
ISBN: 0 7506 4435 4 The practical approach of this book makes it
Electronics
Publisher: Newnes suitable for beginners.
by Keith Brindley
Teach Yourself
ISBN: 0 3404 2230 0
Electronics A self-study book covering the essentials of
Publisher:
by Malcolm electronics.
Hodder & Stoughton
Plant
Electronics - A A suitable textbook for GCSE, Intermediate
ISBN: 0 7506 5545 3
First Course GNVQ and City & Guilds courses. Practical
Publisher: Newnes
by Owen Bishop work is introduced almost immediately.
Electronics for
ISBN: 0 7195 7413 7
Today and A suitable textbook for GCSE and AS/A level.
Publisher:
Tomorrow No projects or practical exercises.
John Murray
by Tom Duncan
Success in ISBN: 0 7195 7205 3
A self-study textbook for GCSE and AS/A
Electronics Publisher:
level. No projects or practical exercises.
by Tom Duncan John Murray
Electronics
ISBN: 0 17 448303 1
Explained An AS/A level textbook with many practical
Publisher:
by M W exercises.
Nelson Thornes
Brimicombe
An AS/A level textbook with many practical
Analogue
ISBN: 0 3407 1925 7 investigations to support its discovery-based
Electronics
Publisher: Newnes approach. Transistors, operational amplifiers,
by John C Morris
thyristors and triacs are covered.
An AS/A level textbook with many practical
Digital investigations to support its discovery-based
ISBN: 0 3405 5638 2
Electronics approach. The 555 timer, logic gates,
Publisher: Newnes
by John C Morris counters, shift registers and displays are
covered.
Reference Books
Learn how to use the integrated circuits covered by these books.
The 555 timer IC is used in many projects and
ISBN: 0 85934 047 3
IC 555 Projects this book thoroughly explains its operation and
Publisher:
by E Parr use. There are many circuit diagrams of
Bernard Babani
projects.
This book explains how to use the 4000 series
A Beginners
ISBN: 0 85934 333 2 CMOS logic gates, counters, display drivers
Guide to CMOS
Publisher: and so on. They are ideal for battery powered
Digital ICs
Bernard Babani projects because they use little power and can
by R Penfold
tolerate a wide range of supply voltages.
A Beginners
ISBN: 0 85934 332 4 This book explains how to use the 74 series
Guide to TTL
Publisher: TTL logic gates, counters, display drivers and
Digital ICs
Bernard Babani so on.
by R Penfold
Operational amplifiers are very versatile
How to Use Op- ISBN: 0 85934 063 5
devices and this book thoroughly explains
Amps Publisher:
their operation and use, with many circuit
by E Parr Bernard Babani
designs for the more experienced constructor.
Master IC ISBN: 0 8306 6550 1 Technical information on many popular
Cookbook out of print integrated circuits (ICs), including the 74
by Clayton try Amazon series and 4000 series logic ICs. The book
Hallmark & concentrates on the ICs themselves rather
Delton Horn than the circuits in which they can be used.
Practical Books
Learn by building projects on breadboard, no soldering is required.
Book Title and
Author
Adventures
ISBN: 0 7195 3554 9 An introduction to electronics by building
with
Publisher: transistor circuits on S-Dec, a breadboard
Electronics
John Murray system which does not require soldering.
by Tom Duncan
Learn about electronics by building integrated
Adventures
ISBN: 0 7195 3671 5 circuit ('chip') projects on standard breadboard
with Micro-
Publisher: (no soldering required). This is more
Electronics
John Murray advanced than Adventures with Electronics
by Tom Duncan
(above).
Learn about digital electronics by building
Adventures projects such as traffic lights and a binary 4-bit
ISBN: 0 7195 3875 0
with Digital adder using 4000 series ICs on standard
out of print
Electronics breadboard (no soldering required). This is the
try Amazon
by Tom Duncan most advanced of the three 'Adventures
with...' books.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of electronics books including some shown in the
table above.
Books for Electronics Projects
All these books are a good source of circuit diagrams for projects but in most cases you
will need to design your own stripboard or PCB layout to build the project. If you plan to
build projects from books or magazines that are more than about 10 years old you
should check that all the components required are still available.
If you want to try designing your own circuits you will need to have a good
understanding of electronics. It is best to start by adapting a circuit given in a book. The
books for studying electronics include many useful circuit diagrams.
Project Books
Many of these books just give circuit diagrams. Please be aware that you will need to
design your own stripboard or PCB layout to build the project.
Book Title and
Author
IC 555 Projects ISBN: 0 85934 047 3 The 555 timer IC is used in many projects
and this book thoroughly explains its
Publisher:
by E Parr operation and use. There are many circuit
Bernard Babani
diagrams of projects.
Operational amplifiers are very versatile
How to Use Op- ISBN: 0 85934 063 5 devices and this book thoroughly explains
Amps Publisher: their operation and use, with many circuit
by E Parr Bernard Babani designs for the more experienced
constructor.
Circuit Source ISBN: 0 85934 321 9
Circuit diagrams to help the experienced
Book 1 Publisher:
constructor design their own projects.
by R Penfold Bernard Babani
Circuit Source ISBN: 0 85934 322 7
Circuit diagrams to help the experienced
Book 2 Publisher:
constructor design their own projects.
by R Penfold Bernard Babani
Practical
ISBN: 0 85934 384 7
Electronic Model
Publisher: The
Railway Projects
Bernard Babani
by R Penfold
Electronic Components
These pages are intended to help you to identify components, find out their values and learn about their
function in circuits.
 Capacitors
 Connectors and Cables
 Diodes including zener diodes
 Integrated Circuits (Chips)
o 4000 series logic ICs (pin connections etc)
o 74 series logic ICs (pin connections etc)
 Lamps
 LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)
 Relays
 Resistors
o Resistor Colour Code Calculator
 Switches
 Transistors
o Heat sinks for transistors
 Variable Resistors
 Other components including LDRs and thermistors
Lamps
Function | Symbols | Selecting | Types of lamp | Connecting
Function and Construction
Lamps emit light when an electric current passes through them. All of the
lamps shown on this page have a thin wire filament which becomes very hot
and glows brightly when a current passes through it. The filament is made from
a metal with a high melting point such as tungsten and it is usually wound into
a small coil. Filament lamps have a shorter lifetime than most electronic
components because eventually the filament 'blows' (melts) at a weak point.
Circuit symbols
There are two circuit symbols for a lamp, one for a lamp used to provide illumination
and another for a lamp used as an indicator. Small lamps such as torch bulbs can be
used for both purposes so either circuit symbol may used in simple educational circuits.
Lamp used for lighting Lamp used as an indicator

(for example a car headlamp or torch bulb) (for example a warning light on a car dashboard)
Selecting a Lamp
There are three important features to consider when selecting a lamp:
 Voltage rating - the supply voltage for normal brightness.

 Power or current rating - small lamps are usually rated by current.
 Lamp type - please see the table below.
The voltage and power (or current) ratings are usually printed or embossed on the body
of a lamp.
Voltage rating
This is the supply voltage required for normal brightness. If a slightly higher
voltage is used the lamp will be brighter but its lifetime will be shorter. With a
lower supply voltage the lamp will be dimmer and its lifetime will be longer.
The light from dim lamps has a yellow-orange colour.
Torch lamps pass a relatively large current and this significantly reduces the
output voltage of the battery. Some voltage is used up inside the battery
driving the large current through the small resistance of the battery itself (its
'internal resistance'). As a result the correct voltage rating for a torch lamp is lower than
the normal voltage of the battery which lights it!
For example: a lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A is correct for a 4.5V battery (three 1.5V cells)
because when the lamp is connected the voltage across the battery falls to about 3.5V.
Power or current rating
This is the power or current for the lamp when connected to its rated voltage. Low
power lamps are usually rated by their current and high power lamps by their power. It
is easy to convert between the two ratings:
P = I × V where: P = power in watts (W)
or I = current in amps (A)
I=P/V V = voltage in volts (V)
Examples:
 A lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A has a power rating P = I × V = 0.3 × 3.5 = 1.05W
 A lamp rated 6V 0.06A has a power rating P = I × V = 0.06 × 6 = 0.36W
 A lamp rated 12W 2.4W has a current rating I = P / V = 2.4 / 12 = 0.2A
Lamp Type
Type of Lamp Example

MES Miniature Edison Screw
These are the standard small lamps. The bulb
diameter is usually about 10mm, but tubular
bulbs are also available. MES lamps have one
contact on the base and the body forms the
other contact. They are available with a good
range of voltage and power (or current) ratings.
Lens ended versions are available to produce a
focused beam of light.
LES Lilliput Edison Screw

Smaller than MES, these have a bulb diameter
of about 5mm.
Photograph © Rapid Electronics

MCC Miniature Centre Contact
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a
standard mains lamp in the UK. They have one
contact on the base and the body forms the
other contact. The bulb diameter is about 10mm.

SBC Small Bayonet Cap
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a
standard mains lamp in the UK. They have two
contacts on the base so the metal body is not
connected in the circuit. SBC lamps have high
power ratings (24W for example) and their bulbs
are large with a diameter of up to about 40mm.
Note the two filament arrangements in the lamps
shown, horizontal on the left, vertical on the right.
Pre-focus
This type of lamp is used in torches and lanterns.
The flange at the top of the metal body is used to
hold the lamp in place. Lampholders are not
readily available so this type is unsuitable for
most projects.
Wire ended
These are very small lamps with a bulb about
3mm diameter and 6mm long. Take care to
avoid snapping the wires where they enter the
glass bulb.

Grain of Wheat
These are similar to the wire ended lamps above
but they have stranded wire leads usually about
150mm long. The bulb is about 3mm diameter
and 6mm long - the size of a grain of wheat!

Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of lamps and they
have kindly allowed me to use their photographs on this
page. The photographs are from their Image Gallery
CD-ROM.
Connecting and soldering
Lamps may be connected either way round in a screw terminals solder tags

circuit and the supply may be AC or DC. Lampholders
Most lamps are designed to be used in a Photographs © Rapid Electronics

lampholder but the small 'wire ended' and 'grain of
wheat' lamps have wires which may be soldered directly onto a circuit board.
Lampholders usually have screw terminals or solder tags to attach wires. Some small
holders have contacts which may be soldered directly to a circuit board.
Lamps in Series
Several lamps can be successfully connected in

series provided they all have identical voltage
and power (or current) ratings. The supply
voltage is divided equally between identical
lamps so their voltage rating must be suitable for
this. For example Christmas tree lights may have
20 lamps connected in series to a 240V supply,
so each lamp will have 240V ÷ 20 = 12V across it.
A disadvantage of connecting lamps in series is that if one lamp blows all of them will go
out because the circuit is broken. Christmas tree lamps have a special feature to
overcome this problem; they are designed to short circuit (conduct like a wire link) when
they blow, so the circuit is not broken and the other lamps remain lit, making it easier to
locate the faulty lamp. Sets also include one 'fuse' lamp which blows normally.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Colours | Sizes and shapes | Resistor value | LEDs in series | LED data | Flashing | Displays
Example: Circuit symbol:

Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c,
for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight
flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the
cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification
method).
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very
slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.
Testing an LED
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply!

It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will
pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe

value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for
most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to
connect the LED the correct way round!
For an accurate value please see Calculating an LED resistor value below.
Colours of LEDs
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber,

yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and
white LEDs are much more expensive than
the other colours.
The colour of an LED is determined by the

semiconductor material, not by the colouring
of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of
all colours are available in uncoloured
packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The
coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent.
Tri-colour LEDs
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED
combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour
because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is
produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different
lengths of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for
both LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs
allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to give the third
colour.
Bi-colour LEDs
A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one backwards)
combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one time
and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.
Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs
LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes.

The 'standard' LED has a round cross-section of 5mm
diameter and this is probably the best type for general use,
but 3mm round LEDs are also popular. LED Clip

Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they
are very easy to install on boxes by drilling a hole of the
LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips
are also available to secure LEDs in holes. Other cross-section shapes include square,
rectangular and triangular.
As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing angle.
This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs have a viewing
angle of 60° but others have a narrow beam of 30° or less.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good guide to
the range available.
Calculating an LED resistor value
An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit

the current through the LED, otherwise it will burn out
almost instantly.
The resistor value, R is given by:
R = (VS - VL) / I
VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white
LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 10mA = 0.01A, or 20mA = 0.02A)
Make sure the LED current you choose is less than the maximum permitted and
convert the current to amps (A) so the calculation will give the resistor value in ohms (
).
To convert mA to A divide the current in mA by 1000 because 1mA = 0.001A.
If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which
is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to
choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for
example) but this will make the LED less bright.
For example
If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current I =
20mA = 0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 , so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is
greater).
Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law
Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where:
V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)
I = the current through the resistor
So R = (VS - VL) / I
For more information on the calculations please see the Ohm's Law page.
Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it
may be possible to connect them in series. This prolongs
battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same
current as just one LED.
All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current

so it is best if they are all the same type. The power
supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V
for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least
another 2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the
resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use
this for VL.
Example calculations:
A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least
3 × 2V + 2V = 8V, so a 9V battery would be ideal.
VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up).
If the supply voltage VS is 9V and the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A,
Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200 ,
so choose R = 220 (the nearest standard value which is greater).
Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!
Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared

between them is generally not a good idea.
If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage
LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing
through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected
in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit
because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the same
as connecting the LEDs individually. If LEDs are in parallel each
one should have its own resistor.
Reading a table of technical data for LEDs
Suppliers' catalogues usually include tables of technical data for components such as
LEDs. These tables contain a good deal of useful information in a compact form but
they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used.
The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter round LEDs with
diffused packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are important and these are
shown in bold. Please see below for explanations of the quantities.
IF VF VF VR Luminous Viewing
Type Colour Wavelength
max. typ. max. max. intensity angle
Standard Red 30mA 1.7V 2.1V 5V 5mcd @ 10mA 60° 660nm
Bright 80mcd @
Standard 30mA 2.0V 2.5V 5V 60° 625nm
red 10mA
32mcd @
Standard Yellow 30mA 2.1V 2.5V 5V 60° 590nm
10mA
32mcd @
Standard Green 25mA 2.2V 2.5V 5V 60° 565nm
10mA
High 60mcd @
Blue 30mA 4.5V 5.5V 5V 50° 430nm
intensity 20mA
500mcd @
Super bright Red 30mA 1.85V 2.5V 5V 60° 660nm
20mA
Low current Red 30mA 1.7V 2.0V 5V 5mcd @ 2mA 60° 625nm
IF max. Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED
connected correctly.
VF typ. Typical forward voltage, VL in the LED resistor calculation.
This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about
4V.
VF max. Maximum forward voltage.
VR max. Maximum reverse voltage
You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round.
Luminous Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela.
intensity
Viewing angle Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60°, others emit a narrower
beam of about 30°.
Wavelength The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the colour
of the LED.
nm = nanometre.
Flashing LEDs
Flashing LEDs look like ordinary LEDs but they contain an integrated circuit (IC) as well
as the LED itself. The IC flashes the LED at a low frequency, typically 3Hz (3 flashes
per second). They are designed to be connected directly to a supply, usually 9 - 12V,
and no series resistor is required. Their flash frequency is fixed so their use is limited
and you may prefer to build your own circuit to flash an ordinary LED, for example our
Flashing LED project which uses a 555 astable circuit.
LED Displays
LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the most familiar
pattern being the 7-segment displays for showing numbers (digits 0-9). The pictures
below illustrate some of the popular designs:
Bargraph 7-segment Starburst Dot matrix

Photographs © Rapid Electronics
Pin connections of LED displays
There are many types of LED display and a supplier's catalogue should be consulted for
the pin connections. The diagram on the right shows an example from the Rapid
Electronics catalogue. Like many 7-segment
Pin connections diagram
displays, this example is available in two versions: © Rapid Electronics
Common Anode (SA) with all the LED anodes
connected together and Common Cathode (SC) with
all the cathodes connected together. Letters a-g refer to the 7 segments, A/C is the
common anode or cathode as appropriate (on 2 pins). Note that some pins are not
present (NP) but their position is still numbered
Relays
Choosing a relay | Protection diodes | Reed relays | Advantages & disadvantages
Also see: Switches | Diodes

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current Circuit symbol for a relay
flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the
switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so
relays have two switch positions and most have
double throw (changeover) switch contacts as
shown in the diagram.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit

which can be completely separate from the first. For
example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay
to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no
electrical connection inside the relay between the two
circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, Relays

typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much
as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower Photographs © Rapid Electronics
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current
and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small
IC current to the larger value required for the relay
coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555
timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay
coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have

many more sets of switch contacts, for example
relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. For further information about switch
contacts and the terms used to describe them please
see the page on switches.
Relay showing coil and switch contacts
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you
can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic
case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be
obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high
voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in
the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay
coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can
see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This
lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground
and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
 COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in
the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the
relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays
are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply
voltage which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can
use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance
4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current
of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is
too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control.
You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage
rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole
changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further
information please see the page on switches.
Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the
brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a signal
diode (eg 1N4148) is connected 'backwards'
across the relay coil to provide this protection.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic

field which collapses suddenly when the current is
switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field
induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is
very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection
diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current
through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies
away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause
damage to transistors and ICs.
Reed Relay
Reed relays
Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normally
operated with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create a
magnetic field and close the reed switch.
Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 for
example) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable of
switching much more rapidly than standard relays, up to several hundred times per
second; but they can only switch low currents (500mA maximum for example).
The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin DIL socket ('IC
holder').
For further information about reed switches please see the page on switches.
Relays and transistors compared
Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching
small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay.
However, transistors cannot switch AC (such as mains electricity) and in simple circuits
they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a
relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch
the current for the relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are
listed below:
Advantages of relays:
 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.
 Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
 Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

 Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per
second.
 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
 Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Connectors and Cables

Connectors: Battery clips | Terminal blocks | Croc clips | 4mm & 2mm | DC power
Audio & communication: Jack | Phono | Coax | BNC | DIN | D | IDC & RJ45
Cables: Single-core | Stranded | 'Figure 8' | Signal | Screened |

Co-axial | Mains flex
Battery clips and holders
The standard battery clip fits a 9V PP3 battery and

many battery holders such as the 6 × AA cell holder
shown. Battery holders are also available with wires
attached, with pins for PCB mounting, or as a complete Photographs © Rapid Electronics
box with lid, switch and wires.
Many small electronic projects use a 9V PP3 battery but if you wish to use the project
for long periods a better choice is a battery holder with 6 AA cells. This has the same
voltage but a much longer battery life and it will work out cheaper in the long run.
Larger battery clips fit 9V PP9 batteries but

these are rarely used now.
PCB Terminal block

terminal
block Photographs © Rapid Electronics
Terminal blocks and PCB terminals
Terminal blocks are usually supplied in 12-way lengths but they can be cut into smaller
blocks with a sharp knife, large wire cutters or a junior hacksaw. They are sometimes
called 'chocolate blocks' because of the way they can be easily cut to size.
PCB mounting terminal blocks provide an easy way of making semi-permanent

connections to PCBs. Many are designed to interlock to provide more connections.
Crocodile clips
The 'standard' crocodile clip has no cover and a

screw contact. However, miniature insulated
crocodile clips are more suitable for many purposes
including test leads. They have a solder contact
and lugs which fold down to grip the cable's
insulation, increasing the strength of the joint. Crocodile clips
Remember to feed the cable through the plastic
cover before soldering! Add and remove the cover
by fully opening the clip, a piece of wood can be used to hold the jaws open.
4mm plugs, sockets and terminals
These are the standard single pole connectors

used on meters and other electronic equipment.
They are capable of passing high currents
(typically 10A) and most designs are very robust.
Shrouded plugs and sockets are available for use
with high voltages where there is a risk of electric
shock. A wide variety of colours is available from
most suppliers.
Plugs

Plugs may have a screw or solder terminal to hold
the cable. Check if you need to thread the cable

through the cover before connecting it. Some
plugs, such as those illustrated, are 'stackable'
4mm terminal
which means that they include a socket to accept
and solder tag
another plug, allowing several plugs to be
connected to the same point - a very useful
feature for test leads.
Sockets
These are usually described as 'panel mounting'
because they are designed to be fitted to a case. Most sockets have a solder contact
but the picture shows other options. Fit the socket in the case before attaching the wire
otherwise you will be unable to add the mounting nut.
Terminals
In addition to a socket these have provision for attaching a wire by threading it through a
hole (or wrapping it around the post) and tightening the top nut by hand. They usually
have a threaded stud to fit a solder tag inside the case.
2mm plugs and sockets
These are smaller versions of the 4mm plugs and sockets described above, but
terminals are not readily available. The plugs illustrated are stackable. Despite their
small size these connectors can pass large currents and some are rated at 10A.
DC power plugs and sockets
These 2-pole plugs and sockets ensure that the

polarity of a DC supply cannot be accidentally
reversed. The standard sizes are 2.1 and 2.5mm
plug diameter. Standard plugs

have a 10mm shaft, 'long' plugs
¼" (6.3mm) jack plug and socket have a 14mm shaft. Sockets are
available for PCB or chassis
mounting and most include a
switch on the outer contact which
is normally used to disconnect an
internal battery when a plug is
inserted.
3.5mm jack plug and socket Miniature versions with a 1.3mm

diameter plug are used where
small size is essential, such as for
personal cassette players.
3.5mm jack line socket

(for fitting to a cable)
Jack plugs and sockets
These are intended for audio signals so mono and stereo versions are available. The
sizes are determined by the plug diameter: ¼" (6.3mm), 3.5mm and 2.5mm. The 2.5mm
size is only available for mono.
Screened plugs have metal bodies connected to the COM contact. Most connections
are soldered, remember to thread cables through plug covers before soldering! Sockets
are designed for PCB or chassis mounting.
¼" plug connections are similar to those for 3.5mm plugs shown below. ¼" socket
connections are COM, R and L in that order from the mounting nut, ignore R for mono
use. Most ¼" sockets have switches on all contacts which open as the plug is inserted
so they can be used to isolate internal speakers for example.
The connections for 3.5mm plugs and sockets are shown below. Plugs have a lug which
should be folded down to grip the cable's insulation and increase the strength of the
joint. 3.5mm mono sockets have a switch contact which can be used to switch off an
internal speaker as the plug is inserted. Ignore this contact if you do not require the
switching action.
L = left channel
signal
R = right channel
signal 3.5mm jack plug and socket connections
COM = common (the R connection is not present on mono plugs)
(0V, screen)
Do not use jack plugs for power supply connections

because the contacts may be briefly shorted as the
plug is inserted. Use DC power connectors for this.
Phono plugs and sockets
These are used for screened cables carrying audio and video signals. Stereo
connections are made using a pair of phono plugs and sockets. The centre contact is
for the signal and the outer contact for the screen (0V, common). Screened plugs have
metal bodies connected to the outer contact to give the signal additional protection from
electrical noise. Sockets are available for PCB or chassis mounting, singly for mono, or
in pairs for stereo. Line sockets are available for making extension leads.
Coax plugs and sockets

Construction of a screened cable
These are similar to the phono plugs and sockets described above but they are
designed for use with screened cables carrying
much higher frequency signals, such as TV
aerial leads. They provide better screening
because at high frequencies this is essential to
reduce electrical noise.
BNC plug, photograph © Rapid Electronics
BNC plugs and sockets
These are designed for screened cables carrying high frequency signals where an
undistorted and noise free signal is essential, for example oscilloscope leads. BNC
plugs are connected with a push and twist action, to disconnect you need to twist and
pull.
Plugs and sockets are rated by their impedance (50 or

75 ) which must be the same as the cable's impedance. If
the connector and cable impedances are not matched the
signal will be distorted because it will be partly reflected at
the connection, this is the electrical equivalent of the weak
reflection which occurs when light passes through a glass DIN plug
window.
5 way 180° DIN socket

(chassis mounting)

DIN plugs and sockets

These are intended for audio signals but they can be used for other low-current
purposes where a multi-way connector is required. They are available from 3 way to
8 way. 5 way is used for stereo audio connections. The contacts are numbered on the
connector, but they are not in numerical order! For audio use the 'common' (0V) wire is
connected to contact 2. 5 way plugs and sockets are available in two versions: 180° and
270° (the angle refers to the arc formed by the contacts).
Plastic covers of DIN plugs (and line sockets) are removed by depressing the retaining
lug with a small screwdriver. You may also need small pliers to extract the body from
the cover but do not pull on the pins themselves to avoid damage. Remember to thread
the cable through the cover before starting to solder the connections!
Soldering DIN plugs is easier if you clamp the insert with the pins. Wires should be
pushed into the hollow pins - first 'tin' the wires (coat them with a thin layer of solder)
then melt a little solder into the hollow pin and insert the wire while keeping the solder
molten. Take care to avoid melting the plastic base, stop
and allow the pin to cool if necessary.
Mini-DIN connectors are used for computer equipment

such as keyboards and mice but they are not a good
choice for general use unless small size is essential.
D connectors
These are multi-pole connectors with provision for screw fittings to make semi-
permanent connections, for example on computer equipment. The D shape prevents
incorrect connection. Standard D-connectors have 2 rows of contacts (top picture); 9, 15
and 25-way versions are the most popular. High Density D-connectors have 3 rows of
contacts (bottom picture); a 15-way version is used to connect computer monitors for
example.
Note that covers (middle picture) are usually sold separately because both plugs and
sockets can be fitted to cables by fitting a cover to a chassis mounted connector. PCB
mounting versions of plugs and sockets are also available. The contacts are usually
numbered on the body of the connector, although you may need a magnifying glass to
see the very small markings. Soldering D-
connectors requires a steady hand due to the
closeness of the contacts, it is easy to accidently
unsolder a contact you have just completed while
attempting to solder the next one!
IDC communication connectors
These multi-pole insulation displacement connectors are used for computer and
telecommunications equipment. They automatically cut through the insulation on wires
when installed and special tools are required to fit them. They are available as 4, 6 and
8-way versions.
The 8-way RJ45 is the standard connector for modern computer networks. If you
regularly use these you may be interested in our network lead tester project.
Standard UK telephone connectors are similar in style but a slightly different shape.
They are called BT (British Telecom) connectors.
Cables
Cable... flex... lead... wire... what do all these terms mean?
 A cable is an assembly of one or more conductors (wires) with some flexibility.

 A flex is the proper name for the flexible cable fitted to mains electrical
appliances.
 A lead is a complete assembly of cable and connectors.
 A wire is a single conductor which may have an outer layer of insulation (usually
plastic).
Single core equipment wire
This is one solid wire with a plastic coating available in a wide

variety of colours. It can be bent to shape but will break if
repeatedly flexed. Use it for connections which will not be
disturbed, for example links between points of a circuit board.
Typical specification: 1/0.6mm (1 strand of 0.6mm diameter), maximum current 1.8A.
Stranded wire
This consists of many fine strands of wire covered by an outer

plastic coating. It is flexible and can withstand repeated bending
without breaking. Use it for connections which may be disturbed,
for example wires outside cases to sensors and switches. A very flexible version ('extra-
flex') is used for test leads.
Typical specifications:
10/0.1mm (10 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 0.5A.
16/0.2mm (16 strands of 0.2mm diameter), maximum current 3A.
55/0.1mm (55 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 6A, used for test leads.
'Figure 8' (speaker) cable
'Figure 8' cable consists of two stranded wires arranged in a figure of 8 shape. One wire
is usually marked with a line. It is suitable for low voltage, low current (maximum 1A)
signals where screening from electrical Photograph © Rapid Electronics
interference is not required. It is a popular choice
for connecting loudspeakers and is often called 'speaker cable'.

Signal cable
Signal cable consists of several colour-coded cores of stranded wire housed within an
outer plastic sheath. With a typical maximum current of 1A per core it is suitable for low
voltage, low current signals where screening from electrical interference is not required.
The picture shows 6-core cable, but 4-core Screened cable (mono)
and 8-core are also readily available.
Screened cable (stereo)
Screened cable (stereo)

Screened cable
The diagram shows the construction of screened cable. The central wire carries the
signal and the screen is connected to 0V (common) to shield the signal from electrical
interference. Screened cable is used for audio signals and dual versions are available
for stereo.
Construction of a screened cable
Co-axial cable
This type of screened cable (see above) is designed to carry high frequency signals
such as those found in TV aerials and oscilloscope leads.
Mains flex
Flex is the proper name for the flexible cable

used to connect appliances to the mains supply.
It contains 2 cores (for live and neutral) or 3
cores (for live, neutral and earth). Mains flex Photograph © Rapid Electronics
has thick insulation for the high voltage (230V in UK) and it is available with various
current ratings: 3A, 6A and 13A are popular sizes in the UK.
Mains flex is sometimes used for low voltage circuits which pass a high current, but please think carefully
before using it in this way. The distinctive colours of mains flex should act as a warning of the mains high
voltage which can be lethal; using mains flex for low voltage circuits can undermine this warning.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of connectors

and they have kindly allowed me to use their
photographs on this page. The photographs are from
their Image Gallery CD-ROM
Diodes
Signal diodes | Rectifier diodes | Bridge rectifiers | Zener diodes
Also see: LEDs | AC and DC | Power Supplies
Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one

direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes
are the electrical version of a valve and early
diodes were actually called valves.
Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way

through the diode, rather like a person pushing
through a door with a spring. This means that
there is a small voltage across a conducting
diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is
about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made
from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode
is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very
steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes
leak a very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because
it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However,
all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is
exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is
called breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of
100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are
LEDs (which have their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram

may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it
really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line
painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small
print, you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small
signal diodes!
Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering,

but the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...)
in which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the
diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering
them.
Testing diodes
You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a
diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a
rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current
passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!
Signal diodes (small current)
Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are
only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.
General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a
forward voltage drop of 0.7V.
Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and
this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio
signal from the weak radio signal.
For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon
diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they
have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents
when a reverse voltage is applied.
Protection diodes for relays
Signal diodes are also used to protect

transistors and ICs from the brief high voltage
produced when a relay coil is switched off. The
diagram shows how a protection diode is
connected 'backwards' across the relay coil.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic

field which collapses suddenly when the current is
switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field
induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is
very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection
diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field
dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause
damage to transistors and ICs.
Maximum
Maximum
Diode Reverse
Current
Voltage
1N4001 1A 50V
1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
1N5401 3A 100V
1N5408 3A 1000V
Rectifier diodes (large current)
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC), a process called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits
where a large current must pass through the diode.
All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of
0.7V. The table shows maximum current and maximum reverse voltage for some
popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a
current of less than 1A.
Also see: Power Supplies
Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting

diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to
DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it
is available in special packages containing
the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers
are rated by their maximum current and
maximum reverse voltage. They have four
leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are
labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are
labelled .
The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice
how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.
Also see: Power Supplies
Various types of Bridge Rectifiers

Note that some have a hole through their centre for attaching to a heat sink
Zener diodes
a = anode, k = cathode
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They

are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and non-
destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to
maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. The
diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in
series to limit the current.
Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes

by their code and breakdown voltage which are printed
on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their
breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal
point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for example.
Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:
 The minimum voltage available is 2.4V.

 Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.
Integrated Circuits (Chips)

Pin numbers | IC holders | Static | Datasheets | Sinking/sourcing | Combining outputs |
555 and 556 Timers | Logic ICs | 4000 Series | 74 Series | PIC microcontrollers
Also see: 4000 Series ICs | 74 Series ICs | 555 and 556 Timer Circuits
Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are complex circuits which have
been etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in a plastic
holder with pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will fit the holes on stripboard
and breadboards. Very fine wires inside the package link the chip to the pins.
Pin numbers
The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC

(chip) starting near the notch or dot. The diagram
shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the
principle is the same for all sizes.
IC holders (DIL sockets)

ICs (chips) are easily damaged by heat when soldering and their short pins
cannot be protected with a heat sink. Instead we use an IC holder, strictly
called a DIL socket (DIL = Dual In-Line), which can be safely soldered onto
the circuit board. The IC is pushed into the holder when all soldering is
complete.
IC holders are only needed when soldering so they are not used on breadboards.
Commercially produced circuit boards often have ICs soldered directly to the board without an IC holder,
usually this is done by a machine which is able to work very quickly. Please don't attempt to do this
yourself because you are likely to destroy the IC and it will be difficult to remove without damage by de-
soldering.
Removing an IC from its holder
If you need to remove an IC it can be gently prised out of the holder with a small flat-
blade screwdriver. Carefully lever up each end by inserting the screwdriver blade
between the IC and its holder and gently twisting the screwdriver. Take care to start
lifting at both ends before you attempt to remove the IC, otherwise you will bend and
possibly break the pins.
Static precautions
Many ICs are static sensitive and can be damaged when

you touch them because your body may have become
charged with static electricity, from your clothes for
example. Static sensitive ICs will be supplied in antistatic Antistatic bags for ICs
packaging with a warning label and they should be left in Photograph © Rapid Electronics
this packaging until you are ready to use them.

It is usually adequate to earth your hands by touching a
metal water pipe or window frame before handling the IC
but for the more sensitive (and expensive!) ICs special equipment is available, including
earthed wrist straps and earthed work surfaces. You can make an earthed work surface
with a sheet of aluminium kitchen foil and using a crocodile clip to connect the foil to a
metal water pipe or window frame with a 10k resistor in series.
Datasheets PDF files

To view and print PDF files you need
Datasheets are available for most ICs giving an Acrobat Reader which may be
downloaded free for Windows, Mac,
detailed information about their ratings and
RISC OS, or UNIX/Linux computers. If
functions. In some cases example circuits are you are not sure which type of
computer you have it is probably
Windows.
shown. The large amount of information with symbols and abbreviations can make
datasheets seem overwhelming to a beginner, but they are worth reading as you
become more confident because they contain a great deal of useful information for
more experienced users designing and testing circuits.
Datasheets are available as PDF files from:
 DatasheetArchive.com
 Datasheets.org.uk
 DatasheetCatalog.com
Sinking and sourcing current
IC outputs are often said to 'sink' or 'source' current. The

terms refer to the direction of the current at the IC's output.
If the IC is sinking current it is flowing into the output. This

means that a device connected between the positive supply
(+Vs) and the IC output will be switched on when the output
is low (0V).
If the IC is sourcing current it is flowing out of the output.

This means that a device connected between the IC output
and the negative supply (0V) will be switched on when the
output is high (+Vs).
It is possible to connect two devices to an IC output so that

one is on when the output is low and the other is on when
the output is high. This arrangement is used in the
Level Crossing project to make the red LEDs flash alternately.
The maximum sinking and sourcing currents for an IC output are usually the same but
there are some exceptions, for example 74LS TTL logic ICs can sink up to 16mA but
only source 2mA.
Using diodes to combine outputs
The outputs of ICs must never be directly connected

together. However, diodes can be used to combine two
or more digital (high/low) outputs from an IC such as a
counter. This can be a useful way of producing simple logic functions without using logic
gates!
The diagram shows two ways of combining outputs using diodes. The diodes must be
capable of passing the output current. 1N4148 signal diodes are suitable for low current
devices such as LEDs.
For example the outputs Q0 - Q9 of a 4017 1-of-10 counter go high in turn. Using
diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th (Q3) outputs as shown in the bottom diagram
will make the LED flash twice followed by a longer gap. The diodes are performing the
function of an OR gate.
Example projects: Traffic Light | Dice | Model Lighthouse
The 555 and 556 Timers
The 8-pin 555 timer IC is used in many projects,

a popular version is the NE555. Most circuits will
just specify '555 timer IC' and the NE555 is
suitable for these. The 555 output (pin 3) can
sink and source up to 200mA. This is more than
most ICs and it is sufficient to supply LEDs, relay
coils and low current lamps. To switch larger
currents you can connect a transistor.
The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a

14-pin package. The two timers (A and B) share
the same power supply pins.
Low power versions of the 555 are made, such

as the ICM7555, but these should only be used
when specified (to increase battery life) because
their maximum output current of about 20mA
(with 9V supply) is too low for many standard
555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin
arrangement as a standard 555.
For further information please see the page on 555 and 556 timer circuits.
Logic ICs (chips)

Logic ICs process digital signals and there are many devices, including logic gates, flip-
flops, shift registers, counters and display drivers. They can be split into two groups
according to their pin arrangements: the 4000 series and the 74 series which consists of
various families such as the 74HC, 74HCT and 74LS.
For most new projects the 74HC family is the best choice. The older 4000 series is
the only family which works with a supply voltage of more than 6V. The 74LS and
74HCT families require a 5V supply so they are not convenient for battery operation.
The table below summarises the important properties of the most popular logic families:
74 Series 74 Series 74 Series

Property 4000 Series
74HC 74HCT 74LS
High-speed CMO High-speed CMOS TTL Low-power
Technology CMOS
S TTL compatible Schottky
Power Supply 3 to 15V 2 to 6V 5V ±0.5V 5V ±0.25V
Very high impedance. Unused inputs Very high impedance. 'Float' high to logic
must be connected to +Vs or 0V. Inputs Unused inputs must be 1 if unconnected.
Inputs cannot be reliably driven by 74LS outputs connected to +Vs or 1mA must be
unless a 'pull-up' resistor is used (see 0V. Compatible with drawn out to hold
below). 74LS (TTL) outputs. them at logic 0.
Can sink and
Can sink up to
source about 5mA Can sink and source
Can sink and source 16mA (enough to
(10mA with 9V about 20mA, enough
about 20mA, enough to light an LED), but
supply), enough to to light an LED. To
Outputs light an LED. To switch larger
light an LED. To switch source only about
larger currents use a 2mA. To switch
switch larger currents use a
transistor. larger currents use
currents use a transistor.
a transistor.
transistor.
One output can
drive up to 50 One output can
CMOS, 74HC or One output can drive up to 50 CMOS, 74HC drive up to 10
Fan-out 74HCT inputs, but or 74HCT inputs, but only 10 74LS inputs. 74LS inputs or 50
only one 74LS 74HCT inputs.
input.
Maximum
about 1MHz about 25MHz about 25MHz about 35MHz
Frequency
Power
consumption A few µW. A few µW. A few µW. A few mW.
of the IC itself
Mixing Logic Families
It is best to build a circuit using just one logic

family, but if necessary the different families may Driving 4000 or 74HC inputs from a
be mixed providing the power supply is suitable for 74LS output using a pull-up resistor.
all of them. For example mixing 4000 and 74HC
requires the power supply to be in the range 3 to 6V. A circuit which includes 74LS or
74HCT ICs must have a 5V supply.
A 74LS output cannot reliably drive a 4000 or 74HC input unless a 'pull- Quick links to
up' resistor of 2.2k is connected between the +5V supply and the individual ICs
input to correct the slightly different logic voltage ranges used.
4000 4060
4001 4068
Note that a 4000 series output can drive only one 74LS input. 4002 4069
4011 4070
4012 4071
4017 4072
4020 4073
4023 4075
4024 4077
4025 4081
4026 4082
4028 4093
4029 4510
4030 4511
4040 4516
4049 4518
4050 4520

4000 Series CMOS
This family of logic ICs is numbered from 4000 onwards, and from 4500 onwards. They
have a B at the end of the number (e.g. 4001B) which refers to an improved design
introduced some years ago. Most of them are in 14-pin or 16-pin packages. They use
CMOS circuitry which means they use very little power and can tolerate a wide range
of power supply voltages (3 to 15V) making them ideal for battery powered projects.
CMOS is pronounced 'see-moss' and stands for Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor.
However the CMOS circuitry also means that they are static sensitive. Touching a pin
while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for example) may damage the IC.
In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a
metal water pipe or window frame before handling them will be adequate. ICs should be
left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use them. For the more sensitive
(and expensive!) ICs special equipment is available, including earthed wrist straps and
earthed work surfaces.
For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links on the right
or go to 4000 Series ICs.
Quick links to
individual ICs
7400 7432
7402 7442
7403 7447
7404 7486
7405 7490
7408 7493
7409 74132
7410 74160
7411 74161
7412 74162
7414 74163
7420 74192
7421 74193
7427 74390
7430 74393
74HC4017
74HC4020
74HC4040
74HC4060
74HC4511

74 Series: 74LS, 74HC and 74HCT
There are several families of logic ICs numbered from 74xx00 onwards with letters (xx)
in the middle of the number to indicate the type of circuitry, eg 74LS00 and 74HC00.
The original family (now obsolete) had no letters, eg 7400.
The 74LS (Low-power Schottky) family (like the original) uses TTL (Transistor-
Transistor Logic) circuitry which is fast but requires more power than later families.
The 74HC family has High-speed CMOS circuitry, combining the speed of TTL with the
very low power consumption of the 4000 series. They are CMOS ICs with the same pin
arrangements as the older 74LS family. Note that 74HC inputs cannot be reliably driven
by 74LS outputs because the voltage ranges used for logic 0 are not quite compatible,
use 74HCT instead.
The 74HCT family is a special version of 74HC with 74LS TTL-compatible inputs so
74HCT can be safely mixed with 74LS in the same system. In fact 74HCT can be used
as low-power direct replacements for the older 74LS ICs in most circuits. The minor
disadvantage of 74HCT is a lower immunity to noise, but this is unlikely to be a problem
in most situations.
Beware that the 74 series is often still called the 'TTL series' even though the latest ICs
do not use TTL!
For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links on the right
or go to 74 series ICs.
The CMOS circuitry used in the 74HC and 74HCT series ICs means that they are static
sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for
example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and
earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling
them will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are
ready to use them.
PIC microcontrollers
A PIC is a Programmable Integrated Circuit microcontroller, a 'computer-on-a-chip'.

They have a processor and memory to run a program responding to inputs and
controlling outputs, so they can easily achieve complex functions which would require
several conventional ICs.
Programming a PIC microcontroller may seem daunting to a

beginner but there are a number of systems designed to make
this easy. The PICAXE system is an excellent example because
it uses a standard computer to program (and re-program) the
PICs; no specialist equipment is required other than a low-cost
download lead. Programs can be written in a simple version of
www.picaxe.co.uk
BASIC or using a flowchart. The PICAXE programming software
and extensive documentation is available to download free of
charge, making the system ideal for education and users at home. For further
information (including downloads) please see www.picaxe.co.uk
4000 series CMOS Logic ICs

Gates: 2-input | 3-input | 4-input | 8-input | 4069 NOT | 4049 NOT | 4050 Buffer | 4000 Quick links to
Decade and 4-bit counters: 4017 | 4026 | 4029 | 4510 | 4516 | 4518 | 4520 individual ICs
7-bit, 12-bit & 14-bit counters: 4020 | 4024 | 4040 | 4060
Decoders and display drivers: 4028 | 4511
4000 4060
4001 4068
Also see: 74 Series | Logic Gates | Counting Circuits | ICs (chips) (with 4002 4069
summary of logic ICs) 4011 4070
4012 4071
4017 4072
4020 4073
General characteristics 4023 4075
4024 4077
 Supply: 3 to 15V, small fluctuations are tolerated. 4025 4081
 Inputs have very high impedance (resistance), this is good because it means 4026 4082
they will not affect the part of the circuit where they are connected. However, 4028 4093
it also means that unconnected inputs can easily pick up electrical noise and 4029 4510
rapidly change between high and low states in an unpredictable way. This is 4030 4511
likely to make the IC behave erratically and it will significantly increase the 4040 4516
4049 4518
4050 4520

supply current. To prevent problems all unused inputs MUST be connected to the supply (either
+Vs or 0V), this applies even if that part of the IC is not being used in the circuit!
 Outputs can sink and source only about 1mA if you wish to maintain the correct output voltage to
drive CMOS inputs. If there is no need to drive any inputs the maximum current is about 5mA with
a 6V supply, or 10mA with a 9V supply (just enough to light an LED). To switch larger currents
you can connect a transistor.
 Fan-out: one output can drive up to 50 inputs.
 Gate propagation time: typically 30ns for a signal to travel through a gate with a 9V supply, it
takes a longer time at lower supply voltages.
 Frequency: up to 1MHz, above that the 74 series is a better choice.
 Power consumption (of the IC itself) is very low, a few µW. It is much greater at high
frequencies, a few mW at 1MHz for example.
There are many ICs in the 4000 series and this page only covers a selection, concentrating on the most
useful gates, counters, decoders and display drivers. For each IC there is a diagram showing the pin
arrangement and brief notes explain the function of the pins where necessary. The notes also explain if
the IC's properties differ substantially from the standard characteristics listed above.
If you are using another reference please be aware that there is some variation in the terms used to
describe input pins. I have tried to be logically consistent so the term I have used describes the pin's
function when high (true). For example 'disable clock' on the 4026 is often labelled 'clock enable' but this
can be confusing because it enables the clock when low (false). An input described as 'active low' is like
this, it performs its function when low. If you see a line drawn above a label it means it is active low, for
example: (say 'reset-bar').
Datasheets are available from:
 DatasheetArchive.com
 Datasheets.org.uk
 DatasheetCatalog.com
Static precautions
The CMOS circuitry means that 4000 series ICs are static sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with
static electricity (from your clothes for example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are
quite tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling
them will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use them.
Gates
Quad 2-input gates
 4001 quad 2-input NOR

 4011 quad 2-input NAND
 4030 quad 2-input EX-OR (now obsolete)
 4070 quad 2-input EX-OR
 4071 quad 2-input OR
 4077 quad 2-input EX-NOR
 4081 quad 2-input AND
 4093 quad 2-input NAND with Schmitt trigger inputs
The 4093 has Schmitt trigger inputs to provide good noise immunity. They are ideal for slowly changing or
noisy signals. The hysteresis is about 0.5V with a 4.5V supply and almost 2V with a 9V supply.
Triple 3-input gates
 4023 triple 3-input NAND

 4025 triple 3-input NOR
 4073 triple 3-input AND
 4075 triple 3-input OR
Notice how gate 1 is spread across the two ends of

the package.
Dual 4-input gates
 4002 dual 4-input NOR

 4012 dual 4-input NAND
 4072 dual 4-input OR
 4082 dual 4-input AND
NC = No Connection (a pin that is not used).
4068 8-input NAND/AND* gate

This gate has a propagation time which is about 10
times longer than normal so it is not suitable for high
speed circuits.

* = The AND output (pin 1) is not available on some versions of the 4068.
4069 hex NOT (inverting buffer)
4049 hex NOT and 4050 hex buffer
 4049 hex NOT (inverting buffer)

 4050 hex non-inverting buffer
Inputs: These ICs are unusual because their gate

inputs can withstand up to +15V even if the power
supply is a lower voltage.
Outputs: These ICs are unusual because they are

capable of driving 74LS gate inputs directly. To do
this they must have a +5V supply (74LS supply
voltage). The gate output is sufficient to drive four
74LS inputs.
Note the unusual arrangement of the power supply pins for these ICs!
4000 dual 3-input NOR gate and NOT

gate
Two 3-input NOR gates and a single NOT gate in one
package.
Decade and 4-bit Counters
4017 decade counter (1-of-10)

The count advances as the clock input becomes high
(on the rising-edge). Each output Q0-Q9 goes high in
turn as counting advances. For some functions (such
as flash sequences) outputs may be combined
using diodes.
The reset input should be low (0V) for normal

operation (counting 0-9). When high it resets the
count to zero (Q0 high). This can be done manually
with a switch between reset and +Vs and a 10k
resistor between reset and 0V. Counting to less
than 9 is achieved by connecting the relevant output
(Q0-Q9) to reset, for example to count 0,1,2,3
connect Q4 to reset.
The disable input should be low (0V) for normal

operation. When high it disables counting so that
clock pulses are ignored and the count is kept
constant.
The ÷10 output is high for counts 0-4 and low for
5-9, so it provides an output at 1/10 of the clock
frequency. It can be used to drive the clock input
of another 4017 (to count the tens).
Example projects: Heart-shaped badge |

Network Lead Tester | Traffic Light | Dice |
Model Lighthouse
4026 decade counter and 7-

segment display driver
The count advances as the clock input becomes
high (on the rising-edge). The outputs a-g go high
to light the appropriate segments of a common-
cathode 7-segment display as the count
advances. The maximum output current is about
1mA with a 4.5V supply and 4mA with a 9V
supply. This is sufficient to directly drive many 7-segment LED displays. The table below shows the
segment sequence in detail.
The reset input should be low (0V) for normal operation (counting 0-9). When high it resets the count to
zero.
The disable clock input should be low (0V) for normal operation. When high it disables counting so that
clock pulses are ignored and the count is kept constant.
The enable display input should be high (+Vs) for normal operation. When low it makes outputs a-g low,
giving a blank display. The enable out follows this input but with a brief delay.
The ÷10 output (h in table) is high for counts 0-4 and low for 5-9, so it provides an output at 1/10 of the
clock frequency. It can be used to drive the clock input of another 4026 to provide multi-digit counting.
The not 2 output is high unless the count is 2 when it goes low.
Example project: 'Random' flasher for 8 LEDs

This project uses the 4026 in an unconventional way, the outputs a-g and the ÷10 output (h) are used to
flash individual LEDs in a complex pattern which appears random if not studied too closely!
4029 up/down synchronous counter with preset

The 4029 is a synchronous counter so its outputs
change precisely together on each clock pulse. This
is helpful if you need to connect the outputs to logic
gates because it avoids the glitches which occur with
ripple counters.
The count occurs as the clock input becomes high

(on the rising-edge). The up/down input determines
the direction of counting: high for up, low for down.
The state of up/down should be changed when the
clock is high.
For normal operation (counting) preset, and carry in

should be low.
The binary/decade input selects the type of counter:

4-bit binary (0-15) when high; decade (0-9) when low.
The counter may be preset by placing the desired binary number on the inputs A-D and briefly making
the preset input high. There is no reset input, but preset can be used to reset the count to zero if
inputs A-D are all low.
Connecting synchronous counters in a chain: please see 4510/16 below.

4510 up/down decade (0-9) counter with preset
4516 up/down 4-bit (0-15) counter with preset
These are synchronous counters so their outputs
change precisely together on each clock pulse. This
is helpful if you need to connect their outputs to logic
gates because it avoids the glitches which occur with
ripple counters.
The count occurs as the clock input becomes high

(on the rising-edge). The up/down input determines
the direction of counting: high for up, low for down.
The state of up/down should be changed when the
clock is high.
For normal operation (counting) preset, reset and

carry in should be low. When reset is high it resets
the count to zero (0000, QA-QD low). The clock input
should be low when resetting.
The counter may be preset by placing the desired binary number on the inputs A-D and briefly making
the preset input high, the clock input should be low when this happens.
Connecting synchronous counters in a chain

The diagram below shows how to link synchronous counters, notice how all the clock (CK) inputs are
linked. Carry out (CO) feeds carry in (CI) of the next counter. Carry in (CI) of the first counter should be
low for 4029, 4510 and 4516 counters.
4518 dual decade (0-9) counter

4520 dual 4-bit (0-15) counter
These contain two separate synchronous counters,
one on each side of the IC.
Normally a clock signal is connected to the clock

input, with the enable input held high. Counting
advances as the clock signal becomes high (on the rising-edge). Special arrangements are used if the
4518/20 counters are linked in a chain, as explained below.
For normal operation the reset input should be low, making it high resets the counter to zero (0000, QA-
QD low).
Counting to less than the maximum (9 or 15) can be achieved by connecting the appropriate output(s)
to the reset input, using an AND gate if necessary. For example to count 0 to 8 connect QA (1) and QD
(8) to reset using an AND gate.
Connecting 4518 and 4520 counters in a chain

The diagram below shows how to link 4518 and 4520 counters. Notice how the normal clock inputs are
held low, with the enable inputs being used instead. With this arrangement counting advances as the
enable input becomes low (on the falling-edge) allowing output QD to supply a clock signal to the next
counter. The complete chain is a ripple counter, although the individual counters are synchronous! If it is
essential to have truly synchronous counting a system of logic gates is required, please see a 4518/20
datasheet for further details.
7-bit, 12-bit and 14-bit counters
4020 14-bit (÷16,384) ripple counter

The 4020 is a ripple counter so beware that glitches
may occur in any logic gate systems connected to its
outputs due to the slight delay before the later
counter outputs respond to a clock pulse.
The count advances as the clock input becomes low

(on the falling-edge), this is indicated by the bar over
the clock label. This is the usual clock behaviour of
ripple counters and it means a counter output can
directly drive the clock input of the next counter in a
chain.
Output Qn is the nth stage of the counter,

representing 2n, for example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of
clock frequency) and Q14 is 214 = 16384 (1/16384 of
clock frequency). Note that Q2 and Q3 are not
available.
The reset input should be low for normal operation (counting). When high it resets the count to zero (all
outputs low).
Also see: 4040 (12-bit) and 4060 (14-bit with internal oscillator).
4024 7-bit (÷128) ripple counter


chain.

clock frequency) and Q7 is 27 = 128 (1/128 of clock frequency).
outputs low).
4040 12-bit (÷4096) ripple counter


chain.

clock frequency) and Q12 is 212 = 4096 (1/4096 of clock
frequency).
The reset input should be low for normal operation
(counting). When high it resets the count to zero (all
outputs low).
Also see these 14-bit counters: 4020 and 4060

(includes internal oscillator).
4060 14-bit (÷16,384) ripple counter with internal oscillator

The 4060 is a ripple counter so beware that glitches may occur in any logic gate systems connected to its
outputs due to the slight delay before the later counter outputs respond to a clock pulse.
The count advances as the clock input becomes low (on the falling-edge), this is indicated by the bar
over the clock label. This is the usual clock behaviour of ripple counters and it means a counter output
can directly drive the clock input of the next counter in a chain. The clock can be driven directly, or
connected to the internal oscillator (see below).
Output Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2 n, for example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock
frequency) and Q14 is 214 = 16384 (1/16384 of clock frequency). Note that Q1-3 and Q11 are not available.
outputs low).
The 4060 includes an internal oscillator. The clock signal may be supplied in three ways:
 From an external source to the clock input, as for a normal counter. In this case there should be
no connections to external C and external R (pins 9 and 10).
 RC oscillator as shown in the diagram. The oscillator drives the clock input with an approximate
frequency f = 1/(2×R1×C) (it partly depends on the supply voltage). R1 should be at least 50k if the
supply voltage is less than 7V. R2 should be between 2 and 10 times R1.
 Crystal oscillator as shown in the diagram, note that there is no connection to pin 9. The
32768 Hz crystal will give a 2Hz signal at the last output, Q14.
Also see: 4020 (14-bit) and 4040 (12-bit), neither have internal oscillators.
Example projects: Christmas Decoration | Valentine Heart
Decoders
4028 BCD to decimal (1 of 10) decoder

The appropriate output Q0-9 becomes high in
response to the BCD (binary coded decimal) input.
For example an input of binary 0101 (=5) will make
output Q5 high and all other outputs low.
The 4028 is a BCD (binary coded decimal) decoder

intended for input values 0 to 9 (0000 to 1001 in
binary). With inputs from 10 to 15 (1010 to 1111 in
binary) all outputs are low.
Note that the 4028 can be used as a 1-of-8 decoder

if input D is held low.
Also see: 4017 (a decade counter and 1-of-10

decoder in a single IC).
7-segment Display Drivers
4511 BCD to 7-segment display driver

The appropriate outputs a-g become high to display
the BCD (binary coded decimal) number supplied on
inputs A-D. The outputs a-g can source up to
25mA. The 7-segment display segments must be
connected between the outputs and 0V with a resistor
in series (330 with a 5V supply). A common
cathode display is required.
Display test and blank input are active-low so they should be high for normal operation. When display
test is low all the display segments should light (showing number 8). When blank input is low the display
will be blank (all segments off).
The store input should be low for normal operation. When store is high the displayed number is stored
internally to give a constant display regardless of any changes which may occur to the inputs A-D.
The 4511 is intended for BCD (binary coded decimal). Inputs values from 10 to 15 (1010 to 1111 in
binary) will give a blank display (all segments off).
Switches
Switch Contacts - pole, throw etc.
Standard Switches - SPST, SPDT, DPST, DPDT.
Special Switches - multiway, key, tilt, reed etc.
Also see: Relays | Series and Parallel Connections - Switches
Selecting a Switch Circuit symbol for a

simple on-off switch
There are three important features to consider when selecting a
switch:
 Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

 Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
 Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
 Pole - number of switch contact sets.

 Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
 Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
 Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
 Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
 Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one
switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two
positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one
position conducts.
Switch Contact Ratings
Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be
different ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to
zero many times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch
contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need
to check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and
motors) because they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.
Standard Switches
Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example

ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can be

used to switch the power supply to a
circuit.
When used with mains electricity this

type of switch must be in the live wire,
but it is better to use a DPST switch to
SPST toggle switch
isolate both live and neutral.
(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its

normally open (off) position when you
release the button, this is shown by the
brackets around ON. This is the standard Push-to-make switch
doorbell switch.
ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary
A push-to-break switch returns to its Push-to-break switch

normally closed (on) position when you
release the button.
ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT
This switch can be on in both positions,

switching on a separate device in each
case. It is often called a changeover
switch. For example, a SPDT switch can
be used to switch on a red lamp in one
position and a green lamp in the other SPDT toggle switch
position.
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple

on-off switch by connecting to COM and one of
the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and
B are interchangeable so switches are usually
not labelled.
SPDT slide switch
ON-OFF-ON (PCB mounting)
SPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in
the centre which is off. Momentary (ON)-
OFF-(ON) versions are also available
where the switch returns to the central off
position when released.
SPDT rocker switch
Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used to switch

mains electricity because it can isolate
both the live and neutral connections. DPST rocker switch

Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPDT switch can be wired up as a

reversing switch for a motor as shown
in the diagram.
DPDT slide switch
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in
the centre which is off. This can be very
useful for motor control because you
have forward, off and reverse positions.
Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are Wiring for Reversing Switch
also available where the switch returns to
the central off position when released.

Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of switches and
they have kindly allowed me to use their photographs
on this page. The photographs are from their Image
Gallery CD-ROM.
Special Switches
Type of Switch Example

Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)
This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a

standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again
to switch off. This is called a latching action.

Microswitch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)
Microswitches are designed to switch fully open or closed in

response to small movements. They are available with
levers and rollers attached.
Keyswitch
A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.
Tilt Switch (SPST)
Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this

bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be
used as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some
tilt switches contain mercury which is poisonous.
Reed Switch (usually SPST)
The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small

magnet near the switch. They are used in security circuits,
for example to check that doors are closed. Standard reed
switches are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover)
versions are also available.
Warning: reed switches have a glass body which is easily

broken! For advice on handling please see the
Electronics in Meccano website.
DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)
This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example

shown has 8 switches. The package is the same size as a
standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit.
This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the

code of a remote control.

Multi-pole Switch
The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known

as a 6-pole changeover switch. It can be set to have
momentary or latching action. Latching action means it
behaves as a push-push switch, push once for the first
position, push again for the second position etc.
Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions.

They may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type
has a rotary action and it is available with a range of contact
arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a

stop under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch
you can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop.
Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-
pole switch (many contact sets) described above.
Transistors
This page covers practical matters such as precautions when soldering and identifying leads. The
operation and use of transistors is covered by the Transistor Circuits page.
Types | Connecting | Soldering | Heat sinks | Testing | Codes | Choosing | Darlington pair
Also see: Heat sinks | Transistor Circuits
Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify

the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp,
relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to
convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is
being used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum

current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP,

with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers
of semiconductor material used to make the transistor.
Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the
easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to
electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN Transistor circuit symbols
transistors.
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding
how a transistor is used, so just treat them as
labels!
A Darlington pair is two transistors

connected together to give a very high
current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction)

transistors, there are field-effect
transistors which are usually referred to
as FETs. They have different circuit
symbols and properties and they are not
(yet) covered by this page.
Transistor leads for some common case styles.
Connecting
Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please
take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly
when you switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or stripboard
layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to identify the
leads.
The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles.
Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads
towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from
above.
Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors.
Crocodile clip
Photograph © Rapid Electronics.
Soldering
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is
wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A
standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below) which may be
required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during
operation.
Heat sink
Heat sinks
Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through them. Heat
sinks are needed for power transistors because they pass large currents. If you find that
a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink
helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.
For further information please see the Heat sinks page.
Testing an NPN transistor
Testing a transistor
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you

suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it:
1. Testing with a multimeter
Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of
leads for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter
to a low resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):
 The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way
only.
 The base-collector (BC) junction should
behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
 The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct
either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an

NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a PNP
transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
2. Testing in a simple switching circuit
A simple switching circuit

to test an NPN transistor
Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right which uses the transistor as a
switch. The supply voltage is not critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. This
circuit can be quickly built on breadboard for example. Take care to include the 10k
resistor in the base connection or you will destroy the transistor as you test it!
If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light
when the switch is released.
To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the supply
voltage.
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base current
and measures the collector current so as to display the transistor's DC current gain h FE.
Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:
 Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478

The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates
the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency;
F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There
is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C)
to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case
style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general
code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
 Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end
identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
 Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular
transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually
substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important
properties to look for are the maximum collector current I C and the current gain hFE. To
make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined
either by their typical use or maximum power rating.
To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are
normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but
they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used.
The table below shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors,
tables in catalogues and reference books will usually show additional information but
this is unlikely to be useful unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the
table are explained below.
NPN transistors
Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible
Code Structure
style max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes
Audio, low
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW power
BC182 BC547
General
BC108C BC183
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW purpose, low
BC548
power
General
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW purpose, low
power
Audio (low
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW noise), low BC184 BC549
power
General
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose, low BC107 BC182L
power
General
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose, low BC107 BC182
power
Audio, low
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW power
BC107B
General
BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW purpose, low BC108B
power
Audio (low
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW noise), low BC109
power
General
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW purpose, low BFY51
power
General
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW purpose, BC639
medium power
General
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW purpose, BFY51
medium power
General
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W purpose, high
power
General
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W purpose, high TIP31C TIP41A
power
General
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose, high TIP31A TIP41A
power
General
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W purpose, high
power
General
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W purpose, high
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent!
Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require
precise data.
PNP transistors
Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible
Code Structure
style max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes
Audio, low
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW power
BC477
General
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW purpose, low BC478
power
Audio (low
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW noise), low
power
Audio, low
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW power
BC177
General
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW purpose, low BC178
power
General
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W purpose, high TIP32C
power
General
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose, high TIP32A
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent!
Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require
precise data.
Structure This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of
the two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it
must be the same type.
Case style There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most
common case styles in the Connecting section above. This
information is also available in suppliers' catalogues.
IC max. Maximum collector current.
VCE max. Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.
You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.
hFE This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The
guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value
varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same
type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current I C which is usually in
the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain
is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given.
Since the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies from
transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts.
Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with
their own symbol. There are too many to explain here.
Ptot max. Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor,
note that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum
rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as
amplifiers, the power is roughly IC × VCE. For transistors
operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is
more important.
Category This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting
point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have
separate tables for different categories.
Possible substitutes These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will
be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have
a different case style so you will need to take care when placing
them on the circuit board.
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the

amplified current from the first is amplified further by the
second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high
current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as
complete packages containing the two transistors. They have
three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of
a standard individual transistor.
You can make up your own Darlington pair from two

transistors.
For example:
 For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.

 For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.
The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.
The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same
as TR2.
Other Components
LDR | Thermistor | Piezo transducer | Loudspeaker | Buzzer &
Bleeper | Inductor (coil)
circuit symbol
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts brightness (light) to resistance. It is

made from cadmium sulphide (CdS) and the resistance decreases as the brightness of light
falling on the LDR increases.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance in darkness and bright light, these are
the typical results for a standard LDR:
 Darkness: maximum resistance, about 1M .

 Very bright light: minimum resistance, about 100 .
For many years the standard LDR has been the ORP12, now the NORPS12, which is about
13mm diameter. Miniature LDRs are also available and their diameter is about 5mm.
An LDR may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required
when soldering.
Thermistor
A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts

temperature (heat) to resistance. Almost all thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) which means their
resistance decreases as their temperature increases. It is
possible to make thermistors with a positive temperature
coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases) but
these are rarely used. Always assume NTC if no information is
given. Photograph © Rapid Electronics
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance at various

temperatures, these are some typical readings for
example:
circuit symbol
 Icy water 0°C: high resistance, about 12k .
 Room temperature 25°C: medium resistance, about 5k
.
 Boiling water 100°C: low resistance, about 400 .
Suppliers usually specify thermistors by their resistance at 25°C (room temperature).

Thermistors take several seconds to respond to a sudden temperature change, small
thermistors respond more rapidly.
A thermistor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are
required when soldering. If it is going to be immersed in water the thermistor and its
connections should be insulated because water is a weak conductor; for example they
could be coated with polyurethane varnish.
Piezo transducer
Piezo transducers are output transducers which convert an
electrical signal to sound. They require a driver circuit (such as a
555 astable) to provide a signal and if this is near their natural
(resonant) frequency of about 3kHz they will produce a
particularly loud sound.
Piezo transducers
require a small current, circuit symbol
usually less than 10mA,
so they can be
connected directly to
the outputs of most ICs. They are ideal for buzzes
and beeps, but are not suitable for speech or music
because they distort the sound. They are sometimes
supplied with red and black leads, but they may
be connected either Photograph © Rapid Electronics way round. PCB-mounting
versions are also available.
Piezo transducers can also be used as input

transducers for detecting sudden loud
noises or impacts, effectively behaving as a
crude microphone.
capacitor in series to block DC

circuit symbol
Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers are output transducers which convert an electrical signal to sound. Usually they
are called 'speakers'. They require a driver circuit, such as a 555 astable or an audio amplifier,
to provide a signal. There is a wide range available, but for many electronics projects a 300mW
miniature loudspeaker is ideal. This type is about 70mm diameter and it is usually available with
resistances of 8 and 64 . If a project specifies a 64 speaker you must use this higher
resistance to prevent damage to the driving circuit.
Most circuits used to drive loudspeakers produce an audio (AC) signal which is
combined with a constant DC signal. The DC will make a large current flow through the
speaker due to its low resistance, possibly damaging both the speaker and the driving
circuit. To prevent this happening a large value electrolytic capacitor is connected in
series with the speaker, this blocks DC but passes audio (AC) signals. See
capacitor coupling.
Loudspeakers may be connected either way round except in stereo circuits when the +
and - markings on their terminals must be observed to ensure the two speakers are in
phase.
Correct polarity must always be observed for large speakers in cabinets because the
cabinet may contain a small circuit (a 'crossover network') which diverts the high
frequency signals to a small
speaker (a 'tweeter') because
the large main speaker is poor
at reproducing them.
Miniature loudspeakers can

also be used as a microphone
and they work surprisingly
well, certainly good enough for
speech in an intercom system Buzzer (about 400Hz) Bleeper (about 3kHz)
for example.

circuit symbol
Buzzer and Bleeper
These devices are output transducers converting electrical energy to sound. They contain an
internal oscillator to produce the sound which is set at about 400Hz for buzzers and about 3kHz
for bleepers.
Buzzers have a voltage rating but it is only approximate, for example 6V and 12V
buzzers can be used with a 9V supply. Their typical current is about 25mA.
Bleepers have wide voltage ranges, such as 3-30V, and
they pass a low current of about 10mA.
Inductor (miniature)
Buzzers and bleepers must be connected the right way
round, their red lead is positive (+).
Ferrite rod

circuit symbol
Inductor (coil)
An inductor is a coil of wire which may have a core of air, iron or ferrite (a brittle material made
from iron). Its electrical property is called inductance and the unit for this is the henry, symbol H.
1H is very large so mH and µH are used, 1000µH = 1mH and 1000mH = 1H. Iron and ferrite
cores increase the inductance. Inductors are mainly used in tuned circuits and to block high
frequency AC signals (they are sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily, but block AC
signals, this is the opposite of capacitors.
Inductors are rarely found in simple projects, but one exception is the tuning coil of a
radio receiver. This is an inductor which you may have to make yourself by neatly
winding enamelled copper wire around a ferrite rod. Enamelled copper wire has very
thin insulation, allowing the turns of the coil to be close together, but this makes it
impossible to strip in the usual way - the best method is to gently pull the ends of the
wire through folded emery paper.
Warning: a ferrite rod is brittle so treat it like glass, not iron!
An inductor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are
required when soldering.

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Electronics Project Sheet 2

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Counting Circuits

Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders | Display drivers |

Next Page: Quantities and Units Logic states

Bits, bytes and nibbles

Each binary digit is called a bit, so 10110110 is an 8-bit number.

Hexadecimal (base 16)

Example: 10110110 binary = B6 hexadecimal = 182 decimal.

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders |

 A = 1, the 'least significant bit' (LSB)

A square wave clock signal

The bouncing output from a switch

A 4-bit counter and clock input

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders |

Ripple and synchronous counters

There are two main types of counter: ripple

Rising-edge and falling-edge clock inputs

 Most synchronous counters count on

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders |

Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum

If the reset input is 'active-low' a NOT or NAND gate

The reset function normally occurs immediately

Some synchronous counters have a synchronous

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders |

The most popular type is a 1-of-10 decoder which

Decoders can be used for a simple counting display and

For example using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders |

The inputs A-D of a display driver are connected to the

Top of page | Binary | 4-bit | BCD | Counters | Ripple/Synchronous | Reset | Freq. division | Decoders |

Linking ripple counters

Linking synchronous counters

Quantities and Units in Electronics

The table shows electrical quantities which are used in electronics.

The same equation using symbols: V = I × R

Please click on the quantities in the table for further information.

Why not change the units to be better sizes?

Soldering | Study | Components | 555 | Symbols | FAQ | Links

Books about Electronics

Next Page: Studying Electronics

Books for Studying Electronics

Books for Electronics Projects

Function and Construction

Lamp used for lighting Lamp used as an indicator

There are three important features to consider when selecting a lamp:

 Voltage rating - the supply voltage for normal brightness.

Power or current rating

Type of Lamp Example

LES Lilliput Edison Screw

Photograph © Rapid Electronics

Photograph © Rapid Electronics

Photograph © Rapid Electronics

Photograph © Rapid Electronics

Photograph © Rapid Electronics

Photograph © Rapid Electronics

Connecting and soldering

Lamps may be connected either way round in a screw terminals solder tags

Most lamps are designed to be used in a Photographs © Rapid Electronics

Several lamps can be successfully connected in

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Example: Circuit symbol:

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

Connecting and soldering

Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply!

LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe