Task 1(P3.

1):
Engineering
material
Metal
Ceramic
Polymer
composite

Material

Component

Aluminum alloy
Silicon nitride
Polyethylene
Concrete

Skin of aircraft
Braking pads
Fiber glass
buildings

Aluminum alloy:
Forces that act on the aircraft body:
When aircraft is moving it has to face force that is coming
from when air.
Drag forces that are induced and parasitic.
Weight force that is also gravitational force.
Fuselage is a part from which every other part is connected.
Fuselage is considered as the main part of aircraft that has to face
all forces. However after making a fuselage the last sheet that is
used to cover aircraft skin is mainly aluminum alloy.
The chosen material is no doubt a performance driven material that
has helped in reducing the cost of ownership. However the reason
engineers prefer this alloy for aircrafts is because it certainly gives
high specific strength, fabricability, durability, and is also damage
tolerance. Moving on aluminum is also used in aircraft body because
when it goes at high-speed, friction increases due to drag force that
will increase the skin temperature hence the chosen material the
best option to use as it has smooth surface reducing friction plus it
can resist at high temperature that I will be explaining later in this
task. One of the main reason why aerospace industry started using
aluminum alloy is to reduce over all cost of aircraft as it is reduces
the over all weight hence makes the flight much more efficient.
The chosen material also attains high specific modulus at ambient
and cryogenic temperate , however it can also withstand the action
of liquid propellants and has ability to resist high corrosion along
with ease of fabrication. The main methods from which aluminum
can be shaped is by rolling, drawing or forging.
Working condition:
Al-alloy have an electrical resistivity of 3.99e-006 ohm-cm and also
have 1.41 x10^-6. Al-alloy has a young modulus of somewhat
90GPa however the density it attains is only 3000 (kg/m^3). These
values clearly shows that it has low density hence it will have less
weight and the value of youngs modulus it has clearly shows that it
can withstand high amount of stress that the material will face when

moving at very high speed and the amount of stress it will face from
air.
Ultimate strength of AL-alloy s up to 62000PSE with shearing stress
of 40000PSI that allows Al-alloy to withstand high force coming from
air.

As the aluminum sheet are produces and are fixed or bolted onto
internal structure of fuselage that can be called ribs. Hence the
finish of aircraft outer skin is so smooth that it allows air to pass
through aerodynamically with minimum amount of drag.

Silicon nitride:
The braking pads over brake disk are usually made of silicon nitride
that has ability to with stand high temperature without getting
distorted. Moreover it can also dissipate friction heat that occurs
when pads are pushed towards disk to stop the moving object
however it also attains high thermal conductivity. The use of
breaking pads are used in almost every moving object so it could
help in stopping that object when applied brake on it. The biggest
example is Cars, motorcycle, aircrafts etc.
Talking about the function of breaking bad so it is applied on running
disk that is attached with wheel and is pushed towards disk that
help the wheel to stop. Silicon nitride combines strength, hardness,
toughness, corrosion resistance, high-temperature capability, and
reduced weight. These attributes make it useful for many
applications involving high contact stress sliding or rolling contact,
corrosive chemicals, or high temperatures. Several successful highproduction-volume applications utilizing these unique characteristics
have been developed.
Working condition:
It is also a semiconductor. And has the ability to resist high thermal
shock hence are the perfect choice for severe conditions. The breaks
are applied by hydraulic system as the piston touches the break pad
under high load towards the disk. However once when developers
make breaking pad it under goes several type of test that takes
place under high temperature and braking pads also have to be
tested for how much pressure should be applied to stop certain
amount of weight.

The test is conduct for braking pads as a tyre was taken that was
moving with certain speed as the breaks were applied on it by
actuating. Breaks were applied for 2 min and release for 1 min and it
was repeated till the break got fail. At the failure time the values
were taken that after what pressure, temperature load pads will be
subjected to wear or failure.
Traction force is one of the forces applied on brake pads however it
has a dielectric constant of 7 and electrical resistivity of 10^12
ohm^cm to 10^14 ohm^cm. it can withstand a temperature up to
2700 K. and can bear a force of 525Mpa of tensile strength and
127Gpa of shear stress.

Polyethylene:
Fiber glass is one component that itself is used in so many thing like,
water tanks, surfboards, canoes, small boat hulls and similar
products. The new European fighter plane, called Eurofighter, has
an airframe which includes 12% glass reinforced plastic. And the
main material fiber glass is made of polyethylene.
The chosen material attains good thermal insulation property and is
light in weight. Moreover it has very high strength to weight ratio if
compared to wood, aluminum mild steel etc. However by nature
they also have good electrical characteristic. And attains a low
coefficient of expansion giving them edge to resist corrosion and
weathering. However it also has high mechanical strength and
stiffness, which is why the application of polyethylene is used in so
many things in daily routine also.
The best thing why it is used for fiberglass is because it is very easy
to for material to which, it can attains complex shape and can be
useful in many engineering application. Even after a damage caused
the chosen material can still be repaired by simply bonding
fiberglass mat over the damaged area.
Working condition:
It attains elastic modulus from 700 to 900Mpa and flexural modulus
from 700Mpa to 800Mpa. A tensile strength from 7500 to 9000 MPA,
however since it is flexible so can be elongated from 1.5 to 2.5 %.
Its working condition with respect to temperature is from 120 to 140
*C and the molding pressure is from 10 to 20MPA.
However the dielectric constant that it has is from 2.2-2.4 MHz along
with a dielectric strength of 22kV. And it has surface resistivity of
10^14-10^15 ohm/sq.

Concrete:
Sand water and crushed rocks are blend with cement to produce
concrete it becomes very hard after some time lapsed as the
mixture has hydration chemical reactions taking place. It is
malleable and plastic when mixed in initially but after some time it
becomes very strong and durable.
It is used extensively for construction purpose of buildings
skyscrapers, highways, roads etc. By placing a current in the
concrete and checking at what rate the response comes from
voltage, is how the electrical resistivity of concrete is checked. It can
be measured with many ways as by 4 electrodes or even by 2
electrode. Because the evaluation of an aggrieve agent is slowed
before starting corrosive process hence it is essential process. The
chosen material certainly have high impact on environment, first
because it is complex procedure and 2nd it is source from CO2 that is
not very unhealthy in nature.
The time when any building is demolished it releases concrete dust
that yet again is very dangerous when breathing as it cause
dangerous air pollution. However to minimize the toxicity and
radioactivity it attains, there are some additives present in the
concrete. Another step to enhance environment nature, increase of
recycling of concrete has obtained.
Working condition:
When concrete is subjected to high tensile force or tension it
becomes very weak in nature. As an example if a beam is made of
concrete only and if it subjected to some high force it will collapse
into pieces. Hence to overcome this engineers came up with

solution to use concrete with steel roads that provide great strength
to the structure just like used for buildings, bridges etc. the concrete
is compressed when the walls weight is pressed on the foundation of
concrete. However concrete is prone to creep under long duration

forces.

Task 2 (P3.2)
Properties required for skin of aircraft:
Should have high value of strength and should be highly
tough.
Should have high ductility.
Should be resistive to corrosion
Can withstand high temperature and pressure coming from
air.
Easy of fabrication should be present
Should have low manufacturing cost
Should be smooth and should have proper curves to achieve
aerodynamic nature.
After aluminum there is only material that has less weight even
lesser than Al-alloy and has more strength than Al-alloy. It can
absorb more shock better than what Al-alloy does. The best thing
about carbon fiber is that it cannot have a rust or corrosion on
hence it is more durable.
Yet why still engineers dont prefer carbon fiber is because carbon
fiber. It consists of threads between 5 and 15 um in diameter
comprising mostly carbon atoms. The first airliner with a fuselage
made completely of composite materials was the Boeing 787 Dream
liner, which made its maiden commercial flight in 2011. However,
airplanes made from composite materials cost a lot more to produce

than planes made from aluminum. In addition, carbon composite

materials often don't deliver the required level of safety.
Processing method:
Fuselage is just not made of Al-alloy, but is mixed with other
material also however Al-alloy is a component that is used in large
quantity for skin of aircraft.
Moreover lets talk about the other material that is suitable for
aircraft skin that can be process with various type of methods but
the best method would be Resin infusion molding as it use a two
part epoxy formulation that are mixing where the components can
be mix in any combination after which it will exit and the head is
where resin gets flowed out of and flows into the pile. The resin is
taken over to autoclave after it is filled and the second process
takes place where it is subjected to high pressure and temperature
to attain a specific shape. The temperature goes till 300*F hence
ending up with high quality parts of fiber that can be used fro
aircraft skin.

Properties required for brake pads:

Should have high melting point.
Should dont decompose or break when pads are in touch with
disk.
Should have good resistance to wear and abrasion
Should maintain good strength at elevated temperature and
pressure
Should resist thermal shocks
Should be good electrical insulator
Resistance to creep should be good
The other type of material that is been use for braking pads is type
of braking pads that are made of silicon carbide. The reason of using
these type of braking pads are it is soft, makes less amount of noise
and are more easy on brake rotors. It doesnt need to much of heat
to generate friction force between disk and pads. it is more durable
and has long life than silicon nitride that why they are the best
choice for Ferrari as they have been using this from long time.

However the new material is also more stable under wide range of
temperature.
Here is comparison of Si3N4 and SiC

Processing method:
The best method to for SiC is by reaction bonding. As powder of
silicon is heated with Carbon powder that is sintered together.
During sintering a reaction occurs and bonding occurs
simultaneously. As the powder is now ready so add the powder in
brake pad shape you desire and later by pressing method where the
powder is been pressed at very high pressure applied in single
direction. The formed piece takes on the configuration of die and
platens through which the pressure is applied. This method is
confined to shape that are simple like braking pads. However the
press is somewhat of 20 tons of pressure and the powder gets
together with such extensive force that it attains an exact shape like
braking pads. Later it is kept in vacuum furnace sintering where the
object is subjected to heat to get strong hold. However here is a
picture that shows sintering process.

Properties required for fiberglass:

Low manufacturing cost.

Should attain less amount of weight
Should have high strength
Should have good resistance to rust or corrosion
Should absorb more vibration or energy when striking with
other objects.

However if talking about fiber glass another material that is best is

polyester resin or even a thermoplastic. However this material
makes the item more lightweights and is less brittle however the

raw material is also cheaper that has ability to attain complex

molded shape. However the polyester also gives fiberglass high
strength to weight ratio. It has high mechanical strength and better
tensile and bending strength.
Processing method:
There are 7 steps of making this glass fiber from polyester however
the process in which these 7 steps are is known as pultrusion. The 7
steps are as shown in a picture down.

The first step is when reinforced material will be impregnated with

resin. And it will go under the polymerization but before it will be
pulled through a heat stationary die. Either by pulling reinforcement
through a bath or by injecting the resin into an injection chamber
that are typically connected to the die is how impregnation is done.
The resin that is used is polyester that will provide resistance to
environment that makes the glass fiber to be resistive to corrosion,
UV, impact etc and the glass provides the strength in addition to
safety from life.
Properties required for buildings/ bridges:

Should
Should
Should
Should
Should
Should

be strong
have low cost
have attractive type of aesthetic
withstand high pressure impact
resist high earthquakes.
have high tensile force

However last point that I took for properties that are required is that
a concrete should have high tensile force which actually it does not
have hence the best option other than concrete for building is
reinforced concrete that is a mixture of concrete with steels rods
inside. This type of structure in building gives it so much strength
that at times cracks in concrete will have no affect over the strength
of building. It can resist fire and also when making a building it will
take less cost as less number of labors is required for erection of
structure to attain desire shape it can be casted. However the best
thing is it requires no maintancence cost and last long for a very
long time. For centuries at times.
Processing method:
Concrete is a mixture of water, sand, gravels, chemical additives
and cement. The concrete is delivered to working side in side a
mixing rolling container that makes sure that the mixture is
constantly moving because if not moving it will get dry and will stick
it in exact place where it was kept initially. However while
constructing a building first steel rods are kept in exact shape and
later concrete is added on it that will dry and will cover the steel
hence will give extra strength to structure. Cement is made of
limestone, silica that is sand and alumina that is blend together the
preheated for removal of impurities and again heated at 1500*C.
later it is cooled however gypsum is added when grinding concrete.

Task 3(P3.3)
1)Limitation of skin of aircraft:
It is not easy to get the material into a shape as fuselage.

 If subjected to high-speed flight it may get damage.

It is not as hard as steel hence wear and abrasion can tear it
apart.
If subjected to high temperature it may also melt.
When making by hardening process such as quenching there
is waste of layer.
Low structural moduli are present in thinner components of
skin.
Limitation in order to protect environment:
Making sure that aircraft skin is highly aerodynamic will makes
flight most efficient hence less petrol will be consumed hence
less waste will be mixed with environment.
If subjected to high pressure such as in turbulence, the
amount of vibration increases and the body may experience
the crack or fatigue.

Overall, the entire process of transforming raw bauxite into

aluminum is incredibly energy intensive, requiring copious
amounts of electricity, water and resources to produce (that is
the main reason why power plants are built solely to support
the aluminum industry).
Welding is a process that yet again pollutes air around hence
for Al-alloy there is no way that it can be welded hence no
environment problems
Forging in order to mold Al-alloy is one of the most cost effective
methods. However there are other ways to make this material most
cost effective by galvanizing it hence it will not get corrosion or rust
that may result a crack in aircraft body hence it may cost more in
repairing. So to avoid such case use galvanizing method.

2)Limitation of braking pads:

If subjected to very high temperature it may end up breaking.

Extreme contamination of the brake pads.
Uneven wear due to sticking brake calipers.
Thermally overloaded brake pad end up cracking
Corrosion on disk makes difficult for pad to create friction as
the life of pad itself is reducing.

 When applying brake at times a bit part of brake pad comes

out.
Brake pads are also very affective if comes to polluting environment
as it creates the friction when brake is applied when the tyre is in
contact with road hence as told earlier in points that the a part of
braking pads has chance to comes out ending up polluting. The
method that is used to process requires to much energy when
applying pressure hence consuming too much electric city that
affects the whole place around it face a shortage of elecrticty.
However the cost of is again high for the type of process it involves.
Hence another method should be used to process pads. By using
permanent mold cost can be reduced as the pressure require for
high strength is less but the quality is same hence the cost is
reduced.
3) Limitation of using polyethylene:

4) Limitation of concrete:

Concrete is now ductile.

Minimal strength to weight ratio
Has low tensile strength
Crack can occur
And the last one is that resistance to tension is low.

Factors like noise, dust that comes in air pollution and in the
environment during manufacturing. By blasting in quarries it bring
damage to countryside. However emission during quarrying is used
to reduce the air pollution. After returning them to nature quarries
are again generated into countryside. There will be too much of cost
if work is not done at faster rate as fuel and electrical account will
increase. By using a large amount of aggregate for certain
application 20-40% is represented by energy hence it will improve
strength along with reduction in cost.
Cost can also be reduced by using mineral admixtures in concrete
as it will make cement more durable with the drawback of long time
for setting.
However building of the molds and casting can occur on the wok
site that will also reduce the cost. Concrete can withstand high

temperature hence is a non combustible material giving edge over

other materials use for same purpose. Unlike other building material
it is not likely to rot, corrode or decay.