Quantum Mechanics

Professor Alexey Petrov

29 September 2005

Chapter 1
Physical Principles of Quantum
Mechanics
1.1

Classical Description

[there would be a table]

1.2

Particle-wave Duality

Rutherfords atom: electron orbits proton.

e2
v
p2
;
= 102 ,
(1.1)
2m
r
c
i.e. electron is nonrelativistic. Since e moves around p: e is always
accelerating, a = v 2 /r, i.e. radiates energy! Recall Lamure formula,
d = 108 cm

Etot =

dEtot
2e2 a2
= P (a) =
dt
3c3
Now, second Newtons law gives

(1.2)

v2
e
, or mv 2 =
r
r
2
2
p
e
e2
Etot =

=
(1.3)
2m
r
2r
Plugging it into Eq. (1.2) obtain that since total energy is radiated off, e
falls onto the nucleus in about =108 seconds
FC = m

4CHAPTER 1. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

Obviously, this does not happen!!!
N. Bohr (1913) assumed the following:
1. allowed orbits are only those with:
h
= nt
2
No radiation from allowed orbits.

mvr = n

2. Transitions between allowed orbits:

E = hv photons, quanta particles of light

How is it possible?
De Broglie: Light can behave as particles
Thus, Particles have wave properties
1927

E = hv =
E = pc

hc

h
p

or

h
p

Must devise experiments that probe wave nature of matter, diffraction in interference
Clinton J. Davidson and Lester H.Germer(1927) and G.P. Thomson

1.3

Davisson - Germer Experiment: Electron

Diffraction

Theory:

Accelerate electrons to P:
=

h
h
h
=
=
P
mv
2mcv

(1.4)

1.3. DAVISSON - GERMER EXPERIMENT: ELECTRON DIFFRACTION5

for v = 54v:
Experiment:

th. = 1.64
A
Waves: use Braggs Law:
n = d sin

dnickel = 2.15
A 0.092nm 108 cm
Thus, exp =

d sin
n

2.15
Asin 50
l

1.65
A

Nobel Prize for de Broglie (1929) and Davisson and Thomson (1937)
Thus:

depending on the conditions the microobject (electron) will

demonstrate either particle or wave properties!

What kind of conditions?

How do we know the position of e ?
What is our basic length scale?
Basic Length Scales:
hydrogen atom:

x a0 108 cm
= Ph 108 cm

D.-G. expt:

x d 108
h
= 2meV
108 cm

x This is when e demonstrates wave-like properties

This is indeed so, as in Wilson chambe:
water droplets, r rcrit. 104 cm
rcrit : (internal pressure - grad p) (surface forces)
h
= Ph = 2mE
108 cm
E, kinetic Energy 10eV
Thus,
x e behaves as a particle
cannot use trajectory if object demonstrates wave properties.

6CHAPTER 1. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

Thus, formulate Uncertainty Principle:
It is impossible to specify simultaneously and precisely the values of certain pairs of physical variables used to describe a system.Those variables are
canonically conjugated to each other in the hamilton sense.
px h

Et h

Lt h

1.4

Measurement and Probability in Quantum Mechanics

We talked about measurement, what exactly do we mean?

Consider a gedanken experiment:
two-slit interference

Our detector, D, measures the signals when each electron hits it.
Therefore, measuring intesity or probability for each electron to hit a
given spot on a screen.
From the Davis-Germ. experiment we know that well get an interderence
pattern.

Lets try to explain it

If electrons are particles:
Then:

each e goes either through slit (1) or slit (2)

Probability to hit point x is

P = Pslit(1) + Pslit(2)

1.4. MEASUREMENT AND PROBABILITY IN QUANTUM MECHANICS7

Interference pattern disappeared!!!! What happened? P 6= Pslit(1) + Pslit(2)
Same situation would occur if we tried to follow each electron, for example,
by counting electrons exiting each slit wit laser impulses!
Thus,
(1) Measurement affects quantum state!
(2) Must find a new way of computing probabilities.
Thus, wave function :

dw(q1 t)
dq

= |(q, t)|2

Reasons for introducing wave analogy,

i.e. amplitued of probability of finding a microobject in d~q at t,
i.e. measrue and interpret it as probability
Lets come back to wave functions in a second and continue our gedanken
experiment.
Reason: Uncertainty principle limits accuracy of the measurementas caronicallyconjugated pairs of variables, such as p and x. See how it manifests itself in
this experiment.
Suppose we can measure transfered momentum, P from each interaction of e with a system of slits, i.e. employ a moving screen, B.
We would also have to know its location, x.
Maximum accuracy:
interference curve.

d
,
2

d is the distance between maximums of the

Recall interference formula (the condition for bright fringes):

d sin = m , m = 0, 1, ...
sin ae
Thus,

a
e

8CHAPTER 1. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

If p is momentum of e , then :
after each slit each electron acquires a vertical component of momentum
tan 1 sim1 pp1y
tan 2 sim2 pp2y
Thus, total momentum of screen B:
|~p1y + p~2y | p p|1 + 2 |

can show that |1 + 2 | ae ,

Thus, d =

h
p

p
p

a
e

Thus,

p
p

= d , but: p =

(de Broglie)

, but if you do measure and intercept disappeared

then, x d2 , px h2

Thus: have a particular case of uncertainty principle for p and x.

What does it mean for quantum motion and Newtons Laws?
2nd Newtonian Law: F~ (x) =

d~
p
dt

gives trajectory , x and p

Must be scrapped?
Yes and No:
1st law (relativity principle) stands
2nd law (action = reaction) stands

Thus, will see that the 2nd law will remain valid in an average sense (Ehrenfests Theorem).

1.5

The Wave Function: Wave Packets

Quantum mechanics contends that the wave function contains the maximum amount of information that nature allows (Copenhagen interpretation
of Quantum Mechanics)

1.5. THE WAVE FUNCTION: WAVE PACKETS

From our gedanken experiments we derive:

p = ||2 , = 1 + 2
Thus, pslit(1) = |1 |2 , pslit(2) = |2 |2
Thus, p 6= pslit(1) + pslit(2) , intensity of waves that reached the detector and
were interpreted as probability.
But what about trajectory? Will have to consider wave packets.

Wave Packets
Consider the propagation of (de Broglie) matter waves in homogenious,
isotropic medium:
~

ei(k~rwt) , where h
w = E is the energy of a particle.
The phase velocity Sph = wk .

The extent of this wave is infinite. In order to associate with a particle, one
must build a superposition of plane waves of neighboring wave vectors which
has a finite extent:
(~r, t) =

A(k~0 )exp[i(~k 0~r w0 t)]d3~u0

(1.5)

Where A~k 0 has appreciable values for ~k 0 ~k and o elsewhere

This is a wave packet. Notice that group velocity is the velocity of the region
of maximum reinforcement in the interference of several waves of approximately the same . Therefore, it is the velocity of a packet and of the
and vpart = dE
;
corresponding particles. By definition: vgr = dw
dk
dp

de
dk

dE
dp

=h
dw
= dp = h
dk or p = h
k.
dp

Aside: consider motion of a wave packet towards the observer:

10CHAPTER 1. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

2

px
x)
E = pxm
= vx px
E = (p2m
x

t = vx vx px = E = Et h

General Properties of a wave function:

1. (~q, t) is a continuous, single-valued and bounded function of q and t.
2. (~q, t) is normalizable
since our microobject is located somewhere:
(
R
1,
for finite motion
2
dq~n |(qn , t)| =
, for infinite motion
3. Phase is arbitrary,
0 = ei , as ||2 = |0 |2
This is an example of gauge invariance.
Most importantly, wave functions satisfy superposition principle:
If quantum system (object) can be in a state described by 1 (q1 , t) in which
some physical quantity, f , can be measured to be f1 and in a state 2 (q, t) in
which f f2 . Therefore, and linear combination = C1 1 + C2 2 , C1 , C2
It is possible and describes a state whose measurement will yeild either f1 or
f2

This principle automactically implies that any differential equation that

describes quantum motion must be linear
What is this equation?

1.6

Optical analogy: Quazi-classical wave function.

Recall Optics: for 0 : geometrical optics light rays.

1.6. OPTICAL ANALOGY: QUAZI-CLASSICAL WAVE FUNCTION. 11

1!
Note: 0 in the sense x
This is similar to what we discussed in quantum mechanics, limits of
classical trajectories, etc.

Draw analogy from optics:

Recall: u(~r, t) = a0 exp (i (~k ~r wt)) = a0 exp i( wt)
|

{z

goes to if 0
large phase
For waves that are not plane waves, but for which geometrical approxima-

tion still work:

u = aei
, eikonal, large for 0 ; a, smooth function of r
estimate derivative of a(xi ):
a
a
a
x
x
xi
i
i
a
2a

(xi )2
(xi )2
Recall wave equation:
2u
x2

2u
xi 2
2a
( x
2 +
i
2

2u
y 2

2u
z 2

1 2u
c2 tt

=0
or
2u
; xi = (~r, ict)
xi 2
apply to (x)!!!
i
a i
= x i ( x
e + ia x
e )=
i
i
2

2 i
a
2i x
+ ia x
2 - a( x ) )e
i xi
i
i

2
) = 0 eikonel equation
since 2 is large : a (a, a) thus ( x
i

thus, (

o 2
) =
r }
|~
{z

w2
~n
c

= ~k

1
c2

o 2
)
| t
{z }
(

w2
c2

= k2

12CHAPTER 1. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

Thus,

o
~
r

= ~k

o 3
d ~r
Write:
o =
R o 3 ~r R 3
o
)=0
o = ~r d ~r = d r(
~
r
Thus, o = = 0

Fermats principle of optics: A light ray takes a path which is stationary with
respect to the optical path length.
Recall: Classical mechanics: Least action principle,
S = 0
Since classical mechanics is a limite pf wave mechanics (Quantum Mechanics), we can ssure that:
q.c. = aei , 0, and S = const.
This constant is called Planks constant h
! thus, S = h
and q.c. = ae!
Note:

since in geometric limit, S h

for classical objects.

Example: Moving car

Therefore, S =

1.7

Ldt =

m ' 1000kg
v ' 10m/s
t ' 10s

mv 2
t
2

= 0.5 106 J s! h
= 1.0536 J s!
Thus, S h
!

Correspondence Principle
Lets formulate correspondence principle

In quantum mechanics, each physical quantity corresponds to an operator

whose action on qc reduces to multiplication of qc by a cprresponding
physical quantity.
qc = Lqc
L L