REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Reproductive hormones controls the reproductive development of the body i.e. the regulation
of reproductive related process such as sperm and egg production. Reproductive hormones
often have multiple roles and operate via negative feedback systems. Hormones are key to
reproductive health in all aspects of a womans sexual life. They regulate menstruation,
fertility, menopause, and sex drive (libido). The main hormones affecting the menstrual cycle
and fertility are produced by glands in the brain and by the ovaries. The information below
will provide the main reproductive hormones in domestic species and their functions.
.
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
GnRH is a neuropeptide (a decapeptide) that is produced in the hypothalamic
surge and tonic centres. In the male and the female, the target tissue is the anterior pituitary
gland, specifically Gonadotroph cells. In males and females, secretion of GnRH results in
the release of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Leutinising Hormone (LH) from
the anterior pituitary gland.
Luteinising Hormone (LH)
LH is a type of glycoprotein that is produced in the anterior pituitary via gonadotroph cells
and serves to regulate the function of the gonads. In
males LH stimulates the production and secretion of testosterone from the testes via leydig
cells. In females LH stimulates the production of oestrogens and progesterone from the ovary
via theca interna cells and luteal cells. Concentrations of LH increase during ovulation and
with the formation of the corpora lutea with progesterone secretion. The secretion of LH is
regulated via the secretion of GnRH
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
FSH is a type of glycoprotein that is produced in the anterior pituitary via gonadotroph
cells. FSH secretion is regulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus. The target tissue of FSH
in males are the sertoli cells within the testes and in the female the granulosa cells of the

ovary. FSH stimulates the maturation of germ cells within the testes and ovaries. In the
female it also stimulates follicular development and oestradiol synthesis.
Prolactin (PRL)
Prolactin is a protein that is produced from by the anterior pituitary via lactotroph cells.
This hormone exerts a stimulatory effect on milk synthesis within the mammary glands. It
has also been shown to have some degree of gonadal function in some domestic species and
rodents. In birds increased concentrations of prolactin have been linked with brooding
behaviours and the associated metabolic changes that birds undergo during brooding.
Oxytocin (OT)
OT is a neuropeptide (a octapeptide) which is synthesised in the hypothalamus and stored in
the posterior pituitary. OT is primarily involved in upregulating the activity of smooth muscle
cells in the uterus and the smooth muscles surrounding the alveoli ducts of the mammary
glands. At parturition, OT causes strong contractions from the myometrium. OT is also
essential for 'milk let-down' in most domestic species. OT binds to receptors in the membrane
of target cells which activates phospholipase C. OT facilitates the generation of the driving
pressure behind pushing the milk towards the large excretory ducts and the teats.
Estradiol (E2)
Estradiol (E2) is a steroid hormone and is part of the oestrogens group of hormones and is the
principle oestrogen in females. Estrone and estriol are chemically similar to estradiol but are
found in lower concentrations and have a lower estrogenic activity. Production of oestrogens
occurs in the ovary via granulosa cells, the placenta and the Zona reticularis of the adrenal
cortex. In males in it is produced in sertoli cells found in the testes. Estradiol is synthesised
from cholestrol.
Progesterone (P4)
Progesterone is a steroid hormone that along with oestrogens is based on a cholesterol
molecule produced by the corpus luteum and the placenta using cholesterol as the base
molecule. Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum as well as by the feto-placental unit
and in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex (to a lesser extent). More detailed information
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regarding corpus luteum formation andregression please use the links. Progesterone prepares
the uterus for reception of fertilized oocytes and is transported via the blood bound to plasma
proteins. Progesterone also prepares the mammary tissues for milk production as well as
inhibiting female reproductive behaviours associated with oestrous.
Testosterone (T)
The male sex hormone is

called testosterone and this

hormone is

required

for spermatogenesis. Testosterone is a steroid hormone that is produced in the leydig cells
within the testes. A relatively high concentration of testosterone is maintained within the
testicular tissue and testosterone is circulated around the body by diffusion of the hormone
from the spermatic cord into the testicular veins and arteries. The primary action of
testosterone is anabolic growth, spermatogenesis promotion and promotion of secretion from
the

accessory

sex

glands.

Male sex hormones are regulated by negative feedback systems that operate at various levels
within the male sex hormone system. The starting point for the production of testosterone
(and therefore the production of spermatozoa)is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
contains neuroendocrine cells that are capable of secreting a substance called Gonadotropinreleasing hormone or GnRH. GnRH stimulates basophilic cells in the adenohypophysis, via
the "portal system" to secrete two intermediate hormones within the male sex hormone
cycle; Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
Inhibin
Inhibin is a type of glycoprotein that is synthesised within the granulosa cells of ovarian
follicles in females and in sertoli cells located in the seminiferous tubules within the testes in
the male. In both males and females the target organ for inhibin is the adenohypophysis,
specifically the gonadotroph cells (basophilic cells).
In the male inhibin production is stimulated via androgens. Inhibin inhibits FSH secretion,
which together with decreased concentrations of LH and testosterone results in decreased
spermatogenesis

and

therefore

decreased

sperm

output

and

quality.

In females some studies have suggested that inhibin may also be produced by the placenta. In
females inhibin inhibits FSH secretion. It does however not have any effect on the secretion
of LH. When inhibin is secreted, a relatively higher concentration of LH is secreted from the
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anterior pituitary gland than FSH. Therefore during follicle development, the increased LH
concentration causes cessation of the recruitment of further follicles under the effect of FSH.
The hormonal changes resulting from the production of inhibin cause some of the previously
recruited follicles to undergo atresia.
Activin
Activin is a glycoprotein that is produced within granulosa cells in females and sertoli cells in
the male. Activin is thought to play an almost directly opposite role to that of inhibin and is
involved in many physiological functions including stimulation of FSH synthesis and other
roles including cell proliferation, cell differentiation, apoptosis and homeostasis.
The target tissue for activin in the male is the epididymis where it enhances spermatogenesis
via increased FSH secretion. Activin also enhances the effect of LH on the testes.
In the female activin has an effect on the anterior pituitary gland, specifically on gonadotroph
cells, resulting in increased FSH secretion. The increased concentrations of activin results in
increased FSH binding on the female follicle and FSH-induced aromatisation (increased
synthesis of oestrogens). Activin also enhances the action of LH in the ovary.
Prostaglandin F2
Prostaglanin is a C2O fatty acid and is produced within the uterine endometrium and vesicular
glands. Estradiol stimulates prostaglandin synthesis while progesterone inhibits it. The target
tissue in the female is the corpus luteum, uterine myometrium and ovulatory follicles. In the
female PGF2 cause luteolysis and can also cause the induction of tone and contractions
within

the

uterus.

It

plays

an

important

role

in

partuition

in

ruminants.

If a pregnancy is to remain viable then luteolysis needs to be avoided and this is achieved
where concentrations of PGF2 remain below a threshold level allowing the corpus luteum to
continue to secrete progesterone and thus maintain pregnancy. There are two main factors
involved in the regulation of uterine secretions of PGF 2; oxytocin secretions from the corpus
luteum and molecules secreted by the developing embryo that facilitate the maternal
recognition of pregnancy.
Prostaglandin (PGE2)

PGE2 is another form of prostaglandin that is produced by the ovary, uterus and embryonic
membranes. This form of prostaglandin also has other important roles including vasodilation,
smooth muscle relaxation, and inhibition of the release of noradrenaline from sympathetic
nerve terminals.
In females it's target tissue is the cervix (it is a potent cervical dilator), corpus luteum and the
oviduct where it helps induce ovulation and the secretion of progesterone from the corpus
luteum. PGE2 also plays an important role during labour where it aids the softening of the
cervix in animals with a soft-type cervix(equine and human) and aids stimulation of uterine
contractions. It can thus be used to prepare the tract for parturition.
Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG)
hCG is a form of glycoprotein that is synthesised within the trophoblast cells of a blastocyst.
hCG is particularly important in primate reproduction where it has a similar effect to LH in
stimulating the continued production of progesterone and oestrogens. This represents part of
the system involved in foetal-maternal communication and pregnancy recognition. Primate
blastocysts therefore produce hCG in relatively high concentrations during the first 3 months
of pregnancy. hCG has also been suggested to play a role in defence of the embryo from the
maternal immune system during the initial stages of pregnancy. In males hCG increases the
growth of the foetal testes.
Equine Chorionic Gonadotrophin (eCG)
eCG is a form of glycoprotein that is produced from chorionic girdle cells. Chorionic tissues
in horses as well as primates also form hormones. eCG is formed in foetal endocrine cells and
is found within the maternal circulation. eCG is thought to play a similar role in horses to
hCG in primates in terms of pregnancy recognition. Foetal production of eCG is highest
between 30-70 days of pregnancy. The primary target of eCG are the ovaries where they
faciliate the formation of the accessory corpora lutea and ensure that progesterone production
is maintained. eCG is also thought to stimulate follicular growth and ovulation in the horse. If
eCG is given to other species it acts in a similar manner to FSH and therefore eCG is often
used to induce super-ovulation in species where a large number of oocytes are required for
embryo transfer.

Placental Lactogen (PL)

Placental lactogen is a form of protein that is produced by the placenta and is chemically
close in composition to growth hormone. The primary target tissue of PL are the mammary
glands

where

they

stimulate

the

growth

of

alveoli

during

pregnancy.

PL is also referred to as Chorionic Somatomammotropin (CS).

Relaxin
Relaxin is produced mainly by the corpus luteum in most species and in the placenta (main
contributor in the equine) and ovaries throughout pregnancy. During pregnancy, relaxin
prevents the initiation of uterine contractions, together with progesterone. Relaxin
accumulates troughtout pregnancy and is released in lare amounts a few days before partus.
Its target organs are the cervix, vagina, pubic symphesis and related structures. Relaxin is
responsible for the softening and relaxation of connective tissues in the cervix, muscles and
ligaments in the pelvis prior to parturition. Estradiol priming is required for this. This
relaxation of tissues is performed in conjunction with prostaglandin.