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Heat Power Engineering Notes
Heat Power Engineering Notes
Heat Power Engineering Notes
The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following
steps:
where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, and k is a
constant.
The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a
given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. For
comparing the same substance under two different sets of condition, the law
can be usefully expressed as
The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas
where:
V is the volume of the gas
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin).
k is a constant.
This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases;
conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For
comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law
can be written as:
operating device, the sole effect of which is to absorb energy in the form of
heat from a single thermal reservoir and to deliver an equivalent amount of
work.[1] This implies that it is impossible to build a heat engine that has
100% thermal efficiency.[2]
The second law of thermodynamics states that in every real process the sum
of the entropies of all participating bodies is increased. In the idealized
limiting case of a reversible process, this sum remains unchanged. The
increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes, and
the asymmetry between future and past.
While often applied to more general processes, the law technically pertains to
an event in which bodies initially in thermodynamic equilibrium are put into
contact and allowed to come to a new equilibrium. This equilibration process
involves the spread, dispersal, or dissipation[1] of matter or energy and
results in an increase of entropy.
The second law is an empirical finding that has been accepted as an axiom of
thermodynamic theory. Statistical thermodynamics, classical or quantum,
explains the microscopic origin of the law.
The second law has been expressed in many ways. Its first formulation is
credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot in 1824 (see Timeline of
thermodynamics).
Clausius statement
The German scientist Rudolf Clausius laid the foundation for the second law
of thermodynamics in 1850 by examining the relation between heat transfer
and work.[34] His formulation of the second law, which was published in
German in 1854, is known as the Clausius statement:
Heat can never pass from a colder to a warmer body without some other
change, connected therewith, occurring at the same time.[35]
Heat cannot spontaneously flow from cold regions to hot regions without
external work being performed on the system, which is evident from ordinary
experience of refrigeration, for example. In a refrigerator, heat flows from
cold to hot, but only when forced by an external agent, the refrigeration
system.
Kelvin statement
(9)
To produce 100% dry steam in an boiler and keep the steam dry throughout
the piping system is in general not possible. Droplets of water will escape
from the boiler surface due to turbulence and splashing when bubbles of
steam break through the water surface. The steam leaving the boiler space
will contain a mixture of water droplets and steam.
In addition heat loss in the pipe lines condensates parts of the steam to
droplets of water.
Steam - produced in a boiler where the heat is supplied to the water and
where the steam is in contact with the water surface of the boiler - contains
approximately 5% water by mass.
Dryness fraction of Wet Steam
If the water content in the steam is 5% by mass, then the steam is said to be
95% dry with a dryness fraction 0.95.
= ws / (ww + ws)
(1)
where
= dryness fraction
Actual enthalpy of wet steam can be calculated with the dryness fraction - and the specific enthalpy - hs - of "dry" steam picked from steam tables. Wet
steam will always have lower usable heat energy than "dry" steam.
ht = hs + (1 - ) hw
(2)
where
The droplets of water in wet steam occupies a negligible space in the steam
and the specific volume of wet steam will be reduced by the dryness fraction.
vt = vs
(3)
where