EXPANSION OF EUROPEAN POWER & THE NEW IMPERIALISM

Introduction
 Booming industries = sources of European power so they had control over other people by force/
threat of force
 Western phenomenon – growth of nation states- allowed Europe to deploy their resources more
efficiently.
 Europeans considered themselves superior to all others.
 Imperialism & colonialism was not well liked in first half of 19th C; opposed by doctrine of free trade
as economically unprofitable
 But last 1/3 of C, Europe expands control
o 20% of world’s land area
o 10% of population
 Idea of imperialism = power is New Imperialism
The New Imperialism
 Imperialism - establishing authority over another nation by exercising economic and political force or
by territorial acquisition.
 New Imperialism added new elements
o Investment of capital in “less industrialized” country to develop resources and employ labor.
o Transformation of local economy and culture
o Full annexation, direct rule, protectorate status (puppet government), and spheres of influence
(received special commercial and legal privileges w/o direct political involvement)
Motives for the New Imperialism: The Economic Interpretation
 Lenin: “Imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism”, the last stage of a dying system.
 Economic motives cannot account for the entire impetus behind New Imperialism – ex. Not much
investment in colonies, not for new markets & raw materials
 Great EU powers made profits, others did not.
Cultural Religious and Social Interpretations
 Social Darwinist groups claimed Europeans had an obligation to civilize “backward” peoples.
 Religious groups agitated for the spread of Christianity.
 Germany - some suggested imperialism be used to attract attention away from social policy.
o But Germany didn’t have that many colonies and such played little to no role in its colonial
policy.
 Britain – Chamberlain argued: Imperialism would fund for domestic reform and welfare.
o But they started well after Britain acquired most of its empire.
 Colonies would attract surplus European population.
o But Europeans went to areas not controlled by their countries.
Strategic and Political Interpretations: The Scramble for Africa
 Great Britain – needed to control Egypt for Suez Canal. To protect Egypt, they needed Sudan.
 France – got involved to chase pirates into Algiers then gradually extended control. Soon, it had full
control of Algeria. Also took over Tunisia from Italy; W. Africa, Congo, and Madagascar.
 Other nations hopped on the band wagon, because they equated political status (Britain = chief model)
with colonies.
 Germany – Bismarck more concerned with Germany sandwiched between France and Russia
o He acquired colonies to just improve Germany’s diplomatic position in Europe with Britain
and France
The Irrational Element
 The emergence of Japan as a great power frightened the other powers interested in China.
 Open Door Policy
o Proposed by the US, opposed foreign annexations in China and equal opportunity to all
nations to trade there.
 The United States exerted great influence in the Western Hemisphere by virtue of the Monroe
Doctrine.
 After the Spanish American War, the United States had influence over Cuba, Puerto Rico, part of the
Philippines, Samoa, and would soon control Hawaii
 The Ottoman Empire remained vulnerable and had been in decline since the late seventeenth century.

2
EMERGENCE OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE & THE ALLIANCE SYSTEMS

Introduction
 Prussia’s military power and unification of Germany upset the balance of power created at Congress of
Vienna.
 The German Empire was a nation of great wealth, industrial capacity, military power, and population.
 The forces of nationalism threatened Austria with disintegration.
 After its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War the French were no longer a dominant Western European
power and were concerned about Prussia.
Bismarck’s Leadership (1873-1890)
 Intro
o Bismarck wanted to avoid war and preserve Germany’s territorial integrity.
o He wanted to avoid war with France and tried both friendly approach and preemptive
approach.
 Prepared for worst and sought to isolate France by preventing an alliance between
France + any Eu power.
 War in the Balkans
o Thus, he established the Three Emperors’ League with Austria and Russia.
o But league collapse because Austria and Russia couldn’t get along (rivalry in the Balkans)
o Russo-Turkish War
 Ottoman weakness encouraged Serbia and Montenegro to help Bosnia and
Herzegovina revolt against Turkish rule. Revolt spreads to Bulgaria.
 Russia butts in, in hopes of gaining control of Constantinople and the Dardanelles.
 Pan-Slavic movement sought to unite all Slavic peoples under Russia.
 The Treaty of San Stefano freed the Balkan Slavic states from Ottoman rule and the
Russians gained some territory.
 This alarmed Austria and Britain who felt their powers threatened.
 The Congress of Berlin
o The 1878 Congress of Berlin settled the Eastern Question unsatisfactorily, and the south
Slavic question remained a threat to European peace.
  Balkan states and Russia was bitter at the settlement and Russia was pissed off at
Germany.
 MAJOR TROUBLE SPOT: In Serbia & Montenegro where they resented Austrian
occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
 German Alliances with Russia and Austria
o Bismarck tries to revitalize alliances, so he makes a secret treaty with Austria.  Dual
Alliance (anchor of German policy) – Germany and Austria would come to each other’s aid if
either were attacked by Russia, and remain neutral if attacked by other countries.
 People criticized this alliance saying it would bring Germany into the troubles of the
Austrian Empire. Bismarck was aware of this and made it clear this alliance is purely
defensive and Germany would never be apart of the Balkan quarrels.
 Bismarck believed his alliance with Austria would scare Russia back into seeking
closer relations with Germany. He was right. And the Three Emperor’s League was
renewed.
 Provisions: All three would remain neutral if attacked by 4th power; Austria
can annex Bosnia-Herz. Whenever it wanted; Dardanelles be closed in case
of war.
 All was well.
 The Triple Alliance
o Italy joined to defend against France.
o Bismarck succeeded in keeping peace – good terms with Britain while allied with 3 great
powers.
o Another Balkan War 1885 estranged Austria and Russia and brought down the league, but
Bismarck succeeded in maintaining his web of alliances.
 Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, and Italy) renewed
 Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 made with Russia to restore relations.
 All was well again. Until… change in monarchy.
o The ascension of the pugilistic and nationalistic William II threatened future European
stability.
Forging of the Triple Entente
 Franco-Russian Alliance
o Successor of Bismarck, Caprivi refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty (incompetent and
wanted to be closer to Britain, not Russia)
o France, concerned with security against Germany, invested in Russia which in turn proffered
a mutual defense treaty against Germany.
 Britain and Germany
 o Britain was traditionally a rival with France and Russia.
o Germany at first tried to win Britain over, but Britain remained in its “splendid isolation”. So
Germany tried to prove it was worth an ally by both withdrawing support and making trouble
for Britain.
o Germany also bars British attempt to build railroad from Capetown  Cairo. And various
other things to piss of Britain.
o William II instigated a naval build-up in an attempt to emulate Britain, which simply
produced more ships. Tirpitz was in charge. Naval policy fails because Britain was simpily
wealthier and Germany just wasted resources.
 The Entente Cordiale
o Britain allies with Japan against Russia in the Far East.
o Then concluded agreements with France  Entente Cordiale – not a formal treaty and had no
military provisions, but represented a major step in aligning Britain with France.
o Britain no longer threatened by Russia (Russia got their asses kicked in Russo-Japanese War),
but more concerned about Russia getting into Germany’s orbit.
 The First Moroccan Crisis (Britain + France = <3)
o Germany wanted to test alliance between France & Britain.
o William II went to Tangier and asserted Germany in favor of Morocco’s independence. The
idea was to mock France and show how weak it was and the little support it would gain from
Britain.
o After Germany attempted to pressure France and the international community into colonial
concessions in Germany, Britain and France arranged an alliance that made their military
forces mutually dependent by 1914.
 British Agreement with Russia
o In 1907, Britain concluded an agreement much like the Entente Cordiale, this time with
Russia.
o The Triple Entente of Britain, Russia, and France were aligned against the Triple Alliance
of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the unreliable Italy.
WORLD WAR I

The Road to War

 Intro
o The Balkan states were very nationalistic and longed for independence. They were sick of
being ruled by either Austria, Hungary, or the Turks.
o “Young Turks” a group of modernizing reforms brought revolution in the Ottoman Empire
and threatened to revive the empire and interfere with European plan.  These brought on a
series of Balkan crises.
 The Bosnian Crisis (Austria backstabs Russia)
o Austria and Russia wanted to act before the Turks became too strong to resist so they made an
alliance: Russia would support Austria’s annexation of Bos&Herz if Austria backed opening
the Dardanelles to Russian warships.
o Austria backstabs Russia and Britain and France would not open the Dardanelles. Russia
humiliated and Serbs were angered with Austria for taking Bos&Herz, which they hoped to
annex themselves.
o At the same time Germany pledged to support Austria, putting Austria in control of German
foreign policy.
 The Second Moroccan Crisis (Britain and France closer in de facto alliance)
o France moves army into Morocco to suppress a revolt.
o Germany uses this as opportunity to send in warship Panther “to protect German citizens”.
o This alarms and angers Britain who believed Germany was turning Agidir into a naval base.
o In the end Germany recognized France’s protectorate over Morocco.
o To defend against Germany attack, British force moved to France to protect and French and
British navies agreed to work together.
 War in the Balkans
o Italy wants Libya.
 thought recognition of French protectorate in Morocco would encourage France to
move into Libya (the only piece of meat it could get in the Scramble).
 So they attacked Ottoman Empire and forced it to cede Libya to them. Their victory
encouraged the Balkan states.
o First Balkan War: Balkan states try their luck.
 Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia attack Ottoman Empire and won.
 After this, Austria, to prevent Serbia from gaining a port on the Adriatic, threatened
to use force in Albania. Russia backed Serbia. International conference called for
Albania independence, but Serbs do not respect this.
 o Second Balkan War: Turkey + Romania + other states vs. Bulgaria
 Bulgaria lost.
Sarajevo and the Outbreaks of War (June-August 1914)
 The Assassination
o Bosnian nationalist of the Black Hand kills Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
o The assassination caused outrage in Europe, but Austria was slow to respond to Serbia, which
it was determined to invade. Germany pledged to support Austria and Russia, building up its
military, was likely to defend Serbia while drawing in France.
 Germany and Austria’s Response
o Austrian chief of general staff Hotzendorf urged an attack.
o Count Stefan Tisza of Hungary said no.
o Berchtold – Austro-Hungarian foreign minister – felt need for strong action but understood
Austria needed Germany’s support to persuade Hungary to accept policy of war.
o Germany says to attack quick while anger is still fresh on Serbia. If not attack, it means
Austria = weak and useless as ally.
o William II was eager for war; while Bethmann-Hollweg was reluctant and knew the dangers.
And thus his policy was “calculated risk”.
o Austria slow to act. Declares war on Serbia after it refused the ultimatum.
o The assassination caused outrage in Europe, but Austria was slow to respond to Serbia, which
it was determined to invade. Germany pledged to support Austria and Russia, building up its
military, was likely to defend Serbia while drawing in France.
 The Triple Entente’s Response
o Russia mobilizes to put diplomatic pressure on Austria to refrain from attacking Serbia.
o German was alarmed because seeing as how they were sandwiched only had one battle plan:
the Schleiffen Plan.
o France fooled. Britain tries conference but Austria says no.
o German realizes they might be fucked, and tries to talk Austria out of it.
o Austria refuses and mobilizes against Russia.
o Germany (oh well) and invades Belgium, which violated treaty of 1839 that guaranteed
Belgium neutrality.
 o Germany invades France. Britain declares war on Germany.
Strategies and Stalemate: 1914-1917
 Intro
o All over the Continent people welcomed war, unaware of the horrors of modern warfare.
o The Allies had upper hand in numbers, money, and command of the Sea.
o The Central Powers had internal lines of communication and first attacks.
o Schleiffen plan needed a strong right wing of army. (Revolving door); it failed thanks to
Helmuth von Moltke.
 The War in the West
o French offensive on German western front failed, but French and British were able to stop
German advance on Pari at Battle of Mrne nevertheless.
o After initial German and French failures on the Western front, the war devolved into trench
warfare over a few hundred yards of land.
o The British introduced the tank in 1916 which was the answer to the terrible effectiveness of
the machine gun defensively.
 The War in the East
o Allies looked to be victorious at first, but fended off later.
o Oth sides sought new allies.
 Turkey and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.
 Italy joined the Allies, because spoils of war greater in offer of the Allies.
o Both sides appeared to nationalistic sentiment in the areas the enemy held. Some of the
groups roused included the Irish, the Flemings, the Poles, the Czechs, the Slovaks, the Slavs,
and Muslims.
o Allies undertook to break the deadlock: Churchill proposed to attack Dardanelles and capture
Constantinople.
 This would knock Turkey from the war, bring help to the Balkan front, and ease
communications with Russia.  Failed.
 Return to the West
o German general Falkenhayn sought to attack French stronghold of Verdun. Intention: To
inflict heavy casualties.  Failed.
 o Allies tried to win by launching offensive campaign along River Somme against Germans. 
Failed.
 The War at Sea
o British imposed strict blockade regardless of international law. Germans respond with
submarine warfare.
o The Germans introduced submarine warfare, especially around the British Isles, to try and cut
off enemy supply lines to the Continent
o Continued German submarine warfare, including sinking the United States liner Lusitania,
led the United States to declare war on Germany in 1917.
o Battle of Jutland – British dominance of the sea confirmed.
 America Enters the War
o Prez Wilson tried to bring negotiated peace.  Failed.
o Two events changed situation.
 Germans return to submarine warfare  US break off diplomatic relations w/ them.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

Introduction
 The incompetent government of Nicholas II led to internal disorder in Russia.
 Peasant discontent plagued the countryside.
In the absence of Nicholas II, incompetent government officials attempted to keep order as the members of Russia’s
parliament remained unsatisfied.
 Nicolas II tried to deal by adjourning the Duma and ruling alone.  failed.  Abdicate.
 Duma formed provisional government.
The Provisional Government
 After the abdication of the tsar, the provisional government continued to support the war effort. Discontent directed
now the Provisional gov’t.
o Made up of Constitutional Democrats (Cadets)
 Soviets (council of soldiers and workers) were formed; they didn’t support the provisional go’t but did not interfere
either.
o Mensheviks believed bourgeois stage of development must come to Russia before the revolution of the
proletariat could be achieved.
 By April the Bolsheviks worked against the Provisional gov’t even after moderate socialist Kerensky took over.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
 Germans helped Lenin get from his exile in Switz to Petrograd, correctly predicting he’d cause enough trouble in
Russia to get Russia out of the war.
 Lenin: “peace, bread, and land”
 Bolsheviks demanded all political power to the soviets, which they controlled.
 1st coup – summer - motivated by fail summer offensive  Failed. Lenin to Finland. Trotsky imprisoned.
 2nd coup – November – success.
The Communist Dictatorship
 When Bolsheviks failed to win a majority of seats in the new Constituent Assembly, the Bolshevik-controlled Red
Army dispersed the legislature.
 They nationalized land, factories, banks, and church property; repudiated tsarist gov’t debt.
 Withdrew from the war and accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk even though they lost land and had to pay
indemnity, but Lenin had no choice.
 Red Russians- for revolution; White – against.
 Until 1921- Bolsheviks met domestic resistance and civil war.
THE END OF WORLD WAR I

Germany’s Last Offensive

 In March, the Germans – commanded by Ludendorff -mounted a final unsuccessful offensive.
 With Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey essentially out of the war, the Germany army was finished.
 Germany set up a new government to be established on democratic principles and asked for peace
based on the Fourteen Points that were the American’s war aims.
o Fourteen Points included self-determination for nationalities, open diplomacy, freedom of
the seas, and the establishment of a League of Nations to keep the peace
German Republican Government Accepts Defeat
 Kaiser William II abdicates. Republican, socialist-led gov’t signed the armistice.
 Germans were confused, ashamed, and pissed off at the settlement.
 Casualties on both sides came to ten million dead and over twenty million wounded.
 The financial resources of Europe were badly strained and much of Europe was in debt to Americans.
 The Great War undermined ideals of Enlightenment progress and humanism.
 The aftermath of the Great War paved the way for the Second World War and much of the horrors of
the rest of the century.
THE SETTLEMENT AT PARIS \

Introduction
 The Victorious 4 represented constitutional democracies and had to respond to public opinion (unlike
the last Vienna conference)
o USA – Wilson
o Britain – David George
o France- Clemenceau
o Italy - Orlando
Obstacles Faced by the Peacemakers
 Public opinion was a major force in politics.
 Many of Europe’s ethnic groups agitated for attention.
 Wilson’s idealism conflicted with the practical war aims of the victorious powers.
 Some nations had competing claims for land.
 The victorious nations feared the spread of Bolshevism.
The Peace  five treaties
 The League of Nations
o A body of sovereign states who agreed to pursue common policies and to consult in the
common interest
o League ineffective because it had no armed forces to execute its ideals.
o German and Soviet not part of this; this undermined its claim to evenhandedness.
 Colonies
o To be placed under “tutelage” under league supervision.
o Encouraged to advance toward independence.
o But members still pursued their own national interests.
 Germany
o France received Alsace-Lorrain and right to Saar.
o Germany disarmed and army limited to 100,000 men; fleet reduced to coastal defense;
forbidden to have war planes, submarines, tanks, etc.
 The East
o Germany lost lands.
o Austro-Hungarian empire – gone entirely; and turned into 5 small successor states.
o Magyars – small kingdom of Hungary.
o Czechs + Moravia = Czechoslovakia.
 Reparations
o USA said Germany to pay $15-25 billion.
o France and Britain worried about repaying own war debts to US.
o Germany $5billin/yr until 1921.
o Germany bitter and resented the bill.
Evaluation of the Peace
 The peace violated some idealistic principles.
 It left many minorities outside the borders of their national homelands.
 By excluding Germany and Russia, the settlement ignored the reality of their European influence.
 Germany felt cheated.