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Time-Distance (T-X) Curves of Primary Reflections
Time-Distance (T-X) Curves of Primary Reflections
Chapter 2
Time-Distance (T-X) Curves of Primary Reflections
Introduction
A primary reflection is a P-wave that has been reflected only once from a specific
subsurface interface.
Primary reflections are the only signals in petroleum seismic records, which we have
to preserve and enhance. Therefore, they are the most important parts of our seismic
data.
Everything else on the petroleum seismic record is noise, which we will attempt to
attenuate. We will study the various types of seismic noise in Chapter 4.
In this chapter, we will also introduce and discuss the short-offset assumption.
These T-X relations are important in inverting layer velocities and thicknesses since
these curves are usually the only outputs from surface seismic exploration surveys.
The case of a single horizontal layer with constant velocity is shown in the following
figure.
X
S
In the above figure: S: the source, R: the receiver, M: the reflection point,
(SM = MR why?)
(1)
(2)
Substituting eq. (2) in (1), squaring both sides, and simplifying gives:
T2 = 4H2/V2 + X2/V2, which can be written as:
T 2 ( X ) T02
X2
,
V2
where T0 = 2H/V
T0: the zero-offset two-way traveltime (at X = 0).
(3)
(4)
Equation (3) is called the time-distance equation, time-offset equation, the T-X curve,
or the traveltime-distance equation.
Equation (3) represents a hyperbola on the seismic section, with apex (i.e., the
minimum two-way traveltime) at T(X) = T0 and X = 0.
Practically, we know X from the field layout, and we can read T0 and T(X) from the
seismic section. The unknowns are the layer thickness (H) and velocity (V).
To find H and V, we first use equation (3) to find V, and then substitute its value in
equation (4) to find H.
There are several methods to find V from equation (3). The simplest method is to
plot T2(X) versus X2, which will be a straight line with slope = 1/V2 and intercept =
T02.
The short-offset assumption means that we assume that the offset used is
smaller than the layer thickness (X < H).
We then proceed as follows:
2
2
(a) From eq. (3), T 2 ( X ) T02 (1 X2 2 ) , which yields: T ( X ) T0 1 X .
2 2
T0 V
T0 V
T T0 (1
X 2 12
X2
X4
X6
)
T
(
1
...).
0
T02V 2
2T02V 2 8T04V 4 16T06V 6
X2
(c) Retaining two terms only, we get: T ( X ) T0 (1 2 2 ) .
2T0 V
(d) TNMO ( X ) T ( X ) T0 T0 (1
X2
X2
)
T
(
1
1) giving:
0
0
2T02V 2
2T02V 2
TNMO ( X )
X2
.
2T0V 2
(5)
Equation (5) is sometimes called the normal moveout equation and TNMO is the
NMO correction.
Equation (5) can be used directly to determine the layer velocity and thickness if all
other variables are known: V
X2
X
and H
.
4VTNMO ( X )
2T0 TNMO ( X )
We will see in Chapter 3 how equation (5) is used more practically to find V.
The case of a single dipping layer with constant velocity is shown in the following
figure.
X
Earth
surface
R
)
M
H
Dipping
interface
In the above figure: S: the source, R: the receiver, M: the reflection point,
(SM = SM)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Squaring eq. (6) and substituting eq. (8) for SR, we get:
T2 = 4H2/V2 + X2/V2 + 4X H Sin/V2, which can be written as:
T2 = T02 + X2/V2 + 4X H Sin/V2,
(9a)
where T0 = 2H/V is the zero-offset two-way traveltime which occurs when the
source and receiver coincide at S (X = 0).
(9b)
The dip moveout (TDMO) is defined as the difference in traveltimes for two receivers
equally distant from, but on opposite sides of, the source (X); divided by the
receiver offset (X):
TDMO
T ( X ) T ( X )
.
X
(10)
(11)
The reflector dip (), velocity (V), and thickness (H) can be determined from Ta, T0,
and TDMO using the following relations in sequence:
= Cos-1(Ta/T0),
(12a)
V 2 Sin/ TDMO,
(12b)
H = V T0 / 2.
(12c)
Equivalently, , V, and H can be determined from Ta, T0, and Xa using the following
relations in sequence:
= Cos-1(Ta/T0),
(13a)
H = |Xa / (-2Sin,
(13b)
V = 2H / T0.
(13c)
Here are figures that show the errors introduced in estimating the velocity if the
short-offset assumption is neglected.
In this case, the traveltime equation of reflections from interfaces (except the first)
will not be a hyperbola and a plot of T2 versus X2 will not be a straight line but rather
a curve.
The true traveltime equations of a medium composed of several horizontal layers are:
N
X N 2
i 1
pVi H i
1 ( pVi ) 2
and TN 2
i 1
Hi
Vi 1 ( pVi ) 2
reflection from the Nth layer, TN is the two-way traveltime to the Nth layer recorded at
XN, and p is the ray parameter of the ray (XN,TN), which is constant along the raypath.
To simplify the problem, we substitute all the layers above the interface by a single
layer. This approximation is good only at small offsets, where XN/ZN < 1 (XN:
maximum offset used for Nth reflector, ZN: depth to Nth reflector).
By substituting the multiple layers with a single layer, we imply that the true T-X
curve is a hyperbola at short offsets.
The single layer, substituting multiple layers above the interface, will have an average
velocity that is called the RMS, stacking, or NMO velocity, depending on the
substitution method. We will study these velocities in Chapter 3.