Index

acid rain 11,243

actuator
dynamic performance 372
saturation 293, 367
adaptive control 94, 101
alternator excitation control 110-11,
117-27
steam temperature control 147-9
supervision of 111-12, 148
s e e a l s o parameter estimation
adaptive neurofuzzy inference system
221-2, 224
advisory system: s e e operator advisory
system
air preheater, modelling of 43
air-fuel ratio 244-6, 252, 371
excess air 7, 48
stoichiometric 7, 249
alarm system 92, 287, 353
integration of 350
alternator 2, 114
adaptive control 110-11, 117-27
automatic voltage regulator 112-13
availability of 399-400
excitation control 102
hybrid simulation 113-14
load cycling problems 406-7
local model network control 108-10,
117-27
modelling of 19
power system stabiliser 110
s e e a l s o life
ancillary services 345,347
ARMAX model 103, 188
ARX model 188, 246-7
altemator excitation control 103-4,
110-11
NOx emissions modelling 256-8

asset management 401-5

association rules 326-7
attemperator 133, 181-3, 326, 347
deactivation of 195-6
thermal efficiency 195, 371-2
s e e a l s o flue gas recycling; steam
temperature / pressure
automatic voltage regulator 103, 105
operational protection 112
rotor angle stability 118
availability, power plant 345,
396, 402-3
factors affecting 399-400
steam temperature control 132
availability factor 399

back propagation, algorithm 226, 302

base-load plant 6, 348, 403,407
BETTA, UK electricity market 10
black-box modelling 188, 245-6, 292
adaptation, on-line 269
model scheduling 333
structure selection 189, 256-8, 289
validation of 189, 254
s e e a l s o grey-box modelling; neural
network model; physical-based
modelling; principal component
analysis; projection to latent
structures; state-space model
boiler
availability of 399--400
load cycling problems 397, 405-6
maintenance overhaul 399
stability of 132
tube failure, mechanisms 403
s e e also component model; drum boiler;
life; once-through boiler

418

Index

boiler following control 6, 347-8

boiler stored energy 6, 182, 185
load-frequency control 207-9
Brayton cycle 5, 397
bumpless switching, controllers 142
burner management system 7
multiple fuels 351
burners
CFD design 246
configuration of 254, 326
coruer-firing 244, 262
low-NOx burners 244, 252

capacity factor 397, 402

load cycling 403
carbon taxes 397
CARIMA model 171-2
Carnot cycle 3
cascade control 136, 149
case-based reasoning 313
cavitation, valve 35
chemical control, water 360
Clean Air Act (US) 243
climate change, intergovernmental panel
(UN) 13
s e e a l s o renewable energy
clustering analysis 310, 313
k means 335
CO, emissions 7, 11,243
modelling of 49-50, 249-50
C02, emissions 11,243
carbon tax 397
greenhouse gas 11
modelling of 49-50, 249-50
reduction of 244
co-ordinated plant control: s e e supervisory
plant control
coal
calorific value 81, 92
carbon intensity 397-8
fuel combustion 248-50
hardness 71
world reserves of 11
coal mill
boiler stability 132, 155-7
choking 63, 69, 74, 93
classifier zone 64, 68
coal hardness 71
control and advisory system 92-7
emissions, during transients 84
explosion of 82
mill table 64, 69

mill wear 70-1, 92-3

model validation 71-9
modelling of 43, 64-71
separator 64, 68
startup/shutdown 91,132, 155-6
vertical spindle mill 64-6
s e e a l s o pulverised fuel
coal mill control 80-1
dynamic response 7, 63
Hardgrove grindability index 83-4,
86-90
load line 82
mass/mass 82-4, 86--90
multiple mills 81
multivariable, LQ / predictive 90-1
optimal grinding 94-7
pf flow measurement 64, 81, 84-90
runback 83, 94
combined cycle gas turbine
Brayton cycle 5,397
configuration 5, 162
control hierarchy 164-7
emissions of 397
modelling of 163-4
popularity of 397
predictive control 187, 367
supervisory control 168-76
thermal efficiency 1, 161
s e e a l s o gas turbine; heat recovery steam
generator
combustion chamber, gas turbine modelling
48-9
combustion control 6-7
excess air 7, 48
fly ash 244, 248
modelling of 49-50, 354
multiple fuels 326, 351
operational parameters 244
s e e a l s o emissions
competition, power system: s e e deregulation
component model, power plant
air preheater 43
coal mill 43, 64-71
combustion chamber 48-9
compressor 46-7
condenser 46
control valve / damper 35-6, 43
drum 33-5, 56
fan 43
feedwater heater 46, 274-8
furnace 39-42, 49-50
header 36-7
heat exchanger 20-2, 28-33

Index

pump 37-9
subsystem model
compressor, modelling of 46-7
computational fluid dynamics 245
burner / furnace design 246
condenser 3
air leakage / tube fouling 375, 382, 409
cooling water temperature 326, 382
modelling of 46
control hierarchy: s e e multi-loop plant
control; supervisory plant control
control strategy
commissioning of 158, 177, 239
decoupling, multi-loop 136, 179, 181-4
interaction, loop 5, 179, 365
saturation 292-3
s e e a l s o adaptive control; feedforward
control; LQG control; minimum
variance control; neurofuzzy control;
PI(D) control; predictive control
control action correction, supervisory plant
control 186-7
evaporator steam temperature control
142-7
once-through boiler, control of 189-99
control room, power plant
information overload 412-13
islands of automation 350
operator training 354, 414
s e e a l s o alarm system; operator advisory
system
controlled reference value, supervisory plant
control 186-7
CCGT supervisory control 169-76
physical model-based predictive control
375-89
convection, heat transfer 6, 21-3, 42, 370-1
see also

damper, modelling of 35q5, 43

data mining 309-10
deaerator 24, 45
decision rules 327
decision trees 327
demand side management 396
deregulation, power system 10-11,395
competitiveness, power plant 389, 395,
401-2
dynamic stability, boiler 132, 159
load-following requirement 179-80, 205
NETA 10, 345, 353
s e e a l s o availability; load-following;
maintenance

419

diagnostic system: s e e fault analysis;

operator advisory system
diffusion, heat transfer 21
distributed control and data acquisition
system 350
distributed control system
advantages of 13, 80, 391,412-13
configuration 8,410-11
data management 9, 311
islands of automation 350
modelling of 50-1
supervisory plant control 63, 346
s e e a l s o operator advisory system
distributed generation 180
disturbances 134, 145, 365, 374-5
feedforward control 137, 153, 215,
218-9
modelling 140, 194, 377-9
rejection 136, 206, 237, 366, 382
drum 3, 368
level control 7, 183, 207, 370
modelling of 33-5, 56, 171
separation efficiency 34
stability 220, 375
drum boiler
configuration 3--4, 368-9
control hierarchy 209-13
knowledge-based plant control 221-38
open-loop behaviour 207-8
physical model-based predictive control
375-89
Rankine cycle 1, 18-19
s e e a l s o once-through boiler
Dymola, modelling package 19, 52, 188
economiser 3, 181
modelling of 2 5 ~
s e e a l s o heat exchanger
efficiency, thermal: s e e thermal efficiency
Electricity Act (UK) 10
electrostatic precipitator 244
emissions, stack 2, 11,243, 345
acid rain 11,243
combined cycle gas turbine 397
electrostatic precipitator 244
modelling of
coal-fired plant 253-63
gas turbine 48-50, 164-5
monitoring 326, 359-60
NOx advisory system 266-7
NOx formation 248-53
reduction of 244-5, 397
s e e a l s o CO; CO2; NOx; SOx

420

Index

Energy Policy Act (US) l0

Environment Protection Act (UK) 243
environmental regulation 205, 326, 345
legislation 10, 243
see also emissions
equivalence ration 252
equivalent availability factor 398
estimation function 299-300
European Commission 11-12
evaporator 3, 133, 182
control of 134-6
LQG feedforward control 137-47
event logging 353,359-60
excess air 7, 48
excitation control, alternator 102
expert system 313, 41i
coal mill advisory system 92-7
G2, real-time 354-5
see also operator advisory system
extended Kalman filter 379
state estimation 270, 367
failure analysis 407
fan
flue gas recycling 183, 369, 371-2
ID/FD 7
modelling of 43
fault analysis 269, 309
coal mill advisory system 92-7
detection of 311-13, 315-16, 327, 329
diagnosis of 270, 313, 396, 410
fault detection
model-based 287, 295, 307, 314
statistical-based 313-14
feedwater heater, modelling of 279-87
NOx emissions monitoring 267, 354
predictive maintenance 409-10
principal component analysis 313-25
projection to latent structures 327, 329
see also availability; operator advisory
system
FD fan 7
modelling of 43
feature selection 310
see also clustering analysis; principal
component analysis
feedback control
advantages of 216, 218-19
see also control strategy
feedforward control 213-15
advantages of 135,206, 216, 218-19
commissioning of 239

disturbance rejection 137, 153, 218-19,

382
load-following capability 182, 239, 367
steam temperature control 135, 140-1,
143-7
flue gas pyrometry 153-7
feedwater control 164, 172, 272-3
drum / once-through boiler 4, 183-4
drum boiler 207-13, 219-20
knowledge-based plant control 221-38
once-through boiler 134-6, 143, 158
feedwater heater 8
configuration 271-4
control of 272-3
fault detection 270, 287, 307,409
fouling 375
grey-box modelling 287-95
modelling of 46, 274-8
sensor / valve, malfunction 282-7
state estimation 295-307
steam bleeding 279
tube leaks 279-83, 409
fieldbus internet protocol 293
flame ignition 245
flue gas desulphurisation 11,244, 397
flue gas recycling 183, 369, 371-2
control action correction 190, 195-7
physical model-based predictive control
377, 381-9
see also steam temperature / pressure
flue gas temperature, measurement
of 153-5
fluid properties
air 28
flue gas 28
steam 27
fluidised bed combustion, PFBC 2, 12
forced outage factor 398-9
fouling, heat exchanger 375, 382
Fourier algorithm, voltage measurement
114-16
frequency decoupling, control loop 179,
181,184
fuel
calorific value 81, 92, 326
carbon intensity 397-8
selection of 404-5
world reserves, fossil fuels 11
see also combustion control
furnace
CFD design 246
modelling of 39-42, 49-50
pressure control 39

Index

fuzzy logic 360

coal mill fault diagnosis 93-4
controller design 206
data mining 310
knowledge-based plant control 221-38
local model network 102
membership function 225, 229-30
non-linear modelling 334
steam temperature control 152-3
G2, expert system 354-5
s e e a l s o expert system
gain scheduling 137, 192
bumpless switching 142
gas turbine 163
combustion chamber 48-9
compressor 46-7
emissions 48-50, 164-5,397
modelling of 25, 46-9
gasification, IGCC 2, 12
generalised minimum variance control: s e e
minimum variance control
generalised predictive control: s e e predictive
control
generation availability data system 398
generator: s e e alternator
genetic algorithms 262
controller design 185, 206
gPROMS, modelling package 18, 32, 188
greenhouse gases 11,243, 397
grey-box modelling 245-6, 287-91
advantages of 248, 269
fundamental element 259
HP feedwater heater modelling 292-5
NOx emissions modelling 259-63
structure selection 256-8,289, 292
s e e a l s o black-box modelling; local
model network; physical-based
modelling
H ~ control 185, 206
header 358
modelling of 36-7
heat exchanger
fouling 375, 382
metal temperature 369-71,386, 390
modelling of 20-2, 28-33
feedwater heater 46, 274-8
soot blowing 132, 151,326
tube failure, mechanisms 403
s e e a l s o attemperator; steam
temperature / pressure

421

heat recovery steam generator 1, 5, 163

heat transfer, mechanisms 6, 21-3, 42,
370-1
burner configuration 382
hierarchical supervisory control
s e e supervisory plant control
Hotelling's T 2 statistic 316-7
human machine interface 9, 350-1
s e e a l s o operator advisory system

ID fan 7
modelling of 43
independent power producer 10, 397
input-output modelling: s e e black-box
modelling
integrated gasification combined cycle 2, 12
interaction, control loops: s e e multi-loop
plant control
intergovernmental panel on climate change
(UN) 13
islands of automation 350

k means clustering 335

s e e a l s o clustering
Kalman filter 139-40
pf flow estimation 84-5
state estimation 92
s e e a l s o extended Kalman filter
knowledge-based plant control 218, 221-4
knowledge-based system
coal mill advisory system 92-7
s e e a l s o expert system
knowledge discovery in data 310
Kyoto protocol 11

least squares, algorithm: s e e parameter

estimation
Levenberg-Marquardt, algorithm 256
life, power plant 179, 205
creep 348
estimation of 397
extension of 367, 376, 400, 403
load cycling 397
reduction of 132, 138, 348, 371-2
s e e also thermal stress
load cycling
alternator problems 406-7
boiler dynamics 207-9, 326, 365
boiler problems 405-6
capacity factor 403

422

Index

load cycling ( c o n t i n u e d )
life, plant 397
turbine problems 405-6
two-shifting, operation 365,390
s e e also maintenance; multi-loop plant
control; thermal stress
load-following 205, 209
boiler stability 132
deregulation, power system 179-80, 205
feedforward control 213-15, 219, 236,
367
knowledge-based plant control 228-38
limiting factors 142, 367, 370-4
physical model-based predictive control
386-9
ramping rate 235,371-4, 386
steam temperature control 132, 137-8
supervisory plant control 184-5,206,
347-9, 411
s e e also life; load cycling
load-frequency control 207-9, 347-8
load line, coal mill 82
local model network
alternator excitation control 103-10,
117-27
controller design 108-10
model identification 102-3
low-NOx burner 244, 252
LQ control, coal mill 90-1
LQG control 138-41,367
evaporator steam temperature
control 142-7

mechanical terminal 23
thermo-hydraulic and heat transfer
terminal 22
thermo-hydraulic terminal 19
type definition 19
validation, submodels 54
s e e also object-oriented modelling
modelling: s e e black-box modelling;
grey-box modelling; physical-based
modelling
monitoring, plant performance 351-3,
410-12
association rules 326-7
clustering analysis 310, 313
NOx emissions 245, 266-7
operator interaction 354
principal component analysis 314-18
projection to latent structures 327-9
univariate / multivariate analysis 312-13
s e e also alarm system; fault analysis;
operator advisory system
multi-loop plant control
boiler dynamics 207-9, 365, 370-1
loop decoupling 136, 179, 181-4
loop interaction 5, 179, 365
load-following capability 205-6,
210-11,213-17, 348-9
sliding pressure operation 212-17,
372-3
s e e also supervisory plant control
multilayer perceptron, network 255, 335
multiple linear regression 327

maintenance, power plant 407-10

availability factor 398
corrosion 360
load cycling, impact of 405-7
non-destructive evaluation 399
predictive maintenance 407-8, 410
s e e also availability
mass/mass control, coal mill 82-4, 86-90
membership function, fuzzy logic 225,
229-30
minimum variance control, generalised
109-10
alternator excitation control 117-27
model-based predictive control: s e e
predictive control
Modelica, modelling language 18
aggregation, of submodels 25-7
distributed heat transfer terminal 21
heat transfer terminal 22
hybrid system 51

NARMAX model 258

NARX model 246-7
NOx emissions modelling 258-9
non-destructive evaluation 399
NETA, UK electricity market 10, 345,353
neural network model 101,246-7
data mining 310
dynamic network 247, 255
HP feedwater heater modelling 290-302
Levenberg-Marquardt, algorithm 356
multilayer perceptron 255,335
neurofuzzy control 221-38
non-linear modelling 269, 334
NOx emissions modelling 253-6, 354
overfitting 294-5, 336
radial basis function 102, 247, 335
recurrent network 247, 255
spline 247, 335
static network 247, 255

Index

training of 226, 254-6, 302

parameter estimation
neurofuzzy control 221
controller design 224-8
feedforward control 222--4, 230-8
membership function 229-30
NIPALS algorithm 328, 335
NO, formation 11,244
fuel 250, 252-3
prompt 250, 252, 262
thermal 250-2, 262
NO2, formation 11,244, 253
North American Electric Reliability
Council 398
NOx, emissions 7, 11,243-4
(N)ARX modelling 247, 256-9
acid rain 11,243
advisory system 245, 266-7
CFD modelling 245-6
combustion modification 244, 252, 397
destruction of 248, 253
factors affecting 244-5,253-4, 346
flue gas treatment 244, 397
formation of 244, 250-3
fuel combustion 49-50, 164-5, 248-50
grey-box modelling 248, 259-63
neural network modelling 246-7,
254-6, 354
s e e a l s o environmental regulation
see also

O&M, unit profitability 401,413

object-oriented modelling 18, 66-7, 355
distributed parameter models 18, 20-1
lumped parameter models 18, 23
once-through boiler
configuration 4, 133, 189-90
control, frequency decoupling 183-4
control action correction 184-5, 190
evaporator control 134-8
feedwater control 134-5, 183
Rankine cycle 1, 18-19, 181
superheater control 4, 136-7, 147
thermal efficiency 4
s e e a l s o drum boiler
operator, power plant
information overload 412-13
new technology 354
training of 414
operator advisory system 309, 351-3,
410-12
acceptance of 354
coal mill fault diagnosis 92-7
emissions monitoring 266-7,359-60

423

performance monitoring 358

unit startup 356-8
water chemical control 360
optimal control 366-7
orimulsion 404-5
over-fire air 253
ozone 11
parameter estimation 72, 101
coal mill modelling 72
least squares, algorithm 111,225-6
PRBS, excitation 111-12, 118, 143, 191
structure selection 189, 256-8
subspace model identification 189
supervision, onqine 101, 111-12
s e e a l s o Kalman filter; state estimation
partial least squares: s e e projection to latent
structures
petroleum coke 405
physical-based modelling
aggregation of submodels 25-7, 53
dynamic decoupling 52-3
fault representation 279
model scheduling 26-7, 76-7
object-oriented 18, 66-7, 355
open problems 56-7
parameter estimation 55, 72, 289, 292-3
validation of 53-6
s e e also black-box modelling; component
model; grey-box modelling;
Modelica; subsystem model
physical model-based predictive control
366-8, 375-7
formulation of 377-80
PI, plant information 352
PI(D) control
load-following capability 205-6,
210-17, 348
loop control 13, 347, 365
parameter tuning 90, 210-11
PTx steam temperature control 149-51
sliding pressure operation 21 0-17,
372-3
s e e also multi-loop plant control
plant-wide control: s e e supervisory plant
control
pool, UK electricity market 10, 345
power system stabiliser 110
PRBS, excitation lll-12, 118, 143, 191
observability of 106-7
predictive control
advantages of 185-6, 367
CCGT supervisory control 168-76

424

Index

predictive control (continued)

coal mill control, multivafiable 90-1
constraints, inclusion of 185, 365
feedforward control 206
formulation of 147-8, 168, 377-80
multivariable steam control 347-9
parameter sensitivity 194-9
physical model-based control 365,
375-89
state estimation-based 380-1
superheater temperature control 147-9
PRESS, statistic 315,329
pressurised fluidised bed combustion 2, 12
primary air 64, 246
coal mill performance 81-2
temperature / pressure of 70-1
principal component analysis
fault detection 317-25
feature selection 310
model selection 314-15
multiblock 315-16
non-linear transformation 335
principal component 314
principal curve 340
t scores 314, 317, 320
see also projection to latent structures
principal curve 340
procedural rule, fuzzy logic 102, 152-3,
221-3
programmable logic controller 8, 311
see also distributed control system
projection to latent structures
model selection 327-8
monitoring and optimisation 310,
329-34, 336-9
multiblock 329
non-linear RBF 3 3 4 ~
non-linear transformation 335
see also principal component analysis
PTx control, superheater temperature
149-52
Public Utilities Regulatory Policies
Act (US) 10
pulverised fuel 7, 243
flow measurement 81
Kalman filter 84-90
pump, modelling of 37-9
pyrometry, flue gas temperature 154
load-following capability 158
steam temperature control 155-7
quadratic programming 380

radial basis function, network 102, 335

radiation, heat transfer 6, 21-2, 42, 370-1
burner configuration 382
Rankine cycle 1, 5, 18-19, 181,397
receding horizon state estimation 295-303
recursive least squares 147
supervision of 11 l - I 2, 118
regression analysis 327
reheater 3, 207
control action correction 190, 195-7
flue gas recycling 183, 190, 369, 371-2
metal temperature, state estimation 370,
375-80, 386
steam temperature control 7, 183, 372,
377
thermal efficiency 371-2
tube failure, mechanisms 403
see also flue gas recycling; heat
exchanger; steam temperature /
pressure
reliability, power plant
availability factor 398
subsystem outages 399-400
renewable energy 12, 159
UN targets 13

saturation, actuator 293,367

SCADA 251,354
scheduled outage factor 398-9
secondary air 81,244
self-tuning control: see adaptive control
sensor
fault detection 311-12
feedwater heater, malfunction 284-7
soft 92, 94, 159
validity index 318
value reconstruction 316-18, 330
sensor fusion 159
simulation, power plant
database management 57
dynamic decoupling 52-3
hybrid emulation 113-14, 293
modelling environment 18, 164
numerical integration 52
validation of 53-6, 71-9
see also gPROMS; Dymola; Modelica;
object-oriented modelling;
physical-based modelling
singular value decomposition 335
sliding pressure control 212, 228-9
boiler stored energy 6
gain scheduling 151

Index

thermal stress, reduction of 372, 386

unit startup 182
soft desk 351
soft sensor 92, 94, 159
soot blowing 132, 151,326
SOx, emissions 7, 11,243, 346
acid rain 11,243
flue gas desulphurisation 11,244, 397
PLS modelling of 329-32
s e e a l s o environmental regulation
spline, network 247, 335
spot price, electricity 395
startup / shutdown, power plant
advisory system 356-8
coal mill 91,132, 155-6
state estimation 270, 366
coal mill advisory system 92-7
HP feedwater heater modelling 295-307
physical model-based predictive control
379, 381-9
state estimation based, generalised predictive
control 380-1
state-space model
physical model-based predictive control
376-81
subspace model identification 189, 191
steam quality 33
steam tables 27,272, 292
steam temperature / pressure, control of 3,
7, 183, 209-10, 367
control action correction 190, 195-6
evaporator control 134-47
knowledge-based plant control 221-8
load-following 132, 137
metal temperature
control of 375,390
state estimation 370, 375-80, 386
model-based predictive control 347-9
once-through boiler 4, 133, 183
physical model-based predictive control
375-81
plant life 132
superheater control 136-7, 147-58
thermal efficiency 132, 158, 372, 391
steam turbine 3
impulse stage 44-5
load cycling problems 405-6
maintenance overhaul 399
modelling of 23, 43-5, 114, 163
reaction stage 44
s e e a l s o life
stochastic approximation 270

425

HP feedwater heater modelling 290-1,

301
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 7, 249
subcritical boiler: s e e drum boiler
subspace model identification 189, 191
subsystem model, power plant
boiler 19, 28-43, 163
condensate cycle 23-4, 45-6
gas turbine 25, 46-50, 164
steam turbine 23, 43-5, 163
s e e also component model
supercritical boiler: s e e once-through boiler
superheater 3, 133
control action correction 190, 195-7
flue gas temperature 153-7
fuzzy temperature control 152-4
GPC temperature control 147-9
metal temperature, state estimation 370,
375-80, 386
multivariable temperature
control 347-9
PTx temperature control 149-52
steam temperature control 7, 136-7,
183, 367, 372
thermal efficiency 132, 158, 391
tube failure, mechanisms 403
s e e a l s o attemperator; heat exchanger;
steam temperature / pressure
supervisory plant control 2, 13, 63,346
CCGT predictive control 168-76
control action correction 186-8
control strategies 184-5,206
controlled reference value 186-7
disadvantages of 180, 312
knowledge-based plant control 216-20
load-following capability 205-6, 348-9
multivariable steam control 347-9
physical model-based predictive control
375-81
plant management system 351
thermal efficiency 2, 346
s e e a l s o distributed control system;
multi-loop plant control; operator
advisory system
sustainable development, UN world
summit 13
s e e a l s o renewable energy
synchronisation, alternator 356
system identification: s e e black-box
modelling; parameter estimation
t scores 314, 317, 320, 330
testing and validation, models

426

Index

testing and validation, models (continued)

design data 54
open-loop / closed-loop tests 55-6
thermal efficiency
combined cycle gas turbine 5
factors affecting 158, 326, 382, 399
modelling / monitoring 163, 330, 358-9
once-through boiler 4
sliding pressure operation 6
supervisory control 2, 346
temperature control 132, 371,391
see also monitoring
thermal stress 179, 348
load following 132, 136, 185, 371
sliding pressure operation 372, 386
unit startup / shutdown 358,405-7
thermography, infrared 409
Three Mile Island, incident 312
training simulator 414
tramp air 7
transputer 117
tube failure, mechanisms 403

turbine following control 182, 209-11

base-load plant 6
two-shifting, operation: see load cycling
unit dispatch 353, 412
United Nations, renewable energy targets 13
valve
cavitation 35
modelling of 35-6
VME hardware 117
volatile organic compound 11
voltage measurement
Fourier algorithm 114-16
harmonic interference 114
RMS technique 115
white-box modelling 245
see also physical-based modelling