Ders notlar (Lecture notes)

WEAVING TECHNOLOGY AND RECENT PROGRESS ON WEAVING

MACHINERY
Prof. Dr. Gngr BAER Dokuz Eyll University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of
Textile Engineering- ZMR, 2006
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Weaving is an ancient technique to make up a fabric by the intersection of two sets of yarns at
right angles to each other. These sets of yarns, namely the warp and weft are interlaced with
each other in a certain manner to form a structure which must be stable and uniform. The
manner in which warp and weft yarns are interlaced together by passing over and under each
other is called the WEAVE. Such a structure is known as a WOVEN FABRIC, but there are
other ways of obtaining a fabric. A TEXTILE FABRIC may, essentially, be considered as a
sheet of fibrous material with a uniform surface and a rather soft and flexible structure.
Therefore it is possible to form fabrics directly by fibres having the abovementioned
properties. Such fabrics are called NON-WOVEN fabrics. The method of knitting, however,
achieves the formation of a fabric structure by joining sets of yarn loops by passing each
newly formed loop through the previous one. Whatever method has been used to form a
fabric, a certain degree of COVER must be provided on the fabric surface, because a textile
fabric has the primary function to cover surfaces such as of a human body, furniture, floors
etc. The structures like fishnets with insufficient cover and like a wire mesh with no flexibility
will not conform with the definition of a textile fabric. In woven and knitted fabrics the cover
is obtained by the yarns lying on the surface of the fabric. Stability, on the other hand, is
obtained by the structural character of the weave plus the DENSITY or SETT of the yarns on
the fabric surface. Uniformity is, hovever, obtained, by the orderly arrangement of
interlacings of the yarns in the weave and by the perfection of the actual weaving process. A
final requirement for a fabric, especially for those that are woven, is the STRENGTH and
ELASTICITY. A fabric must stand up to various strains during use and should also recover
from deformations after the deforming effects are removed.
Weaving is also an art, and a very ancient art too. The way the warp and weft yarns interlace
form certain patterns on the fabric surface. These WEAVE EFFECTS impart the fabric
different appearances and will be the source of a certain TEXTURE on the fabric surface.
Thus, surface texture is considered, also, as an AESTHETIC property. Surface texture will
affect the handle and certain physical properties of the fabric, such as moisture absorption,
warmth, air permeability etc., as well as fabric appearance. The appearance characteristics are
very important for textile fabrics. Apart from the weave effects, COLOUR, COLOUR AND
WEAVE EFFECTS, FIGURE OR MOTIVE EFFECTS and SHINE are other aesthetic surface
properties of woven fabrics. The basic properties for a woven fabric can be summed up as
STRENGTH, STABILITY, UNIFORMITY, ELASTICITY, FLEXIBILITY, COVER,
AESTHETIC VALUE and APPROPRIATE SURFACE PROPERTIES. Woven fabrics have
superiority in many aspects associated with these requirements, over both knitted and nonwoven fabrics. They have strength, good cover, fine texture, stability and wide possibilities to
be furnished with aesthetic values. Nevertheless, it may be said that it is a more costly way of
making fabrics. This has been the driving force in such remarkable progress in the knitting
and non-woven technologies. But with recent developments in modern weaving technology,
weaving has revived its high status once more. However, the superiority of the knitted fabric
to adapt itself better to the sape of human body is worth mentioning as an exception to the

general rule. The unique properties of the woven fabric stem from the fact that sections of
yarns can be placed parallel and much closer to each other in a woven fabric and the fabric
thickness is less influenced by factors like type of weave, sett, yarn count etc. than in knitted
fabrics. The three dimensional structure of the knitted loop and the effect of yarn rigidity on
the size of the loop tend a knitted fabric of the same yarn count to be thicker. A denser
structure in the woven fabrics , however, results in higher material cost. Thus two important
problems in the manufacture of woven fabrics are HIGH MATERIAL COST and LOW
PRODUCTION RATE. Therefore, the main task of the woven fabric manufacturer will be to
produce a fabric of low material cost at a sufficiently high production rate without
endengering any of the abovementioned basic quality requirements.
2. PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING
The basic principles of weaving can be explained in the following way: In order to form a
woven fabric structure one set of yarns, namely the warp, must be prepared and placed on the
weaving machine, called the LOOM, as a sheet of parallel yarns under some tension . The
weft yarn is, then, to be inserted in between the warp yarns at right angles in a way to make
the required interlacings (Figure 1).

Figure 1:The basic principle of weaving

To achieve this, warp yarns have to be separated into two groups, one group being above the
other, thus forming a gap in between through which the weft yarn can be placed by a certain
means. This gap is called the WARP SHED and the means used to insert weft may be a
SHUTTLE or some other instrument (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Shed formation

The formation of the fabric is achieved by the loom with the application of the following five
basic motions: 1- SHEDDING: Separation of the warp yarns into two sheets 2- WEFT
INSERTION ( PICKING): Insertion of the weft yarn between the warp yarns 3- BEATING
UP: Pushing the weft in between the warp threads to be entrapped in the cloth structure 4WARP LET OFF: Feeding in of the warp by letting off the warp beam 5- CLOTH TAKE UP:
Drawing of the fabric to be wound on the cloth beam The first three of these motions are the
MAIN MOTIONS for the fabric formation and the last two are COMPLEMENTARY
MOTIONS to ensure the continuation of the weaving process under stable conditions. Beating
up motion is affected by the forward movement of the REED between the warp yarns which
have previously been separated into two sheets to carry the weft to the line at which fabric
forms. This is so synchronised that the beating up action takes place when the shed just starts
to change and thus at the completion of this motion the weft is entrapped between the warp
yarns in the cloth structure . The let off motion is a feeding action, whereas cloth take up
means the production of the cloth. All the looms whether handloom or powerloom must have
all these five motions, the first three of them for the formation of an interlacing, the last two
for ensuring the continuation of the weaving process. The semi-automatic looms, on the other
hand, will have additional motions which are called AUXILIARY MOTIONS to enable the
effective control of the weaving machine by the loom itself. These are such motions as WARP
STOP MOTION and WEFT STOP MOTION to stop the loom automatically when breaks
occur, SHUTTLE CONTROL to ensure that there is sufficient weft yarn left on the pirn and
BOX CONTROL to ensure that the shuttle is properly placed in the box- both of them
incorporating automatic stop motions- SHUTTLE PROTECTION, WARP PROTECTION or
REED PROTECTION MOTIONS as safety measures. There will also be a SELVEDGE
CONTROL provided by temples. In weaving with coloured yarms on shuttle looms, a
multiple shuttle box arrangement to weave with more than one shuttle, each carrying a a weft
of different colour is provided. It will, then, be necessary to have a SHUTTLE BOX
MOTION that will bring the shuttle carrying the weft of the desired colour to the picking
position. Automatic looms, on the other hand, have a WEFT REPLENISHMENT MOTION
and usually weave with single colour weft. This motion will either be a PIRN CHANGING
or a SHUTTLE CHANGING operation. The shuttleless looms on which the insertion of weft
is achieved by other means have special colour selection mechanisms.

2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF LOOMS

The classification of looms as HANDLOOM, POWERLOOM, SEMI-AUTOMATIC LOOM
and AUTOMATIC LOOM is one based on the way man and machine work together to
perform the weaving process. In a handloom all the motions of the loom are performed by the
weaver using manpower. The weaver opens the shed, picks the weft, beats up the weft and
also performs the tasks of letting the warp and winding the cloth as weaving proceeds. He will
also control the pickspacing and selvedge formation. In a powerloom the movement of loom
parts are achieved by the power supplied by a motor. But, still, the weaver will control the
process and will repair the broken picks and ends as these will be frequently occurring events
in weaving with a powerloom. In the semi-automatic looms the control of the process is
achived by the machine itself through certain motions called automatic stop motions and
various control and protection mechanisms. In automatic looms, however, there will be a
weft replenishment motion in addition to all the auxiliary motions provided in semi-automatic
looms. As the machine becomes more automatic, the tasks of the operator, weaver in that
particular case, are reduced, and it, then, becomes possible for the operator to tend more than
one machine. In such a situation, however, there will be some losses of the productive time of
the machine due to a phenomenon called MACHINE INTERFERENCE. This is because the
operator may be busy in repairing a machine while a second machine may stop within that
span of time and will need repairing. Thus an optimum number of machines to be assigned to
one operator has to be found, which will reduce labour cost without giving rise to significant
production losses. It may also be pointed out here that the method of servicing the machine
will depend on both the type and number of machines assigned. Another way of classifying
looms is based on the shedding motion which follows: 1. TAPPET LOOMS 2. DOBBY
LOOMS 3. JACQUARD LOOMS In tappet and dobby looms warp yarns are controlled by
HEALD SHAFTS which carry those warps that will move up or down together through all
successive sheddings(or pickings). In tappet looms the heald shafts are pulled by connections
activated by eccentric cams called TAPPETS. There will be a tappet for every different warp
movement. The number of tappets used does not generally exceed eight due to physical
limitations. This limits the types of weaves that can be obtained with a tappet loom (Figure 3)

Figure 3: Positive tappet shedding mechanism ( 1. Treaddles, 2. Tappet-eccentric cam, 3.

Fulcrum, 4. Follower, 5. Heald shaft, 6. Pulley system, 7. Warp )
For more complicated weaves a dobby loom will be needed which gives up to 24 warp
movements (Figure 4). Although dobby looms providing 36 warp movements were used in

the past, this did not become common

practice.

Figure 4: Negative dobby shedding mechanism ( 1. Driving rod, 2. T- lever, Knives, 4. Hooks,
5. Dobby arm, 6. Connecting lever, 7. Stoppers, Needles, 9. Feeler levers, 10. Pattern Wheel,
11. Heald connections, Heald shaft, 13. Spring )
For more complicated weaves and larger figured and motive designs a jacquard loom is
needed which provides a much larger number of independent warp movements (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Simple Jacquard shedding system ( 1. Lifting table, 2. Hook, 3. Knife, 4. Needle,
Card cylinder, 6. Guide board, 7. Spring box, 8. Control board, 9. Harness cord, Harness
thread, 11. Comber board, 12. Heald eye, 13. Shed )

One can get precise and secure warp movement with tappet looms. Thus for heavy industrial
fabrics and high speeds of weaving a tappet motion is preferred. The shedding motion
obtained with a jacquard mechanism is comparatively slow, but when high DESIGN
CAPACITY, for example 400, 600, 1200, 1800 warp movements, is required there is no other
alternative. There are jacquard mechanisms like DOUBLE LIFT and DOUBLE CYLINDER
to give a higher rates of picking but this will make the weaving process more complicated. So
slowness was considered as an inherent character of jacquard shedding, but after the
introduction of electronic jacquard mechanisms in recent years this is not a valid argument
any longer. An equally important way of classifying looms is one based on the type of the
picking motion. From this point of view looms are grouped into two large groups as
CONVENTIONAL and MODERN LOOMS. The conventional looms use a shuttle for
picking and are thus named also as SHUTTLE LOOMS. Although modern looms are most
often named as SHUTTLESS LOOMS not all of the modern or non conventional looms may
be regarded as shuttles. In conventional picking the weft yarn is carried in a shuttle which is a
box carrying the weft yarn as it is pushed across the shed at a great speed by the striking
action of picking stick. The shuttle has the shape of a vessel with pointed tips and carries the
weft inside its hollow part. The weft is placed in the shuttle in the form of a package called
the PIRN or QUILL as weft yarn wound onto a cop ( Figure 6 ). In modern picking a
different type of shuttle may sometimes be employed ( as in circular looms), but the shuttle is
usually eliminated. The principle is to draw the weft directly from the weft bobbin by means
of weft carriers such as projectiles, needles, rapiers. etc. There are also systems in which the
weft is pushed across the shed by the drag of a strong water or air stream created by the action
of JETS.

Figure 6: Shuttle and pirn types

A general classification of looms according to picking motion is as follows:
CONVENTIONAL LOOMS 1. WHIP PICKING LOOMS 2. PUSH PICKING LOOMS a.
Underpush Picking b. Overpush Picking MODERN LOOMS 1. GRIPPER LOOMS
( PROJECTILE LOOMS ) 2. RAPIER LOOMS a. Single Rapier * Needle Type * Hooked
Rapier Type b. Double Rapier * Rigid Rapier * Flexible Rapier * Telescopic Rapier 3. JET
LOOMS a. Water Jet Looms b. Air Jet Looms 4. MULTI PHASAE LOOMS a. Circular
Looms b. Straight Multi-Phase eLooms In conventional weaving the whip picking in which
the shuttle is pushed by the pulling action of a leather strap fixed to the picking stick placed
above the weaving level is no longer in use. Underpush picking is usually preferred in which
picking is achieved by the pushing action of the picker attached to the end of a picking stick
(Figure 7). In both cases the picking stick is activated by a picking cam of appropriate design
to obtain a sudden movement. Although the shuttle looms are rapidly being replaced by the
modern looms which have now all the versatility, there are still many shuttle looms being in
use all over the world in many countries. In the class of modern looms called gripper looms a
small shuttle which is also termed as projectile carries the weft yarn that it draws from the

bobbin through the shed. This projectile catches the end of the yarn by its clips at its end and
is accelerated by a picking arm activated by a torsion rod ( Figure

8 ).
Figure 7: Picking mechanism ( 1. Picker, 2. Picking stick, 3. Lug strap, Vertical shaft, 5.
Horizontal shaft, 6. Picking cam, 7. Cone, 8. Shuttle )

Figure 8: Sulzer projectile picking system ( 1. Picking arm, 2. Picking cam, Torsion rod, 4.
Connecting lever, 5. Cam shaft, 6. Shaped lever arm, 7. Follower, 8. Fulcrum, 9. Guide
element )

In rapier looms the weft yarn is drawn from the bobbin by either the eye of a needle shaped
long rapier or by a hoook attached to the end of a rapier ( Figure 9 ).

Figure 9: Weft insertion by needle rapier system (Jurgens loom)

In double rapier systems there are two hooked rapiers working in opposite sides. One of them
takes the weft from the bobbin and brings it half way through the shed. The other moving in
the opposite direction takes over the weft yarn and carries it to the edge of the fabric, as a
conseqeence, a weft transfer action being performed. In flexible rapier version the hooks are
carried on flexible bands of metal whereas in telescopic version the rapiers are moved
outwards from inside a cylindrical pipe each, thus occupying a narrower space over the loom
frame ( Figure 10 ).

Figure 10: Telescopic rapier weft insertion system ( 1. Rapier, 2. Moving tape, Pulleys, 4.
Loom frame )
In jet looms a water or an air jet is provided through which the weft yarn passes and is carried
through the shed by the water or air blown out of the jet nozzle at a high pressure. In multiphase looms, however, more than one shed are opened across the warp sheet and more than
one weft yarn are inserted into the appropriate shed at the same time as being carried by
special carriers or shuttles. In shuttless looms there are special selvedge forming and colour
selection mechanisms to make them as versatile as shuttle looms. These looms are usually
provided also with a weft feeder or weft accumulator. The weft feeder draws the weft yarn
from the bobbin in a measured length and accumulates it in order to insert the same length of

weft at each picking, since picking is done from the same side of the loom. The weft inserted
is cut off at each time. There is also another way of classifying shuttle looms which is based
on the box motion. If picking is done alternatively, it is called ALTERNATIVE PICKING and
the loom is termed as a PICK-AND-PICK LOOM. In colour weaving with shuttle looms
picking has to be done freely from any side of the loom instead of once from one side, second
time from the other. Looms with this construction are called AT WILL PICKING LOOMS. In
this type of looms there will be a CLUTCH mechanism on the picking system to disengage
the picking mechanism when picking is to be done from the other side of the loom. Looms are
also defined in terms of the cloths that can be woven on that particular loom, e.g. CARPET
LOOM, COTTON LOOM, RIBBON LOOM, etc. A loom should be built up with certain
auxiliary mechanisms needed for weaving certain types of fabric and should be rebust
enough to withstand the mechanical strains occurring during weaving .This necessitates
different loom designs for different fabric types. This sort of classification of looms helps to
define a particular loom in its mechanisms and characteristic features. It will also help in
choosing a particular loom to weave a particular fabric. The best choice of the loom may only
be made from among those that are suitable to weave the cloth in question. Only then the
factors such as speed, cost of labour and maintenance may and should be considered. This
attitude will also secure the fabric quality to some extent.
2.2. PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO WEAVING
Warp and weft yarns have to be prepared , prior to weaving, in a certain way which makes
them suitable for transportation and convenient to be placed on the loom in a certain fashion.
The warp is prepared on a flanged roller called the WARP BEAM as a set of yarns wound
side by side in equal spacing and under equal tension. Requirements for the warp are as
follow: The warp yarns should be PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER, EQUALLY SPACED,
EQUALLY TENSIONED, PLACED IN THE ORDER AS THEY WILL APPEAR
ON THE FABRIC, STRONG ENOUGH TO WITHSTAND STRAINS AND FRICTION
DURING WEAVING The last requirement may necessitate, as in weaving with singles
cotton yarns or filament yarns, covering the warp yarns with a suitable material such as
starch, glue etc. This process is called SIZING. The preparation of the warp on the warp beam
may be done in two different ways: DIRECT TO BEAM WARPING SECTIONAL
WARPING In direct to beam warping the warp yarns which have been placed in the bobbin
form on a CREEL of large capacity are drawn off and wound on to the warp beam directly in
a single process. This will only be possible when the total number of warp ends is not so high
and when weaving a uniform colour fabric. In cases when sizing is to be done, however,
direct to beam warping is an intermediary step before sizing to prepare warp for this process.
Then a number of beams are prepared to feed the sizing machine from a beam creel. The
sizing machine, which is in fact a set of machines, is sometimes called the SLASHER . The
sizing is achieved by passing the warp yarns taken from the beams as sheets of yarns and
passing them through one or two size boxes containing hot size solution. The excess of the
sizing material is squeezed off by a pair of rollers after which the warp yarns are dried over
hot cylinders. The separate sheets of the warp coming out of the drying chamber are joined as
a single sheet and finally wound on the warp beam which is sometimes termed as the
WEAVERS BEAM. Thus the sizing set must incorporate a warping unit ( Figure
11 )

Figure 11: Section view of a slasher with double size box ( 1. Beam creel, Size boxes, 3.
Drying chamber, 4. Beamer )
In sectional warping there is a two stage operation. In the preliminary stage of the process, the
warp yarns drawn from the bobbin creel are wound on to a large cylinder to make a section of
the warp and the whole warp is built up by repeating this operation to lay successive sections
side by side over this cylinder. Of course, each time a section has been wound the ends of
warps have to be secured and the next section must be laid without leaving any space in
between to make a single sheet of warp. This is achieved by careful adjustments. This stage is
called WARPING. In the second stage known as BEAMING, sections are drawn off
altogether and wound on the warp beam. Whatever the method is, the spacing of the warp
yarns and width of the warp sheet are adjusted by means of certain arrangements on the
machine. In order to be able to build a whole continuous warp sheet from a number of
sections, each section is wound over the previous one as forming cross sections of the shape
of a parallelogram by means of inclined plates or a conical surface at the starting end of the
drum, usually called the CONE DRUM ( Figure 12 ). It is also the general rule that the width
of the warp sheet and the setting of the warp yarns are the same as those obtained on the reed.
Another point is that in preparing sections on the drum a lease is formed each time before the
start of winding by means of a special reed called the HECK and a special lease cord running
across the sections on the

drum.

Figure 12: Formation of warp sections on the sectional warper

Weft yarn is wound on two different kinds of package named as the PIRN or WEFT COP. A
HOLLOW COP may also be wound for woollen weaving or in weaving heavy fabrics like
carpets and certain industrial fabrics with low count yarns. The weft is wound directly on to
the spindle in this case, and when it is drawn off the spindle a hollow centre is formed through
which the spindle inside an appropriate type of the shuttle passes. The pirn is pressed into the
shuttle and held in it with the aid of spring lid on top ( Figure 6 ). This arrangement enables
maximum amount of yarn to be contained in the shuttle. In the majority of cases the weft is
wound on to a wooden or plastic cop in which case it should have the following requirements:
UNIFORM WINDING, SUFFICIENT AND UNIFORM TENSION ON WINDS TO
PREVENT SLOUGHING, RESERVE YARN should be provided serve yarn is particularly
useful in automatic weft replenishment. In shuttless weaving weft bobbins should be wound
on what is called PRECISION WINDING machines because of similar requirements in so
far as the insertion of the weft is concerned. These requirements are such that THE WEFT IS
INSERTED IN THE SAME LENGTH AND TENSION.
2.3. MECHANICS OF WOVEN FABRIC FORMATION
The process of weaving may be defined as the bending of straight yarns into a certain form or
shape so as to form a uniform structure, as designated by the weave, when this process is
applied simultaneously on two sets of yarns placed at right angles to each other. Thus it is a
process of deformation; but as this process is applied while the yarns are under some tension,
it is a deformation taken place in tension. The tension on the warp yarns prior to and during
cloth formation has two functions: 1- To provide a supporting point for the bending of the
yarn sections, 2- To secure the parallelism of the yarns or to keep yarns in the same direction.
The weft tension, on the other hand, develops as the weft is deformed during weaving, but
prevented from moving by the action of selvedge control. Initial tension of the weft prior to
beat up is a small one just to keep the weft straight and to feed equal lengths of weft at each
loom cycle. Now what are the forces acting on the yarns during beat up? The main force is
provided by the warp tension which is balanced by the cloth tension. Prior to beat up the
resultant of the tensions on individual warp yarns along the plane of the cloth is equal to the
cloth tension. During beat up warp tension increases due to the movement of cloth fell in
consequence of which the warp yarns stretch and the cloth contracts. As the weft is pushed
forward between the two warp sheets, by the force supplied by the reed called the BEAT-UP

FORCE, there also develops a frictional force acting in the opposite direction ( Figure 13 ).
The beat up force will increase and attain a maximum value until the reed is at its furthermost
position. As the reed begins the reverse its motion, the beat up force will fall suddenly. The
changes in the warp and cloth tensions are shown in a graph of actual recording due to
Snowden and Chamberlain ( Figure 14 ). Neglecting frictional forces the beat up force is
equal to the difference between the warp and cloth tensions.

Figure 13: Forces acting during cloth formation

Figure 14: Tension variations within the weaving cycle ( 1. Tension, Warp tension, 3. Fabric
tension, 4. Closed shed, 5. Open shed, 6. Beat-up )
When T1-T2 = 0 , i.e. R=0 the insufficient weaving conditions described by the term
BUMPING occur. Then the required pick density will not be achieved. It is also important
to keep the correct cloth fell position. In stoppages the cloth fell position receeds and if no
adjustment is made a thin place will form on the fabric. This gives rise to a fabric fault called
STARTING MARK or SETTING PLACES. To prevent bumping conditions the basic warp
tension To should not fall below a minimum value shown by the inequality ,
k/( P D ) ( E1 l2 / E2 l1 + 1 ) > To
,where P is the amount of cloth take-up, D is the weft yarn diameter, k is a constant given by
the inverse distance equation
R = k/(r-D)
in which r is the distance between the reed and its final position. The constant k is an
empirical one. The way k depends on the weave parameters, the shed angle and the frictional
force is explained by a more comprehensive thory by Plate and Hepworth ( 1973 ). There are
also conditions that will cause the inserted weft to slip back due to insufficient friction

between warp and weft. Factors such as yarn rigidity, the shed angle at the time of beat-up,
the pickspacing achieved by the preceding picks, the frictional properties of the yarns play
important roles in this phenomenon that affects the value of the final pickspacing obtained. 3.
WOVEN FABRIC STRUCTURES Simple structures in woven fabrics are formed by two sets
of yarns intersecting at right angles to each other and the way these yarns interlace with each
other is called the WEAVE. The smallest unit of the weave structure that forms the whole
structure when repeated is called the WEAVE UNIT. The weave structures of fabrics are
shown symbolically on point paper. In the weave structure shown on the point paper the
horizontal spaces represent the weft yarns and the vertical spaces the warp yarns. Each square
on the point paper is a POINT OF INTERSECTION and a mark shows that the warp up, a
blank shows that the weft is up. 3.1. SIMPLE STRUCTURES The simplest weave is the
PLAIN WEAVE which repeats on a square weave unit of size 22. In plain weave the number
of interlacings is the most frequent one in that each yarn goes once over and next under the
intersecting yarn ( Figure 16 ).

Figure 16: Plain weave (1- Weave structure and Symbolic representation,2- Fabric appearance
and cross sectional views)
In TWILL weaves the YARN FLOATS which are the sections formed by passing over more
than one intersectig yarns run in the diagonal direction. Apart from SIMPLE TWILLS there
are also FANCY types of twill weaves developed by a combination of different float lengths.
There are also the RIGHT and LEFT versions of twill weaves ( Figure 17 ). STEEP and FLAT
TWILLS are obtained by applying a STEP greater than one as shown in Figure 18a. When
this is done to interlacings like 1/4, 1/6, 1/7 or 4/1, 6/1, 7/1, .. then SATEEN and SATIN
weaves are obtained respectively ( Figure 18b).

Figure 17: Right and left twill

Figure 18a : Steep and flat twills

Figure 18b: Sateen and satin weaves

Apart from these THREE BASIC WEAVES namely plain, twill and sateen weaves, there are
DERIVATIVES of these weaves. The idea behind developing these weaves is to obtain
physical and aesthetic characteristics in the fabric somewhat different than those obtained
with the basic weaves. The predominant characteristics of the plain weave structures are
stability, fine and open structure and dull appearance, those of the twill structures flexibility,
thick and dense structure, characteristic twill lines, a smoother and brighter surface, those of
the sateen structures stability, thick and dense structure, a smooth and bright surface. In
derivative weaves properties intermediary between these main groups are obtained. This is
achieved by rearranging the basic weave structures by the application of certain methods to
give the desired result. In this way, RIDGES, INDENTATIONS, CELLS, PORES etc. can be
obtained on the fabric surface by certain arrangement of floats in the weave unit of these
simple single structures ( Figure 19 ). Also, by applying higher settings a denser and thicker
fabric may be obtained provided that the weave structure is suitable for doing this.

Figure 19: Surface effects obtained by different arrangement of floats

In addition to the weaves derived from basic weaves HERRING BONE and DICED
WEAVES may be obtained by combining different weaves as forming different sections of a
small weave unit ( Figure 20 ). Furthermore WEAVE COMBINATIONS may be arranged in
larger weave units to give STRIPE AND CHECK WEAVES ( Figure 21 ).

Figure 20: Development of a diced weave

Figure 21: Stripe and check weaves

Thus by combining the yarn properties with those of the weave, fabrics of a wide variety of
physical and aesthetis properties can be obtained. Moreover, apart from the simple single
structures described briefly above, there are other more complicated structures to obtain
heavier and thicker fabrics for special purposes of use as winter dressings, home textiles and
industrial fabrics.
3.2. COMPOUND STRUCTURES
In backed and double fabric structures, in addition to the usual sets of warp and weft, extra
sets of warp or weft or both are introduced into the structure. If these extra sets of threads are
used partly ( or sparingly ) in parts of the structure for the purpose of figuring, then EXTRA
WARP, EXTRA WEFT and EXTRA WARP AND WEFT structures are obtained, which are
considered as single structures. These extra yarns will lie over the ground fabric formed by
the actual warp and weft yarns when they are required to form the figure, otherwise they will
remain on the back of the fabric ( Figure 22 ). The number of extra yarns used in the figured
area of the fabric may be in certain proportions as compared with the number of ground yarns
used in the same section like 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 2, 2 to 4 or 2 to 1 etc. In certain design the
extra yarns may be used in full over the fabric

surface.

Exstra warp structure

structure

Extra weft structure

Extra warp and weft

Figure 22: Extra yarn structures

If the extra yarns are used in full and in a way to lie mostly on the back to obtain a heavier or
thicker fabric, then we obtain a class of fabrics called BACKED CLOTHS. If the use of
extra threads is full in a certain proportion to the ground threads, then we get the WARP
BACKED and WEFT BACKED STRUCTURES
( Figure 23 ). If this is done in both
warp and weft directions we obtain DOUBLE CLOTHS.

Figure 23: Backed Structures (a,b:Warp backed structure, others: weft backed structure)
EXTRA WARP or EXTRA WEFT or both EXTRA WARP AND WEFT yarns are used for
figuring, these can be spot effects or in some cases FIGURE ( motive ) effects. WARP
BACKING or WEFT BACKING is applied, on the other hand, to give weight and thickness
to the cloth without changing its surface appearanca and its soft handle. In using extra warp or
in warp backing, the principle is to sett the warp in the reed in such a way that the extra or
backing threads would be sett in the same dent that the ground thread or threads are sett in as
extra (or in excess) without changing the warp setting as calculated for a single structure
( excepting a small reduction made to allow for the easier movement of yarns during
weaving ). For extra weft or weft backed structures the arrangement of the weave in the
proper way and a stronger beat up will give the required result. In double structures two single
cloths are arranged to be woven one on the top of the other on the loom, but shown on the
same point paper design by arranging the face and the back threads side by side in a proper
order. The problem is binding of the two structures in some way. As shown in Figure 24, in
the SELF STITCHED DOUBLE CLOTHS this is done by certain threads, in either face or
back or both, interlacing with certain intersecting threads on the other structure. Special
STITCHING THREADS are used in CENTRE STITCHED DOUBLE CLOTH structures
( Figure 25 ).

Figure 24: Self stitched double cloth (a. Surface structure, b. Cross sectional view; Point paper
design)

Surface and cross sectional views

Point paper design

Figure 25: Centre stitched double cloth

Self stitching makes the cloth hard, and lower settings than those in single cloths must be
employed for both face and back so as to allow room for stitching, whereas in centre stitching
this is not necessary. Furthermore, self stitching has the drawbacks of the stitching points to
show themselves on the fabric face and of the difficulty of finding perfect stitching points that
are fully covered by the yarn floats. Another way of obtaining a double structure is the
interchange of warp and weft of one layer, in groups, with that of the other layer. These are
called INTERCHANGING DOUBLE CLOTHS or DOUBLE FACED DOUBLE
CLOTHS, the most common version of which is the DOUBLE PLAIN CLOTH used in
dressing fabrics ( Figure 26 ).

Figure 26: Double plain fabric structures

3.3. SPECIAL WOVEN FABRIC STRUCTURES
We have so far mentioned of the conventional woven fabric structures. There are also more
complex structures which necessitate the use of special looms that are equipped with special
arrangements to achieve certain structural features. These fabrics are also quite different in
appearance and in some of their physical properties. These fabrics can be grouped in six main
categories according to the fabric structure and method of weaving. 3.3.1. GAUZE AND

LENO FABRICS In order to make open structures special threads are used in the warp
direction to bind and secure the intersection points. These threads come cross with the ground
warp and this movement is achieved by the use of a special HALF HEALD. Two crossing
healds are employed, the front one carrying the half heald and the crossing warp passes
through the eyes of both ( Figure 27 ). The ground warp passes through the eye of the
standard heald which is placed in between the crossing healds, thus the special thread crosses
the standard warp thread in passing from back to front and thus the special thread will lie in
the cloth at an angle to standard warp thread. Structures obtained by using this technique are
called GAUZE WEAVES. If the crossing thread moves over more than one standard warp
through successive picks, it can be used to obtain motive effects and such structures are
known as LENO WEAVES.

Figure 27: Gauze weaving ( 1. Half heald, 2. Front crossing heald, Back crossing heald, 4.
Standard heald, 5. Easer bar )

3.3.2. VELVET AND VELVETEENS

If the extra threads, as warp or weft, are introduced into the cloth structure to make loops at
right angles to the plane of the cloth, then a PILE FABRIC is obtained. One way of doing
this is to arrange extra wefts making long floats in orders as three or more extra picks to the
ground, and to weave at high pick densities. When these extra floats are cut in the middle by
special machines or knives a weft pile fabric will be obtained which is called a VELVETEEN
( Figure 28 ).

Figure 28: Formation of a plain velveteen

Velvets are warp pile fabrics. Extfa warp threads called PILE WARPS are woven into the
ground structure in greater lengths. In one system they pass over wires which are inserted into
the shed as pick and form LOOPS over these wires carrying a blade at one end. When the
wires are withdrawn from the shed one by one, they will cut the loops formed by the pile
warps and a CUT PILE VELVET structure will be obtained ( Figure 29 ).

Figure 29: Design and cross section of wire velvet structures

In another system called FACE TO FACE WEAVING pile warps interchange between two
ground cloths woven face to face with a suitable distance in between them. The fabric is
woven on a double cloth principle and the pile threads which bind the two cloths together are
cut at the same time during weaving to form the cut pile structure ( Figure 30 ).

Figre 30: Face-to-face velvet structures

3.3.3. TERRY OR TOWEL STRUCTURES

In towel structures known by the general term TERRY pile thread is fed at a greater speed by
an independent let-off system from a separate beam. By a special TERRY REED MOTION
two picks are inserted by leaving the beat-up motion incomplete in the first stage. The third
pick is then beaten up fully and at the same time a slackening of the pile warp is achieved by
the action of an easing lever. Thus a loop is formed by the extra length of the pile warp due to
lack of tension at this second stage ( Figure 31 ).

Figure 31: Weave and cross sectional view of Turkish towel structure

3.3.4. MACHINE CARPETS

Machine carpets can be woven on the principle of wire weaving or face-to-face weaving as in
velvets. These carpets are known as WILTON CARPETS ( Figure 32 ). In carpets the ground
warps are cotton, the weft is either cotton or jute, the pile yarn is wool or a wool mixture.
There is also a FILLING yarn used in the warp direction to support the pile and to fill in the
space between the pairs of warp yarns. There are various Wilton carpet structures woven on
the face-to-face weaving system according to the the type of the loom and the number of
colours used in the pile ( Figure 33 ).

Figure 32: Wire Wilton carpet structure

Figure 33: Three colour face-to-face Wilton carpet structure

In another group of machine carpets called AXMINSTER carpets there are special
mechanisms to form the loops. In this system the loops are formed by small lengths of the pile
yarn which are drawn and cut off by looping elements as shown in Figure 34 and various
Axminster structures are given in the cross section in Figure 35.

Figure 34: Formation of pile in Gripper Axminster carpet

Figure 35: Various Axminster carp structures ( A:Imperial, B: Corinthian, C: Kardax )

3.3.5. TRIAXIAL FABRICS

They are the outcome of space research giving uniform tensile properties to the fabric. Two
series of warp yarns crossing each other at some angle are intersected and interlaced with weft
yarns in a special loom. Some varieties of structure may be obtained ( Figure 36 ).

Figure 36: Some triaxial fabric weaves

3.3.6. THREE DMENSIONAL STRUCTURES
There are various forms of three dimensional woven structures made on specially designed
looms. In principle a group of yarns placed in the vertical direction to a multi layer woven
structure are employed in these fabrics but othes sets lying in various directions may also be
incorporated. These fabrics are used for special industrial uses ( Figure 37 ).

Figure 37: Sectional views of various three dimensional fabric strucrres

3.3.7. NARROW FABRICS

These are fabrics of widths less than 45 cm used for various purposes as industrial fabrics or
as materials of ornamentation and trimmings for the clothing industry.
3.3.8. HAND WOVEN FABRICS
Hand made carpets, rugs, soumaks and other kind of structures are handicraft products which
still have important economic and aesthetic value ( Figure 38 ).

Figure 38: Various handwoven fabric structures

3.3.9. CLASSIFICATION OF WOVEN STRUCTURES
A full classification of woven fabrics based on structural features and on the method of
weaving is given in Figure 39. This classification includes a broad distinction between fabrics
which can be woven on a common weaving loom termed as NORMALLY WOVEN
FABRICS and those which require special loom designs to provide certain structural features
termed as SPECIALLY WOVEN STRUCTURES.
4. DESIGN OF WOVEN FABRICS
Designing a fabric means specifying all the important characteristics of the finished fabric.
These characteristics may be stated in certain categories which follow:
DIMENSIONAL PROPERTIES: Length, width, weight, thickness
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES: Weave, thread density, thread diameters or yarn counts
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Strength, wear, warmth, moisture absorption, handle, drape,
crease resistance, permeability

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: Colour fastness, washability, flammability, dyebility

AESTHETIC PROPERTIES: Colour, colour and weave effect, figured design, shine, surface
texture
Some of these parameters are concerned with the performance of the fabric during
use.Properties such as the weight, the weave, he colour design etc. are the actual design
parameters which influence and in fact determine the performance characteristics such as
strength, permeability, handle etc. In principle the properties which can be independently
chosen are those that should be taken as design parameters. Others will depend on these
independent parameters. There will be certain relations between the design parameters and
those which are functions of them, but these relations may not always be easily definable.
What are, then, the principal design parameters for a woven fabric?
Weight per unit area of a fabric is a very important parameter. Especially in dress fabrics light
weight materials are used in warm climate and in summer. A rather light weight fabric is
required for shirting, whereas for suitings a heavier fabric is needed. For furnishings and for
the dress fabrics to be used in winter still heavier fabrics are needed. But it is rather difficult
mathematically to start with the fabric weight and calculate the yarn counts and theread
densities due to the two dimensional structure of a woven cloth. Having chosen the count and
sett of warp or weft, the count and sett of the other set of threads may be adjusted to give the
required weight. But even then there will not be a single solution to the problem since there
are four variables affecting the weight. Another difficulty stems from the fact that in weaving
there occur contractions in length and width due to crimping of yarns to form the weave
structure of the fabric. Unless the magnitudes of these contractions are known the actual
lengths of of the threads placed in the unit area of cloth cannot be calculated accurately.
If we employ constants k1 and k2 for warp and weft respectively to allow for contractions
occurring in weaving and finishing and also to adjust units, then the weight w per unit area of
fabric may be expressed by the formula,

where S1 and S2 are warp and weft setts, N1 and N2 are warp and weft counts respectively.
Therefore, although weight is an important parameter it is a function of four other parameters
which would be taken as design parameters if there were no interrelation between them. But
there is another relation between the yarn count, the sett and the weave which is defined by
what is called SETTING THEORY. This relation stems from the fact that given a yarn of
certain diameter and weave there is a limit to the sett or density of yarns in the cloth. The
limitations are both geometrical and mechanical. The geometrical limitations arise from the
fact that there must be room between two consecutive threads for the interlacing threads to
pass through. The mechanical limitations, on the other hand, are such that the equilibrium of
forces during fabric formation may not allow certain pick densities. This will be affected by
both fabric parameters and mechanical conditions of weaving. It shouls also be born in mind
that the sett applied in one set of yarns will affect the sett to be applied in the other set of
yarns in an inverse manner.

The setting theories may be expressed by the general formula,

where S is the set of warp or weft, Fw is the WEAVE FACTOR, K is a constant depending
on the type of yarn, C is the count of the yarn used as warp or weft.
R. Ashenhurst ( 1884 ) expressed the weave factor for SQUARE WEAVES, which have the
same number of warp and weft threads in the weave unit, as

where w is the number of threads in one repeat of waeve, i is the number of intersections.
Thus for a plain weave Fw = 0.5 , for a 2/2 twill weave Fw = 0.67. The original formulae of
Ashenhurst for the diameter of yarns in terms of yarn count expressed in unit of inches are:
for worsted yarns

for cotton yarns

for woollen yarns

In the metric system, if metric count, Nm, is used, the constant K will take the values 7.9, 8.3
and 7.3 for worsted, cotton and woollen yars respectively.
Another important setting theory is that due to Brierley ( 1931 ) who expresses the threads Per
inch, T, as

where F is the average float, m is a constant depending on the weave type. m takes on values
0.39, 0.42 and 0.45 for twill, sateen and plain or matt weaves, Ktakes on values 134, 200,
and 60 for worsted, cotton and woollen yarns respectively. In metric system and using the
general formula by putting Fw = Fm , the value of K will approximately be 4.25 with no great
differences between the yarn types. So we have two important relations between weight, yarn

count, setting and weave type. It is usual to consider the setting as a dependent parameter in
the general design approach.
4.1. LOOM PARAMETERS AFFECTING FABRIC DESIGN
There are also factors to be taken account in the design of a fabric concerned with the
construction of the loom. In figured designs quite important limitations may confront us. One
such factor is the DESIGN CAPACITY of the loom which may be defined as the number of
independent warp movements that can be obtainen in a given loom. Thus, given a loom, only
the weave units of figured designs of certain dimensions may be employed. This is so even in
jacquard weaving. A particular jacquard machine will have a certain design capacity. The
dimensions or the width of the figured design depend on the number of different warp
interlacings used in the design together with the warp setting applied. As the yarn count gets
higher, a higher setting has to be used, and consequently the width of the design will decrease.
If a is the width of the design, S is the warp setting and n is the design capacity used of the
loom, whether a dobby or jacquard loom, then the relation

will hold. Conversely, this relation also means that the warp setting to be employed in a
figured design will be a function of both design width and the design capacity of the loom.
The particular loom used will limit the cloth width and and may also limit the fabric weight.
In colour weaving the box arrangement on the two sides of a shuttle loom will limit the colour
plans that can be used. In pick-and-pick weaving only the colour plans 2:2, 4:4 and like can be
applied. A 1:1 colour plan can only be applied in at will picking where there are box
movements on both sides of the loom. In shuttless weaving also the number of weft calours
used will be limited.
Having thus determined the principal parameters, other parameters depending on them will be
determined or calculated. These will include all the quantitative information necessary to
carry out production processes at all stages going from the finish cloth back to the supply of
raw materials. Thus fabric design work should finally take the form of a project for
production.
4.2. DESIGN APPROACHES
There are two basic approaches to woven fabris design namely, CLOTH ANALYSIS and
TECHNICAL DESIGN
In cloth analysis a sample of cloth is analysed in many ways to extract all the information
necessary to reproduce the desired cloth. In the technical design approach the weave, the raw
material, the counts of the yarns to some extent and approximate weight per unit length or
area may be pre determinerd. Nevertheless, some mathematics will be needed to insure that
the design is compatible with the technical conditions and the final fabric characteristics
aimed, the most important and critical one being the fabric weight. The fabric weight is
calculated and controlled as it is a measure or criterion for the compatibility of the design with

the design aims or with the intended use. It is also quite important because of cost
considerations.
A third approach namely AESTHETIC DESIGN APPROACH is possible but very difficult
indeed. This can be expressed as designing the fabric to have a surface appearance as drawn
or painted on paper. This is a difficult task for woven fabrics because of limitations imposed
by structural requirements for the fabric and of constructional features of the loom. It is,
however, quite possible with some technical skill and experience.
4.3. DESIGN METHODS
The reproduction of fabrics based on the information obtained from a piece of sample cloth
require these following steps:
A visual inspection of the fabric sample to determine the face and back of the fabric, to find
the warp and weft direction, to determine surface properties and to determine the fabric type
as regards its structural characteristics.

To determine the actual unit fabric weight by weighig and finding the area of the
sample fabric.
Carrying out a thorough YARN ANALYSIS by extracting some threads from the
sample and determining their types, raw materials, counts, twists and ply numbers.
To determine the uncrimped straight lengths of the extracted threads, to be used in
count and twist calculations as well as in calculating crimp factors by setting ratios of
uncrimped lengths to crimped lengths in the sample fabric.
To find the weave by WEAVE
To determine warp and weft setts.
To determine colouring plans and denting used in coloured and fancy design fabrics.
To calculate warp and weft weights to be used in the manufacture of the fabric
according to types and colours of the yarns used.
To calculate the finished weight and -from this- the unit fabric weight.
Comparing this calculated unit fabric weight with that determined on the onset of cloth
analysis and making the necessary corrections.
All the information necessary to produce a reproduction of the sample fabric can be obtained
from such a full cloth analysis followed by certain weaving calculations carried out in the
usual way. In the calculations of the yarn weights the crimp factors as calculated in the
abovementioned way and as shown by k1 for warp and k2 for weft will be of great help. Using
these constants the weight of a fabric of sides 1 m in warp and weft direction, the unit fabric
weight will be given by the formula given in Section 4.
To design a fabric of given unit fabric weight by the technical approach, hovever, the weave
type and yarn counts have to be determined first, and then the settings can be calculated using
a convenient setting theory. As there will be three unknowns there will be many solutions to
this design problem. To reduce the unknowns a convenient approach is to start off with a
chosen weave and make the assumption that the same count of yarn will be used in both warp
and weft and the crimp ratios in both directions are the same. This will also mean that the
warp and weft settings will be the same. Thus the formula giving the weight per unit square of
fabric will become as,

Substituting the setting theory as given by the formula S= kFwK, instead of S= FwK, which
gives the thread setting on the loomstate fabric, we obtain

and from this we can obtain a value for the yarn count given by the formula

Having a value for the yarn count and applying the setting theory it is possible to find
appropriate settings and from here on the usual weaving calculations may be carried out to
calculate production particulars as to the reed width, warp length, reed count, grey fabric
dimensions etc.
As for the aesthetic design approach applied sometimes in the design of figured fabrics the
main difficulty is obtaining a given figure width with a given unit fabric weight. This is a
more difficult problem to solve when designing for dobby looms. In this case the number of
heald shafts available for figuring together with the figure width will give a fixed warp sett.
And when the setting theory is applied for a given ground weave the yarn count will be
obtained as a fixed value. These known parameters, namely yarn count, weave and sett will
give a certain unit fabric weight which may be quite different than those required. In such a
situation certain modifications in these parameters will be necessary, the easiest and the most
reasonable one being to change the figure width. Although a change of the weave type with a
higher weave factor, resulting in a higher sett and consequently a greater weight, or vice
versa, may be made, but this will change the yarn count as well. It will, therefore, be
necessary to either apply a suitable algorithms to make these adjustments in a predictable way,
or else a trial and error approach will be applied. Such an algoritm has been developed by the
use of the formula

Constant
where A is the number of heald shafts used in the figure, a is the figure width and the other
parameters being defined as before ( Baer, 1994 ).
5. PROGRESS IN THE WEAVING MACHINERY

From the introduction of the first powerloom the progress in the weaving machines has been
quite rapid. The non conventional ways of inserting pick by other than with a shuttle was not
new in 1950s, but there were still problems that had not yet been solved in the weaving of
ordinary fabrics. In the weaving of some some industrial fabrics, however, some of the non
conventional weft insertion systems had quite been well established. The shuttle loom was,
still, essential for most fabrics, especially for those which required a selvedge. The
competition to shuttle weaving was from the knitting industry which ,in turn, gave impetus to
many researches on non conventional ways of weaving and on other ways of forming fabrics
that looked more like a woven fabric. Progress in engineering design of machines and increas
in speed of weaving , with the introduction of new continuous filament yarns also resulted in
the warp and weft preparation machinery. The progress of the last 30 years will be dealt here
in a systematic way pointing out the lines of research and progress in relation to various
weaving machinery.
5.1. PROGRESS IN WARP PREPARATION MACHINERY
The progress in the warping machines has been on these lines:
The speed of warping
Tension control on the individual warp ends
Automatic and instant stop of the warping drum when an end breaks
Uniform build-up of conical sections on the warping drum of e sectional warper
Measurement of the length of warp wound
Design of the creel
Developments Exibited in 1999 ITMA Milan
In modern sectional warping machines automatic loose end finding and computer control of
the precision of the winding are provided.
The problems in the sizing machines are the following:
Regular take-up of the size
Tension control on warp ends
Efficient drying
Prevention of the dried warp ends from sticking to each other
In modern sizing machinesautomatic control systems to regulate the rate of uptake of size and
automatic feeding of the size box are provided. Problems related to drying are solved.
5.2. PROGRESS IN WEFT WINDING
The winding of weft yarn is achieved in three ways, namely as winding on pirns, winding on
flanged bobbins and as precision winding of the weft bobbins. The progress in the weft
winding machines has been on the following lines:

* Greater winding speeds

Automatic winding without ribbonning
Precision winding on large bobbins
Unifil winding, that is winding pirns for an automatic pirn changer loom
5.3. PROGRESS ON LOOMS
The progress made on looms can be examined in the following areas:
IN SHEDDING
* Shedding speeds in dobby looms
Controlled movement of the heald shafts in dobby shedding
Speed in Jacquard shedding
The maximum number of the heald shafts employed in the shuttleless weaving
The application of Jacquard shedding to shuttlless looms
Electronic dobby
Electronic Jacquard
IN PICKING
* Picking speeds
Drives to the rapiers
Tip transfer for coarse and twistless yarns with cleaning arrangements
Strength of picking in air jet weaving
Accumulation of the weft for air jet picking
Design of the nozzles for the air and water jet looms
Automatick pick finding arrangement
Automatic running back of the loom for cloth fell correction
Double pick insertion
IN BEATING UP
* High speed beat-up for shuttleless weaving
Double beat-up and cam controlled sley movement
IN WARP CONTROL
* Electronically controlled warp let-off

Independent warp let-off for half beams in multi width weaving

Special selvedge motions for shuttless weaving such as leno motions
Sophisticated warp tensioners
Electronically controlled warp tension

IN TAKE UP
* Cloth take-up by the floating roller
Automatic cloth fell correction
IN MULTY COLOUR WEAVING
* Weft mixing in shuttleless weaving
Up to 12 weft colours in shuttleless weaving
Computer controlled colour selection
IN REDUCING NOISE AND VIBRATION
IN LUBRICATION
IN MAINTENANCE
IN MONITORING LOOM PERFORMANCE
Any progress made on a loom is evaluated as based on two criteria: ACTUAL
REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE ATTAINED; EFFICIENCY. As the fabric widths have
increased and multi-width weaving has been introduced, the first criterion now has left its
place to the LENGTH OF WEFT INSERTED PER MINUTE. The NUMBER OF WEFT
COLOURS and the NUMBER OF HEALDS are secondary, but important criteria for a
versatile loom. Another important criterion of versatility is the capability of the loom to
weave fine and twistless yarns, coarse and hard yarns such as glass fibre yarns.
The progress for the last ten years has been mainly through the applications of electronics and
the introduction of computer control. Electronic dobby and jacquard mechanisms, the transfer
of the design information to looms by computer, on line control of the weaving process by an
integrated computer system are the main advances. However, there have also been further
progress in the method of weft insertion as in multy phase weaving applied by Sulzer in their
latest Sulzer N 800 loom. Another area of progress has been in three dimensional weaving for
producing technical fabrics and preforms ( Biliik, 1994).
INTRODUCTION TO THE POST GRADUATE COURSE TITLED FIBRE AND YARN
MECHANICS

AIM OF THE COURSES ON FIBRE AND YARN MECHANICS

To examine the mechanical properties of fibres and yarns as well as to show how
scientific approach is made in investigating a topic of research.
SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

An approach to provide information, in the way of an explanation of a certain

structure, event or behaviour, based on reason.
Such events may be any natural phenomena, namely a physical, chemical or biological
happening, a behaviour of any material, of structure or organism, including social
happennings.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Methods based on observations and experiments or on some theoretical analyses based

on certain likely assumptions and worked out by mathematical reasoning, being
subject to experimental verification.
THEORY

Experimental results and evaluations can be used in a limited area and cannot be
generalized easily.
In order to generalize experimental results, rules and formulae, one must have , first, a
theoretical model of the related natural event or problem. Secondly, analyses should be
carried out, based on the constructed model, giving certain results which are subject to
experimental verification. For this, one needs to carry out certain planned and
controlled experiments.
In this way, one understands more about the mechanism of the event or behaviour
studied and may, consequently, develop some means (instruments or methods) to
control that event.
THEORETICAL MODEL

It is possible to construct a very complex and detailed theoretical model, but, then, this
model may be very difficult to analyse.
Thus, it is customary to construct, first, a very simple model, analyse it, and then, after
some efforts of verification, to try to construct a better model to improve upon the first
one.
The simpler is the model, the easier to analyse it and the better is to use it for practical
applications.
GENERAL METHOD OF RESEARCH

1- Make observations and collect as much information as possible

2- Carry out small scale preliminary examinations or experiments
3- Design your first simple theoretical model based on the most general and acceptable
assumptions deduced from prior observations and information
4-Analyse the problem using the theoretical model and obtain some results
5- Design and plan a set of experiments to verify the theory and collect experimental
data
6- Compare the calculated theoretical results with the experimental data using certain
statistical methods of analysis
7- Criticize the theory in the light of this comparison and also check the experimental
results obtained and the methods used
8- If the agreement is not satisfactory, construct an improved theoretical model and
revise the experimental methods. If necessary redesign and enlarge the experimental
work
9- Follow the same procedure from item 4 downwards as before until you reach at a
satisfactory agreement between theory and experiments
This research cycle is shown in the following diagram

EXAMPLES ON TEXTILE RESEARCH

ASSUMPTIONS:
-Yarn cross section is circular
-Twist angle is very small or tan in radians sin
Fibre has an infinite length
The number of fibres in yarn cross section is very high etc.
MODEL
A model should
Define characteristics or shape (structure) or
Define mechanical behaviour
Models will be based upon assumptions such as stated above

TYPES OF MODELS

MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Geometrical
Algebraic
Statistical
PHYSICAL MODELS
-Structural Models
-Geometric Mechanical Models
-Mechanical Models
ANALYSES
1- Algebraic analyses
2- Geometrical analyses
3- Statistical analyses
RESULTS
They are functions expressing or describing
1- Structure or shape
2- Static or dynamic behaviour

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