Crane

A modern mobile crane withoutriggers. The latticed boom is fitted with a gib.
A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire
ropes orchains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower
materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy
things and transporting them to other places. It uses one or more simple
machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the
normal capability of a human. Cranes are commonly employed in
the transport industry for the loading and unloading of freight, in
the construction industry for the movement of materials and in the
manufacturing industry for the assembling of heavy equipment.
The first known construction cranes were invented by the Ancient
Greeks and were powered by men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys.
These cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes
were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting
the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were
introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction some
were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest
cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron and steel took over
with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.
For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or
animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the
harnessed natural power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided

by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or
19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century.
Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric
motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability
than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilized where
the provision of power would be uneconomic.
Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms each tailored to a specific use.
Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the
tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high buildings. Mini-cranes are
also used for constructing high buildings, in order to facilitate constructions
by reaching tight spaces. Finally, we can find larger floating cranes, generally
used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken ships.
Some lifting machines do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but
are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.

History
Ancient Greece
Greco-Roman Trispastos ("Three-pulley-crane"), the simplest crane type (150
kg load)
The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the
late 6th century BC.[1] The archaeological record shows that no later than
c.515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to
appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use
of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of
gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center of
gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence
required for the existence of the crane.[1]
The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread
replacement oframps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next two
hundred years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp drop in the weights
handled, as the new lifting technique made the use of several smaller stones
more practical than of fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic
period with its tendency to ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the

classical age like theParthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing less
than 15-20 metric tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic
columns was practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums.
[2]
Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane
technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and
political conditions of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small,
professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour,
making the crane more preferable to the Greek polis than the more labourintensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic societies
of Egyptor Assyria.[2]
The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound
pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems (Mech. 18, 853a32853b13) attributed to Aristotle(384322 BC), but perhaps composed at a
slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples
began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that the more
sophisticated compound pulley must have found its

way to Greek

construction sites by then.[3]

Ancient Rome
See also: Treadwheel crane

Greco-Roman Pentaspastos ("Five-pulley-crane"),

(ca. 450 kg load)

medium-sized

variant

Reconstruction of a 10.4 m
treadwheel at Bonn, Germany

high

Roman Polyspastos powered

by

The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire,
when

construction

activity

soared

and

buildings

reached

enormous

dimensions. The Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further.
We are relatively well informed about their lifting techniques, thanks to
rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius(De Architectura 10.2, 110) and Heron of Alexandria (Mechanica 3.2-5). There are also two surviving
reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late
first century AD being particularly detailed.
The simplest Roman crane, the trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib,
a winch,

arope,

and

block

containing

three

pulleys.

Having

thus

a mechanical advantage of 3:1, it has been calculated that a single man

working the winch could raise 150 kg (3 pulleys x 50 kg = 150), assuming
that 50 kg represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a longer time
period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys (pentaspastos) or, in case
of the largest one, a set of three by five pulleys (Polyspastos) and came with
two, three or four masts, depending on the maximum load. The polyspastos,
when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift
3,000 kg (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x 50 kg = 3,000 kg). If the winch was
replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load could be doubled to 6,000 kg
at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much bigger
mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in
comparison to the construction of the Egyptian Pyramids, where about 50

men were needed to move a 2.5 ton stone block up the ramp (50 kg per
person), the lifting capability of the Roman polyspastosproved to be 60
times higher (3,000 kg per person).[4]
However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier
stone blocks than those handled by the polyspastosindicate that the overall
lifting capability of the Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At
the temple of Jupiter atBaalbek, for instance, the architrave blocks weigh up
to 60 tons each, and one cornercornice block even over 100 tons, all of them
raised to a height of about 19 m.[3] In Rome, the capital block of Trajan's
Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of about 34 m
(see construction of Trajan's Column).[5]
It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two
measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First,
as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were
arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike asiege
tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure (Mechanica 3.5).
[6] Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground around the
tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels,
capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and,
moreover, by draught animals).[7] This use of multiple capstans is also
described by Ammianus Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of
the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus Maximus (ca. 357 AD). The maximum
lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of
lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave
blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an
allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan.[8] Lifting such heavy
weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination
between the work groups applying the force to the capstans.

Middle Ages

Medieval port crane for mounting masts and lifting heavy cargo in the
former Hanse town of Gdask[9]
During the High Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a
large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with
the demise of theWestern Roman Empire.[10] The earliest reference to a
treadwheel (magna rota) reappears in archival literature in France about
1225,[11] followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably
also French origin dating to 1240.[12] In navigation, the earliest uses of
harbor

cranes

are

documented

for Utrecht in

1244, Antwerp in

1263, Brugge in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291,[13] while in England the

treadwheel is not recorded before 1331.[14]

Double treadwheel crane in Pieter Bruegel's The Tower of Babel

Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by

cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were
harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane
played a pivotal role in the construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals.
Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that
newly

introduced

machines

like

treadwheels

or wheelbarrows did

not

completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders, hods and

handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on
medieval construction sites[15] and harbors.[13]
Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered
manually by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th
century also by windlasses shaped like a ship's wheel. To smooth out
irregularities

of

impulse

and

get

over

'dead-spots'

in

the

lifting

process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123.[16]

The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not
recorded,[11]although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be
viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture.
The reappearance of the treadwheel crane may have resulted from a
technological development
structurally

and

of

mechanically

the windlassfrom which

evolved.

Alternatively,

the treadwheel
the

medieval

treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart

drawn from Vitruvius' De architectura which was available in many monastic
libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the
observation of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early
treadwheels shared many structural similarities.[14]

Structure and placement

Single treadwheel crane working from top of the building

The medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central
shaft with a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side.
While the earlier 'compass-arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the
central shaft, the more advanced 'clasp-arm' type featured arms arranged as
chords to the wheel rim,[17] giving the possibility of using a thinner shaft
and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage.[18]
Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were
neither placed on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor
on the thin walls of the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting
the weight of both hoisting machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in
the initial stages of construction on the ground, often within the building.
When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof
connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof
beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the
vaults.[19]Thus, the crane 'grew' and 'wandered' with the building with the
result that today all extant construction cranes in England are found in
church towers above the vaulting and below the roof, where they remained
after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft.[20]
Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the
outside of walls with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs.[21]

Mechanics and operation

Tower crane at the inland harbour ofTrier from 1413.

In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists much like their
counterparts in Greece and Rome[22] were primarily capable of a vertical
lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as
well.[19] Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a
different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed
that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into
place,[19] or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could
deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall.
[22]Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel
workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement
laterally by a small rope attached to the load.[23] Slewing cranes which
allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside
work appeared as early as 1340.[24] While ashlar blocks were directly lifted
by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were
placed before in containers likepallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.[25]
It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to
forestall the load from running backward.[26] This curious absence is
explained by the high friction forceexercised by medieval tread-wheels which
normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control.[23]
Harbour usage
See also: List of historical harbour cranes

Beyond the modern warship stands a crane constructed in 1742, used for
mounting masts to large sailing vessels. Copenhagen, Denmark
According to the "present state of knowledge" unknown in antiquity,
stationary harbor cranes are considered a new development of the Middle
Ages.[13] The typical harbor crane was a pivoting structure equipped with
double treadwheels. These cranes were placed docksides for the loading and
unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting
methods like see-saws, winches and yards.[13]
Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying
geographical distribution: While gantry cranes which pivoted on a central
vertical axle were commonly found at the Flemish and Dutch coastside,
German sea and inland harbors typically featured tower cranes where the
windlass and treadwheels were situated in a solid tower with only jib arm and
roof rotating.[9] Interestingly, dockside cranes were not adopted in the
Mediterranean region and the highly developed

Italian ports

where

authorities continued to rely on the more labor-intensive method of

unloading goods by ramps beyond the Middle Ages.[27]
Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the
relatively slow progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured
double treadwheels to speed up loading. The two treadwheels whose
diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were attached to each side of the
axle and rotated together.[13] Their capacity was 23 tons which apparently
corresponded to the customary size of marine cargo.[13] Today, according to
one survey, fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are

still extant throughout Europe.[28] Some harbour cranes were specialised at

mounting

masts

to

newly

built

sailing

ships,

such

as

inGdask, Cologne and Bremen.[9] Beside these stationary cranes, floating

cranes which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into
use by the 14th century.[9]
Early modern age

Erection of the Vatican obelisk in 1586 by means of a lifting tower

A lifting tower similar to that of the ancient Romans was used to great effect
by theRenaissance architect Domenico Fontana in 1586 to relocate the 361 t
heavy Vatican obelisk in Rome.[29] From his report, it becomes obvious that
the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a
considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was
not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them
rupture.[30]
Cranes were also used domestically during this period. The chimney or
fireplace crane was used to swing pots and kettles over the fire and the
height was adjusted by atrammel.[31]

Industrial revolution

Sir William Armstrong, inventor of the hydraulic crane.

With the onset of the Industrial Revolution the first modern cranes were
installed at harbours for loading cargo. In 1838, the industrialist and
businessman William Armstrong designed a hydraulic water powered crane.
His design used a ram in a closed cylinder that was forced down by a
pressurized fluid entering the cylinder a valve regulated the amount of
fluid intake relative to the load on the crane.[32]
In 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant
reservoirs to the households of Newcastle. Armstrong was involved in this
scheme and he proposed to Newcastle Corporation that the excess water
pressure in the lower part of town could be used to power one of his
hydraulic cranes for the loading of coal onto barges at theQuayside. He
claimed that his invention would do the job faster and more cheaply than
conventional cranes. The Corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the
experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were
installed on the Quayside.[33]
The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to establish the Elswick
works atNewcastle, to produce his hydraulic machinery for cranes and
bridges in 1847. His company soon received orders for hydraulic cranes from
Edinburgh and Northern Railways and from Liverpool Docks, as well as for

hydraulic machinery for dock gates in Grimsby. The company expanded from
a workforce of 300 and an annual production of 45 cranes in 1850, to almost
4,000 workers producing over 100 cranes per year by the early 1860s.[33]
Armstrong spent the next few decades constantly improving his crane
design; - his most significant innovation was the hydraulic accumulator.
Where water pressure was not available on site for the use of hydraulic
cranes, Armstrong often built high water towers to provide a supply of water
at pressure. However, when supplying cranes for use at New Holland on
the Humber Estuary, he was unable to do this because the foundations
consisted of sand. He eventually produced the hydraulic accumulator, a castiron cylinder fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. The
plunger would slowly be raised, drawing in water, until the downward force of
the weight was sufficient to force the water below it into pipes at great
pressure. This invention allowed much larger quantities of water to be forced
through pipes at a constant pressure, thus increasing the crane's load
capacity considerably.[34]
One of his cranes, commissioned by theItalian Navy in 1883 and in use until
the mid-1950s, is still standing in Venice, where it is now in a state of
disrepair.[35]
Mechanical principles

Play media
Crane movements

Broken crane in Sermetal Shipyard, former Ishikawajima do Brasil - Rio de

Janeiro. The cause of the accident was a lack of maintenance and misuse of
the equipment.

Cranes can mount many different utensils depending on load (left). Cranes
can be remote-controlled from the ground, allowing much more precise
control, but without the view that a position atop the crane provides (right).

The stability of a mobile construction crane can be jeopardized when

outriggers sink into soft soil, which can result in the crane tipping over.

There are three major considerations in the design of cranes. First, the crane
must be able to lift the weight of the load; second, the crane must not
topple; third, the crane must not rupture.
Lifting capacity
Cranes

illustrate

the

use

of

one

or

moresimple

machines to

create mechanical advantage.

The lever. A balance crane contains a horizontal beam (the lever)

pivoted about a point called the fulcrum. The principle of the lever allows a
heavy load attached to the shorter end of the beam to be lifted by a
smaller force applied in the opposite direction to the longer end of the beam.
The ratio of the load's weight to the applied force is equal to the ratio of the
lengths of the longer arm and the shorter arm, and is called the mechanical
advantage.

The pulley. A jib crane contains a tilted strut (the jib) that supports a
fixed pulley block. Cables are wrapped multiple times round the fixed block
and round another block attached to the load. When the free end of the
cable is pulled by hand or by a winding machine, the pulley system delivers a
force to the load that is equal to the applied force multiplied by the number
of lengths of cable passing between the two blocks. This number is the
mechanical advantage.

The hydraulic cylinder. This can be used directly to lift the load or
indirectly to move the jib or beam that carries another lifting device.
Cranes, like all machines, obey the principle of conservation of energy. This
means that the energy delivered to the load cannot exceed the energy put
into the machine. For example, if a pulley system multiplies the applied force
by ten, then the load moves only one tenth as far as the applied force. Since
energy is proportional to force multiplied by distance, the output energy is
kept roughly equal to the input energy (in practice slightly less, because
some energy is lost to frictionand other inefficiencies).

The same principle can operate in reverse. In case of some problem, the
combination of heavy load and great height can accelerate small objects to
tremendous speed (seetrebuchet). Such projectiles can result in severe
damage to nearby structures and people. Cranes can also get in chain
reactions; the rupture of one crane may in turn take out nearby cranes.
Cranes need to be watched carefully.
Stability
For stability, the sum of all moments about the base of the crane must be
close to zero so that the crane does not overturn.[36] In practice, the
magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the "rated load" in the
US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip, thus
providing a safety margin.
Under US standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a
crawler crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a
mobile crane supported on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These
requirements, along with additional safety-related aspects of crane design,
are established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers [1] in the
volume ASME B30.5-2014 Mobile and Locomotive Cranes.
Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat
stricter because of the dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion.
Additionally, the stability of the vessel or platform must be considered.
For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment created by
the boom, jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress
within the base must be less than the yield stress of the material or the
crane will fail.

Types
Overhead crane

Overhead crane being used in typical machine shop. The hoist is operated
via a wired pushbutton station to move system and the load in any direction
Main article: Overhead crane
An overhead crane, also known as a bridge crane, is a type of crane where
the hook-and-line mechanism runs along a horizontal beam that itself runs
along two widely separated rails. Often it is in a long factory building and
runs along rails along the building's two long walls. It is similar to a gantry
crane. Overhead cranes typically consist of either a single beam or a double
beam construction. These can be built using typical steel beams or a more
complex box girder type. Pictured on the right is a single bridge box girder
crane with the hoist and system operated with a control pendant. Double
girder bridge are more typical when needing heavier capacity systems from
10 tons and above. The advantage of the box girder type configuration
results in a system that has a lower deadweight yet a stronger overall
system integrity. Also included would be a hoist to lift the items, the bridge,
which spans the area covered by the crane, and a trolley to move along the
bridge.
The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry. At every step
of the manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished
product, steel is handled by an overhead crane. Raw materials are poured

into a furnace by crane, hot steel is stored for cooling by an overhead crane,
the finished coils are lifted and loaded ontotrucks and trains by overhead
crane, and thefabricator or stamper uses an overhead crane to handle the
steel in his factory. Theautomobile industry uses overhead cranes for
handling of raw materials. Smallerworkstation cranes handle lighter loads in
a work-area, such as CNC mill or saw.
Almost all paper mills use bridge cranes for regular maintenance requiring
removal of heavy press rolls and other equipment. The bridge cranes are
used in the initial construction of paper machines because they facilitate
installation of the heavy cast iron paper drying drums and other massive
equipment, some weighing as much as 70 tons.
In many instances the cost of a bridge crane can be largely offset with
savings from not renting mobile cranes in the construction of a facility that
uses a lot of heavy process equipment.
Mobile
Main article: Mobile crane
The most basic type of mobile crane consists of a truss or telescopic boom
mounted on a mobile platform be it on road, rail or water. Common
terminology is conventional and hydraulic cranes respectively.
Truck-mounted crane

Developed truck-mounted crane at work

Truck-mounted crane
A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for this type of
crane. This crane has two parts: the carrier, often referred to as the Lower,
and the lifting component which includes the boom, referred to as the Upper.
These are mated together through a turntable, allowing the upper to swing
from side to side. These modern hydraulic truck cranes are usually singleengine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the
crane. The upper is usually powered via hydraulics run through the turntable
from the pump mounted on the lower. In older model designs of hydraulic
truck cranes, there were two engines. One in the lower pulled the crane
down the road and ran a hydraulic pump for the outriggers and jacks. The
one in the upper ran the upper through a hydraulic pump of its own. Many
older operators favor the two-engine system due to leaking seals in the
turntable of aging newer design cranes.

A mobile crane folds itself up at Erlangen, Germany.

Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need
for special equipment to transport the crane unless weight or other size
constrictions are in place such as local laws. If this is the case, most larger
cranes are equipped with either special trailers to help spread the load over

more axles or are able to disassemble to meet requirements. An example is

counterweights. Often a crane will be followed by another truck hauling the
counterweights that are removed for travel. In addition some cranes are able
to remove the entire upper. However, this is usually only an issue in a large
crane and mostly done with a conventional crane such as a Link-Belt HC-238.
When working on the job site, outriggers are extended horizontally from the
chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while stationary
and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles
per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the
load sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then
lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also
have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the
outriggers. Loads suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of
the weight of the crane acts as a counterweight. Factory-calculated charts
(or electronic safeguards) are used by crane operators to determine the
maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-rubber)
loads and travelling speeds.
Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5 short tons (12.9 long
tons; 13.2 t) to about 1,300 short tons (1,161 long tons; 1,179 t). Although
most only rotate about 180 degrees, the more expensive truck mounted
cranes can turn a full 360 degrees.
Sidelifter crane
Sidelift crane
A sidelifter crane is a road-going truck orsemi-trailer, able to hoist and
transport ISO standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel cranelike hoists, which can lift a container from the ground or from a railway
vehicle.

Rough terrain crane

Rough terrain crane

A crane mounted on an undercarriage with four rubber tires that is designed
for

pick-and-carry

operations

and

for

off-road

and

"rough

terrain"

applications. Outriggers are used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting.
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine
powering the undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. In a
rough terrain crane, the engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage
rather than in the upper, as with crawler crane. Most have 4 wheel drive and
4 wheel steering which allows them to traverse tighter and slicker terrain
than a standard truck crane with less site prep. In addition, there are rough
terrain cranes with the operating cab mounted on the lower as opposed to
the P&H in the above image.
All terrain crane

All terrain crane

A mobile crane with the necessary equipment to travel at speed on public
roads, and on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering.
ATs

combine

the

roadability

of

Truck-mounted

Cranes

and

the

manoeuvrability of Rough Terrain Cranes.

ATs

have

2-9

axles

and

are

designed

for

1,200 tonnes (1,323 short tons; 1,181 long tons).[37]

lifting

loads

up

to

Pick and carry crane

A Pick and Carry Crane is similar to a mobile crane in that is designed to
travel on public roads, however Pick and Carry cranes have no stabiliser legs
or outriggers and are designed to lift the load and carry it to its destination,
within a small radius, then be able to drive to the next job. Pick and Carry
cranes are popular in Australia where large distances are encountered
between job sites. One popular manufacturer in Australia was Franna, who
have since been bought by Terex, and now all pick and carry cranes are
commonly referred to as "Frannas" even though they may be made by other
manufacturers. Nearly every medium and large sized crane company in
Australia has at least one and many companies have fleets of these cranes.
The capacity range is usually ten to twenty tonnes maximum lift, although
this is much less at the tip of the boom. Pick and Carry cranes have displaced
the work usually completed by smaller truck cranes as the set up time is
much quicker. Many steel fabrication yards also use pick and carry cranes as
they can "walk" with fabricated steel sections and place these where
required with relative ease.
Carry deck crane
A carry deck crane is a small 4 wheel crane with a 360 degree rotating boom
placed right in the centre and an operators cab located at one end under this
boom. The rear section houses the engine and the area above the wheels is
a flat deck. Very much an American invention the Carry deck can hoist a load
in a confined space and then load it on the deck space around the cab or
engine and subsequently move to another site. The Carry Deck principle is
the American version of the pick and carry crane and both allow the load to
be moved by the crane over short distances.
Telescopic handler crane
Telescopic Handlers are like forklift trucks that have a telescoping extendable
boom like a crane. Early telescopic handlers only lifted in one direction and

did not rotate,[38]however, several of the manufacturers have designed

telescopic handlers that rotate 360 degrees through a turntable and these
machines look almost identical to the Rough Terrain Crane. These new 360
degree telescopic handler/crane models have outriggers or stabiliser legs
that must be lowered before lifting, however their design has been simplified
so that they can be more quickly deployed. These machines are often used
to handle pallets of bricks and install frame trusses on many new building
sites and they have eroded much of the work for small telescopic truck
cranes. Many of the worlds Armed forces have purchased telescopic handlers
and some of these are the much more expensive fully rotating types. Their
off road capability and their on site versatility to unload pallets using forks,
or lift like a crane makes them a valuable piece of machinery.
Crawler crane

Crawler crane

A crawler is a crane mounted on an undercarriage with a set of Caterpillar

tracks(also called crawlers) that provide stability and mobility. Crawler cranes
range in lifting capacity from about 40 to 3,500 short tons (35.7 to 3,125.0
long tons; 36.3 to 3,175.1 t).

Crawler cranes have both advantages and disadvantages depending on their

use. Their main advantage is that they can move around on site and perform
each lift with little set-up, since the crane is stable on its tracks with no
outriggers. Caterpillar tracks are also far better at traversing soft ground
without sinking in, as they spread the weight out over a great area. Thus a

crawler crane can move about an unprepared job site with less risk of getting
stuck in soft ground. In addition, a crawler crane is capable of traveling with
a load. The main disadvantage is that they are very heavy, and cannot easily
be moved from one job site to another without significant expense. Typically
a large crawler must be disassembled and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships
to its next location.
Harbour crane

Container harbour crane

Dry bulk or container cranes usually in the bay areas or inland water ways.

Mobile container crane

Railroad crane

Rail crane
For more details on this topic, see Crane (railroad).
A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads. The simplest form is
a crane mounted on a flatcar. More capable devices are purpose-built.
Different types of crane are used for maintenance work, recovery operations
and freight loading in goods yards and scrap handling facilities.

Floating crane

Floating crane
Floating cranes are used mainly in bridgebuilding and port construction, but
they are also used for occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy
or awkward loads on and off ships. Some floating cranes are mounted
on pontoons, others are specialized crane barges with a lifting capacity
exceeding 10,000 short tons (8,929long tons; 9,072 t) and have been used to
transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to
salvage sunken ships.
Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving
cranes can be found on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with a capacity of
7,100 tonnes (7,826short tons; 6,988 long tons) each. For fifty years, the
largest such crane was "Herman the German" at the Long Beach Naval
Shipyard, one of three constructed by Hitler's Germany and captured in the
war. The crane was sold to the Panama Canal in 1996 where it is now known
as the "Titan."[39]
Aerial crane

Aerial crane

Aerial crane or 'Sky cranes' usually arehelicopters designed to lift large loads.
Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by
conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift
units/loads onto shopping centers and highrises. They can lift anything within
their lifting capacity, (cars, boats, swimming pools, etc.). They also perform
disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-fires they
are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires.
Some aerial cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft,
such asairships.
Fixed
Exchanging mobility for the ability to carry greater loads and reach greater
heights due to increased stability, these types of cranes are characterised by
the fact that their main structure does not move during the period of use.
However, many can still be assembled and disassembled. The structure
basically are fixed in one place.
Tower crane

Tower crane atop Mont Blanc

Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same
basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached

to the sides of structures), tower cranes often give the best combination of
height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings.
The base is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its height.
Further the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows
the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts
which are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the
operator's cab.

Tower crane cabin

The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The
counter-jib carries a counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib
suspends the load to and from the center of the crane. The crane operator
either sits in a cab at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio
remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator's cab is most
usually located at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be
mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting hook is operated
by the crane operator using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables
through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the long horizontal arm
to lift the load which also contains its motor.

Play media
A tower crane rotates on its axis before lowering the lifting hook.

In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in
conjunction with a signaller (known as a 'dogger', 'rigger' or 'swamper'). They
are most often in radio contact, and always use hand signals. The rigger or
dogger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is responsible for the
safety of the rigging and loads.
Components
Tower cranes are used extensively in construction and other industry to hoist
and move materials. There are many types of tower cranes. Although they
are different in type, the main parts are the same, as follows:

Mast: the main supporting tower of the crane. It is made of steel

trussed sections that are connected together during installation.

Slewing unit: the slewing unit sits at the top of the mast. This is the
engine that enables the crane to rotate.

Operating cabin: the operating cabin sits just above the slewing unit.
It contains the operating controls.

Jib: the jib, or operating arm, extends horizontally from the crane. A
"luffing" jib is able to move up and down; a fixed jib has a rolling trolley that
runs along the underside to move goods horizontally.

Hook: the hook (or hooks) is used to connect the material to the crane.
It hangs at the end of thick steel cables that run along the jib to the motor.

Weights: Large concrete counterweights are mounted toward the rear

of the mast, to compensate for the weight of the goods lifted.[40]

This crane's main beam was broken due to an overload

A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of

greater reach (also see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower
cranes that have risen while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller
crane (or derrick) will often be lifted to the roof of the completed tower to
dismantle the tower crane afterwards, which may be more difficult than the
installation.[41] Tower Cranes can often be Pedestrian Operated by a remote
control, removing the need for a cab for the Crane Operator to work from.
Self-Erecting Tower Cranes

Four self-erecting tower cranes mounted on the roof of 1st observatory

(height 375 m) of Tokyo Skytree (Tower tip and two crane operator as of 497
m)
Generally a type of pedestrian operated tower crane, these cranes, also
called self-assembling, jack-up, or "kangaroo" cranes, lift themselves from
the ground or lift an upper, telescoping section using jacks, allowing the next
section of the tower to be inserted at ground level or lifted into place by the
partially erected crane itself. They can thus be assembled without outside
help, and can grow together with the building or structure they are erecting.

Self-erecting crane
For a video of a crane getting taller, see here:[42]
For another animation of such a crane in use see this video:[43] (Here, the
crane is used to erect a scaffold which in turn contains a gantry to lift
sections of a bridge spire.)
Telescopic crane

Telescopic crane

A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one
inside the other. A hydraulic or other powered mechanism extends or retracts
the tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the boom. These types
of booms are often used for short term construction projects, rescue jobs,
lifting boats in and out of the water, etc. The relative compactness of
telescopic booms make them adaptable for many mobile applications.
Though not all telescopic cranes are mobile cranes, many of them are truckmounted.
A telescopic tower crane has a telescopic mast and often a superstructure
(jib) on top so that it functions as a tower crane. Some telescopic tower
cranes also have a telescopic jib.
Hammerhead crane

Hammerhead crane
The "hammerhead", or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib crane consisting
of

steel-braced

tower

on

which

revolves

large,

horizontal,

double cantilever; the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting
trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the
machinery and counterbalancing weight. In addition to the motions of lifting
and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which the
lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib
without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load
is a marked feature of later crane design. These cranes are generally
constructed in large sizes and can weigh up to 350 tons.

The design of hammerkran evolved first in Germany around the turn of the
19th century and was adopted and developed for use inBritish shipyards to
support the battleship construction program from 1904 to 1914. The ability
of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy weights was useful for installing large
pieces of battleships such as armour plate and gunbarrels. Giant cantilever
cranes were also installed in naval shipyards in Japan and in the United
States. The British government also installed a giant cantilever crane at
theSingapore Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed
at Garden Island Naval Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided
repair support for the battle fleet operating far from Great Britain.
In the British Empire, the engineering firm Sir William Arrol & Co Ltd was the
principal manufacturer of giant cantilever cranes; the company built a total
of fourteen. Among the sixty built in the world, few remain; seven in England
and Scotland of about fifteen worldwide.[44]
The Titan Clydebank is one of the 4 Scottish cranes on the Clydebank and
preserved as a tourist attraction.
Level luffing crane

Level luffing crane

Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook also move up
and down as the jib moves (or luffs). A level luffing crane is a crane of this
common design, but with an extra mechanism to keep the hook level when
luffing.
Gantry crane

Gantry crane
For more details on this topic, see Container crane.
A gantry crane has a hoist in a fixed machinery house or on a trolley that
runs horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or
two beams (twin-girder). The crane frame is supported on a gantry system
with equalized beams and wheels that run on the gantry rail, usually
perpendicular to the trolley travel direction. These cranes come in all sizes,
and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the extremely large
examples used in shipyards or industrial installations. A special version is
the container crane (or "Portainer" crane, named by the first manufacturer),
designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.
Most container cranes are of this type.
Deck crane

Deck crane

Located on the ships and boats, these are used for cargo operations or boat
unloading and retrieval where no shore unloading facilities are available.
Most are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic.
Jib crane

Jib crane
A jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member (jib or boom),
supporting a moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib
cranes are used in industrial premises and on military vehicles. The jib may
swing through an arc, to give additional lateral movement, or be fixed.
Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists, were fitted on the top floor of
warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors.
Bulk-handling crane

Bulk-handling crane

Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to carry a shell grab or
bucket, rather than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes,
such as coal, minerals, scrap metal etc.
Loader crane

Loader crane using a fly jib extension

A loader crane (also called a knuckle-boom crane or articulating crane) is a
hydraulically powered articulated arm fitted to a truck ortrailer, and is used
for loading/unloading the vehicle. The numerous jointed sections can be
folded into a small space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the
sections may be telescopic. Often the crane will have a degree of automation
and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator's instruction.
Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to
view his load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or
radio-linked control system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic
control levers.
In the UK and Canada, this type of crane is often known colloquially as a
"Hiab", partly because this manufacturer invented the loader crane and was
first into the UK market, and partly because the distinctive name was
displayed prominently on the boom arm.[45]
A rolloader crane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This
chassis can ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it
can be a light crane, so the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.

Stacker crane
Stacker crane
A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in automated (computer
controlled)warehouses (known

as

an automated

storage

and

retrieval

system (AS/RS)). The crane moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse.

The fork can be raised or lowered to any of the levels of a storage rack and
can be extended into the rack to store and retrieve product. The product can
in some cases be as large as an automobile. Stacker cranes are often used in
the large freezer warehouses of frozen food manufacturers. This automation
avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below freezing temperatures every
day.
Similar machines

Shooting a film from crane

The generally accepted definition of a crane is a machine for lifting and
moving heavy objects by means of ropes or cables suspended from a
movable arm. As such, a lifting machine that does not use cables, or else
provides only vertical and not horizontal movement, cannot strictly be called
a 'crane'.
Types of crane-like lifting machine include:

Block and tackle

Capstan (nautical)

Hoist (device)

Winch

Windlass

Cherry picker
More technically advanced types of such lifting machines are often known as
'cranes', regardless of the official definition of the term
How Important Is The Usage Of Cranes In Construction?
Crane usually uses pulley and cable system to create a mechanical
advantage in order to lift big loads. In fact, cranes are machines that play a
vital role in the construction industry because they have enough power to
move materials of various weights upward, downward and horizontally. The
newer cranes use a hydraulic system, internal combustion engine and
electric motor in order to provide a powerful capability. Cranes are also a
central component of many construction operations and must be operated
by a competent person. The operator of a crane must be very accurate, as
he controls very heavy items while a crew on the ground assists. Even the
smallest mistake can cause serious damage or even a loss of life.

The usage of cranes in construction is huge because they make working with
heavy machinery and construction materials easy. Can you imagine manual
lifting, loading and unloading? That would be very time-consuming and
difficult. Thus, many industries, especially construction, rely on powerful and
reliable cranes. The first construction crane was invented in ancient Greece
hundreds of years ago. Today, modern cranes are huge and capable of
loading tons of materials and lifting them hundreds of meters in height. Also,
most cranes have closed cabins which allows working regardless of the
weather condition, allowing construction companies to complete projects by
projected deadline.
Each crane has specific characteristics and specific use, but they are very
useful and important in construction industry. Whether in building bridges,
roads or other construction structure, there is a specific crane that can
complete various construction tasks. For example, the bridge cranes can lift
heavy loads and find their use in the initial construction of paper machines
and for regular maintenance of paper mills. The construction industry would

not make it without the service of cranes as they are the only machines
known to lift very heavy weights on very high highs.

How are Tower Cranes Built?

A Tower Crane Mast Section is set into a foundation with steel pedestals. The
Mast Section is is plumbed to a degree of 1:500 (ie It must not deviate more
than 1 inch from plumb for every 500 inches vertical) . Concrete is poured
and then the crane is ready to be erected after the curing of the concrete.

A 40 Tower crane base is being set. 16 bolts are installed. The bolts have
nuts that are 2 5/16 and are torqued with a hydraulic wrench to as much as
4300 ft lbs. By comparison, the lug nuts on most cars torque to 115 ft lbs.

The process continues as mast sections are added until the needed height is
achieved. The turntable (operator cabin included) is added in the same
manner and is often the heaviest piece of the crane. In some applications
this section is split to reduce weight on the mobile crane. This may add two
hours to the crane erection process, so it is avoided when possible.
After the Turntable is installed the Tower Top is added and four large pins are
added as the connecting members.

While the bolts on the Mast Section bolts are tightened, the jibs for the crane
are assembled.

The Counter Jib is erected as one piece. It is connected by large gates or pins
at the turntable. After this connection is made it is elevated by the mobile
crane to around 15 degrees above horizontal. The pendants are connected
by pins with cotter pins. Then the Counter Jib is lowered to horizontal.
Sometimes the Machine Package with Electrical Panel and Hoist is with the
Counter Jib and other times its installed separately. After this, any needed
Erection Ballast is installed in the Counter Jib.

The Working Jib of the crane is installed at the turntable and elevated with
the Mobile Crane. After it is elevated the Tower Crane hoist is connected to
the pendant attached to the jib and pulled up to the Tower Top and
connected with a pin. Then the Jib is lowered back to horizontal. The trolley is
now installed if it wasnt on the ground.

The installation of the Outer Section of the Jib is installed with the installation
of three pins. Finally the Ballast (up to 60,000 lbs) is installed on the Counter
Jib and the structural erection of the tower crane is complete. In most cases
this end of the first day.
To make the crane operational, the ropes must be installed on the crane. The
hook is moved along the Working Jib with a Trolley. Ropes are attached to the
trolley and a winch. This work can take between an hour and three
depending on the size of the crane and its design. The Load Line that hoists
the rope is installed after the trolley lines. It runs from the back of the crane,
through the tower top and out under the jib to the outer tip of the crane and
is pinned in place either through a thimble or through a wedge and socket.
The final process to make the crane operational is to set the motion limits for
the hoist and trolley, followed by performing a load test to 100% of the
cranes capacity. You now have a functional Tower Crane

6. Construction Safety and Health Committee. The following shall

apply:

6.1 Composition

a. Project Manger or his representative as chairperson ex-officio

b. General Construction Safety and Health Officer
c. Construction Safety and Health Officers
d. Safety representatives (SAFETY OFFICER) from each subcontractor.
If DOLEs minimum requirements based on the number of workers of
the contractor/sub-contractor requires only a part time safety officer,
the safety officer need not be an accredited safety practitioner or
consultant.

e. Doctors, nurses and other health personnel pursuant to the requirements

stated in Rule 1042 of the OSHS
f. Workers representatives
If there are no contractors/sub-contractors or the constructor is a
subcontractor, the safety and health committee shall be in accordance
with the requirements of Rule 1040 of the Occupational Safety and Health
Standards.
6.2 Duties and responsibilities
a. The Project Manager or his representative shall act as the Chairperson of
the committee.
b. The committee shall conduct safety meetings at least once a month.

c. The persons constituting the Safety and Health Committee shall, as far as
practicable, be at the construction site whenever construction work is being
undertaken.
d. The committee shall continually plan and develop accident prevention
programs.
e. The committee shall review reports of inspection, accident investigation
and monitor implementation of the safety program.
f. The committee shall provide necessary assistance to government
authorities authorized to conduct inspection in the proper conduct of their
activities
g. The committee shall initiate and supervise safety trainings for its
employees
h. The committee shall conduct safety inspection at least once a month, and
shall conduct investigation of work accidents and shall submit a regular
report to DOLE.
i. The committee shall initiate and supervise the conduct of daily brief safety
meetings or toolbox meetings.
j. The committee shall prepare and submit to DOLE, reports on said
committee meetings.
k. The committee shall develop a disaster contingency plan and organize
such
emergency service units as may be necessary to handle disaster situations.
7. Construction Safety and Health Reports. The following shall apply:

7. 1 The Construction Safety and Health Report shall include:

a. Monthly summary of all safety and health committee meetings

b. Summary of all accident investigations /reports
c. Corrective/Preventive measures/action for each hazard

d. Periodic hazards assessment with corresponding remedial measures for

new hazards
e. Safety promotions and trainings conducted/attended
7.2 Submission of Reports. The following shall apply:

a. All general constructors shall be required to submit a monthly construction

safety and health report to the BWC copy furnished the DOLE Regional
Office concerned.
b. In case of any dangerous occurrence or major accident resulting in death
or
permanent total disability, the concerned employer shall notify the
appropriate DOLE Regional Office within twenty-four (24) hours from
occurrence.
c. After the conduct of investigation by the concerned construction safety
and
health officer, the employer shall report all disabling injuries to the DOLE
Regional Office on or before the 20th of the month following the date of
occurrence of accident using the DOLE/BWC/HSD-IP-6 form.

8. Cost of Construction Safety and Health Program. The following shall

apply:

8.1 The total cost of implementing a Construction Safety and Health Program
shall
be mandatory and shall be made an integral part of the projects
construction
cost as a separate pay item, duly quantified and reflected in the Projects
Tender
Documents and likewise reflected in the Projects Construction Contract
Documents.

8.2 The cost of the following PPEs: helmet, eye goggles, safety shoes,
working
gloves, rain coats, dust mask, ear muffs, rubber boots, and other similar
PPEs
shall be indicated/enumerated per cost, per worker, foreman, leadman,
jackhammer operator, carpenter, electrician, mason, steelman, painter,
mechanic, welder, plumber, heavy equipment operator, physician/inspector,
and other such
personnel.

8.3 The PPEs shall be sufficient in number for all workers particularly where
simultaneous construction activities/operations in different areas are being
undertaken.

8.4 The cost of the minimum required inventory of medicines, supplies and
equipment as indicated in Table 47 of the OHS Standards shall be included.

8.5 The safety personnel manpower cost salaries/wages, benefits shall be

included.

8.6 Cost of safety promotions/activities, training conducted and salaries of

safety and
health personnel, medical personnel employed or engaged by constructor.

9. Safety and Health Information. The following shall apply:

9.1 Workers shall be adequately and suitably:

a. Informed of potential safety and health hazards to which they may be

exposed at their workplace.

b. Instructed and trained on the measures available for the prevention,

control
and protection against those hazards.

9.2 Every worker shall receive instruction and training regarding general
safety
and health common to construction sites which shall include, but not limited
to
the following:

a. The basic rights and duties of the workers at the construction site.
b. The means of access and egress, both during normal work and
in emergency situations.
c. The measures for good housekeeping.
d. The location and proper use of welfare and first-aid facilities.
e. The proper care and use of the items or personal protective equipments
and protective clothing provided the workers.
f. The general measures for personal hygiene and health protection.
g. The fire precautions to be taken.
h. The action to be taken in case of any emergency.
I. The requirements of relevant health and safety rules and regulations.

9.3 The instruction, training and information materials provided shall be

given in
a language or dialect understood by the worker.

Written, oral, visual and participative approaches shall be used to ensure

that the worker has understood and assimilated the information.
9.4 Each supervisor or any person e.g. foreman, lead man, gangboss, and
other

similar personnel shall conduct daily tool box or similar meetings prior to the
start of the operations for the day to discuss with the workers and to
anticipate
safety and health problems related.

9.5 No person shall be deployed in a construction site unless he has

undergone a
safety and health awareness seminar conducted by safety professionals or
accredited organizations or other institutions recognized by DOLE.

9.6 Specialized instruction and training shall be provided to the following:

a. Drivers and operators of lifting appliances, transport, earth-moving and

materials-handling equipment and machinery; or any equipment of
specialized or dangerous nature.
b. Workers engaged in the erection or dismantling of scaffolds.
c. Workers engaged in excavations at least one (1) meter deep or deep
enough to cause danger, shafts, earthworks, underground works or
tunnels.
d. Workers handling explosives or engaged in blasting operations.
e. Workers engaged in pile-driving.
f. Workers in compressed air cofferdams and caissons.
g. Workers engaged in the erection of prefabricated parts of steel structural
frames and tall chimneys, and in concrete work, form work and other
such type of work.
h. Workers handling hazardous substances and materials.
i. Workers as signalers and riggers.
j. Other types of workers as may be categorized by TESDA