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which is identical to the previous result.

The neat thing about the complex number representation is that it lets us make a
simple generalization to Ohms Law to allow for capacitors. Rather than talking
about the resistance of a capacitor, we talk about its impedance, which we will
denote with the letter Z, rather than R. This will be a complex number which in one
fell swoop, relates the voltage and the current in terms of amplitude and phase at a
given frequency.
Specifically:
j ( t + )

V
Ae
1
Z = ---- = --------------------------------- = ----------j ( t + )
I
jC
AjCe
The term, j comes up so often, that we often abbreviate it with the symbol s. (Why
s? If you study linear systems further, you will see how this is all intimately related
to Laplace transforms.) So the impedance of a capacitor is 1/Cs.
Is this really useful? Absolutely! Consider the circuit shown below:
Vout

R
Acos(t+)

We can solve this circuit just as if the capacitor were a resistor of value Z. This is
then quickly recognized as a voltage divider, giving:
1
-----Z
Cs
1
V out = V in ------------- = V in ----------------- = V in -------------------R+Z
1
1 + RCs
R + -----Cs
Next, we wish to find the real part:
1
1
j ( t + )
-----------------------V out = Re V in -------------------- = Re Ae
1 + RCs
1 + RCj

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How Do I Generalize Ohms Law?

To remove the imaginary part from denominator, we multiply top and bottom by the
conjugate.
1 RCj
j ( t + )
j ( t + ) 1 RCj
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = Re Ae
V out = Re Ae
2 2 2
( 1 RCj ) ( 1 + RCj )
1+R C
Finishing this up yields:
1 RCj
V out = Re A ( cos ( t + ) + j sin ( t + ) ) ---------------------------2 2 2
1+R C

cos ( t + ) + RC sin ( t + )
V out = A ---------------------------------------------------------------------------2 2 2
1+R C
This is a complex looking expression, but it is possible to get a reasonable understanding out of it by looking at the limits. For very low frequencies, this reduces to:
V out = A cos ( t + )
This agrees with our earlier statement that the cap looks like an open to low frequencies, making the output follow the input.
At very high frequencies, the expression becomes:
sin ( t + )
V out = A ---------------------------RC
This says that at high frequencies, Vout is now 90 out of phase with the input, and
dropping rapidly in magnitude with increasing frequency. If the input frequency is
high enough, the output will be essentially zero, agreeing with our observation that
caps at very high frequencies look like shorts. Circuits like this, which pass low frequencies but attenuate high frequencies are called low-pass filters.
At what frequency does this filter switch from passing signals to not passing them?
Thats not really a fair question. In fact, it does not suddenly switch - it is a gradual
transition. However, when the magnitudes of the real and imaginary parts of the
denominator are equal, we are least able to make our approximations. This occurs
at = 1/RC. At this frequency, the sine and cosine parts are equal, which gives a
phase shift of 45. If you work through the math, youll find that the amplitude is
down by a factor of 1/2.

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We can now plot a rough graph of the frequency response of this circuit - i.e. its
gain and phase as a function of frequency. Typically, this is plotted on log-log
paper, and is called a Bode plot. The sketch appears below.
gain
-3dB

1/RC

frequency
frequency

-45
phase
(degrees)
-90

Note that gain is specified in decibels, which is defined by the equation:

V out
dB = 20 log --------V in
which is really a unitless quantity.
Lets consider another example. The circuit shown below has the resistor and
capacitor flipped from before.
Vout
C
Vin

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A Pragmatic Introduction to the Art of Electrical Engineering