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L7 Strengthening 131
L7 Strengthening 131
Sub-topics
STRENGTHENED MATERIALS
Many engineering materials can be strengthened
through various hardening mechanisms however,
an increase in strength almost always results
in a decrease in ductility
oSolid-solution strengthening;
oStrain (work) hardening;
oGrain size reduction
GRAIN BOUNDARIES
Volume defect -> disordered solid
Internal surface -> higher energy regions
GB
GB
engineering
Grain is a virtual single crystal
Polycrystalline materials consist
of perfect crystals and boundaries
DISLOCATIONS
AND GRAIN
BOUNDARIES
Dislocations are positioned
closer together and
dislocations movement in
the net is hindered by
interaction between them.
Together with the reduced
elastic strain energy, this
fact results in dislocations
that are relatively immobile
and the imposed stress
necessary to deform a
material increases with
decrease in grain size.
High-angle
grain
boundaries
Low-angle
grain
boundaries
7
HALL-PETCH EQUATION
Why is a fine-grained material is harder and stronger than coarse grained?
Hall-Petch constants
Material
Copper
25
0.11
Titanium
80
0.40
Mild steel
70
0.74
Ni3Al
300
1.70
Strengthening is
limited by the
size of dislocations.
Once the grain size
reaches about 10 nm,
grain boundaries start
to slide.
9
D = 10 nm
MULTIPLICATION OF DISLOCATIONS
Frank & Read proposed that dislocations
could be generated from existing
dislocations
The dislocation line AB bulges out
(A and B are anchored by impurities)
and produces slip as the shear
stress is applied.
The maximum for
semicircle dislocation
bulge
Beyond this point, the dislocation loop
continues to expand till parts m and n
meet and annihilate each other to form a
large loop and a new dislocation.
Note: Repeating of this process producing a dislocation
loop, which produces slip of one Burgers vector along
the slip plane
12
bf
Line tension:
T Eb2
14
Eb
Pinning force
on a moving 16
dislocation
17
18
19
20
FORMING OPERATIONS
FORGING
Forging denotes a family of metalworking
processes in which deformation of workpiece is
carried out by compressive forces applied
through a set dies.
23
ROLLING
Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of
passing a piece of metal between two rolls; a reduction in thickness
results from compressive stresses exerted by the rolls.
Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with
high quality surface finish.
Circular shapes as well as I-beams and railroad rails are fabricated using24
grooved rolls.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6iODHla6qY&feature=related
Four-high mill
Cluster mill
Two-high mill
25
DRAWING
Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a
tapered bore by means of a tensile force that is applied on the
exit side.
27
The increase in
yield strength
The increase in
tensile strength
The decrease in
ductility
28
EXTRUSION PROCESSES
A process of squeezing material through an
opening to produce a long length with
a uniform cross-section
(a) direct
extrusion,
(b) indirect
extrusion,
(c) hydrostatic
extrusion,
(d) pierce and
extrude
30
(From Industrial Materials I, Colling et al.).
METAL EXTRUSION
Working metal is considerably
more complex than squeezing
toothpaste, but the principles
are the same.
31
SHEET METALWORKING
drawing
32
shearing
33
34
MAKING STRONGER
As the percent of Cold
Working increases:
35