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Design of Artificial Knee Joint
Design of Artificial Knee Joint
In this project, our aim is to design and analyze a mechanism to support the human knee
during the weight acceptance part of the gait cycle by taking half of the maximum load and
provide free motion for the rest of the cycle. The basic functioning of the knee was studied and
the anatomy and mechanism of walking were analysed for this purpose.
Then based on the data gathered, a system based on a torsion spring controlled by a
Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism was proposed. The Whitworth mechanism was driven by a
motor which was controlled by a microcontroller-sensor system. The specifications of the motor
were based on the torque requirement results of the dynamic analysis in Solidworks 2012 and the
speed calculations were made analytically based on the human walking pattern.
Based on the gait cycle, the velocity ratio was decided and the link lengths were calculated
for the mechanism analytically. The entire system was made into Solidworks 2012 and the
dynamic analysis of the system were done including the force analysis, Torque requirements on
the motor and the variation of these quantities with respect to the time of operation of the system.
Necessary analyses were also done in the software itself to ensure that the Whitworth mechanism
can withstand the maximum load of 30 N.m with a good fatigue life during its period of
operation.
Table Of Contents
Sr.
No.
-
Chapter Name
Abstract
Page
No.
1
Nomenclature
Introduction
1.1 Osteoarthritis
6
7
Literature Review
2.1 Walking Mechanism
2.1.1 Gait Phases
2.1.2 Anatomical terms of motion
2.1.2.1 Flexion and extension
2.1.2.2 Abduction and Adduction
2.1.2.3 Elevation and depression
2.1.2.4 Rotation
2.2 Analysis of Knee Joint
2.2.1 Degrees of Freedom
2.2.2 Quasi-Stiffness of Knee
2.2.3 Load constraints on the knee
2.3 Orthotics
2.3.1 Types of Exoskeletons
Present Investigation
3.1 Moment Angle behavior of Knee
3.2 Design Objectives
3.3 Description of the total system
3.3.1 Control Module
3.3.2 Quick Return Mechanism
3.3.3 Double Torsion Spring
3.3.4 Sensors
3.3.5 Motor Specifications
3.3.6 Microcontroller Specifications
3.3.7 Analysis of the Mechanism
Results & Discussions
8
8
8
9
9
10
11
11
11
13
13
15
16
17
19
19
20
21
23
23
28
31
33
34
35
39
40
41
References
42
List of Figures
Fig. No.
Name Of Figure
Page
No.
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
6
8
10
11
13
13
17
18
19
19
22
22-24
25
26
27
27
28
29
31
32
32
33
35
36
36
37
37
38
38
List of Tables
Sr. No
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Name of table
Double Torsion Spring Catalogue
Static Material Properties
Reaction Forces
Material properties for fatigue
Page
No.
30
35
36
36
Nomenclature
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
c = Moment when the leg is at the end of weight acceptance phase (N.m)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The knee is a hinge-like joint, and is a place where bones come together in the body to
facilitate movement and bear weight.
Fig 1.1: The anatomy of knee showing the joints connecting the two major
bones Femur and tibia and the two smaller bones: Patella and Fibula [22]
The knee joint connects the upper and lower portions of the leg and allows it to bend and
straighten - and even rotate inward and outward a little bit. It is made up of four bones, the
largest being the femur (thigh bone) and the tibia (large shin bone), which go head-to-head
within the knee joint and bear the brunt of the impact of movement.
The smaller two are the fibula (smaller shin bone), which sits to the side of and slightly under
the tibia, and the patella (knee cap), which acts like a shield to protect the knee joint from
trauma. Several muscles, tendons and ligaments connect these four bones, make movement
possible, and help keep the knee joint aligned and stable.
1.1 Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most common forms of arthritis. It is a chronic condition in
which the material that cushions the joints, called cartilage, breaks down. This causes the bones
to rub against each other, causing stiffness, pain and loss of joint movement. The cause is not
fully understood.
More than 20 million people in the US suffer from knee osteoarthritis (OA). By 2030, 20%
of Americans (about 70 million people) of more than 65 years of age are at risk for OA. Global
statistics reveal over 100 million people worldwide suffer from OA, which is one of the most
common causes of disability. In addition, younger individuals may be susceptible to injuryinduced OA. More than 50% of the population around the world (more than 65 years) show Xray evidence of OA in one of the joints, thus demonstrating the high incidence of this disease.
While OA is equally present in men and women, it appears to be more common among younger
men (less than 45 years) and in the older women (more than 45 years).
As per a recent report published in the Times of India (2010) regarding OA, over 40% of the
Indian population in the age group of 70 years or above suffer from OA. Nearly 2% of these
undergo severe knee pain and disability. As per a recent statement quoted by Piramal Healthcare
Limited in a nationwide campaign against chronic diseases, India is expected to be the chronic
disease capital, with 60 million people with arthritis, by 2025. The government, the private
sector, the medical fraternity and NGOs should come together against the onslaught of chronic
diseases. Also, majority of those suffering from OA are deprived of access to quality treatment.
Our attempt in this paper is to make a mechanism which morphs its stiffness according to the
increasing and decreasing requirements during the gait cycle of humans. The mechanism should
provide the maximum stiffness when the knee is undergoing the maximum weight acceptance
and should provide complete freedom to move the knees when the knee is not taking any load.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Walking Mechanism
Walking is done in a double pendulum mechanism. Human walking is accomplished with a
strategy called the double pendulum. During forward motion, the leg that leaves the ground
swings forward from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground
with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The
motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the
ground.
Fig.period
2.1: Various
Stances
of Gait Cycle
[23]
A gait cycle is defined as the
between
two consecutive
heel
strikes of the same foot
with the ground, and is composed of a stance phase where the foot is on the ground and a swing
phase where the foot is off the ground, as schematically shown. The stance phase comprises a
Weight Acceptance (first 40%) and a terminal stance (4063%) sub-phases. The human knee
demonstrates a linear flexion stage and a linear extension stage in the WA phase of the gait for
normal, level-ground walking. Stance phase begins with the heel strike - this is the moment when
the heel begins to touch the ground but the toes do not yet touch. In the mid-stance phase, we can
see settlement of the foot at the lateral border. The toe-off phase is also named the propulsive
phase.
When the stance phase ends, the swing phase begins. This phase is the phase between the toe
off phase and the heel strike phase. In the swing phase we can recognize two extra phases acceleration and declaration. The acceleration phase goes from toe-off to mid-swing, while
declaration goes from mid-swing to heel strike. In the acceleration phase, the swing leg makes an
accelerated forward movement with the goal of propelling the body weight forward. The
declaration phase brakes the velocity of this forward body movement in order to place your foot
down with control. Between these two phases, the mid-swing phase occurs. In this phase, both
feet are under the body, with the heel next to each other.
Particularly, we studied the effect of body size and gait speed on the knee moment-angle
performance of subjects with gait speed of 1.012.63 m/s, body height of 1.431.86 m, and body
weight of 56.094.0 kg. We showed that the human knee exhibits a stance excursion of 6 to 30,
quasi-stiffness of 80750 N.m/rad, and moment of 45105 Nm when walking on level ground.
We also showed that the angle of initiation of the weight acceptance phase (the angle at which
the knee moment is zero) ranges from 6 to 32 and significantly varies depending on the weight
carriage and gait speed. The weight acceptance phase spans 40% of the gait which, depending on
the gait speed and duration of the gait cycle, corresponds to a period of 400500 ms assuming a
cycle duration of 11.25 s.
2.1.2.4 Rotation
Rotation of body parts is referred to as internal or external, referring to rotation towards or
away from the center of the body. Internal rotation (or medial rotation) refers to rotation towards
the axis of the body. External rotation (or lateral rotation) refers to rotation away from the center
of the body
Fig 2.3: Knee joint showing the cartilage and the menicus
[25]
Although the leg bones join together at the knee, they don't actually touch each other: they are
held slightly apart by cartilage, a rubbery, gel-like tissue that sits on the ends of bones like plush
slippers on your feet. Cartilage, which is roughly three-quarters water, prevents the ends of these
bones from grinding against each other as you move; instead the bone ends simply glide across
each other with very little friction. Cartilage also absorbs the shock of movement. This is
particularly important to the knee, a weight-bearing joint that is subject to constant pounding: as
every time you step and your foot hits the ground, shock waves reverberate up your leg bones.
When walking, the stress on your knee is roughly three times your body weight, a figure that
increases to ten times your body weight when you run. Without cartilage, the impact of
movement would cause stress fractures of the bones, erosion of bone ends, the formation of bone
spurs (think calluses on the ends of the bones), and ultimately the destruction of both the bones
and the weight-bearing joints.
Because the knee is subject to so much stress, a thick layer of cartilaginous tissue called the
meniscus (plural menisci) cushions the ends of the femur and the tibia. The meniscus is an
excellent shock absorber, soaking up the impact created by movement and helping Knee muscle,
arthritis of the knee provide stability to the knee joint. A damaged meniscus, which is common
among athletes participating in contact sports, is often referred to as "torn cartilage." Another
kind of cartilage found in the knee joint is articular cartilage, the "standard" kind that's found in
most joints. This smooth, slick surface covers the underside of the patella and lines the femoral
groove allowing these bones to glide smoothly within the joint as the knee bends and straightens.
When either kind of cartilage within the knee becomes cracked, torn, thin, dried out or worn
through, its ability to absorb shock and cushion the bone ends is reduced. Knee bones begin to
grind against each other, causing pain, stiffness, loss of movement and sometimes swelling - in
other words, a condition called arthritis. And that can really put a damper on your life.
the design of a parallel assistive device for a wide range of walking speeds would implement a
variable stiffness mechanism to allow the characteristic stiffness of the knee in the flexion mode
to increase and in the extension mode to decrease, with some added damping, as the walking
speed increases. However, creating a truly variable stiffness mechanism is challenging in
practice. Alternatively, the design of assistive devices and bipedal robots might implement a
spring with the stiffness that is some weighted average of the expected range of gait Speeds. In
addition to the stiffness, the overall knee flexion and extension, zero moment angle, and
maximum moment also change with gait speed. The amount of rotation of the knee linearly
increases (for the flexion mode and for the extension mode) as gait speed increases. Therefore,
the design of assistive devices should allow for greater rotation when the user walks faster.
2.3
Orthotics
Orthotics (Greek: , ortho, "to straighten" or "align") is a specialty within the medical
field concerned with the design, manufacture and application of orthoses. An orthosis (plural:
orthoses) is "an externally applied device used to modify the structural and functional
characteristics of the neuromuscular and skeletal system". An orthotist is the primary medical
clinician responsible for the prescription, manufacture and management of orthoses. An orthosis
may be used to:
Control, guide, limit and/or immobilize an extremity, joint or body segment for a
particular reason
To otherwise correct the shape and/or function of the body, to provide easier movement
Traditionally, the affected knee is supported during walking using a kneeanklefoot orthosis
(KAFO), comprising a rigid thermoplastic cast formed around the impaired leg. Traditional
KAFO lock the knees throughout the gait cycle therefore demands compensatory, unnatural, and
metabolically expensive movements from the wearer.
Stance control KAFOs (SCKAFOs) have recently been commercialized and used clinically
for patients with paresis and paralysis in the lower limb muscles. Unlike traditional KAFOs,
SCKAFOs actively lock the knee only during the stance phase and allow for free rotation during
the swing phase. This improvement has led to many medical benefits, including increased
walking speed, knee range of motion, stride, step lengths, user satisfaction, reduced energy
expenditure and gait asymmetry, as well as kinematic benefits to both affected and unaffected
legs, compared with regular KAFOs. However, rigid locking of the knee joint during stance
phase in current SCKAFOs hinders the shock absorbing flexion of the knee, and can potentially
cause increased metabolic cost, user pain and discomfort and limited gait speed.
Load Carrying
High-g Gaits
Energy Recovery
Power Assist
Controllability
Fig. 2.6: Parallel type [15]
Series Type:
Increases Extension
Shock Reduction
Energy Recovery
Possible Increased Joint Stress
Controllability
For the current project, the parallel type of exoskeleton will be used which is ideal for our
usage in the case of load carrying and power assisted usage in the form of support of knees.
CHAPTER 3
PRESENT INVESTIGATION
3.1 Moment Angle behavior of Knee
with the corresponding gait instants labeled. The stance phase of walking is composed of a
weight acceptance phase [first 40%, as depicted in Fig. 2(a)(c)] and a stance termination phase
[40%63%, as shown in Fig. 2(c) and (d)]. During the weight acceptance phase, the knee
undergoes substantial loads to support the weight of the superior limbs; therefore, it is highly
prone to collapse without proper function of the musculature system or external assistance during
this phase. As Fig. 2 shows and previous research suggests, the knee behaves close to a linear
torsional spring in the weight-acceptance phase (particularly at the preferred gait speed). This
spring stiffness is defined as the slope of a linear fit to the moment angle graph of the knee in this
phase.
Fig. 2. Top: Schematic of lower extremity limbs during a gait cycle. Knee behaves close to a
torsional spring in the weight acceptance phase of the gait as indicated. Bottom: Moment-angle
graph for the knee of a subject walking at 1.25. Slope of the linear fit to the graph in the weight
acceptance phase is termed as the knee quasi-stiffness in this phase. Knee function can be
replaced by a linear torsional spring with spring constant equal to the knee quasi-stiffness. The
knee exhibits substantially smaller quasi-stiffness and moment during the terminal stance phase
and remains nearly silent during the swing phase of the gait; implying a less eminent need for
external stabilization. In our previous work, we investigated the linear moment- angle behavior
of the lower extremity joints.
L2 V 2
r 3 2.63
r 4 Vw
2.63* r 4
Vw
(I )
r3
L1 r 3 ' 2.63
L2 r 4
Vr
r4
Vr 2.63 ( II )
r3 '
Vr r 3 r 1 r 2 3
Vw r 3 ' r1 r 2 2
r1
5
r2
r2=length of crank
Vr =maximum return stroke velocity
Vw=maximum work stroke velocity
As slider is on same surface as point O1 in our mechanism , r7=0
For our design requirement we want maximum force to be at a point of extreme left. There for
calculation purpose we are considering extreme position. At extreme position crank will be
perpendicular to rocker:
r3 =
2 6
r2
r2
1
r3 2 6
11.537
4 101.537
Tan
As we want 5th link to be straight with leg so that it can withstand the load.
5 165
=11.537
=191.537
sin(78.463)
x
........(i)
r4
x
45
r 4 12.306cm
x
sin(15)
r5
12.060
0.259
r5
r 5 46.564cm
tan(15)
Where,
=10*10-3 m
=100*10-3 m
= 9*10-3 m
=10
Material Used
= Elgiloy
=270*109 Pa
=600 N
Spring length
=100*10-3 m
=77.01*106 Pa
Bending stress()
Spring deflection(d)
= 9.240
Spring deflection(d)
= 0.16 rad
Spring deflection(df/rd)
= 1.45*10-3 m
Spring stiffness(k)
= 0.09*103 N/deg
= 5.21*103 N/rad
= 578.7*103 N/m
= 0.61 J
3.3.4 Sensors
There are two pressure sensors placed in the heel and the toe region of the insole of the shoe.
The operation of the Control Module depends on the working of these sensors as shown in the
figure 3.11:
The controller employs a microcontroller and sensor system to tighten and loosen the spring
according to the different phases of the human gait cycle.
Another rotatory potentiometer is placed in the knee module along with the torsion spring which
measures the rotation of the knee and also the velocity of the knee by differentiating the
potentiometer signal.
These signals are used by a finite state microcontroller to calculate the required tightening and
loosening of the spring accordingly to the needs.
FSRs are sensors that allow you to detect physical pressure, squeezing and weight. They are
simple to use and low cost. This sensor is a Interlink model 402 FSR with 1/2 diameter sensing
region. FSR's are basically a resistor that changes its resistive value (in ohms ) depending on
how much its pressed. These sensors are fairly low cost, and easy to use but they're rarely
accurate. They also vary some from sensor to sensor perhaps 10%. So basically when you use
FSR's you should only expect to get ranges of response. While FSRs can detect weight, they're a
bad choice for detecting exactly how many pounds of weight are on them.
Fatigue Analysis:
Damage Characteristics:
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
From the study of the literature, it is clear that previously no viable solution was available
which would mimic the exact load on the knee during the weight acceptance and the rest of the
gait pattern in human beings. The traditional methods like KAFO and SCKAFO has severe
limitations, which made them a very unpopular choice.
The prototypes which provided a smarter Knee-Ankle-Feet-Orthosis had very complicated
and cumbersome control mechanisms and modules to provide two major advantages:
1. Quick Response time in case of change in walking speed, type of activity etc.
2. Ability to take huge loads which results from the walking of the user.
With the proposed mechanism in this project, a much simpler and basic mechanism in the
form of Witworth Quick return Mechanism replaces the earlier cumbersome one.
Through the calculations and the concept of the mechanism itself, it is evident that, this
mechanism has the potential to offer several advantages:
High versatility, whereby changing the link lengths, the mechanism can offer a wide
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS
In this project, the first step was going through the previous work in the field which gave
the limitations of traditional methods like KAFO and SCKAFO and prompted us to find a newer
smarter mechanism to mimic and support the knee throughout the different phases of the gait
cycle.
The next step was studying the current mechanisms which are there in the field of Quasistiffness of the Knee and the related supporting mechanisms. The complications and the
advantages of them were duly noted and a new mechanism was proposed with the position,
velocity and force analysis completed for the same.
The final step was to check the design for the fatigue life given the repeated loading on the
whitworth mechanism and also deciding the specifications of the motor based on the torque and
speed requirements.
The project finally resulted in:
Designing of a mechanism which takes half of the maximum load during the gait cycle
which a human knee experiences.
Analysing different aspects of the project using calculations, analytical relations and
theoretical formulae.
The future scope of this project includes making the design more generic and modular
which can suit a variety of operations and users based on their different needs. Also, the motor
and battery technology can be improved with motors providing intermittent high torque with
constant speed at high efficiency to ensure longer and more reliable battery life for the system.
CHAPTER 6
FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
With the latest advancements in motor and battery technologies, more durable systems can
be designed based on the same mechanism which can give stable performance for an
extended period of time.
The entire mechanism can also be made modular where springs of different stiffness can be
attached to the same control module and different control algorithms can be used for the
same mechanism according to the users requirements for various activities like running,
climbing etc.
The mechanism is designed currently for the activity of level walking at a stable speed. In
the future, the microcontroller can be programmed to control the mechanism for various
other types of activities like downhill walking, climbing, sitting etc., where the dynamics,
load requirements and other factors vary greatly.
The design can be made generic with different maximum positions of the spring giving
different maximum torque reliefs for different persons. The entire structure can be made
with collapsible links to fit persons with different height, weight or sizes. And the motor
running characteristics should be controlled by the microcontroller accordingly after
calibration based on the particular user.
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