waterbody (river, lake, etc.) connected to the aquifer. Unconfined alluvial aquifers located along riverbanks are commonly used for freshwater supplies. Confined or semiconfined aquifers yield the most suitable source of water for brackish water desalination systems (1). Aquifers that favor the construction of wells are coarse- grained, porous, and highly permeable geologic formations (i.e., sand, gravel, and limestone) connected to a riverbed (for freshwater intakes) or the ocean floor (for seawater intakes) whose specific yield (transmissivity) exceeds 1,500 m3 /day/m and whose water carrying zone is at least 6 meters (20 feet) deep (2). The higher the aquifer permeability, transmissivity, and thickness, the larger the well yield the aquifer can support. WELL SITE SELECTION Once an aquifer of suitable yield has been identified, the location of the actual field is to be selected. Whenever possible, the well field should be located perpendicularly to the main direction of groundwater flow (i.e., along the banks of a nearby river). The most suitable location for collecting a large amount of river water is on a river island or within a meander. If significant clogging of the riverbed is expected, then the wells should be located closer to the riverbanks. In addition, a potable water well field has to be sited away and uphill from potential contamination sources such as septic tanks, landfills, industrial plants, and underground fuel storage tanks. Most states regulate the location of private potable water wells and require locating wells at least 15 to 30 meters (50 to 100 feet) away from septic systems. INTAKE WELL TYPES AND KEY DESIGN CRITERIA Intake wells are typically vertical or horizontal water collectors drilled into the source water aquifer. Vertical intake wells are usually less costly than horizontal wells, but their yield is relatively small, typically, 0.004 to 0.044 m3 /s (0.1 to 1.0 MGD). Therefore, vertical wells are typically used for supplying relatively small quantities of water usually less than 20,000 m3/day (5 MGD). Vertical Intake Wells Vertical intake wells consist of the following key elements: a casing, well screen, filter pack, well seal, and surface seal. Many wells have submersible or vertical turbine pumps installed inside the well casing (Fig. 1). A well casing is a steel or nonmetallic (typically, fiberglass) pipe which lines the well borehole to protect the well from caving in. Most state standards require steel casings for freshwater supply wells and specify the thickness of the casing. The diameter of the casing has to house the well intake pump and provide ample room for pump service. The diameter of the well casing is
determined mainly by the well screen size and yield,
but the well borehole diameter has to be at least 0.1 meters (4 in.) larger than the well casing to accommodate the installation of the well seal. Usually, the well casing diameter is between 200 and 1200 mm (8
and 48 in.), and the well depth is typically less
than 75 meters (250 feet). The well screen is the intake portion of the well and is a sieve-like structure that has slotted or perforated openings. The well screen is located at a depth corresponding to the water carrying zone of the aquifer. Screen depth, size of openings, diameter, and length are key well performance design criteria. These well parameters are selected to maximize a wells safe yield; control well entrance velocity; and to avoid excessive entrance of sand and other particulates, which have a negative impact on well useful life and water quality. The performance of the well screen is enhanced by a gravel (filter) pack, which consists of clean, uniform, and well rounded gravel and sand placed between the borehole wall and the well screen to prefilter the groundwater entering the well. Typically, the gravel pack depth extends at least 1 meter (3 feet) above the well screen. A well seal is installed above the filter pack to prevent soil and contaminants from entering the well screen area. The well seal is a cylindrical layer of cement, bentonite, or clay placed in the annulus of the well between the well casting and the borehole. Typically, the well seal extends at least 0.6 meters (2 feet) above the top of the gravel pack and usually through the elevation of the soil frost zone. The aboveground portion of the well is finished with a concrete surface seal. The surface and well seals protect the well from surface runof contamination and support the casing. A detailed methodology for sizing well screen diameter, length, openings and capacity, and for
selecting the grain size of the material for the gravel
pack is presented elsewhere (3). This source also provides information on determining the thickness of the gravel pack around the well screen, the permissible approach velocity of the water stream converging to the well, and ultimately the design capacity of a new well or the maximum capacity of an existing well. Once constructed, vertical well performance has to be monitored frequently to secure long-term performance and identify early signs of potential malfunction and failure. The most common causes of well failure are borehole collapse, corrosion of the casing, improper or defective construction techniques, growth of organisms within the well borehole, and formation of mineral concentrations or crusts in the open-hole or screened section of the well borehole. Horizontal Collector Wells Horizontal (Ranney) collector wells consist of a caisson that extends below the ground surface and has water well collector screens (laterals) projected horizontally from inside the caisson into the surrounding aquifer (Fig. 2). The well screens in the collector wells are placed horizontally, but a higher rate of source water collection is possible than that of vertical wells, which allows, collecting the same intake water quantity with fewer wells. Individual horizontal intake wells are typically designed to collect from 0.0044 to 1.75 m3/s (0.1 to 40.0 MGD) of source water per well. The largest 1.75 m3/s (40 MGD) horizontal collector wells in the United States were installed on the banks of the Platte River in 1990