Advanced version of the previous mission.

A pulse detonation engine, or "PDE", is a type of propulsion system that has the
potential to be both light and powerful and can operate from a standstill up to
supersonic speed . It uses detonation waves to combust the fuel and oxidizer mixture.
This engine is pulsed because the mixture must be renewed in the combustion
chamber between each detonation wave initiated by an ignition source.

In theory the design can produce an engine with an efficiency far surpassing more
complex gas turbine Brayton cycle engines, but with almost no moving parts.
To date no practical PDE engine has been put into production, but several test bed
engines have been built, and one was successfully integrated into a low-speed
demonstration aircraft that flew in sustained PDE powered flight in 2008 .

All regular jet engines and most rocket engines operate on the deflagration of fuel, that
is, the rapid but subsonic combustion of fuel. The pulse detonation engine is a concept
currently in active development to create a jet engine that operates on the supersonic
detonation of fuel.
The main objective of pulse detonation research is to develop an efficient engine that is
primarily used for high-speeds (potentially Mach* 5), as well as high-altitudes,The
researches has been ongoing for several years and systems should be put to use in the
near future
The detonation of fuel results in immense pressure, which in turn is used as thrust.

An ideal PDE design can have a thermodynamic efficiency higher than other designs
like turbojets and turbofans because a detonation wave rapidly compresses the mixture
and adds heat at constant volume. Consequently, moving parts like compressor spools are
not necessarily required in the engine, which could significantly reduce overall weight and
cost. PDEs have been considered for propulsion for over 70 years. [3] Key issues for further
development include fast and efficient mixing of the fuel and oxidizer, the prevention
of autoignition, and integration with an inlet and nozzle.

The PDE can provide static thrust for a ramjet or scramjet engine, or operate in combination
with turbofan systems.
As such, it sees potential applications in many sectors of the aerospace, aeronautic, and military
industries.
with the aim of realizing the next generation of propulsion systems to
replace current gas turbines.

However, there remain engineering challenges that must be overcome before the PDE can see
practical use.
Current methods for initiating the detonation process need refinement.
Also, current materials used in jet engines, such as Nickel-based super-alloys, are inadequate to
withstand the extreme heat and pressure generated by the detonation cycle.
Therefore, new materials must be developed for this purpose.
. In addition, operational systems must
be designed to operate with practical fuels and propellant combinations, such as JP10/air, RP-1/02,
and H2/02.

Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE) technology; it has the capability to

revolutionize the aviation industry
As PDEs are an extension of pulse-jet engines, they share many similarities. However,
there is one important difference between them: PDEs detonate, rather than deflagrate,
their fuel.

OPERATION

The basic operation of the PDE is similar to that of the pulse jet engine. In the pulse jet, air
is mixed with fuel to create a flammable mixture that is then ignited in an open chamber.
The resulting combustion greatly increases the pressure of the mixture to approximately
100 atmospheres (10 MPa),[5] which then expands through a nozzle for thrust.
To ensure that the mixture exits to the rear, thereby pushing the aircraft forward, a series of
shutters are used to close off the front of the engine. Careful tuning of the inlet ensures the
shutters close at the right time to force the air to travel in one direction only through the
engine. Some pulse jet designs used a tuned resonant cavity to provide the valving action
through the airflow in the system. These designs normally look like a U-shaped tube, open
at both ends.
In either system, the pulse jet has problems during the combustion process. As the fuel
burns and expands to create thrust, it is also pushing any remaining unburnt charge
rearward, out the nozzle. In many cases some of the charge is ejected before burning,
which causes the famous trail of flame seen on the V-1 flying bomb and other pulse jets.
Even while inside the engine, the mixture's volume is constantly changing which
inefficiently converts fuel into usable energy.

The basic operation of the PDE is similar to that of the pulse jet engine; air is mixed
with fuel to create a flammable mixture that is then ignited. The resulting combustion
greatly increases the pressure of the mixture to approximately 100 atmospheres, which
then expands through a nozzle for thrust. To ensure that the mixture exits to the rear,
thereby pushing the aircraft forward, a series of shutters are used with careful tuning of
the inlet to force the air to travel in one direction only through the engine.
The main difference between a PDE and a traditional pulsejet is that the mixture does
not undergo subsonic combustion but instead, supersonic detonation. In the PDE, the
oxygen and fuel combination process is supersonic, effectively an explosion instead of
burning. The other difference is that the shutters are replaced by more sophisticated
valves.

The engine operates on pulses, so controllers could dial in the frequency of the detonation
in the "digital" engine to determine thrust. Pulse detonation rocket engines operate by
injecting propellants into long cylinders that are open on one end and closed on the other.
When gas fills a cylinder, an ignitersuch as a spark plugis activated. Fuel begins to
burn and rapidly transitions to a detonation, or powered shock. The shock wave travels
through the cylinder at 10 times the speed of sound, so combustion is completed before the
gas has time to expand. The explosive pressure of the detonation pushes the exhaust out the
open end of the cylinder, providing thrust to the vehicle.

PDE
All regular jet engines and most rocket engines operate on the deflagration of fuel, that is,
the rapid but subsoniccombustion of fuel. The pulse detonation engine is a concept
currently in active development to create a jet engine that operates on the
supersonic detonation of fuel. Because the combustion takes place so rapidly, the charge
(fuel/air mix) does not have time to expand during this process, so it takes place under
almost constant volume. Constant volume combustion is more efficient than open-cycle
designs like gas turbines, which leads to greater fuel efficiency.
As the combustion process is so rapid, mechanical shutters are difficult to arrange with the
required performance. Instead, PDEs generally use a series of valves to carefully time the
process. In some PDE designs from General Electric, the shutters are eliminated through
careful timing, using the pressure differences between the different areas of the engine to
ensure the "shot" is ejected rearward

History
An exact history of pulse detonation technology is not easily determined. The history
is unclear for reasons such as the secrecy involved in research as this technology
could prove to be very profitable. What is known is that the technology is derived
from pulse jet engines, and many organizations within the past five to ten years have
produced test-bed engines. No engines have currently been put into production
(Wikipedia 2004).

First PDE powered flight

The first known flight of an aircraft powered by a pulse detonation engine was a heavily
modified Long-EZ aircraft, namedBorealis. Fuel used is a refined octane was used for this

flight. A small rocket system was used to facilitate the liftoff of the Long-EZ, but the PDE
operated under its own power for 10 seconds at an altitude of approximately 100 feet (30
m). Obviously, this flight took place at a low speed whereas the appeal of the PDE engine
concept lies more at high speeds, but the demonstration showed that a PDE can be
integrated into an aircraft frame without experiencing structural problems.

Classifications
Pulse detonation engines (PDEs) can be classified in numerous ways. The type of
fuel used, whether it is air breathing, or the number of detonation chambers, for
example, are all ways in which the engines can be classified. Three broad categories
can be established: Pure, combined-cycle and hybrid. Pure PDEs, as the name
implies, rely only on a PDE, consisting of detonation tubes, an inlet, and a nozzle.
Combined-cycle engines use different cycles at different speed ranges. These cycles
include those of the PDE as well as a ramjet* or scramjet* flowpath among others.
Hybrid engines are a combination of a PDE and turbofan or turbojet engines

3.0 Advantages of Pulse Detonation Propulsion

Pulse detonation engines (PDEs) exhibit several performance advantages in comparison
with current steady-deflagration jets.

A major advantage is that pulse detonation rocket engines boost the fuel and oxidizer to
extremely high pressure without a turbo pumpan expensive part of conventional rocket
engines. In a typical rocket engine, complex turbo pumps must push fuel and oxidizer into
the engine chamber at an extremely high pressure of about 2,000 pounds per square inch or
the fuel is blown back out.
The pulse mode of pulse detonation rocket engines allows the fuel to be injected at a low
pressure of about 200 pounds per square inch.
. The inherent mechanical design simplicity of the
PDE results in smaller packaging volumes and lower part counts, aiding in integration
and maintenance. The thermodynamic efficiency of the pulse detonation cycle results in
higher theoretical performance across a wide speed range.
3.4. Mechanical Design Simplicity ( TO BE CORRECED)
Despite the apparent difficulties regarding the design of the PDE, its underlying
mechanical principle is simple. Since the nature of the detonation process
substantially increases the pressure within the detonation tube, fuel does not have to
be injected at the high pressures that are necessary for significant thrust with a
conventional engine. This eliminates the necessity for robust fuel injection pumps
(Ebrahimi 2003). Additionally, this pressure compresses the intake air, thus
mitigating the need for compressors, turbines or other heavy components typical of
current liquid-fuelled engine types. Indeed, the PDE was specifically designed to
avoid the mechanical complexity of spinning compressors or other rotating machinery
in its air-flow path (Povinelli 2002). With the absence of a separate compression
stage and the consolidation of the other stages of the detonation cycle into a single

component, the PDE generally demonstrates a lower part count than other engine
types (Mawid et al. 2003; Ebrahimi 2003; Povinelli 2002).
The PDEs mechanical simplicity offers many benefits to propulsion systems. The
lower part count makes for simpler maintenance procedures. It also contributes to an
overall lighter engine, improving the thrust-to-mass ratio of equivalent engine
systems (Coleman 2004; Mawid et al. 2003). The simplicity as well as the number of
the parts involved will decrease the cost of PDE propulsion systems (Ebrahimi 2003).
It is clear that the PDE will therefore prove useful in propulsion systems when its
engineering challenges outlined in Section Five of this document are surmounted.

4.0 Applications of Pulse Detonation Propulsion

Pulse detonation technology has the potential to revolutionize both in-atmosphere and
space flight. Having an engine capable of running efficiently at Mach 5 will not only
allow for faster, more efficient intercontinental travel, but will also change the way
spacecrafts are launched.
4.4.1. Hybrid Pulse Detonation
Pulse detonation engines are well-suited for combination with turbofan and
turbojet engines. This hybrid combination can be applied not only to produce
faster aircraft, but also to make them more efficient and environmentally friendly.
In a conventional turbofan engine, combustion is used to turn a large fan, which
drives air into and around the combustion chamber. The air travelling around the
chamber mixes with the exhaust from the combustion chamber to provide the
thrust (Rolls-Royce 1986, 17). In a hybrid pulse detonation engine, the bypass air
enters pulse detonation tubes that surround the standard combustion chamber (see
Figure 6). The tubes are then cyclically detonated; one detonates while the others
fill with air or are primed with fuel (Mawid et al. 2003, 271). This combination
promises to require simpler engine mechanisms and yield higher thrust with lower
fuel consumption (NASA Glenn Research Center 2004; General Electric 2004).
Hybrid pulse detonation engines will allow commercial aircraft to be faster, more
efficient, and more environmentally friendly. NASA is projecting that the
inter-continental travel time will also reduce significantly by 2022. In
addition, they suggest that NOx* emissions may decrease by up to 70% and 80%
respectively in the same time periods (NASA Glenn Research Center 2004).
Similarly, hybrid PDEs can also be used in military applications. A large number
of modern fighter jets employ afterburner-equipped low-bypass* turbofan or
turbojet engines. In engines such as these, fuel is injected into the hot exhaust
stream. The resulting combustion causes the exhaust gas to accelerate, and thus
increase thrust. Although this process is an effective solution, it is not a fuelefficient
solution. Hybrid PDEs will deliver the same thrust with less fuel
consumption (Benson 2004; Rolls Royce 1986, 170; Mawid et al. 2003, 270).

4.4.2. Pure Pulse Detonation

The applications of pure PDEs are primarily military, as they are light, easy to
manufacture, and have higher performance around Mach 1 than current engine

technologies. This makes them an ideal form of

propulsion for missiles, unmanned vehicles, and other small-scale applications (NASA
Glenn Research Center 2004).
4.1.3 Combined Cycle Pulse Detonation
Combined cycle pulse detonation engines may provide the most exciting
possibilities for aviation. Adding a PDE to the flow path of a ramjet or scramjet
engine would make an engine capable of operating efficiently as high as Mach 5.
As scramjet engines are still themselves under development, the full scope of this
combination and its applications are difficult to evaluate. However, these engines
would seem initially suitable for high-altitude, high-speed aircraft (Povinelli et al.
2001, 8).
4.5. Applications to Space Flight
While air breathing pulse detonation engines would not be able to operate in space, they
may be used to reduce the cost and complexity of launching spacecraft. As PDEs do not
require heavy and expensive pumps, they offer a viable alternative to current rocket
engines. The decreased weight, along with better fuel consumption, would significantly
reduce the cost of launching spacecraft.NASA Research centre says Using pulse
detonation in combination with other propulsion sources could potentially decrease the
cost of launching payloads into space and the incidence of crew loss by a factor of 100
by the year 2025.

5.0 Problems Associated with Pulse Detonation Technology with Possible

Solutions
Researchers wishing to implement Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE) technology have two
main obstacles to overcome: Attaining successive detonations instead of deflagration
cycles and engineering materials to withstand the immense pressures and thermal
stresses caused by the blasts.
5.1. Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT)
The difference between conventional engines and PDEs is the use of detonation
waves instead of deflagration to propel the vehicle forward. As such, the
deflagration to detonation transition is necessary to attain the increased
thermodynamic efficiency and other benefits of pulse detonation engines. The
competing methods to control the DDT are through either mechanical or
aerodynamic valving (valveless operation).

5.1.1. Mechanically Valved Operation

Pratt & Whitney began developing pulse detonation technologies in 1993. Their
approach to overcome the deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) is through
the valved intake method (Kelly 2003). This uses mechanical valves to supply the
air-fuel mixture before detonation. These systems use a spark ignition to instigate
the DDT. This allows engineers to regulate the fuel-flow to the detonation
chambers (Roy et al. 2004). This also creates a near instant detonation,
guaranteeing the thermodynamic efficiency and ensures detonation occurs,
provided the spark has high enough energy to cause detonation instead of
deflagration. To assist this, a more volatile* mixture may be injected near the
spark whose explosion then triggers the main fuel in a stratified reaction* (Roy et
al. 2004).
5.1.2. Aerodynamically Valved Operation
Another approach, taken by General Electric, relies on the pressure difference
between the atmosphere and the engine cavity to supply the fuel-air mixture to the
detonation chambers (Kelly 2003). This causes two main stages in the cycle: the
entrance, when fuel is supplied, and the exit, after detonation. The fuel and air
enter at lower pressures than during the detonation. By continually supplying the
detonation tube with air and fuel, and ensuring that it only enters in between
detonations, the timing of the explosions depends on the length and temperature of
the tube. A buffer zone of previously detonated gases forms by cooling the
exhaust, either naturally or with a coolant. This isolates the entering fuel mixture
from the high temperatures that may cause premature detonation. This allows for
proper mixing of the air and fuel (Roy et al. 2004). An electric spark then ignites
the fuel, creating a deflagration which increases the temperature and pressure,
leading to a detonation wave. This wave then propagates down the detonation tube
propelling the vehicle forward and expelling the byproducts that form the buffer
zone.
5.2. Physical Environment
PDEs work in an intense physical environment. Typical operating conditions for
PDEs include temperature ranges of 227 - 1727 C and pressures from 0-20 MPa
(He and Karagozian 2003). The high temperatures are needed to change the
deflagration into a detonation wave (Ben-Dor et al. 2001). While the valving
method influences the DDT, it has little effect on the immense heat and pressure
associated with the technology.
The purpose of pulse detonation is to have many detonations propel the object
forward. Research completed for 1m long detonation tubes operating at 1 atm
pressure required detonation frequencies near 100Hz (one hundred detonations
per second) (Roy et al. 2004). Other tests have peak pressures occurring every 14-18 s.
This means in three hours, the detonation tubes are loaded between 1
million and 771 million times. Table 1 shows operating temperatures and
pressures for varying altitudes at a specific detonation velocity (Roy et al. 2004).

Further calculations to show the unsuitability of current materials to endure PDErelated

stresses can be found in Appendix A.
To make PDE technology a viable propulsion option, materials that can endure
these conditions need developing. A possible solution involves specially created
super-alloys, as these metals remain strong even at high temperatures. Superalloys
are currently used in the blades of some jet-engines because they remain
strong enough to endure normal stresses* near 200 MPa at temperatures of 700C.
15
For comparison, the Institut for Energiteknikk lists Grade 3 commercial pure
titanium as having a yield strength* around 150MPa at temperatures near 400C
(Seieresten 2000). The improved strength in super-alloys comes from the singlecrystal
structure of the metal, and the trace elements added. To improve the
strength, tantalum*, aluminum, or titanium may be added to the nickel base. By
adding a protective ceramic coating around the super-alloy, it can be placed in
environments near 1300C., but this still falls several hundred degrees short of
peak PDE operating temperatures. Until these criteria are met in an economical
way, PDE technology will remain a theoretical possibility instead of a practical
solution (Roger Reed, personal interview, 2004)
Although the first recorded flight of a PDE powered aircraft took place in
early 2008,
some six decades since the concept of detonation engines began to be
studied, there are still
many aspects of the design and operation that have to be refined or
considerably improved.
Presently, single-shot and short-duration multi-cycle PDE experimental
studies in the laboratory
setting along with the associated computational research are continuing
worldwide. Obtaining
detonations in single-shot pre-mixed tubes filled with fuel-air or fuel-oxygen
mixtures is not a
very challenging task. Quiescent mixtures are easy to ignite and take only
small amounts of
energy. Mixtures of fuels with oxygen ignite and progress to detonation
effortlessly. Premixed

mixtures of fuel and air can be detonated easily if the right conditions are
met, including proper
equivalence ratio, minimum tube diameter and adequate tube length for
deflagration to
transition to detonation. However, achieving detonations in multi-cycle
setups is much more
difficult. Inadequate supply of fuel-oxidizer mixtures and improper mixing
lead to detonation
failure. Short duration oxygen-based and pre-mixed fuel-air based multicycle detonation
combustors have been successfully tested. Some of the main issues that
have to be worked out
before PDEs can transition from the theoretical realm into real world
applications are described
below.
1.9.1 Achieving Successful and Consistent Detonations Repeatedly
The biggest hurdles to cross are to achieve detonations within the fueloxidizer mixture
in as short a distance as possible and to attain detonations consistently. The
detonations must
also be fully controllable and the results repeatable at a very high rate in
order to allow the
25
effective on-demand throttling of a PDE-based propulsion system. As
explained before, a
deflagration propagating within a constant area tube filled with a fueloxidizer mixture will
naturally transition to a detonation wave if the tube is long enough, typically
on the order of 1 to

10 m, depending on the sensitivity or energy content of the fuel-oxidizer

mixture.
1.9.2 Sustaining Detonations Repeatedly
Even after detonation has been achieved, the unsteady nature of PDE
operation can
often lead to the deterioration and eventual extinction of the detonation
wave. The main cause
of this is improper mixing of fuel and oxidizer, so that some regions of lean
or zero reactant
concentration exist within the tube, while in some regions, the concentration
may be fuel rich.
As the detonation wave approaches the regions of low fuel concentrations,
the detonation wave
may weaken and decouple. Also, the cell size is very sensitive to fuel
concentrations, being
lowest at stoichiometric or slightly fuel rich condition. If the cell size
increases due to change in
the equivalence ratio away from unity and eventually becomes larger than
the tube diameter,
the detonation will fail.
1.9.3 Protection of Internal Structures and Components of the PDE
The highly unsteady and extremely severe combustion process of the PDE is
not
favorable for the long-term survival of critical engine parts, such as valves,
ignition plugs, DDT
devices, fittings, joints, etc. Short-duration multi-cycle tests have
demonstrated the extent of the
damage suffered by the combustion tube and various components38. In
industrial fuel gas

transmission tubes that experience detonations, a large bulge is seen at the

location where
deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) occurred39. Consequently the
region of DDT has to
be reinforced. Making the whole tube of uniform thickness and rigidity may
not be a feasible
option for saving weight and design costs in a practical engine. Therefore,
the regions of high
stress intensities have to be identified. The deflagration process causes
more heat buildup in
the tube, since it is slower and lingers longer in the tube. Once the
detonation wave has been
26
created, it prefers a clean tube free from major barriers, which create drag
and strip energy from
the detonation wave. It has been noted from experiments that the location
of the DDT device is
where most of the heating takes place38. The DDT devices can be heavily
damaged and
expelled out of the tube by the high pressures. These and other factors will
be discussed in
more detail later.
1.9.4 Inlet and Nozzle Design
Unless the PDE is operated in a single chamber rocket mode, external flows
heavily
influence the dynamics of the engine. Moreover, the freestream airflow has
to be diffused
efficiently without raising the static temperature above the autoignition
point of the fuel, and then

correctly diverted to the combustion chamber with no dead zones in the

path. At supersonic
speeds, shockwaves will form within the inlets and if the valves are
suddenly closed the inlet
can unstart. Hybrid PDEs or PDE with bypass flows also result in complex
designs to ensure a
smooth flow of air through the engine as well as the proper filling and
purging of the
combustors. Nonetheless, inlet design is not a concern in this study.
1.9.5 Valving Design
The speed and consequently the thrust of a PDE can be effectively
controlled with the
help of valves. Thrust control is an essential requirement for an aircraft
during takeoff, landing
and for maneuvering. In a multi-combustor PDE, acoustic interactions of
inlet and exhaust flows
between the various chambers introduce added complexity to the system.
Also, for high
supersonic flight, valves and other flow control components pose a barrier
that create drag or
lead to the formation of shock waves. These are issues that will have to be
dealt with in the
design of a flight-weight PDE.
In addition, the mass flow rate of air in an air-breathing engine is
tremendously higher
than the flow rate of fuel. Therefore, the valves have to be designed and
placed to allow
effective filling of the combustors within the short time available at high
speeds. The fuel valves
27

have to be designed to achieve thorough mixing of liquid fuels with air.

Moreover, the
electromechanical valves have to be cooled and meet the power and weight
requirement of the
aircraft. Some of these issues will be looked at in more detail later.
1.9.6 Ignition System
The initiation of detonation can be achieved by transferring a large amount
of energy
into the fuel-oxidizer mixture, such as from a laser ignition system or arc
discharge ignition
system. High voltage low energy ignition systems have been in use on
automobiles and in
aircraft engines for about a century. One of the concerns is that the igniter
itself has to survive
the harsh detonation environment of the PDE. The various ignition systems
will be compared in
detail later on.
1.9.7 Fuel Selection
PDEs, like gas turbine engines, can theoretically run on any type of
conventional fuels,
whether gaseous or liquid. In addition, coal particles, in the range of 10 m,
forms highly
detonable mixtures with air and may be used for a ground-based PDE-power
generation
system. The fuel delivery systems will have to be developed for special
fuels. The sizing of the
engine is dependent on the cell size of the fuels. Various fuels will be
analyzed in more detail
later.

1.9.8 Minimization of harmful or undesirable exhaust products

Although detonations can ensure thorough burning of the fuels, preventing
the
formation of CO or soot, the higher temperatures can result in the formation
of NOX. More
research, possibly into the application of catalytic converters, need to be
done to resolve the
issue of adverse byproducts. This topic is not a subject of this study.
28
1.9.9 Vibration and Noise
Vibration and noise are two of the factors that need to be dealt with when
combining a
PDE with other onboard aircraft systems. But these can be solved with
active noise suppression
and damping. Noise can also be minimized by increasing bypass for
subsonic engines. This
topic is not a subject of this study.
1.9.10 Conformity with other onboard systems and suitability for mission
The PDE itself has to correctly mate with the existing systems onboard an
aircraft for it
to be chosen as a candidate engine for a particular flight application. For
example, the vibration
induced by the pulsing or the heat generated must not damage sensitive
instruments. The
electrical noise generated by the ignition system must be within the
acceptable range of
communication or radar systems. Also, the audible noise must not be too
loud for critical

missions where audio range noise is an issue. These factors, however, will
not be dealt with in
this study.
1.9.11 Control System, Diagnostics Instrumentation and Data Acquisition
Systems
Detonation is a very unsteady process and is prone to fail if the conditions
are not just
right within the combustor. Therefore, the conditions have to be monitored
and controlled using
a closed-loop feedback system. Once the physical structure of the engine
has been built and
the overall geometry, including the DDT devices, has been set, the only
control inputs to the
combustor are the filling (which can be subdivided into mass flow rate, fueloxidizer ratio,
mixing, timing of the valves, selection of the combustor, etc.) and the
ignition (timing and ignition
energy). But the status of the combustion and the location and speed of the
detonation has to
be determined. Therefore, sensors are required within the combustion
chamber which can
survive the severe temperatures and pressures caused by the detonations.
The sensors allow
the control system to regulate the valve timing and flow rates and the
ignition settings so that
the engine will produce the required thrust at the required speed. As
detonation occurs at
29
supersonic speeds, the computer onboard has to be able to process data
from the various

sensors at very high speeds. Present day computer systems are very small
and fast, making
PDE control possible. The author believes that the reason PDEs were not a
reality until now
has been due to the lack of small and fast computerized control systems.
However, sensors are still not adequately developed to meet the
requirements of the
PDE. All transducers are affected by heat. When transducers are subjected
to the extremely
high temperatures and repeated shock pressure loading in a test PDE, they
produce significant
errors in their readings and may be destroyed after a few minutes of
continuous exposure. In
this study, various sensors and their applications, along with the data
acquisition techniques are
discussed in detail. The closed loop feedback system is not delved into any
further than just a
brief description of its potential application for a PDE based propulsion
system.

6.0 Conclusions
Pulse Detonation Engines (PDEs) can be broken into three categories: Pure,
combinedcycle,
and hybrid. However, the general principle of operation for each is identical: The
fuel-air mixture is detonated in the engine cavity, rather than deflagrated. This violent
thermodynamic process creates a pressure wave which compresses the fuel-air mixture
of
the following cycle; the process is repeated up to hundreds of times per second. The
PDE
in general has important advantages over current propulsion systems. The PDE has an
inherently simpler mechanical design and a higher thermodynamic efficiency. As such,
it
is shown that the PDE is more efficient, in both specific thrust and specific fuel
consumption, than current ramjet systems at speeds of up to approximately Mach 2.3.

This performance advantage makes the PDE an excellent choice for static thrust up to
mid- Mach numbers, where a ramjet or scramjet could begin operation in a multi-stage
propulsion system. Therefore, the PDE has applications to many aerospace industries:
Quick and efficient intercontinental travel, safe and cost-effective spacecraft launch, and
effective military operation. However, before this occurs, certain engineering challenges
must be overcome. The issues of transforming deflagration into detonation and
developing materials able to withstand the intense heat and pressure must be resolved.
Pratt & Whitney and General Electric have developed solutions to the deflagrationtodetonation
problem. However, the engineering of new materials to endure the intense
physical environment of the detonation cavity is a problem that remains to be solved.
MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE PDE AND THE
CONVENTIONAL I C ENGINE
The main differences between the PDE and the conventional internal combustion engine is that in the
PDE the combustion chamber is open and no moving parts are used to compress the mixture before
ignition and no shaft work is extracted. Instead the compression is an integral part of the detonation, and
two of the main advantages of the PDE are the efficiency and simplicity which can be explained by the
fact that the combustion occurs in detonative mode. The efficiency of the cycle can be explained by the
high level of pre compression due to the strong shock wave in the detonation. Also, the simplicity of the
device is a result of the fact that the shock wave responsible for this compression is an integral part of the
detonation. PDE is similar to both the pulse-jet and the ram jet engine as no moving part is present in
these engines. But in those two cases the mechanism behind the pre-compression is completely different.
For the pulse-jet the pre-compression is a result of momentum effects of the gases, and is a part of the
resonance effects of the engine. In the ramjet, pre-compression is obtained through the ram effects as the
air is decelerated from supersonic to subsonic. The major drawback with this concept is that the engine is
ineffective for speeds lower than around M =2. The pulse detonation engine works on Humphrey cycle
whereas gas turbines work on Brayton cycle. The cycles are as shown in the figure-1.
The Humphrey cycle gives more area under the PV curve. Making it more efficient
engine as compared to Gas turbine Engines. The frontal area in case of pulse
detonation engine will be very small thereby reducing drag to a large extent.

Detonation is the spontaneous combustion of the end-gas (remaining fuel/air mixture) in the
chamber. It always occurs after normal combustion is initiated by the spark plug. if the
combustion process moves too fast and the pressure peak occurs too early, the result
can be excessive pressure, excessive temperatures, and unstable pressure pulses known
as "detonation."
FUTUTRE

Now the researchers have demonstrated that hydrogen and oxygen can be injected into a
chamber and detonated more than 100 times per second.
NASA and its industry partners have also proven that a pulse detonation rocket engine can
provide thrust in the vacuum of space. Technology development now focuses on
determining how to ignite the engine in space, proving that sufficient amounts of fuel can
flow through the cylinder to provide superior engine performance, and developing
computer code and standards to reliably design and predict performance of the new breed of
engines. .
FUTURE OF PDEs:-

Many developers have high hopes that the PDE will ultimately
become the most cost-effective method of propelling supersonic sub-orbital craft. The
ultra-high compressions obtained by detonation offer the potential for much better fuelefficiency than even the best turbojet, and the fact that they are an air-breathing engine
reduces the fuel-load and increases safety when compared to rocket motors.
Unfortunately there are still a number of negative issues that will need
to be addressed. Firstly there's the noise -- if you think regular pulsejets are loud then
you'll be absolutely blown-away by the noise levels created by a PDE.
Then there's the issue of vibration. Although multiple engines could
possibly be synchronized to fire in a manner that reduces vibration levels, they will still
be significantly greater than those generated by turbojet or rocket motors. High levels of
vibration place incredible demands on the materials from which motors and airframes
are constructed.