Power (15-Jun-04)

Stop the pounding: Water hammer in HRSG reheat steam piping

The "propagative flow" of condensate can damage or destroy valves, piping, and
even piping supports. Often, an HRSG's design or component is the culprit or
catalyst. Here's a technical explanation of the phenomenon and some practical
steps you can take to prevent it.
By Peter S. Jackson, PE, Tetra Engineering Group Inc.
Water hammer events are fairly commonplace in new combined-cycle plants,
regardless of the design of their heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG). Operators
at one recently commissioned 500-MW (3 x 1) plant described the severe water
hammer in the cold reheat steam piping as "the sound of a 777 crashing into a
switchyard." Digital signatures captured by data recorders confirm that water
hammer is one of the most damaging transient events a combined-cycle plant can
suffer.
Typically, a water hammer occurs midway into the startup of an HRSG, after the
combustion turbine (CT) is at full speed and loading, and sometimes after a sister
unit is already delivering steam to the steam turbine-generator (STG). The
underlying physics are well understood: A combination of physical and
thermodynamic forces and control actuations creates a massive slug of
water/condensate and fires it down the piping, accelerated by the flow of steam.
The distinctive sound of water hammer is the sound of the slug slamming into a
piping component in its path.
The condensate that often accumulates in a modern HRSG's high-temperature
components (its HP superheaters and reheaters) is the primary constituent of the
slug. Reasons for the accumulation include inadequate drainage of either the
HRSG's components or piping (or both) and unique thermodynamic conditions
created by the starting and stopping of large CTs in cyclic duty.
Cause and effect
The classic trigger of water hammer (technically, "propagative flow") is the rapid
closure of a control valve. When the valve closes, the pressure of the fluid behind it
rises quickly in proportion to the fluid's density (r), the speed of sound in water (a),
and the change in fluid velocity at the valve (Dv). The change in pressure (DP, or
delta-pressure) can be calculated using an equation first developed by N.
Joukowsky in 1898:
The pressure of the wave generated by a water hammer oscillates between P and
DP. The water hammer subsides as DP gradually diminishes.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between fluid density, velocity change, and deltapressure. Water hammer continues as local conditions foster the successive collapse
of pockets of vapor to pockets of liquid, and the vaporization of some of the liquid.
The sequence of rapid pressure fluctuations (particularly the collapse of the vapor
pockets) produces large pressure spikes that are heard as "bangs."

1. Big bang theory. Water hammer is caused by the successive collapse of

pockets of vapor to pockets of liquid and the vaporization of some of the
liquid. The resulting large pressure spikes produce distinctive "bangs."
Data are shown with the water temperature at 150F. Courtesy: Tetra
Engineering Group

Water hammers often cause catastrophic damage to piping supports, adjacent

structural steel, and associated valve stations. The forces they unleash can be
sufficient to strip supports and severely damage steel, and even to destroy large
structural components. Severe water hammer events have even caused plastic
yielding of piping walls.
The extent of the damage from a water hammer depends on the magnitude of the
event and the plant's configuration (Figure 2). The dynamic force delivered to the
piping components by the slug of water is the product of the maximum static force
(DP x A, where A is area) and a dynamic load factor that accounts for the
magnification of static loads:

2. Water hammer damage to cold reheat piping and supports. Courtesy:

Tetra Engineering Group

Although it has been common practice during the design of a combined-cycle plant
to assess whether its piping system can withstand dynamic loads induced by water
hammer transients, such assessments usually assume that the loads on the
system's supports will be periodic. New proprietary software tools capable of fully
evaluating those loads now make it possible to avoid making that assumption.
Based on the RELAP methodology for evaluating severe fluid transients in nuclear
plant piping, the tools transform the partial differential equations that define
transients into a set of ordinary, more easily solvable differential equations.
Water hammer, by design
As mentioned, water hammer's main cause is the accumulation of condensate
during startups and shutdowns of HRSG steam systems. All HRSGs, regardless of
design, produce condensate whenever the water-side temperature inside the
HRSG's reheater and superheater components is below the saturation temperature,
and that is the case during both startups and shutdowns.
During startups, the reheat (RH) pressure is usually controlled by the letdown valve,
whose purpose is to bypass the flow of high-pressure (HP) steam to the STG and
redirect it to the inlet of the reheatertypically, a portion of the cold reheat (CRH)
system near the RH inlet at the HRSG. The bypassing continues until all fluid in the
common steam piping (for multi-unit sites such as 2 x 1 or 3 x 1 configurations) is
drained and temperature-matching permissives for the STG have been satisfied.
CT purges also can foster water hammer and related problems. Although the
temperature of the steam-water mixture may be above saturation when the purge
begins, once it is under way the temperature plummets rapidly, generating
additional condensate. In an HRSG, these conditions can cause severe tube bowing.
In CRH piping, the result can be water hammer.
A second major contributor to some water hammer transients is the action of
attemperation spray valves. In addition to the sprays required to limit steam
temperatures (and the metal temperatures within the STG), both bypass systems
(HP steam to CRH, and HRH to condenser) are typically equipped with dedicated
spray valves to control the temperatures at the inlets to the HRSG reheater and the
condenser.
Some HRSG designs are more susceptible to water hammer than others, due to the
inherent design deficiencies of their spray valves. Leak-by and overspray problems
have been endemic with these valves, with the result that failures of the valves'
internal components are now common at many combined-cycle plants. Damage to a
spray valve's internals can be revealed by inspecting its nozzle assembly. Figure 3
shows an HP superheater spray valve whose internals have failed and whose surface
has been eroded by excessive flow out the bottom weep-hole.

3. Crying shame. Failure of the internals of this HP superheater spray valve

caused excessive flow through its bottom weep-hole, eroding the nozzle's
surface. Courtesy: Tetra Engineering Group

Overspraying is yet another contributor to condensate/water accumulation,

particularly in steam bypass systems such as the letdown from the HP steam to cold
reheat in reheat plants (Figure 4). Too-frequent overspraying can be produced by

HRSG designs that implement module-dependent inter-stage attemperation to

control outlet temperatures far downstream (typically downstream of the finish HP
superheater and/or reheater section).

4. Water, water everywhere. Overspraying can increase condensate/ water

accumulation and thus the frequency of water hammer, particularly in
steam bypass systems such as the letdown from the HP steam to cold
reheat in reheat plants. Courtesy: Tetra Engineering Group

The upside of this design feature is a significant cost saving (by eliminating the
large, typically field-welded outlet header), but its downside is a reduced ability to
control outlet temperatures. Overspraying causes problems in two particular
instances: during startups, when attemperation spray is critical to keep metal
temperatures below design allowables, and at some plants where spray design
problems have limited the ability to meet steam production targets due to HRSG
side-to-side temperature anomalies.
Attemperator spray valves are often the root cause of water hammer events. A
control valve may fail due to operator error, faulty control logic, or inadequate
sequencing of its actionsparticularly during startup. Another common catalyst is
leak-by, which results when the valve's internals are damaged or destroyed by
water hammer, allowing large amounts of cold water to pass through the valve
when it is supposed to be closed. Such flows may produce large amounts of cold
water that cause considerable condensation when the water comes into contact with
components such as crossover piping.
Most leak-by problems have been attributed either to valve fabrication problems or
to failures of the materials of critical nonmetallic valve components. In most cases,
a problem has been rectified by replacing the valve's original parts with more
durable ones.
Passing water
In principle, condensate formed during startups and shutdowns can be
accommodated by draining it either to an atmospheric dump tank or to a blowdown
collection system. In practice, however, the drain systems of modern combined-

cycle plants have been plagued by poor designs, poor field fabrication, and the need
for frequent maintenance. Many plants have experienced one or more drain failures
shortly after commissioning.
The root cause of this problem is that the typical drain system was designed for a
baseloaded plantan infrequent operating mode for today's new combined-cycle
plants. The size, configuration, placement, and valving of drains often render them
incapable of removing the amounts of fluid produced during cycling operations.
Because of the typically heavy use of bypass sprays during startup, the volume of
fluid available to contribute to water hammer can be significant.
Possible remedies
Severe fluid transients like water hammer can cause stresses that exceed the
assumptions of plant designers. An effective program to reduce the likelihood of
water hammer events during startup and shutdown would include many activities,
including these:
Effective training and response of plant operators to transient conditions.
Reviewing and confirming that the plant's startup control logic takes into account
water hammer's "breeding" conditions.
Evaluating the thermal conditions that foster condensate formation.
Assessing the adequacy of the drain system and its valves to remove accumulated
condensate.
Modifying HRSG and large-bore steam piping drains to reduce the accumulation of
fluid and to reduce the time required to meet steam turbine temperature
permissives (as required).
Reviewing the usage and control logic of attemperation spray during startups.
Modifying the logic to increase the margin between the water-side and saturation
temperature during critical periods.
Because of the unique role of the HRSG in the creation of condensate and the
injection of attemperation spray, these activities are largely site-specific. Fluid
transient analysis, although useful to confirm the adequacy of steam piping
supports at the design phase, is largely a forensic tool for reconstructing event
details in the aftermath of a water hammer event.
The author can be reached at pjackson@tetra-eng.com.

3. Crying shame. Failure of the internals of this HP superheater spray valve

caused excessive flow through its bottom weep-hole, eroding the nozzle's
surface. Courtesy: Tetra Engineering Group

Overspraying is yet another contributor to condensate/water accumulation,

particularly in steam bypass systems such as the letdown from the HP steam to cold
reheat in reheat plants (Figure 4). Too-frequent overspraying can be produced by
HRSG designs that implement module-dependent inter-stage attemperation to
control outlet temperatures far downstream (typically downstream of the finish HP
superheater and/or reheater section).

4. Water, water everywhere. Overspraying can increase condensate/ water

accumulation and thus the frequency of water hammer, particularly in
steam bypass systems such as the letdown from the HP steam to cold
reheat in reheat plants. Courtesy: Tetra Engineering Group

The upside of this design feature is a significant cost saving (by eliminating the
large, typically field-welded outlet header), but its downside is a reduced ability to
control outlet temperatures. Overspraying causes problems in two particular
instances: during startups, when attemperation spray is critical to keep metal
temperatures below design allowables, and at some plants where spray design
problems have limited the ability to meet steam production targets due to HRSG
side-to-side temperature anomalies.
Attemperator spray valves are often the root cause of water hammer events. A
control valve may fail due to operator error, faulty control logic, or inadequate
sequencing of its actionsparticularly during startup. Another common catalyst is
leak-by, which results when the valve's internals are damaged or destroyed by
water hammer, allowing large amounts of cold water to pass through the valve
when it is supposed to be closed. Such flows may produce large amounts of cold
water that cause considerable condensation when the water comes into contact with
components such as crossover piping.
Most leak-by problems have been attributed either to valve fabrication problems or
to failures of the materials of critical nonmetallic valve components. In most cases,
a problem has been rectified by replacing the valve's original parts with more
durable ones.
Passing water
In principle, condensate formed during startups and shutdowns can be

accommodated by draining it either to an atmospheric dump tank or to a blowdown

collection system. In practice, however, the drain systems of modern combinedcycle plants have been plagued by poor designs, poor field fabrication, and the need
for frequent maintenance. Many plants have experienced one or more drain failures
shortly after commissioning.
The root cause of this problem is that the typical drain system was designed for a
baseloaded plantan infrequent operating mode for today's new combined-cycle
plants. The size, configuration, placement, and valving of drains often render them
incapable of removing the amounts of fluid produced during cycling operations.
Because of the typically heavy use of bypass sprays during startup, the volume of
fluid available to contribute to water hammer can be significant.
Possible remedies
Severe fluid transients like water hammer can cause stresses that exceed the
assumptions of plant designers. An effective program to reduce the likelihood of
water hammer events during startup and shutdown would include many activities,
including these:
Effective training and response of plant operators to transient conditions.
Reviewing and confirming that the plant's startup control logic takes into account
water hammer's "breeding" conditions.
Evaluating the thermal conditions that foster condensate formation.
Assessing the adequacy of the drain system and its valves to remove accumulated
condensate.
Modifying HRSG and large-bore steam piping drains to reduce the accumulation of
fluid and to reduce the time required to meet steam turbine temperature
permissives (as required).
Reviewing the usage and control logic of attemperation spray during startups.
Modifying the logic to increase the margin between the water-side and saturation
temperature during critical periods.
Because of the unique role of the HRSG in the creation of condensate and the
injection of attemperation spray, these activities are largely site-specific. Fluid
transient analysis, although useful to confirm the adequacy of steam piping
supports at the design phase, is largely a forensic tool for reconstructing event
details in the aftermath of a water hammer event.
The author can be reached at pjackson@tetra-eng.com.

3. Crying shame. Failure of the internals of this HP superheater spray valve

caused excessive flow through its bottom weep-hole, eroding the nozzle's
surface. Courtesy: Tetra Engineering Group

Overspraying is yet another contributor to condensate/water accumulation,

particularly in steam bypass systems such as the letdown from the HP steam to
cold reheat in reheat plants (Figure 4). Too-frequent overspraying can be produced
by HRSG designs that implement module-dependent inter-stage attemperation to
control outlet temperatures far downstream (typically downstream of the finish HP
superheater and/or reheater section).

4. Water, water everywhere. Overspraying can increase condensate/ water

accumulation and thus the frequency of water hammer, particularly in
steam bypass systems such as the letdown from the HP steam to cold
reheat in reheat plants. Courtesy: Tetra Engineering Group

The upside of this design feature is a significant cost saving (by eliminating the
large, typically field-welded outlet header), but its downside is a reduced ability to
control outlet temperatures. Overspraying causes problems in two particular

instances: during startups, when attemperation spray is critical to keep metal

temperatures below design allowables, and at some plants where spray design
problems have limited the ability to meet steam production targets due to HRSG
side-to-side temperature anomalies.
Attemperator spray valves are often the root cause of water hammer events. A
control valve may fail due to operator error, faulty control logic, or inadequate
sequencing of its actionsparticularly during startup. Another common catalyst is
leak-by, which results when the valve's internals are damaged or destroyed by
water hammer, allowing large amounts of cold water to pass through the valve
when it is supposed to be closed. Such flows may produce large amounts of cold
water that cause considerable condensation when the water comes into contact
with components such as crossover piping.
Most leak-by problems have been attributed either to valve fabrication problems or
to failures of the materials of critical nonmetallic valve components. In most cases,
a problem has been rectified by replacing the valve's original parts with more
durable ones.
Passing water
In principle, condensate formed during startups and shutdowns can be
accommodated by draining it either to an atmospheric dump tank or to a blowdown
collection system. In practice, however, the drain systems of modern combinedcycle plants have been plagued by poor designs, poor field fabrication, and the
need for frequent maintenance. Many plants have experienced one or more drain
failures shortly after commissioning.
The root cause of this problem is that the typical drain system was designed for a
baseloaded plantan infrequent operating mode for today's new combined-cycle
plants. The size, configuration, placement, and valving of drains often render them
incapable of removing the amounts of fluid produced during cycling operations.
Because of the typically heavy use of bypass sprays during startup, the volume of
fluid available to contribute to water hammer can be significant.
Possible remedies
Severe fluid transients like water hammer can cause stresses that exceed the
assumptions of plant designers. An effective program to reduce the likelihood of
water hammer events during startup and shutdown would include many activities,
including these:
Effective training and response of plant operators to transient conditions.
Reviewing and confirming that the plant's startup control logic takes into account
water hammer's "breeding" conditions.
Evaluating the thermal conditions that foster condensate formation.
Assessing the adequacy of the drain system and its valves to remove accumulated
condensate.
Modifying HRSG and large-bore steam piping drains to reduce the accumulation of
fluid and to reduce the time required to meet steam turbine temperature
permissives (as required).

 Reviewing the usage and control logic of attemperation spray during startups.
Modifying the logic to increase the margin between the water-side and saturation
temperature during critical periods.
Because of the unique role of the HRSG in the creation of condensate and the
injection of attemperation spray, these activities are largely site-specific. Fluid
transient analysis, although useful to confirm the adequacy of steam piping
supports at the design phase, is largely a forensic tool for reconstructing event
details in the aftermath of a water hammer event.
The author can be reached at pjackson@tetra-eng.com.