INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES AND INTERMOLECULAR

FORCES
*Review
Name
Water

Formula
H2O

Carbon dioxide

CO2

Carbon monoxide

CO

Ammonia

NH3

Sulfur dioxide

SO2

Electron dot diagram

*Difference between intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces

Intra = within
Intramolecular forces (covalent bond)
1. Strong
2. Within molecules
3. Determine chemical properties (reaction)

Inter = between
Intermolecular forces
Weak
Between molecules
Determine physical properties. eg. melting and
boiling points.

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
1. SHAPES OF MOLECULES
The shape of molecules are determined based on the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory (VSEPR)
It has 2 main principles
1. Electron pairs around the central atom in a molecule repel one another as far as apart as
possible.
2. Lone pair - lone pair repulsion > lone pair - bonding pair repulsion
This means the shape of a molecule is determined by the number of bonding pairs and lone pairs
around the central atom.

Shape

Difference of
atoms in the
molecule

Difference of
atoms around
central atom

Difference of
lone e around
central atom

Difference of
bonding around
central atom

Name of shape

Example of molecule

X-Y
Y-X

Linear

H2, CO

Y-X-Y

4 or 6 or 8

Linear

CO2 (

X
Y Y

2 or 4

4 or 6

Bent or V shaped

H2O (

6 or 8

Trigonal planar
or triangular
planar

BF3 (

Y
X
Y Y

X
Y Y Y
Y
X
Y Y Y

Pyramidal or
trigonal
pyramidal

Tetrahedral

NH3 (

CH4 (

2. BONDING POLARITY
Bonding
1. Covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons.
2. The atoms in covalent bonds are nonmetal and semimetal atoms.
3. The atoms may be of different or same types.
4. The ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself in a chemical bond is called
electronegativity types.
5. The ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond increases going across a period and
decreases going down a group.

N
)
H H H

6. For covalent molecules of an element. Eg. O2, Cl2, etc. the difference in electronegativity
between the 2 atoms in the molecule is zero.
* Bond polarity describes how equally bonding electrons are shared between a pair of atoms in a
covalent bond.
* If the electrons are shared equally, the bond is a nonpolar covalent bond.
* If the electrons are shared unequally (one atom has greater attraction) then the bond is a polar
covalent bond.
We can use electronegativity difference (EN) to determine whether a bond is polar or non polar.
EN rage
0 - 0.4
0.5 - 1.6
1.7 - 1.9
2.0

Bond polarity
Non polar bond
Polar covalent bond
Polar covalent if no metal is involved but ionic if there is a metal
Ionic

Note : If a bond polar then the more electronegative atom becomes partially negative ( -) and the
less electronegative atom becomes partially positive (+)
3. MOLECULAR POLARITY
When a covalent bond is polar the atoms involved will have a dipole partial positive and partial
negative charge)
A molecule is polar if it has
1. Polar covalent bonds and
2. Unsymmetrical or non - symmetrical distribution of charge.
A molecule is symmetrical if it has an even distribution of charge.
The charge includes the type of atom and give of electrons involved.
Eg.
is symmetrical because the Cl atoms are evenly distributed around the
B atom and there are no lone pair electrons.

Cl

is unsymmetrical because the types of atoms around the B atom are

different.
Cl

Note : Symmetrical: no lone pair electron surround central atom and the same atoms surround
central atom.
Symmetrical - non polar

Unsymmetrical - polar

Even distribution means the charges are at equal angles and of the same type.
If a molecule has polar covalent bonds and is unsymmetrical then it will have a net dipole
(similar to a net force) in one direction.
If a molecule has polar bonds but is symmetrical then its dipole will cancel out and the net dipole
will be zero. So the molecule will be non polar.
* Some molecules are slightly polar if they have nonpolar covalent bonds but are unsymmetrical.
4. EXERCISES
Determine the shapes of the following molecules and the polarity of the bonds between
their atoms.
Formula
1. NCl3
2. PH3
3. BCl3 (B just need 6 electrons)
4. CH3Cl
5. SO2
6. N2O

Name of the shape

pyramidal

Polarity
Non polar bond

Complete the following table

Formula
F2
H2O
HCl
CH4
NH3

Lewis structure

Molecular shape

Name of shape

Polarity

N =N

Linear

Non polar

CBr4
CS2
SO2
H2CO
H2Se
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
1. TYPE OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Type of force

1. Dispersion
force

2. Dipoledipole force

3. Hydrogen
bond

4. Ion-dipole
force

Polarity of
molecules
Main force
between non polar
molecules but also
found between
polar molecules

Found between
polar molecules
only

Example of substance

Origin of the force

Temporary uneven
distribution of electron
cloud around a molecule,
resulting in temporary
dipoles in neighbouring
molecules. This results in
a temporary attraction.
Permanent attraction
between partial positive
and partial negative ends
of neighbouring polar
molecules.

Factor that determine the

strength
1. How closely the molecules
are packed (the closer, the
stronger the force)
2. The sizes of the electron
clouds (count the total
difference of electrons in
molecules).
The net dipole of the
molecules, also determined
by how polar the bonds are.

Found between
polar molecules
with H-N, H-F or
H-O bonds (polar)

Attraction between highly

partial positive H atoms
and lone electrons on a
highly electronegative
with a polar molecule.

The number of H atoms and

lone electrons combination
available to form hydrogen
bonds.

Found between
positive or
negative ion and
polar molecule

Attraction between
opposite charges (partial
positive atom and
negative ion or partial
negative and positive ion).

1. The charge of the ion

involved (the greater the
charge the stronger the
attraction IF ionic sizes are
equal).
2. The polarity of the
molecules involved (the
more polar, the stronger the
attraction).

Ion dipole force > hydrogen bonding > dipole dipole force > dispersion force
*Review
Type of intermolecular force
1. Dispersion force
2. Dipole - dipole force
3. Hydrogen bonding
4. Ion - dipole force

Example of substance with this force

CO2
H2S
HF
KCl (aq)

2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Melting and boiling points
The melting point of H2O is 0oC and its boiling point is 100 oC.
The strength of intermolecular forces in covalent molecular substances
determine how high their melting and boiling points are.
When comparing their melting points and boiling points we must consider:
1. The polarity of the substances.
2. The type of intermolecular forces present.
3. The strengths of the forces and amount of energy needed to break them.
Example.
1. Explain why CO has a higher boiling point than CO2.
CO is a polar covalent substance with dipole - dipole and dispersion forces between its
molecules.
CO2 is a non polar substance with dispersion forces between its molecules.
The combination of dipole - dipole and dispersion forces in CO is stronger and need more heat
energy to be broken than the dispersion forces in CO2.
2. Explain why Cl2 has a higher boiling point than O2.
Both Cl2 and O2 are non polar covalent substances with dispersion force between their molecules.
However, Cl2 has more electrons between its molecules and produces stronger dispersion forces
than in O2 so dispersion forces in Cl2 need more heat energy to be broken.
3. Explain why C10H22 has higher boiling point than HF.

C10H22 is a non polar substance with dispersion forces between its molecules.
HF is a polar covalent substance with dispersion forces, dipole - dipole forces and hydrogen
bond between its molecules.
The combination of dispersion forces, dipole - dipole forces and hydrogen bond in HF is stronger
but C10H22 has much more electrons between its molecules so it will produces much more
stronger dispersion forces so C10H22 need more heat energy to be broken.

* Possible comparisions between melting and boiling points of substances

Substance A

Polar molecule
with small size

Non polar molecule

with small size

Polar molecule with H

- bonding

Substance B

Non polar
molecule with
small size

Non polar molecule

with bigger size

Non polar molecule

much bigger ( about 8
- 10 times)

Substance with higher

boiling point and melting
point

Substance A

Substance B

Substance B

* Other difference that may affect melting and boiling points

1. Molecules with the same molecular formula but difference structural formula due to presence
of branches. The less branched has higher boiling point
Eg. Butane and methyl propane
2. Two polar substances with hydrogen bonding, and with similar molecular sizes, but difference
possibilities to form hydrogen bonds.
* The substance with more hydrogen bonds has higher melting and boiling points.
Eg. H2O has higher melting and boiling points than NH3 and HF.

Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of a substance (called a solute) that can dissolve in a fixed
amount of another substance (called the solvent).

The solute is the substance in a smaller amount and the solvent is the substance in larger
amount.
Eg. in a salt water, the solute is salt and the solvent is water.
The temperature at which solubility is measured must be stated since solubility changes as
temperature increase or decreases.
For substance to dissolve in another, the following processes must occur.
1. The solute - solute bond break.
2. the solvent - solvent bonds break
3. New solute - solvent bonds are equal.
If solute - solvent bonds are stronger than or similar to the solute - solute and solvent - solvent
bonds, then the solute can dissolve.
If not then the solute cannot dissolve.
The bonds responsible for solubility covalent substances are intermolecular forces.
To predict if a solute is soluble in another substance we need to:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Determine the polarity of the two substances.

Determine the solute - solute and solvent - solvent intermolecular forces.
Determine the possible solute - solvent intermolecular forces.
Compare the strength of the solute - solvent intermolecular force to the solute - solute and
solvent - solvent intermolecular force.

The general rule for solubility is that "like dissolve like". This means polar solutes dissolve in
polar solvents and non polar solutes dissolve in non polar solvent.
However, ionic solutes also dissolve in polar solvents. Some substances are partly polar and
partly non polar solvents, They cannot as solvents for polar and non polar solutes.
* Summary of solubility outcomes between ionic, polar covalent and non polar covalent
substances
Solute
1. polar substance
2. ionic substance

Solvent
Polar substance
Polar substance

3. ionic substance
4. polar substance
5. non polar substance
6. partly polar and partly non

Non polar substance

Non polar substance
Non polar substance
Polar substance

Solubility
Soluble
Soluble, depend on solubility
rules for ionic substances
Insoluble
Insoluble
Soluble
Soluble but solubility decrease as

polar substance
7. partly polar and partly non Non polar substance
polar substance

the non polar part gets bigger

Soluble but solubility decrease as
the non polar part gets smaller

* Example of polar covalent, non polar covalent and ionic substances

Type of substance
1. Polar covalent solvent

2. Non polar covalent solvents

3. Partly polar and partly non polar solvents

4. Ionic solutes

Examples
- Water (H2O)
- Ethanol (CH3CH2OH)
- Carboxylic acids (CnH2n+1COOH)
- Kerosene
- Petrol
- Oils
- Methylbenzene
- Ethanol (CH3CH2OH)
- Alcohol (CnH2n+1OH)
NaCl, KCl, MgBr2, CuSO4

* Explanation checklist
1. Which is the more suitable solvent?
2. What is the polarity of each substance?
3. What type of intermolecular forces are found in each substance?
4. What forces are formed when the substances are mixed?
5. How strong are the new forces formed compared to forces in each substance.

Vapour pressure
Vapour is the gaseous state of a substance that is normally liquid at room temperature.
Pressure is the force of collision between particles and the walls of their container.
Vapour pressure or equilibrium vapour pressure is a measure of the tendency or ability of
substance to evaporate (change from liquid to gas).

1. What needs to happen for a substance to evaporate?

The intermolecular forces between its particles need to be broken.
2. What is the relationship between the strength of intermolecular forces and the ability to
evaporate?
The stronger the intermolecular forces the lower the ability to evaporate at any given temperature
3. How is vapour pressure affected by the strength of intermolecular forces?
The weaker the intermolecular forces the higher the vapour pressure and vice versa.
4. Why do stronger intermolecular forces result in weaker vapour pressure?
Since there are stronger attractions between the liquid molecules, fewer particles are able to
separate from one another and change into gas. As a result the pressure caused by the fewer gas
particles is lower.
5. How is boiling point related to intermolecular forces and vapour pressure?
Boiling point is reached when the vapour pressure of a substance equals atmospheric pressure
(100 Pa). Substances with weaker intermolecular forces produce more vapour and reach boiling
point at lower temperatures.

WATER
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat that 1g of water needed can absorb or release before
a change in temperature by 1oC.
Or: The amount of heat needed to change the temperature of 1g of water by 1oC.
*Application
1. - Water bodies like lakes, rivers and seas can absorb a lot of heat energy from the sun without
much increase in temperature.
- This is an advantage to water organisms like fish because their environment does not change
very much as they can survive.
- In addition, enough oxygen is able to dissolve in the water allowing the organisms to breathe
well (higher temperature lowers solubility of gases).
2. Water is a very effective coolant for factory machines and car engines.
- Its high specific heat capacity allows it to absorb much heat before a large increase in
temperature.
Why does water have such a high specific heat capacity?
Temperature change depends on change in average K.E of particles in a substance. Average K.E
depends in speed of movement.
Speed of movement depends on the amount of heat available and the strength of intermolecular
forces in substance.
Water has mainly strong hydrogen bonding between its molecules. This means a lot of heat
energy is needed in order to weaken the hydrogen bonding so that the molecules can move faster
and cause the temperature to change even by 1oC.