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Aerospace Engineering Aerodynamics Lab Exercises
Aerospace Engineering Aerodynamics Lab Exercises
September, 2013
P. Walsh
J. Karpynczyk
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Laboratory Instructions ..2
General Safety Rules and Regulations ...4
Nomenclature 6
Lab # 1
Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis (room KHE-33) ..7
Lab # 2
Pressure Distribution on the NACA 0015 (room KHE-33).13
Lab # 3
Effect of Flaps and Slats
(room KHE-33)
.19
Laboratory Instructions
(i)
ALL students must attend the laboratory in order to receive credit. Lab reports are
to be done in pairs. Students are responsible for performing an equitable share of
the lab report preparation.
(ii)
Lab reports are to be prepared with any standard word processor. Hand written labs
will NOT be accepted.
(iii)
Guidelines for writing lab reports are given in Appendix C, but as a minimum each
report should contain the following sections:
Title Page
Obtain at: www.ryerson.ca/aerospace/undergraduate/coverassignmentsheet/
Lab report grading table, obtain from Blackboard, AER 504 site
Main Body of Report
Abstract
Short Introduction
Description of the data analysis, theory, and procedures (not for CFD labs)
Results and Discussion
Brief Conclusion
References (if necessary)
Appendix
Graphs of results (if applicable)
A sample calculation
Raw experimental data
(iv)
The main body of the report must be concise, with no more than four pages (in 12
point font). Lab reports exceeding this length will be penalized 10% per extra page.
The technical writing in the lab reports is therefore expected to be of high quality
and low quantity.
(v)
No restriction is placed on the length of the Appendix. Graphs contained within the
report must have a title, labeled axes, and a legend if more than one set of data is
presented on one plot. Electronically generated plots are expected.
(vi)
Sample calculations and raw experimental data should be placed in the report
Appendix and must be presented neatly and be clearly labeled. Figures must be
numbered, have a descriptive caption, and be reference in the text of the report.
(vii)
Lab reports are given a grade out of 10, with individual points given for technical
content, formatting, presentation, spelling and grammar. The grading template is
given in Appendix E.
(viii) Material and figures taken from external sources must be clearly referenced.
(ix)
Be aware that partial or complete plagiarism will result in a grade of 0 for all
parties concerned and will result in further disciplinary action up to a grade
of F in the course.
(x)
Lab reports must use the standard cover page obtained from the departmental
website given in point (iii) above. All students responsible for the report must sign
the cover page in the designated space. Digital signatures are NOT acceptable.
Students not signing the report will not receive a grade for the lab.
(xi)
Lab reports are due 1 week after the lab is conducted. Reports submitted late will
be penalized 10% per day. Labs are to be placed in the Instructors box across from
office (ENG 149) before 3:00 pm on the due date.
FOR
The following safety rules and regulations are to be followed in all Aerospace Engineering laboratories and research facilities. These
rules and regulations are to insure that all personnel working in these laboratories and research areas are protected, and that a safe
working environment is maintained.
1.Horseplay is hazardous and will not be tolerated.
2. No student may work alone in the laboratory at any time, except to prepare operating procedures for equipment or data writeup/reduction/simulations.
3. Required personal protective equipment (PPE) will be provided by the Department for use whenever specified by the Faculty,
Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant, .i.e., hearing protection, face shields, dust masks, gloves, etc.
4. Contact lenses will not be worn in the laboratory when vapours or fumes are present.
5. Safety glasses with side shields and plastic lenses will be required when operating targeted class experiments as outlined in the
experimental procedures. Splash goggles or face shields will also be provided and worn also, for those experiments which have been
identified as a requirement.
6. Each student must know where the location of the First Aid box, emergency equipment, eye wash station is, if required in the
laboratories, shops, and storage areas.
7. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants must know how to use the emergency equipment and have the knowledge
to take action when an accident has occurred, .i.e., emergency telephone number, location, emergency response services.
8. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants, and Research Assistants, must be familiar with all elements of fire safety:
alarm, evacuation and assembly, fire containment and suppression, rescue.
9. Ungrounded wiring and two-wire extension cords are prohibited. Worn or frayed extension cords or those with broken connections
or exposed wiring must not be used. All electrical devices must be grounded before they are turned on.
10. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants, and Research Assistants, must be familiar with an approved emergency
shutdown procedure before initiating any experiment.
11. There will be NO deviation from approved equipment operating procedures.
12. All laboratory aisles and exits must remain clear and unblocked.
13. No student may sniff, breathe, or inhale any gas or vapour used or produced in any experiment.
14. All containers must be labeled as to the content, composition, and appropriate hazard warning: flammable, explosive, toxic, etc.
15. The instructions on all warning signs must be read and obeyed in all laboratories and research facilities.
16. All liquid and solid waste must be segregated for disposal according to Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant
instructions. All acidic and alkaline waste should be neutralized prior to disposal. NOTE: NO organic waste material is to be poured
down the sink or floor drains. These wastes should be property placed in designed waste disposal containers, labeled and stored in the
departments flammable storage cabinet which is ventilated and secured.
17. Good housekeeping must be practiced in all teaching and research laboratories, shops, and storage areas.
5
18. Eating, drinking, use of any tobacco products, gum chewing or application of makeup are strictly prohibited in the laboratories,
shops, and storage areas.
19. Only chemicals may be placed in the Chemicals Only refrigerator. Only food items may be placed in the Food Only refrigerator.
Ice from any refrigerator is not be used for human consumption or to cool any food or drink.
20. Glassware breakage must be disposed in the cardboard boxes marked Glass Disposal. Any glassware breakage and malfunctioning
instruments or equipment must be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant present.
21. All injuries, accidents, and near misses must be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant. The Accident
Report must be completed as soon as possible after the event by the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant and reported
to the Departmental Safety Officer immediately. Any person involved in an accident must be sent or escorted to the University Health
Centre. All accidents are to be REPORTED.
22. All chemical spills are to be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant, whose direction must be followed
for containment and cleanup. Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant will follow the prescribed instructions for cleanup
and decontamination of the spill area. The Departmental Safety Officer must be notified when a major spill has been reported.
23. All students and Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant must wash their hands before leaving targeted laboratories,
research facilities or shops.
24. No tools, supplies, or any other items may be tossed from one person to another.
25. Compressed gas cylinders must be secured at all times. Proper safety procedures must be followed when moving compressed gas
cylinders. Cylinders not in use must be capped.
26. Only gauges that are marked Use no oil are for Oxygen cylinders. Do not use an oiled gauge for any oxidizing or reactive gas.
27. Students are never to play with compressed gas hoses or lines or point their discharges at any person.
28. Do not use adapters or try to modify any gas regulator or connection.
29. There will be no open flames or heating elements used when volatile chemicals are exposed to the air.
30. Any toxic chemicals will be only be exposed to the air in a properly ventilated Fume Hood. Flammable chemicals will be exposed
to the air only under a properly ventilated hood or in an area which is adequately ventilated.
31. Personal items brought into the laboratory or research facility must be limited to those things necessary for the experiment and safe
operation of the equipment in the laboratories and research facilities.
32. General laboratory coats, safety footwear are not provided by the Department of Aerospace Engineering, although some targeted
laboratories and research areas will be supported by a reasonable stock of protective clothing and accessories, i.e., gloves, welding
aprons, dust masks, face shields, safety glasses, etc.
33. Equipment that has been deemed unsafe must be tagged and locked out of service by the Technical Officer in charge of the laboratory
or research facility. The Departmental Safety Officer must be notified of the equipment lockout IMMEDIATELY!
34. In June 1987 both the Federal & Ontario Governments passed legislation to implement the workplace hazardous material
information system or WHMIS across Canada. WHMIS was designed to give workers the right-to-know about hazardous material to
which they are exposed to on the job. Any person who is required to handle any hazardous material covered by this act should first read
the label and the products material safety data sheet (MSDS). No student is to handle any hazardous materials unless supervised by a
Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant. The laboratory Technical Officer, Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching
Assistant is responsible for ensuring that any hazardous materials are stored safely using WHMIS recommended methods and storage
procedures. All MSDS must be displayed and stored in a readily accessible place known to all users in the workplace and laboratory
35. All the foregoing rules and regulations are in addition to the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1987.
36. Casual visitors to the laboratory and research areas are to be discouraged and must have permission from the Faculty, Engineering
Support or Teaching Assistant to enter. All visitors must adhere to the safety guidelines and is the responsibility of the visitor.
37. Only the Safety Officer may make changes to these policies upon confirmation of the Safety Committee and approval of the
Department Chair.
Nomenclature
Ai
A
C
c
D
ds, ds
i
L
LE, TE
M,m
N
p
R
r,
u,v
V
x,y
xcp, xac
Area of surface i
Axial force on an airfoil, chordwise direction
Dimensionless force/moment/location coefficient
Airfoil chord length
Drag force on an airfoil, opposite to flight direction
Incremental surface area vector, incremental length
Index variable
Lift force on an airfoil, normal to flight direction
Leading edge, trailing edge
Moment acting on airfoil (Nm)
Unit vector normal to a surface
Normal force on an airfoil, perpendicular to the chord
Static pressure
Resultant force on an airfoil, vector sum of L,D or A,N
Polar spatial coordinates
Unit vector tangent to a surface
Velocity components in the x,y cartesian directions respectively
Velocity vector
Cartesian spatial coordinates
location of center of pressure, aerodynamic center (from the LE)
Angle of attack
Doublet strength
Stream function
Air density
Lab # 1
Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis
1V1 A1 2V2 A2
(1)
If the flow is incompressible ( as will be the case for this lab ), the density of the air will
be constant throughout the wind tunnel segment and;
V1 A1 V2 A2
(2)
If it is also assumed that there are no losses caused by the viscosity of the air (inviscid),
then by Bernoullis equation;
p1
2
2
1
1
V1 p2 V2
2
2
(3)
Equations 1 and 2 can be solved to find the theoretical velocity V2th at any section;
V2th
2( p1 p2 ) /
1 A2
A
1
Cv
V2 act
V2th
If this coefficient remains constant as the velocity in the wind tunnel is varied, it can be
used as a correction factor to find the actual velocity from the theoretical,
V2act Cv V2th
Inlet cross-section
Outlet cross-section
48 in.
4.75 in.
18 in.
45o
10
The surface forces acting on the control volume are a result of air pressure and the
reaction from the airfoil itself denoted as R.
Surface Forces
pdS - R
The integration is carried out over the entire outer surface of the control volume. The net
force acting on the airfoil R, is a result of surface shear stress and pressure. The reaction
R is negative in the integral momentum equation since the force applied to the control
volume is each in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted on the airfoil
by the flow of air, consistent with Newtons third law, as demonstrated in figure 1.3.
Figure 1.2: Outline of the control volume inside the small subsonic wind tunnel,
not including the airfoil.
Figure 1.3: Force exerted on the airfoil by the flow of air and the opposing
reaction on the control volume, by Newtons third law
The steady-state integral momentum equation can be written:
(V dS)V pdS - R
or
R
(V dS)V pdS.
11
The drag force can be isolated by considering the horizontal component of this equation
only:
Drag R x ( V dS)u pdSx
Since the control volume boundaries were selected to coincide with the Cartesian
coordinate axis, only the inflow and outflow planes need be considered when evaluating
the integral. For low subsonic flight speeds, the pressure and density at these planes will
be nearly uniform and equal. Therefore, the pressure integral can be dropped for the
calculation of the drag force.
t
t
t
Here, the two-dimensional nature of the flow and the alignment of the boundaries with
the coordinate axis have reduced the equation further. Note that the vector dS is an
outward normal to the local control volume surface with a magnitude equal to an
incremental surface area. With the assumption that the inflow velocity is uniform and the
density constant, the equation can be further simplified.
Experimental Equipment
Procedure
1. Ensure that the wind tunnel discharge area is clear of objects that could become
airborne when the tunnel is started ( paper, rags, binders, people etc. ) and make sure
that the students are well behind the floor safety strip. Set the baffle at the wind
tunnel inlet to the fully open position (5/5) and start the wind tunnel. Record the wind
tunnel manometer reading (inclined manometer attached to the two pressure taps
located at the two areas). This will provide the theoretical velocity. The actual
velocity is determined from the manometer attached to the handheld pitot-static tube
mounted ahead of the airfoil at the test section, record this value also. Be sure to
record the air temperature in the room. See Appendices A and B for analysis.
2. Close the baffle at the wind tunnel inlet to the 4/5 position and repeat the
measurements. Do the same for the 3/5, 2/5, and 1/5 positions.
3. Calculate V2act, V2th and Cv for each wind tunnel setting. The appendix section on
pitot-static tubes may be of assistance.
4. With the wind tunnel off and the manometer rake in place record the zero reading on
the rake pitot tubes. Set the angle of attack to 10 degrees and open the baffle fully.
Start the tunnel and record all of the pitot tube values of the rake. Be sure to record
the air temperature in the room and the inclination of the manometer. Record the
value of uI using the tunnel manometer. Do the same procedure for angles of attack
of 15 and 20 degrees.
12
Results
1. With the results obtained in procedure 3, plot V2act vs. V2th and Cv vs. V2act.
Determine if the velocity coefficient can be used as a correction factor for the
theoretical velocity.
2. Compute the drag force on the airfoil at the three attack angles considered by
numerically integrating the velocity profile. Note that the integral between a pitot
tube at j and an adjacent one at j+1 can be approximated as:
j 1
1
(u o2 ui2 )dy (u 2j u 2j 1 ) o (u 2j u 2j 1 ) i y j 1 y j
2
j
Note
a) Density is assumed constant and that ui is constant for all j.
b) This approximation must be repeated between all pitot tubes and summed in order
to estimate total drag.
c) The pitot tubes do not measure velocity at the wall. You will need to extrapolate a
uo value at the wall from nearby internal values.
d) Values of uo will be nearly constant at the wall but will not be the same as ui.
Initial
Profile
Wake
Profile
ui uo,max
uo,max
ui
uo,min
3. Given that the airfoil has a chord length of 15.24 cm, calculate the drag coefficient
per unit span of the three attack angles. Compare to results you find in literature.
Questions
1. How could you improve the measurements of drag using the wake rake?
2. Is the assumption of uo,max > ui a valid one? Explain.
Reference
Rae, W.H., Pope, A., Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing 2nd Ed., John Wiley, 1984.
13
Lab # 2
Pressure Distribution on the NACA 0015
14
Upper Surface
X
V
Leading
Edge (LE)
X=0
Trailing
Edge (TE)
Lower Surface
A
Figure 2.1: Airfoil conventions
X=c
Conventions used in this lab are defined in the figure above. The x,y coordinate axis is
aligned with the airfoil as shown. Here, N is the normal force, A the axial force, R the
resultant force, L and D the lift and drag respectively. The normal (n) and tangent (t)
vectors to the airfoil surface are defined as:
n sin( )i cos( ) j
t cos( )i sin( ) j
Here, is the angle between a line tangent to the airfoil surface and the positive x axis, or
the angle between a normal line from the surface and the positive y axis ( measured
positive in the clockwise direction). To obtain the proper orientation, note that
-180o < < +180o.
Y
ds
n
t
X
=0
+
Airfoil
surface
dR pnds t ds
15
Since the shear stress is assumed small (in this case), it is ignored. The total force due to
pressure is formed by integration around the entire surface of the airfoil:
The axial and normal force components are
R pn
ds
))ds
p(i sin(
) jpcos(
R
p
(sin(
R
A
N
(cos())))dsds
R A pdy RN pdx
The integration above is carried out in a closed loop in the clockwise direction about the
airfoil, consistent with Aerospace convention. To avoid confusion with the class text, the
integration will instead be conducted from leading to trailing edge, on upper and lower
surfaces.
It is convenient to place the pressures in terms of pressure coefficient since the pressure
difference obtained by the manometers is essentially p p , (see Appendix A)
p p
CP
2
1
V
2
The normal force coefficient CN (per unit airfoil length), can be found from;
1
x
(C PU C PL )d
2
1
c
0
V c
2
The subscripts U and L refer to the upper surface and lower surface respectively and c is
the chord length. This integration is easily done since the airfoil is symmetric and the
segments are the same on both surfaces. It should also be noted that the coefficients in
this lab are computed on a per unit length of airfoil basis since only a two-dimensional
pressure profile is used. The axial force coefficient (per unit length):
CN
CA
A
2
1
V c
2
(C PU
0
yu
yl x
C Pl
)d
x
x c
C L C N cos( ) C A sin( )
C D C N sin( ) C A cos( )
The pitching moment coefficient at the leading edge caused by the normal force is:
CM N
Caused by the axial force:
M LEN
x
x
(C PU C PL ) d
2 2
1
c
c
0
V c
2
16
1
y y
y y x
C PU U C Pl l d
2 2
1
x c U
x c L c
0
V c
2
The Total moment about the leading edge ( per unit length of wing ) is:
CM A
M LE A
C M LE C M A C M N
Procedure
1. Holding the symmetrical airfoil by its supports, center the model horizontally at the
mouth of the subsonic wind tunnel.
2. Clamp the model with 4 C clamps that are available.
3. Loosen the brass incidence set screw, and gently set the trailing edge (TE) of the
model to zero degrees angle of attack.
4. Hook-up all 21 static pressure lines in numerical order to the multi tube manometer
and incline the manometer to 30 degrees.
5. Ensure that the wind tunnel discharge area is clear of objects that could become
airborne when the device is started (paper, rags, binders, people etc. ) and make sure
that students are well behind the floor safety strip. Set the baffle at the wind tunnel
inlet to the fully open position (5/5) and start the wind tunnel. Observe the pressure
distribution pattern on the multi tube manometer. The pressure distribution for a
symmetric airfoil at zero degrees angle of attack should be symmetric as shown in
figure 2.3 below.
Datum
4 5 ..
11
..
20 21
17
8. At this zero angle of attack and with the wind tunnel inlet baffle fully open, record the
wind tunnel manometer and all 21 static pressure tap readings on the multi tube
manometer inclined at 30 degrees. Record the level at the remaining stations, this is
the datum Patm. All pressures will be calculated from this datum.
9. Repeat the procedure at 10, 12o, 14, 16, and 18 degrees angle of attack. Note that
the green fluid is water and that a pressure higher than atmospheric will push the level
in a tube BELOW the datum level. In your calculations, the value of P-Pdatum should
yield a positive value at the stagnation point.
Report
1. Compute the corrected tunnel velocity for each attack angle using the correction
coefficient found in lab 1. Using a spreadsheet, convert all pressure tap readings to
pressure coefficient values. Average the readings at taps 1 and 21 to get a value for
the trailing edge.
2. Calculate the normal, axial, and moment coefficients for each angle of attack using
the same spreadsheet and an appropriate approximation. Then compute CL, CD, CM,
and Ccp for each angle. Note the appendix on the next page provides numerical
approximations.
3. Plot CL, CD, and Ccp vs. angles of attack.
4. Plot CL vs. CM for all angles of attack. Find the aerodynamic center (as a percentage
of chord) by computing the inverse slope of this line.
5. Discuss the characteristics of the NACA 0015 in terms of its lift/drag behavior. What
was the stall angle of this airfoil? How does this compare with other values found in
literature? Is the aerodynamic center where it was expected?
Table 2.1: Coordinates of the pressure taps and numbering scheme on the NACA 0015
Taps
X (cm)
Y (cm)
Y
11
11
0
0
10,12
9,13
8,14
7,15
6,16
5,17
4,18
3,19
2,20
1,21
T.E.
15.240
0
X
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
18
19
i=6
10
i=4 5
i=11
X
j=4 5
j=6
10
j=11
y
y
CM A 12 CPU U yU CPl l yL dx
c 0
x
x
n
m
1 C C
P (i )
P (i 1) yi 1 yi yi 1 yi CP ( j ) CP ( j 1) y j 1 y j y j 1 y j
2
4c i1
j 1
c
n
m
1
CN (CPU CPL )dx 1 CP( j ) CP( j 1) x j 1 x j CP(i) CP(i 1) xi 1 xi
c0
2c j 1
i 1
y
y
C A 1 (CPU u CPl l )dx
c0
x
x
m
n
20
Lab # 3
Effect of Flaps and Slats
21
Symmetric airfoil with slat and flat components: chord=15.0 cm, span=35.5 cm
Small sub-sonic wind tunnel
Pyramidal strain gage balance
Data signal amplifier and analysis software
Procedure
1. Install the airfoil on the test stand in the wind tunnel. The slat and flap should be in
the retracted position. The windows should cover the test section when the tunnel is
in operation. Be careful not to bump or place any weight on the strain gage balance.
2. Turn on the data acquisition system located under the table by the side of the wind
tunnel. Then turn on the computer. Once the computer is up, double click the wind
tunnel data acquisition icon.
3. Before data can be taken, the lift, drag, and moment gages must be zeroed. Click on
the tare button just underneath each of the five gages. Figure 3.1 below shows the
appearance of the data acquisition display.
4. Ensure that the wind tunnel discharge area is clear of objects that could become
airborne when the tunnel is started ( paper, rags, binders, people etc. ) and make sure
that students are well behind the floor safety strip. Set the baffle at the wind tunnel
inlet to the fully open position (5/5) and start the wind tunnel.
5. Turn on the tunnel again and observing the lift parameter. You may need to
aerodynamically reset the symmetrical wing for zero angle of attack (zero lift at zero
angle of attack) With zero degrees angle of attack indicated on the test stand, adjust
the orientation of the stand with the knob just underneath the model holder. Adjust
22
the orientation until zero lift is produced. This is the true zero degree angle
orientation. Tare all gages.
6. With the baffle fully open, read the lift, drag, and moment. Increase the angle of
attack in two degree increments up to and including 20 degrees while recording all
parameters. When complete, reduce the angle of attack back to zero. Turn off the
tunnel.
7. Fully deploy the slat on the model without removing it from the test stand. Repeat
procedure 6.
8. Set the flap on the model with the provided tool to 45 degrees flap angle. Repeat
procedure 6.
9. Retract slat on the model while leaving the flap in place. Repeat procedure 6.
10. Shut down the wind tunnel, the computer, and the data acquisition system in that
order.
Report
1. Create three plots: CL vs. , CD vs. , and CMle/CL vs. . On each plot, put the results
of the four test cases.
2. Compute the center of pressure xcp and the aerodynamic center xac for each case.
Discussion
In your report, discuss:
1. The airfoil performance with the high lift devices compared to the baseline case.
2. The changes in the lift and drag curves with the flap and slat.
3. The influence of these devices on stall angle. What configuration would you
recommend in take-off? In landing?
4. How do these devices change the center of pressure and aerodynamic center?
23
Appendix A: Manometers
24
Appendix A: Manometers
Manometers are simple devices that are used extensively in this course to provide
accurate pressure measurements. It is essential for the students to have a good
understanding of the fundamental principles involved. Any fluid mechanics text will have
a discussion of manometry under the topic of hydrostatics. To assist the student a very
brief discussion is provided here.
In a fluid at rest, the pressure at any point will vary according to:
p
z
z
Here, is the specific weight of the fluid, which is a product of its density and the
gravitational constant g, = g . The coordinate z , decreases in the direction opposite to
the direction of gravity. In other words, z grows in magnitude with increasing height.
Integration of this expression yields an expression relating the pressure at some point z to
the pressure at the datum po where z = 0,
p( z ) po z
Note that in this reference frame z will be a negative value, which means that pressure
will increase with depth. A more intuitive reference frame measures depth in a positive
sense, with h being the depth of the fluid,
p po h
This simple relation allows an analysis of hydrostatic systems. Consider the manometer
below;
A
h1
Datum
h=0
1
3
h2
Appendix A: Manometers
25
p A 1h1 2 (h2 h1 ) 3 h2 p B
If the fluids have very different specific weights, the fluid with the smaller specific
weight can usually be ignored with very little loss of accuracy. For instance, in the above
problem, if 1 and 3 were both air ( = 11.4 N/m3 ) and fluid 2 was water,
2 = 9810 N/m3 , the effects of the air can be ignored to produce,
p B p A 2 (h2 h1 )
It should be emphasized that the depths included in these expressions are vertical depths.
An inclined manometer can be considered if vertical depths are obtained after conversion
of the inclined depth L via h = Lsin(). Where, is the angle from the horizontal of the
inclined tube.
26
P1
P1 , V1
P2
Datum
P1
V1
2( P2 P1 )
(2)
The pressure difference is measured by an inclined manometer, which can measure slight
pressure differences with reasonable accuracy. The manometer fluid is often coloured
water, but other fluids such as mercury can be used if the pressure differences are large.
Whatever the fluid, its specific gravity ( SG ) must be known. Specific gravity is defined
as;
SG
fluid
H O at 4
2
Hydrostatic relations give the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid with vertical
height h and specific gravity SG as;
27
p SG H 2O g h
Here, g is the gravitational constant ( g = 9.81 m/s2 ) and H2O is 1000 kg/m3. This
relation provides a means of determining the pressure difference P2 P1 in equation 2.
With the inclined manometer shown in the figure, the vertical height of the column of
fluid is;
h L sin( )
Where, L is the inclined length of the fluid column and the angle of incline of the
column with the horizontal. Caution is advised with the calculation of the vertical height
h, some fixed inclined manometers measure L with the slope already included. This
means that the scale on the manometer reads Lsin() and not just L.
Combining these relations the air velocity can be found from;
V1
2 SG f H 2O g L sin( )
air
Note that the specific gravity of the manometer fluid is denoted as SGf , and the density
of the air in the wind tunnel is air.
28
29
Title Page
The title of the lab report should be concise, with no more than 10 words. It should give
the reader exact information about the subject of the work only. It should not contain any
information about the results or the conclusions. It should also contain the following:
Names and student numbers of all authors and contributors
The date and time the lab was performed
The section numbers of all authors
The names of the TA and course professor
Abstract
The abstract is a summary of the entire report and should be written last. Usually, an
abstract should be between 100 and 200 words in length and is placed at the beginning of
the report. The function of an abstract is to give a reader a general overview of the report.
The reader can then decide to read further if he or she is interested. The abstract should
be concise and provide specific details of the work and the results. A good abstract will
answer the following questions:
1) What was done in the lab or experiment?
2) How was the lab or experiment performed?
3) What was found?
4) What was concluded?
Introduction
You cannot assume that your reader has an in-depth knowledge of the subject area of the
report. You must then lead the reader from a point of general knowledge of the topic to
the point of specific knowledge necessary to benefit from reading the remainder of the
report. Questions that should be answered are:
1) What has been done in this area in the past?
To answer this, the author must develop a historical prospective based on cited
works that are listed in the References section. Accepted facts and knowledge
gaps in the subject area should be mentioned.
2) What is the significance of the results?
After the literature review given in the last step, it should be easy to place the
present report in it historical prospective. Give an indication of where the results
of the report fit in and how it contributes to the body of knowledge of the subject
area.
3) Why was this specific study performed?
You should present the specific hypothesis and experimental design being
investigated.
Data Analysis, theoretical Background and Procedures
In longer reports based on broad investigations it is sometimes necessary to give the
reader an overview of the subject through a development of its theory. A mathematical
development, if applicable, is appropriate along with a discussion of the assumptions and
limitations of the theory.
30
If the procedures in the experiment are complex or highly detailed then a listing of all the
steps used in its performance should be listed. The objective of this section is to provide
sufficient detail on the equipment and the method such that the experiment can be
repeated to confirm its results. However, the author should be wary of providing to much
detail to the point of overwhelming the reader. Technical drawings and specifications of
the equipment should be provided or referenced. This section should answer:
1) What apparatus was used?
Provide detailed engineering drawings with dimensions and a written description.
2) What instruments and sensors were used?
List the individual components an sensors used in the apparatus with their
specifications.
3) What conditions were required?
List experimental mediums such as water, air, oil, etc. Also provide their
conditions such as temperature, pressure, contamination ( humidity for air ).
Results and Discussion
The Results and Discussion sections are usually combined but can be made separate if
circumstances warrant. This section provides all of the key findings. Sample data
calculations can be provided here or left to the appendix. All presented data should be in
graphical or tabular form unless the amount of data produced is very small. All tables
plots that appear in this section must be numbered and be accompanied by a descriptive
caption of one or two sentences in length. If a table or a plot appears in this section it
must be discuss somewhere in the text. If you have nothing to say about a figure, it
should not be included in this section. All plots must be easy to read with labeled axis and
a title. All tables must have a title and labeled columns and rows to make interpretation
easier.
What you present in this section and how you interpret the results is the most important
part of the report. This is the section where you show understanding and knowledge of
the subject area beyond simple performance of the experiment. Discuss the relationships
and trends that you see in the data and how this relates to achieving the objective of the
investigation. A few examples:
example figure caption: Figure 3: Plot showing the relation between the lift coefficient
and the angle of attack for the NACA 0012 airfoil.
example discussion: Figure three provides a plot of the lift coefficient (CL) as a function
of the angle of attack () for the NACA 0012 airfoil. Clearly, the lift
coefficient increases steadily as the angle of attack is increased. This
indicates that this airfoil will generate higher lift at a given airspeed
by simply increasing attack angle. The rapid decrease in C L seen in
the figure once the angle of attack passes 16 degrees is consistent
with known lift behavior past the stall angle.
Questions that may help you to write a better discussion:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
31
Conclusion
The conclusion is usually short but concise. It will accomplish the following tasks:
1) Restate known facts or trends presented in the Results and Discussion section.
2) Justify each fact or trend. This is most often done with quantitative data obtained
from the Results and Discussion section. Do not use the conclusion to present new
data or to further discussion. The only data quoted in the conclusion are from the
Results and Discussion section.
3) Indicate any weaknesses or limitations of the experimental design. The Conclusion
can also be used to suggest further research and to discuss the implications of your
findings.
References
A list of publications cited in the report is provided in the Reference section. The format
of this section can vary from one publication to the next but the function is the same in
all. For example, at some point in the text a published work is referenced:
. convective flow was studied extensively by Le Peutrec and Lauriat [2].
In the Reference section a citing with the following format will appear:
[2] Le Peutrec, Y., Lauriat, G., Effects of Heat Transfer at the Side Walls on Natural
Convection Cavities Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol 112, pp. 370-378, 1990.
The number to the left indicates the order in which it appears in the text. For example, the
first work referenced will have number [1], the second [2], and so on. If you need to refer
back to a work previously referenced, you can use the number previously assigned.
another example:
. foundations for numerical turbulence modeling were developed at Imperial
College in London, UK (Launder, B.E., Spalding, D.B.,1972). .
In the Reference section:
Launder, B.E., Spalding, D.B. (1972) Lectures in Mathematical Models of Turbulence,
Academic Press, London, England.
32
Appendices
The appendices contain all raw experimental data ( in tables ), sample calculations,
superfluous plots and drawings. Again, all plots should have a caption and all tables
should have a title. Data for separate sections of the work should be contained in different
appendices. For example, if several airfoil shapes are studied, the data pertaining to each
airfoil would warrant its own appendix section. At some point in the text of the report the
information contained in the appendix should be referenced:
further results on the performance characteristics of the NACA 0012 is provided in
Appendix C.
33
Leading
Edge (LE)
Upper Surface
X=0
Trailing
Edge (TE)
Lower Surface
A
Figure D.1: Airfoil conventions
X=c
This Appendix is intended for students not satisfied with the method of calculation for
airfoil forces used in the class text. Presented is a more mathematical method of
determining the same result. In the end, a set of compact formulas requiring integration
about a closed loop (the airfoil surface) will be created. The aerospace sign convention on
moments is used only in the calculation on the moments about the leading edge. The
classic mathematical convention of defining moments as positive counter-clockwise in a
right handed system is used to derive normal and tangential vectors. The geometries used
in this appendix are defined in the figure above, D.1 and below D.2. The x,y coordinate
axis is aligned with the airfoil as shown. Here, N is the normal force, A the axial force, R
the resultant force, L and D the lift and drag respectively. The normal outward (n) and
tangent (t) vectors to the airfoil surface are defined as:
2 2
n cos( )i sin( ) j dy
j tdy sin( )i cos( ) j dxi dy j
dsi dx
dx
ds
ds
Here, is the angle between a line normal to the airfoil surface and the positive x axis (
measured positive in the counter-clockwise direction, see figure D.2). Note that the
integration is conducted counter-clockwise meaning that dx = xi+1 xi, which accounts
for some of the negative signs in the expressions above. To obtain the proper orientation,
note that 0o < < +360o.
Airfoil
surface
i+1
dy +
n
ds +
X
=0
i
dx
34
The contribution to the total resultant force from a small region on the airfoil surface of
length ds is a sum of normal pressure (p) and tangential shear forces ():
dR pnds t ds
The total force is formed by integration around the entire surface of the airfoil in a
counter-clockwise direction:
R pn t ds p(i cos( ) j sin( )) i sin( ) j cos( )ds
The axial and normal force components are
RA pdy dx RN pdx dy
RN
y
C p d x C f d
1 V 2c
c
c
2
The axial force coefficient is found with a similar expression. The lift and drag
coefficients are found from the angle of attack :
CN
C L C N cos( ) C A sin( )
C D C N sin( ) C A cos( )
The Total moment about the leading edge ( per unit length of wing ) is:
CM LE CM LE, A CM LE,N
The shear stress term in these expressions is difficult to determine experimentally. Since
pressure force is easier, it will be the only term used in the subsequent discussion. The
force and moment terms due to pressure can be written in numerical form based on the
analytical equations, as shown below. Note, integration is done counter-clockwise. For
example, an element of arc length ds has the component dx = xi+1 xi , where the node
i+1, is further counter-clockwise on the airfoil surface than node i, as in figure D.2. The
integration is a closed loop, which means node i=1 and i=n+1 are the same node.
CM A
CN 1 CP dx 1 1 CP(i ) CP(i 1) xi 1 xi
c
c i 1 2
n
C A 1 CP dy 1 1 CP(i) CP(i 1) yi 1 yi
c
c i 1 2
35
36
Section Number:
Excellent
Good
TA:
Satisfactory Needs
Improvement
Grade
/2
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