DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE FROM SPANIARDS

Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in CAVITE EL VIEJO ( present day KAWIT, CAVITE)
Filipino revolutionary fores under General Emilion Aguinaldo proclaimed the sovereignty and
independence of the Philippine Islands from the colonial rule of Spain.
1896- the Philippine Revolution began. Eventually, the Spanish signed an agreement with the
revolutionaries. Emilio Aguinaldo went into exile in hongkong at the outbreak of the SpanishAmerican war.
Local revolts against Spanish imperial corruption, caciquism, racial discrimination, and church
abuse began late in the nineteenth century. These first revolts called for reform of the economicpolitical system but not for independence. An early leader, Jose Rizal, who formed La Liga Filipina
(the Filipino League), called for social reform. After the Spanish banished Rizal, more radical leaders
emerged. When Rizal returned to the islands, the Spanish colonial government arrested, tried, and
executed him in 1896, thus unwittingly creating a martyr and national hero.
Twenty-seven-year-old Emilio Aguinaldo became the next leader of the insurrectionists now
fighting openly against the Spanish. In 1898, Aguinaldo conferred with American officials in Hong
Kong and Singapore. He was led to understand that the Filipinos would become allies with the
United States in a war against Spain, the anticipated outcome of which would be an independent
Philippine nation. Admiral George Dewey and Consul General E. Spencer Pratt, with whom
Aguinaldo met, later denied that they had made such a promise. In 1898, the United States
declared war against Spain, and as a result of the ensuing Spanish-American War, the United
States went to war with the Philippines. The war took more than one million Filipino lives and 6,000
American lives. The Treaty of Paris, approved on February 6, 1899, made the United States an
imperial power and started a 47-year relationship with the Philippines.
Filipinos, following Aguinaldo's lead, protested the arrival of American imperialism, and the
insurrection first launched against the Spanish continued. After annexation of the Philippines by the
United States, the U.S. Army fought to quell uprisings throughout the islands. With his capture on
March 23, 1901, Aguinaldo advised his followers to swear allegiance to the United States. On July 4,
1902, the Army declared the insurrection to be at an end, even though the Moros, who had
become largely independent under Spanish rule, continued to fight until 1913.
In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began. In December 1897, the Spanish government and the
revolutionaries signed a truce, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, requiring that the Spanish pay the
revolutionaries 800,000 pesos and that Aquinaldo and other leaders go into exile in Hong Kong. In
April 1898, at the outbreak of the SpanishAmerican War, Commodore George Dewey aboard the
U.S.S. Olympia sailed from Hong Kong to Manila Bay leading the Asiatic Squadron of the U.S. Navy.
On May 1, 1898, the United States defeated the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay. Emilio
Aguinaldo decided to return to the Philippines to help American forces defeat the Spaniards, The
U.S. Navy agreed to transport him back aboard the USS McCulloch, and on May 19, he arrived in
Cavite.
Independence was proclaimed on June 12, 1898 between four and five in the afternoon in Cavite
at the ancestral home of General Emilio Aguinaldo some 30 kilometers South of Manila. The event
saw the unfurling of the National Flag of the Philippines, made in Hong Kong by Marcela Agoncillo,
Lorenza Agoncillo, and Delfina Herboza, and the performance of the Marcha Filipina Magdalo, as
the national anthem, now known as Lupang Hinirang, which was composed by Julin Felipe and
played by the San Francisco de Malabon marching band.
The Act of the Declaration of Independence was prepared, written, and read by Ambrosio
Rianzares Bautista in Spanish. The Declaration was signed by 98 people, among them an American

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army officer who witnessed the proclamation. The final paragraph states that there was a
"stranger" (stranger in English translation extrangero in the original Spanish, meaning foreigner)
who attended the proceedings, Mr. L. M. Johnson, described as "a citizen of the U.S.A, a Colonel of
Artillery".[3] The proclamation of Philippine independence was, however, promulgated on 1
August, when many towns had already been organized under the rules laid down by the
Dictatorial Government of General Aguinaldo.[4][5]
Later at Malolos, Bulacan, the Malolos Congress modified the declaration upon the insistence of
Apolinario Mabini who objected to that the original proclamation essentially placed the Philippines
under the protection of the United States.

The declaration was never recognized by either the United States or Spain.
Later in 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended
the Spanish-American War.
The Philippine Revolutionary Government did not recognize the treaty or American sovereignty,
and subsequently fought and lost a conflict with United States originally referred to by the
American forces, even officially, as the "Philippine Insurrection" but now generally called the
Philippine-American War, which ended when Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by U.S. forces,[6] and
issued a statement acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States over the
Philippines.[7] This was then followed on July 2, 1902, by U.S. Secretary of War Elihu Root
telegraphing that the insurrection the United States had come to an end and that provincial civil
governments had been established everywhere except those areas inhabited by Moro tribes.[8]
Pockets of resistance continued for several years.
Following World War II, the US granted independence to the Philippines on 4 July 1946 via the
Treaty of Manila.[9] July 4 was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until August 4,
1964 when, upon the advice of historians and the urging of nationalists, President Diosdado
Macapagal signed into law Republic Act No. 4166 designating June 12 as the country's
Independence Day.[10] June 12 had previously been observed as Flag Day and many
government buildings are urged to display the Philippine Flag in their offices.

START OF AMERICAN REGIME

These provisions automatically excluded the masses in the electoral process, and insured
continued elite supremacy of local politics, even by those who were Spanish supporters and
sympathizers during the early phase of the Revolution. Since the ilustrados had exclusive control of
the electoral process, the provincial and municipal reorganization merely resulted in perpetuating
elite dominance of society and government. Guerrero claims that records of the period reveal the
composition of the municipal elite was unaltered and local offices simply rotated within their ranks.
But not all areas of Luzon came under the control of the ilustrados during the Revolution. In some
towns, "uneducated" and "poor" masses were elected by an electorate who most probably did not
meet the qualifications stipulated in Aguinaldos decree. Guerrero claims that the principalia or
ilustrado local officials of Solano in Nueva Ecija and Urdaneta in Pangasinan complained over the
election of the "uneducated and ignorant" who they argued were "totally incapable" of governing.
But this was more of an aberration since the general picture was one of elite dominance and the
alienation of the masses. Despite Aguinaldos order abolishing three hundred years of Spanish polo
or forced labor, the local elite persisted in demanding personal services from the people, on top of
the taxes levied against them. In some towns and provinces conditions were even worse as the
elite wrangled among themselves, especially since Aguinaldo did not clearly delineate the
responsibilities of the elected civilian and appointed military officials. This leads some historians to
conclude that the masses in towns and countryside were the eventual victims of what transpired
during the Revolution.

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The American entry into the picture convinced the remaining fence-sitting ilustrados to support the
Revolution. When rumors of an impending Spanish-American War were circulating in April 1898,
several noted ilustrados led by Pedro Paterno offered their services to the Spanish governorgeneral. Yet when Aguinaldo returned from exile, several ilustrados serving in the Spanish militia, like
Felipe Buencamino, abandoned the Spaniards and announced their "conversion" to the
revolutionary cause. Indeed, the resumption of the revolution brought an electrifying response
throughout the country. From Ilocos in the north down to Mindanao in the south, there was a
simultaneous and collective struggle to oust the Spaniards.
Months later, when the Filipino-American War commenced, many ilustrados played the middle
ground, i.e., on one hand, they sent words of support to Aguinaldo and, on the other, started
contemplating on an autonomous status for the Philippines under the United States. An example
was the Iloilo ilustrados who eventually sided with the Americans since their economic interests sugar production and importation - dictated collaboration with the new colonizers. Indeed, in the
parlance of contemporary Filipino political culture, the ilustrados were the classic "balimbing" or
two-faced.
Despite the constant vacillation of the elite, Aguinaldo and his advisers tapped on their services in
organizing the Philippine Republic. Aguinaldo was eager to prove that the Filipinos could govern
themselves, and in the process it would legitimize the Philippine Republic. Moreover, since he and
his advisers were ilustrados, Aguinaldo only trusted his own kind - the wealthy, educated, and
politically experienced - in the matter of governance. Thus, he called on them to convene and
create a Congress which would draft a constitution. He wanted a Philippine constitution to
complete the required trimmings of a sovereign, nation-state - flag, army, government, and
constitution. In his actions, Aguinaldo was advised by Apolinario Mabini who became known as
the "Sublime Paralytic" because his spirit was not deterred by his physical handicap, and the "Brains
of the Revolution" due to his intellectual acumen. On January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo proclaimed the
Malolos Constitution which was drafted by the ilustrados of the Malolos Congress. Two days later,
the Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan, the new capital of the fledging
government.
The Philippine Republic was, however, short-lived. From the start, Aguinaldos forces were fighting
the Spaniards without military assistance from the Americans. Except for the Battle of Manila Bay,
the United States was not a major force in the fighting. The American troops did not arrive in the
country until late June, and they saw no military action until August. But events starting with the
Spanish surrender of Manila on August 13, 1898, doomed the end of Philippine independence.
Although the Spanish troops had been routed in all fronts by the Filipinos, the continuing presence
of the Americans was unsettling. Questions on actual American motives surfaced with the
continuous arrival of American reinforcements. It did not take long for the Filipinos to realize the
genuine intentions of the United States. The precarious and uneasy Philippine-American alliance
collapsed on February 4, 1899, when the Philippine-American War broke out and threatened to
annihilate the new found freedom of the Filipinos.

In Feb., 1899, Aguinaldo led a new revolt, this time against U.S. rule. Defeated on the battlefield,
the Filipinos turned to guerrilla warfare, and their defeat became a mammoth project for the
United States Thus began the Philippine-American War, one that cost far more money and took
far more lives than the Spanish-American War. Fighting broke out on February 4, 1899, after two
American privates on patrol killed three Filipino soldiers in San Juan, Metro Manila. Some 126,000
American soldiers would be committed to the conflict; 4,234 American and 16,000 Filipino soldiers,
part of a nationwide guerrilla movement of indeterminate numbers, died. Estimates on civilian
deaths during the war range between 250,000 and 1,000,000, largely because of famine and
disease. Atrocities were committed by both sides.

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The poorly equipped Filipino troops were handily overpowered by American troops in open
combat, but they were frightening opponents in guerrilla warfare. Malolos, the revolutionary
capital, was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government escaped, however,
establishing a new capital at San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. Antonio Luna, Aguinaldo's most capable
military commander, was murdered in June. With his best commander dead and his troops
suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into northern Luzon, Aguinaldo dissolved
the regular army in November 1899 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla
commands in each of several military zones. The general population, caught between Americans
and rebels, suffered significantly.
The revolution was effectively ended with the capture (1901) of Aguinaldo by Gen. Frederick
Funston at Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901 and was brought to Manila, but the question of
Philippine independence remained a burning issue in the politics of both the United States and the
islands. The matter was complex by the growing economic ties between the two countries.
Although moderately little American capital was invested in island industries, U.S. trade bulked
larger and larger until the Philippines became almost entirely dependent upon the American
market. Free trade, established by an act of 1909, was expanded in 1913. Influenced of the
uselessness of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a
proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an end to the
war. However, sporadic insurgent resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially
in the Muslim south, until 1913.

Americans Occupy Manila, Aug. 13, 1898

After the American flag was raised over Intramuros, Aguinaldo demanded joint
occupation. General Merritt immediately cabled Brig. Gen. Henry C. Corbin, US Army AdjutantGeneral, in Washington, D.C.:
"Since occupation of the town and suburbs the insurgents on outside are pressing demand for joint
occupation of the city. Situation difficult. Inform me at once how far I shall proceed in forcing
obedience in this matter and others that may arise. Is Government willing to use all means to make
the natives submit to the authority of the United States?"

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An American soldier and two native Filipino

policemen posted at the Puerta de
Almacenes, Intramuros district, Manila. PHOTO was
taken in late 1898.
Meanwhile, by 10:00 p.m., 10,000 American troops
were in Intramuros; the 2nd Oregon Volunteers
guarded its 9 entrances. General Greene marched
his 2nd Brigade around Intramuros into Binondo
district.

Malacaan Palace at San Miguel

district, Manila; colorized photo
was taken in 1899.
The 1st California Volunteers were
sent east to the fashionable district
of San Miguel and took
over Malacaan Palace, official
residence of the Spanish governorgeneral.

Audience room in the Malacaan Palace at

San Miguel district, Manila.

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1st California Volunteers in Manila

1st Colorado Volunteers marching in

Manila
The 1st Colorado Volunteers were sent
into Tondo district and the 1st
Nebraska Volunteers were established
on the north shore of the Pasig river.
General MacArthur's 1st Brigade
patrolled Ermita and Malate districts.

Color Guard of the 1st Colorado

Volunteers at Manila, Aug. 13, 1898.
From left: Pvt. Claude West, Color Sgt.
Richard G. Holmes [he stood 6'5 1/2"
tall, or about 1.97 m], Sgt. Charles Clark,
and Pvt. Alfred Miller.

1st Nebraska Volunteers in formation

near their quarters at Binondo, Manila,
1898.

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Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt and Brig. Gen. Francis Greene inspecting Fort San Antonio de Abad after
the battle.

On Aug. 17, 1898, General Merritt received the following reply from General Corbin:
"The President directs that there must be no joint occupation with the insurgents. The United States
in the possession of Manila City, Manila Bay, and harbor must preserve the peace and protect
persons and property within the territory occupied by their military and naval forces. The insurgents
and all others must recognize the military occupation and authority of the United States and the
cessation of hostilities proclaimed by the President. Use whatever means in your judgment are
necessary to this end. All law-abiding people must be treated alike."

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A Filipino battalion in formation in the outskirts of Manila, shortly after the capture of the city by the
Americans. Source: Lopez of Balayan
The Americans then told Aguinaldo bluntly that his army would be fired upon if it crossed into
Intramuros.

US soldiers guard the Postigo del

Palacio ("Postern of the Palace"),
Intramuros district, Manila, 1898. The
gate, built in 1782, led to the Palacio
del Gobernador and
Palacio Arzobispal as a private
entrance and exit; the dome of the
Manila Cathedral is seen in the
distance.

The Postigo del Palacio now exits on a golf course. The

Palacio del Gobernador is on the left and the Palacio
Arzobispal is the building on the right. The bell tower and
dome of the Manila Cathedral can be seen in the
distance.

The Filipinos were infuriated at being

denied triumphant entry into their own
capital. The hot-headed Filipino generals
thought it was time to strike at the
Americans, but Aguinaldo stayed calm
and refused to be pushed into a new
war. However, relations continued to
deteriorate.

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A US soldier is photographed beside a stack of cannonballs near the Puerta de Santa

Lucia at Intramuros district, Manila.

Puerta de Santa Lucia in contemporary times

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A modern Spanish Krupp gun, 1898.

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Spanish POWs quartered in Intramuros, Manila, receiving their rations.

Spanish soldiers in the southern Philippines awaiting repatriation to Spain; about 3,000 were shipped
out

Spanish arms captured by the Americans (20,000 Mausers, 3,000 Remingtons, 18 modern cannon
and many of the obsolete pattern)

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Original caption: "American troops guarding the bridge over the river Pasig on the afternoon of
the surrender."

US troops on the Escolta, Manila; not too far from

here, on Calle Lacoste in nearby Santa Cruz
district, an American guard shot and killed a sevenyear-old Filipino boy for taking a banana from a
Chinese fruit vendor.

Two American soldiers pose with their .45-70

Springfield Trapdoor rifles. Photo was taken at the
Centro Artistico Fotografico ("Photographic Arts
Center") in Manila in late 1898.

Graves of American soldiers killed in Manila.

The "mock" Battle of Manila was not entirely
bloodless. Spanish soldiers who were not privy to the
"script" put up serious resistance at a blockhouse
close to the city and in a few other areas.
Six Americans died while the Spanish suffered 49
killed and 100 wounded. Overall, 17 Americans
were killed fighting the Spaniards, 11 on July 31,
August 1-2 and August 5 in skirmishes at Malate
district.

4th US Regular Infantry Regiment encampment at

the Luneta, Manila

V. Tokizama, Japanese military attache to the

Philippines with Colonel Harry Clay Kessler (CO, 1st
Montana Volunteers), Major Robert H. Fitzhugh and
1Lt. William B. Knowlton; photo taken in Manila, 1898

A squad of American soldiers is enthralled by the

Filipino "national sport" of cockfighting

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A cockfight ("tupada") in progress; more than a

dozen US soldiers are among the spectators

The Ayuntamiento in Intramuros district,

Manila. Photo taken in 1899.

Americans in Manila. Photo taken in 1898.

The arrogance of the Americans and their
continuing presence unsettled the Filipinos.

The 1st South Dakota Volunteer Infantry Regiment at rest at the Presidio, San Francisco. The
regiment, consisting of 46 officers and 983 enlisted men, was commanded by Col. Alfred S. Frost. It
left the Presidio on July 23, 1898 and arrived at Cavite Province, in Manila Bay, on Aug. 31, 1898.

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The 38th US Volunteer Infantry Regiment upon their arrival at Manila, Dec. 26, 1899.
Questions on their actual motives surfaced with the continuous arrival of American reinforcements,
when there was no Spanish enemy left to fight.
13th Minnesota Volunteers, acting as police, raid an opium den and arrest 4 Chinese
addicts. Photo was taken in Manila in late 1898.
It did not take long for the Filipinos to realize the genuine intentions of the United States: the
Americans were in the islands to stay.

13th Minnesota Volunteers Regimental Band at Manila, 1898

Soon after the Spanish surrender at Manila, Pvt. Fred Hinchman, US Army Corps of Engineers, wrote
his family about the Filipino soldiers: "We shall now have to disarm and scatter these abominable,
semi-human monkeys." [John Durand, The Boys: 1st North Dakota Volunteers in the Philippines,
Puzzlebox Press, 2010, p. 132].
Aug. 24, 1898: First Filipino-American Fatal Encounter

Calle del Arsenal, the main street in Cavite Nuevo, Cavite Province. Photo was taken in 1897.

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On Wednesday, Aug. 24, 1898, the first fatal

encounter between the Filipinos and Americans
took place in Cavite Nuevo (now Cavite City),
Cavite Province. The U.S. Army put it down as a
street fight.
Pvt. George H. Hudson of Battery B, Utah Light
Artillery Regiment, was killed; Cpl. William Q.
Anderson of the same unit, and four troopers of
the 4th U.S. Cavalry Regiment were wounded.

Internal Filipino communications reported that the

Utah artillerymen were drunk at the time.

American soldiers and Filipino civilians at Cavite

Nuevo. Photo was taken in 1898-1899.

American soldiers and Filipino children at

Cavite Nuevo, 1898-1899.
Aug. 29, 1898: General Otis Becomes New
Commander of 8th US Army Corps, Orders
Philippine Army To Leave Manila

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Major Generals Wesley Merritt (6th

from Right) and Elwell S. Otis (4th
from Right), and their staffs in front
of Malacaan Palace, San Miguel
district, Manila
Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis replaced
Merritt on Aug. 29, 1898. Ten days
later, on September
8, he demanded that Filipino
troops evacuate Manila beyond
the demarcation lines marked on a
map that he furnished Aguinaldo.
Otis claimed that the Peace
Protocol signed in Washington D.C.
on August 12 between Spain and the United States gave the latter the right to occupy the bay,
harbor and city of Manila. He ordered Aguinaldo to comply within a week or he would face
forcible action. Aguinaldo's emissaries asked Otis to withdraw his ultimatum; when he refused, they
requested him to moderate his language in a second letter. The American commander agreed.
Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis and his staff on the veranda of Malacaan Palace, San Miguel district,
Manila
On September 13, Otis wrote Aguinaldo an amended letter:

A Filipino regiment preparing to leave Manila

On September 15, about 2,000 Filipino
soldiers marched out of the zones.

They did not know of the ultimatum, but were

told about the succeeding "friendly request".
Their bands played American airs and they
cheered for the Americans as they withdrew.
Otis acceded to Aguinaldo's request that Gen. Pio del Pilar (RIGHT) and his troops continue to
occupy Paco district. First, Aguinaldo asserted that Paco was traditionally outside the jurisdiction of
Manila. Second, he was unable to discipline Del Pilar who would surely refuse to move out in
response to his orders. [The Americans called Pio del Pilar a "fire-eater".]
In any case, he would gradually withdraw his troops from the command of Del Pilar, until his force
was too small to be threatening.
[Twenty-five days later, on October 10, Brig. Gen. Thomas M. Anderson submitted to the Adjutantgeneral, US 8th Army Corps, an official complaint against Gen. Pio del Pilar:
"Sir:
"I have the honor to report that yesterday, the 9th instant, while proceeding up the Pasig River, on
the steam launch Canacao, with three officers of my staff, the American flag flying over the boat. I
was stopped by an armed Filipino guard and informed that we could go no farther. Explaining that
we were an unarmed party of American officers out upon an excursion, we were informed that, by

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orders given two days before, no Americans, armed or unarmed. were allowed to pass up the
Pasig River without a special permit from President Aguinaldo.
"I demanded to see the written order, and it was brought and shown me. It was an official letter
signed by Pio del Pilar. division general, written in Tagalo and stamped with what appeared to be
an official seal. It purported to be issued by the authority of the president of the revolutionary
government, and forbade Americans, either armed or unarmed, from passing up the Pasig River. It
was signed by Pilar himself.
"As this is a distinctly hostile act. I beg leave to ask how far we are to submit to this kind of
interference.
"It is respectfully submitted that whether this act of Pilar was authorized or not by the assumed
insurgent government, it should, in any event, be resented."]

Aguinaldo's headquarters at Bacoor, Cavite Province. Photo

was taken in 2006.
Aguinaldo transferred his headquarters and the seat
of his government from Bacoor (ABOVE) to the inland town of
Malolos, 21 miles (34 km) north of Manila on the line of the
railroad. Here he was out of range of the guns of the US fleet,
and in a naturally strong position.

AMERICAN CONTRIBUTION

1898
April 2125 - The SpanishAmerican War begins. War is officially declared by the United States
and by Spain.
May 1 - Commodore George Dewey defeats decisively the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila
Bay.
May 19 - Emilio Aguinaldo returns to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong aboard an American
naval vessel
May 24 - Aguinaldo issues a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine
forces and established an insurgent dictatorial government with himself as dictator.
June 12 - The Philippine Declaration of Independence is proclaimed by Ambrosio Rianzares
Bautista, its author, on behalf of the Dictatorial Government of the Philippines.
June 18 - Aguinaldo, believing the Americans had no intent to occupy the Philippine Islands,
issues a decree formally establishing the Dictatorial Government of the Philippines.
June 23 - Aguinaldo issues a decree replacing the Dictatorial Government with a Revolutionary
Government, with himself as President.
June 25 - The third of three U.S. expeditions arrives in Manila, bringing land forces in the country
to a total of 10,946 men.[9]
August 8 - Eight American soldiers were killed or wounded by the Spanish fire. American officers
suspected at the time that the insurgents were informing the Spaniards of the American
movements. This was later confirmed by captured insurgent documents.
August 12 - A Protocol of Peace is signed in Washington, D.C. between the U.S. and Spain. U.S.
President William McKinley directs that "all operations against the enemy be suspended."
Word of this will not reach manila until August 16.
August 13 - In the 1898 Battle of Manila, U.S forces take possession of the country's capital. At the
conclusion of the battle, U.S. forces control the city and Filipino forces remain in the
suburbs.
August 14 - U.S. Major General Wesley Merritt, at the time commander of U.S. forces in the

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Philippines, issues a proclamation establishing a military government in the Philippines,

designating himself as Governor of the Philippines.
August 25 - One American soldier was killed, another mortally wounded and four more slightly
wounded in a clash at Cavite between U.S. soldiers and insurgents. Aguinaldo expressed
his regret and promised to punish the offenders.
September 26 - U.S. and Spanish delegations begin negotiations in Paris on a treaty to end the
SpanishAmerican War.
December 10 - The Treaty of Paris is signed in Paris. In Article III of the treaty, Spain cedes to the
United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands.
1899
January 20 - Malolos Congress ratifies the Malolos constitution.
January 21 - Emilio Aguinaldo sanctions the Malolos Constitution.
January 22 - Malolos Constitution is promulgated.
February 6 - The U.S. Senate approved the Treaty of Paris by a vote of 52 to 27. President
McKinley signed it on that day.
March 19 - Spain ratified the Treaty of Paris when the Queen Regent Mara Cristina signed the
agreement to break the impasse of the deadlocked Cortes.
Start and ending dates
Depending on events chosen to mark the beginning and the end of the war, a number of different
start and ending dates can be given. For purposes of this article, the war is considered to have
begun on February 4, 1899, and to have ended on July 4, 1902.
Armed conflict erupted in Manila between U.S. and Filipino forces on February 4, 1899. On that
date, Emilio Aguinaldo issued a proclamation ordering, in part, "[t]hat peace and friendly relations
with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits
prescribed by the laws of war."[20] On June 2, 1899, the Malolos Congress enacted and ratified a
Declaration of War on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day by
Pedro Paterno, President of the Assembly.
The ending of the war was not formalized in a treaty by which it can be dated. Emilio Aguinaldo
was captured by U.S. forces on March 23, 1901, and swore allegiance to the U.S. on April 1,
appealing to all Filipinos to accept the "sovereignty of the United States ...". Armed conflict
continued, however, until the surrender of the last Filipino general on April 13, 1902.[22] On July 4,
1902, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to
all people in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict, and that July 4 date
is often mentioned as the ending date of the war.[23] On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the PhilippineAmerican War had ended on April 16, 1902 with
the surrender of General Miguel Malvar.
However, despite these proclamations from the Americans and ilustrado elite, the war continued
across the archipelago for over a decade. Bands of guerrillas, millenarian movements and other
resistance groups continued to roam the countryside, still clashing with American Army or
Philippine Constabulary patrols. American troops and the Philippine Constabulary continued
hostilities against such resistance groups until 1913.[ Some other sources describe post-1902 actions
in Mindanao as a separate conflict.
Events
1899
February 4 - General hostilities erupt between U.S. inside Manila and Filipino forces surrounding
the city.
February 4 - Emilio Aguinaldo proclaims war on U.S. forces.
February 5 - Battle of Manila: first and largest battle of the PhilippineAmerican War; Americans
drive Filipino army away from Manila.
March 31 - American forces capture Malolos, capital of the Philippine Republic on Luzon, driving
out Aguinaldo and his government.
April 9 to 10 - Battle of Santa Cruz - U.S. General Henry W. Lawton captures Filipino stronghold of

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Santa Cruz and pushes into Laguna province on Luzon.

April 11 - Battle of Pagsanjan - American sharpshooters skirmish with Filipinos outside of
Pagsanjan, succeeding in driving them out. General Lawton's troops take Pagsanjan in the
second action of the Laguna Campaign.
April 12 - Battle of Paete - General Lawton's forces disperse Filipinos blocking rout to Paete in stiff
fight. Paete taken by the Americans. Last action of the Laguna Campaign.
April 23 - Battle of Quingua - Philippine General Gregorio del Pilar stops American cavalry scouts
on Luzon, but is then routed after an artillery bombardment and infantry ground assault.
June 2 - the Malolos Congress of the First Philippine Republic enacted and ratified a Declaration
of War on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day by Pedro
Paterno, President of the Assembly.
June 5 - Filipino General Antonio Luna assassinated by Aguinaldo's men.
June 13 - Battle of Zapote Bridge - On Luzon, Lawton's American forces rout a larger Philippine
force under General Maximo Hizon, and inflict heavy casualties on the enemy in 2nd
largest battle of the PhilippineAmerican War.
November 11 - Battle of San Jacinto - U.S. General Loyd Wheaton drives Filipinos out of San
Jacinto. Luzon.
November 13 - Emilio Aguinaldo decrees that guerrilla warfare would henceforth be the
strategy.
December 2 - Battle of Tirad Pass - On Luzon, 60 Filipino patriots under General del Pilar fight off
an attack of 500 U.S. Infantry for 5 hours, before nearly all Filipinos are killed, including del
Pilar.
December 19 - Battle of Paye (also known as the Battle of Montalban and the Battle of San
Mateo) - For unknown reasons, General Lawton assumed personal command of the
expedition, and was struck in the chest and killed when the unit he was with came under
fire. The town of Montalban was occupied in the action before Lawton's death, and the
town of San Mateo was occupied afterwards. Lawton was the only U.S. fatality in the
action.
1900
April 15 - Siege of Catubig - Filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack against a detachment of
American soldiers, and, after a four-day siege, force them to evacuate the town of
Catubig on Samar.
May - General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. replaces General Elwell Stephen Otis as military governor[41]
and William Howard Taft arrived as civilian Governor-General of the Philippines (until 1904)
June - General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. proclaims a 90-day amnesty and offers 30 pesos per rifle.
The amnesty pledges "complete immunity for the past and liberty for the future." The results
of the amnesty were disappointing. It is suspected that many of the natives surrendering
were opportunists collecting bounty for obsolete weapons.[42]
June 4 - Battle of Makahambus Hill - On Macahambus Gorge in Cagayan de Misamis, Northern
Mindanao (present day Cagayan de Oro), Filipinos rout an Americans regiment and inflict
heavy casualties, but take less than 5 casualties of their own.
September 13 - Battle of Pulang Lupa - On Makahambus, Filipino resistance fighters under
Colonel Maximo Abad ambush 55 American Soldiers, killing, wounding, or capturing all of
them.
September 17 - Battle of Mabitac Filipino forces outmaneuver and rout American forces on
Luzon.
November 2 - William McKinley defeats Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the presidential
election. Bryan was hurt by Aguinaldo's endorsement of the Democratic party. Albert
Beveridge, the freshman senator from Indiana, emerged during the campaign as the
"golden orator" of Republican imperialism, debating Senator George Frisbie Hoar, using his
tour of the Philippines to claim direct knowledge of the war, holding out a golden nugget
from the islands to prove its potential wealth: "I was there."
1901
March 5 - Lonoy Massacre - In a reverse ambush, U.S. Infantryman launch a surprise attack on
Bohol natives who had laid an ambush and kill over 400.

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March 23 - Aguinaldo is captured in Palanan, Isabela by U.S. forces.

April 1 - Aguinaldo swears allegiance to the United States.
April 1 - Aguinaldo appeals to all Filipinos to accept the "sovereignty of the United States ...".
July 4 - Civil government was inaugurated with William H. Taft as the Civil Governor.
September 28 - Balangiga massacre - Over 50 Americans are killed in an uprising on Samar. Gen.
Jacob H. Smith orders retaliation.
December 7 - American General J. Franklin Bell begins concentration camp policy in Batangas
on Luzon - everything outside the "dead lines" was systematically destroyedhumans,
crops, domestic animals, houses, and boats. A similar policy had been initiated on the
island of Marinduque some months before. The American Anti-imperialist press argues this
policy is similar to the reconcentrado policy of Spanish General Valeriano Weyler in Cuba
and British General Horatio Kitchener in the Second Boer War in South Africa.
1902
January 31 - Senator George Frisbie Hoar pushes for an Congressional investigation by the
standing Committee on the Philippines headed by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge into
alleged cruelties inflicted upon Filipino prisoners by U.S. servicemen. The investigation
concluded on June 28, 1902.[48] For two months after this the legal team presenting
evidence for the committee compiled its report. This report was released on August 29,
1902. The report is available at Wikisource:Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in
Philippine Warfare.
February 17 - Filipino General Vicente Lukbn captured on Samar.[50] Resistance continues in
the Samar interior.
March 2 - Court-martial of U.S. Marine Major Littleton Waller begins for the January execution of
11 mutinous porters on Samar. Court votes 11-2 for acquittal.
April 27 - The last of Samar's guerrillas surrenders.
Philippine General Miguel Malvar surrenders in Luzon, followed by 3,000 of his men. Last Filipino
general to surrender in the war.
Court-martial of U.S. General Jacob H. Smith for ordering the killing of all males over 10 years of
age on Samar. He was convicted, verbally admonished, sent back to U.S, and retired from
service.
June 16 - U.S. military rule ends; civil government begins.
July 1 - Passage of the Philippine Organic Act by the United States, the basic law of the Insular
Government
July 4 - U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimes a full and complete pardon and amnesty
to all people in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict.

CHANGES IN PHILIPPINES CULTURE DURING THE AMERICAN PERIOD

GOVERNMENT- Democracy was the greatest legacy the americans gave us. The
government has three branches: executive (president), legislative (senate and congress)
and the judiciary (department of justice).
EDUCATION- Schools were built all over the country and making English as a medium of
instructions. The first teachers were called Thomasites because they came on board the SS
Thomas. The University of the Philippines, Philippine Normal College and other agricultural
schools were established.
RELIGION- Protestantism was introduced
In 1918, more or less than 300,000 filipinos became protestant.
The church and the state (government) wete separated. Freedom of religion was
practiced.
Transportation and communication was improved.

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Americans built roads, streets and bridges for efficient movement of products and services.
Example: burnham park, kennon road, camp john hay etc.
ENTERTAINMENT- music and dance.
Hollywood movies became popular in the country. New kinds of music and dance were
introduced like rock and rool, boogie, jazz, tango, cha cha, polka and rhumba.
Filipinos learned to watch and play games like table tennis, basketball, volleyball, boxing
and football.
The Filipinos learned the value of cleanliness and healthy practices.
They were taught proper hygiene to make them healthy and be free from contagious
diseases.
Hospitals, clinics and health centers were built.
PHILIPPINE ARCHITECTURE DURING American Era
The 1896 Philippine Revolution paved the way to the countrys independence from Spain.
However, it became a short-lived liberty when the Americans became the countrys new invaders.
There was a drastic change on the architectural design which was introduced by the Americans as
they establish the civil government. A lot of structures were built to serve as government buildings
from cities to municipalities. The design and style of the establishments were akin to Greek or
Roman constructions.
Famous American architects such as William Parsons and Edgar Bourne started the proto-modernist
way of designing constructions and they were commonly unadorned facades together with large
windows. Another prestigious master designer during that time was American architect and urban
planner Daniel Burnham. He was the one responsible for creating the master plans for Manila and
Baguio. His contributions to the local architecture together with Parsons were the Kahn system of
concrete reinforcements and the introduction of hollow blocks, the use of anti-termite hardwood
and the mass fabrication of building types.
American architecture influence in the Philippines can be classified in two types; the so-called first
generation Filipino architects who studied architecture and engineering in the United States who
were sponsored by the colonial masters and the Second generation architects who emerged in
the late 1920s and 1930s.
The first generation exemplifies combined Beaux Arts elements with a touch of modernism
promoting the ideas of utility in architecture.

El Hogar Filipino is a beaux-arts building, designed by architect Senior Ramon and buikt by the
Pasig River on Muelle dela Industria street in Binondo. Source: renz15.wordpress.com
The second generation on the other hand introduced the Art Deco portraying exotic

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embellishments.

The defunct Manila Metropolitan Theater designed by Filipino architect Juan M. de Guzman
Arellano. Source: viscounts.megashot.net
The Japanese invasion during World War II lasted only for three years and did not bring any
significant architectural change in the Philippines.

The Late Twentieth Century

During this period in Philippine history starting in the 60s architects started to merge modernist style
with the use of traditional and local materials.
And in the 70s Former first Lady Imelda Marcos popularized a national architectural style through
the regimes ostentatious building projects using indigenous materials and icons.

Designed by Francisco Manosa, former First Lady Imelda Marcos spent 37 million pesos to build
Coconut Palace as a government guest house and offered to Pope John Paul II during the Papal
visit to the Philippines in 1981 but the Pope refused to stay there because it was too opulent given
the level of poverty in the Philippines. Source: Manosa & Company website

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After the Spanish American war in 1898 the Americans took over rule of the Philippines until after
the second world war. During this period the Americans constructed many Art Nouveaux buildings
in Manila. In 1902 Judge William Howard Taft was appointed to head the Philippine Commission to
evaluate the needs of the new territory. Taft, who later became the Philippines' first civilian
Governor-General, decided that Manila, the capital, should be a planned town. He hired as his
architect and city planner Daniel Hudson Burnham, who had built Union Station and the post office
in Washington. In Manila, Mr. Burnham had in mind a long wide, tree-lined boulevard along the
bay, beginning at a park area dominated by a magnificent hotel. To design, what is now known
as, the Manila Hotel Taft hired William E. Parsons, a New York architect, who envisioned an
impressive, but comfortable hotel, along the lines of a California mission, but grander. The original
design was an H-shaped plan that focused on well-ventilated rooms on two wings, providing grand
vistas of the harbor, the Luneta, and Intramuros. The top floor was, in fact, a large viewing deck
that was used for various functions, including watching the American navy steam into the harbor.
Many of these buildings were heavily damaged during the Battle of Manila in 1945. After the
second world war many were rebuilt. Many buildings in Manila were designed by the Filipino
architect Juan M. de Guzman Arellano.
In 1911 the Army Corps of Engineers constructed the Manila Army and Navy Club at the shore of
Manila Bay bordering the Luneta Park. The building consisits of a Grand entrance and has three
stories that housed the various function rooms and the Hotel rooms. It has been in use far into the
eighties however it has fallen into dacay and is in need of restoration.
At T.M. Kalaw Street stands on of the remaining structures that survived the liberation of Manila in
1945 , the "Luneta Hotel."

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The Hotel was completed in 1918 . According to study by Dean Joseph Fernandez of the University
of Santo Tomas, the hotel was designed by the Spanish architect-engineer Salvador Farre. The
structure is the only remaining example of the French Renaissance architecture with Filipino stylized
beaux arts in the Philippines to date. This famous landmark fell gradually into decay. In 2007 the
renovation activities have started and it is hoped that this building will be restored to its old
grandeur.
The Manila Metropolitan Theatre is an art deco building designed by the Filipino architect Juan M.
de Guzman Arellano, and built in 1935. During the liberation of Manila by the Americans in 1945,
the theatre we totally destroyed. After reconstruction by the Americans it gradually fell into disuse
in the 1960s. In the following decade it was meticulously restored but again fell into decay.
Recently a bus station has been constructed at the back of the theatre. The City of Manila is
planning a renovation of this once magnificent building.

The sculptures in the faade of the Theatre are from the Italian sculptor Francesco Riccardo Monti,
who lived in Manila from 1930 until his death in 1958, and worked closely together with J.M. de
Guzman Arellano. Highly stylized relief carving of Philippine plants executed by the artist Isabelo
Tampingco decorate the lobby walls and interior surfaces of the building.
In 1940 the Jai Alai building was constructed along Taft avenue, designed by architect Welton
Becket. It has been built in the Philippine Art Deco style. In addition to the Jai Alai game it included
the famous " Sky Lounge". Unfortunately, demolition began on July 15, 2000 on the orders of Mayor
Lito Atienza. The building is now gone for ever.
The [Far Eastern University (FEU)] FEU was awarded the UNESCO Heritage Award in 2005 for being
the only preserved and enduring Art Deco structure in the Philippines. Although the FEU was totally
damaged during World War II, the university was restored to its original Art Deco design in the
American Period.

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The National Monument to Dr. Jose Rizal

The bronze and granite Rizal monument located in Rizal Park, Manila, has long been considered
among the most famous sculptural landmarks in the Philippines. The monument is located near the
very spot where Dr. Jose Rizal was executed December 30, 1896.
On 28 September 1901, the Philippine Assembly approved Act No. 243, granting the right to use
public land upon the Luneta in the city of Manila where a monument shall be erected to Jose
Rizal. As conceived by the Act, the monument would not merely consist of a statue, but also a
mausoleum to house Rizals remains. A Committee on the Rizal Mausoleum consisting of Poblete,
Paciano Rizal (the heros brother), Juan Tuason, Teodoro R. Yangco, Mariano Limjap, Dr. Maximo
Paterno, Ramon Genato, Tomas G. del Rosario and Dr. Ariston Bautista was created. The members
were tasked, among others, with raising funds through popular subscriptions. The estimated cost of
the monument was P100,000. By January 1905, that goal had been oversubscribed. When the
campaign closed in August 1912, the amount collected had reached P135,195.61 More than
twelve years after the Philippine Assembly approved Act No. 243, the shrine was finally unveiled on
December 30, 1913 during Rizals 17th death anniversary.
The Rizal Monument in Luneta was the work of a Swiss sculptor named Richard Kissling. Kissling was
only the second placer in the international art competition held between 1905 1907 for the
monument design. The first-prize winner was Professor Carlos Nicoli of Carrara, Italy. His scaled
plaster model titled Al Martir de Bagumbayan (To the Martyr of Bagumbayan) bested 40 other
accepted entries. Among his plans were the use of marble from Italy (in contrast to the unpolished
granite now at Luneta) and the incorporation of more elaborate figurative elements.

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Standalone movie theaters of the Philippines

During the advent and continuous growth of Philippine cinema in the early 90's, came with the
establishment of Philippine theaters in the Metropolitan Manila along with those in the Philippine
provinces during the said period. Regular live performances, film showings, and festivals used to be
held on the theaters that lead to significant improvements on Philippine culture including film, and
performing arts. A number of Philippine cinemas were built within the City of Manila in the 90's, and
were designed by prominent architects and currently recognized as Philippine National Artists, but
are closed due to post-World War damages and to give way to these days' city developments.
Examples of Filipino Architecture
Parish of the Holy Sacrifice

The Church of the Holy Sacrifice

The Parish of the Holy Sacrifice is the first circular church and the first thin-shell concrete dome in
the Philippines The Parish of the Holy Sacrifice is the landmark Catholic chapel in the University of
the Philippines, Diliman. Known for its architectural design, the church is recognized as a National
Historical Landmark and a Cultural Treasure by the National Historical Institute and the National
Museum respectively. It was designed by the late National Artist for Architecture, Leandro Locsin,
which was only one of the five national artists who collaborated on the project. Alfredo Juinio
served as the structural engineer for the project. Other Filipino artists contributed to the design of
the interior of the church: Around the Chapel are fifteen large murals painted by Vicente
Manansala depicting the Stations of the Cross; The marble altar and the large wooden cross
above it were sculpted by Napoleon Abueva; The mosaic floor mural called the River of Life was
designed by Arturo Luz.
The church is adjacent to the U.P. Health Service Building and the U.P. Shopping Center Bahay
Kubo mansion National artist for architecture Francisco Manosa, on May, 2008 built his own Ayala
alabang village Bahay Kubo mansion. With only 3 posts or "haligi", it has 5 one-inch coconut shell
doors, 2nd floor, a "silong", Muslim room, sala, and master's bedroom with a fish pond therein.

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Antipolo Church

The image of "Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage" has been venerated in the church of
Antipolo for centuries. The old church that housed the virgin was destroyed in February 1945 when
the Americans bombed Antipolo as part of the liberation campaign of Manila. In 1954 a new
church was build designed by the renowned Filipino architect Jose de Ocampo. This church is of a
coupular design centered around the image of the Virgin. It functions as the center point of the
pilgrimages to Antipolo.

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GLOSSARY:

Aesthetics
A particular theory or conception of beauty or art : a particular taste for or approach to
what is pleasing to the senses and especially sight

Altar
1 : a usually raised structure or place on which sacrifices are offered or
incense is burned in worship

Cathedral
Of, relating to, or containing a bishops official throne (cathe- dra)

Circulation
1 : orderly movement through a circuit;

Civic Structure
A structure of or relating to a citizen, a city, citizenship

Precedent
prior in time, order, arrangement, or significance

Architrave
The lowermost part of an entablature in classical architecture that rests directly on top of
a column.

Faade
The face of a building, especially the principal face.

Cantilever
A projecting structure, such as a beam, that is supported at one end and carries a load at
the other end or along its length.

Grid Organization
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Identical units distributed evenly.

Tend to work well with ideas about making efficient systems of infrastructure, a street
grid for getting cars around, or a structural grid for supporting floors, or a cubicle grid
that can expand and contract with different functional needs.

Linear Organization
Schemes that tend to collect themselves around or on some sort of a major axis

Tower
A building or part of a building that is excep- tionally high in proportion to its width and
length.

Repetition
The act or process or an instance of repeating or being repeated.

Rhythm
Movement or variation characterized by the regular recurrence or alternation of different
quantities or conditions.

Masonry
something constructed of materials used by a skilled worker who builds by laying units of
substantial material (as stone or brick)

Balustrade
A rail and the row of balusters or posts that
support it, as along the front of a gallery.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/republic.html
http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Du-Ha/Filipino-Americans.html
http://www.ualberta.ca/~vmitchel/fw4.html
http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/americansoccupymanila.htm
http://www.slideshare.net/sadyou99/philippine-independence
http://www.philippinecountry.com/philippine_history/american_period.html
http://www.philippines.hvu.nl/history3.htm
http://www.hoppler.com.ph/blog/design-and-architecture/history-of-philippine-architecture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Philippines
http://tx.english-ch.com/teacher/jane/level-c/philippine-architecture-during-americancolonization/
http://thefreemanarchitect.weebly.com/uploads/5/8/6/2/5862311/architecture_of_the_philippines
.pdf

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