2010

DR. R.K. PANNU

DR. SATISH KUMAR
DR. S.S. PAHUJA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
CHAUDHARY CHARAN SINGH HARYANA AGRICULTURAL
UNIVERSITY
HISAR-125004 (HARYANA)

2
 FOREWORD

I am happy to record that the Practical Crop Production Manual, written by

Dr. R. K. Pannu and Dr. Satish Kumar, Department of Agronomy, Chaudhary
Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University (CCSHAU), Hisar, is being
published for the benefit of students of agriculture. The manual contains very
useful and detailed information on practical aspects of crop production right from
land preparation to crop marketing and fulfills the need of a much needed
document on practical crop production. It seems to be of great value not only to
the students but also to the farmers and other persons engaged in crop production.
The authors have rich experience of teaching and research on crop production
technology of various field crops and the manual compiled by them will help to
solve the practical problems encountered by the persons engaged in production of
field crops. The manual is written in simple language and easily understandable as
all the practices have been elaborated with solved examples. I hope it will be able
to generate the desired confidence in students for solving daily field problems.
This publication will certainly make the students to compete for different
examinations and to face the interviews with desired vigour and strength.
I congratulate the authors for their painstaking efforts in bringing out the
manual which in my opinion will meet the demands of the students and other
persons concerned directly or indirectly with the cultivation of field crops.

(K.S. Khokhar)
Vice-Chancellor
CCS Haryana Agricultural University Hisar
 PREFACE

Crop production is the pivot of agriculture. It is a science as well as an art

to manage the natural resources in a manner to maintain soil fertility and crop
productivity. As, an art it embraces the knowledge to perform the various
operations at the farm in a skilful manner. Whereas, the judicious and efficient use
of farm resources and inputs for sustainable production is science. Hence, it should
be taught to the students in a practical way. In view of the ever-growing human
and cattle population and very limited scope for extension of cultivated area, it is
necessary to produce more food, feed, fodder, fuel and fiber from the existing land
area. But depletion and degradation of natural resources by intensive agriculture in
post green revolution era coupled with increasing cost of inputs required for crop
production are posing serious threat to sustainability of crop production.
Therefore, it requires a comprehensive document of knowledge on different
aspects of crop production from planning to marketing to impart practical training
to the students. This manual is an attempt to provide knowledge on practical crop
production as a cooperative agriculture by group of students.
The manual covers all major practical aspects of crop production. The
chapters on estimation of crop seed rate, estimation of crop yield, determination of
manurial and fertilizer requirements of crops, irrigation and herbicide requirement,
preparation of cropping scheme and computing cost of cultivation of crops with
solved examples can be used as ready reckner and will develop confidence of self
decision. We hope the manual will be helpful in fulfilling the objective of
“Learning by doing” and “Earn while you learn”. We wish this manual will be
useful to the students and teachers alike pursuing the sacred mission of increasing
food production for the hungry millions.
We are thankful to the authorities of CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar for granting permission to publish this manual. The encouragement and
technical help rendered by Dr. A. S. Dhindwal, Professor and Head, Department
of Agronomy is thankfully acknowledged. We are extremely thankful to the
authors of various books, manuals and documents for getting useful material for
inclusion in this publication. We are also grateful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research for providing financial assistance for publication of this
manual.
Suggestions for improvement of the subject matter are always welcome.

Hisar R. K. Pannu
February, 2010 Satish Kumar
 S. S. Pahuja

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 CONTENTS

Sr. No. Title Page No.

1. Practical crop production programme 1-3
2. Seeds its classes, properties, characteristics and calculation 4-14
3. Soil fertility and plant nutrition 15-31
4. Weeds and their management 32-45
5. Dry land agriculture 46-47
6. Cropping scheme 48-54
7. Irrigation management 55-64
8. Package and practices for cultivation of crops 65-80
9. Important differences in crop plants 81-85
10. Crop terminology 86-92
11. Working out cost of cultivation of crops 93-97
12. National agricultural insurance scheme 98-101
13. Agricultural loaning 102-109
14. Land record terminology 110-119
15. Annexures 120-143
PRACTICAL CROP PRODUCTION PROGRAMME

The idea of introducing a practical training course for under graduate students was
started in the year 1974. The existing pattern of Saturday farm practical training, before
November, 1974 wherein the final year under graduate students were registering for 2+2
credit hours in trimester, did not provide an integrated and intensive training in raising
crops and to go in depth in successful crop production. This was mainly because of the
fact that due to the shortage of land, students were not able to continue with plot work
throughout the year and also with the start of new trimester a new batch used to come to
do the work. Such a practice did not give thorough comprehensive about the field work in
raising good crops on scientific lines to achieve the real objectives of higher net yield.
The honest efforts of the university towards making every agricultural graduate a
real practical farmer came into existence under the able stewardship of the then Vice-
chancellor, Sh. N.N. Kashyap, ICS who really understood the scope, utility and benefits
of the course to the student’s community with an ultimate objective of developing self-
reliance in crop production. The objectives on which the intensive training in the field of
crop production started are as follows:
(i) To earn while they learn.
(ii) To give the students an opportunity to put into practice with their own hands the
scientific principles of agricultural production studied by them in several courses
of the curriculum.
(iii) To develop the students capacity to plan the operations for a given holding and
work it out with a suitable combination of improved practices to raise maximum
crop yield from the land.
(iv) To train the students under guidance to conduct farming operations as a business,
so that economically higher production could be obtained with resultant profit.
(v) To learn the division of labour among the team of workers so that best results
could be attained with co-operative effort and the art of managing man power is
learnt.
(vi) To develop the faculty of decision making and the execution of agricultural
operations in the field.
(vi) To arouse thinking about the problems faced by farmers and safely lead them to
simple experimentation.
STUDENTS AT WORK ON PRACTICAL CROP PRODUCTION FARM

Mushroom Cultivation Weeding with longtine hoe

Class in progress Weeding with longtine hoe

Interculture operation Herbicide spray

2
Thinning Bund preparation

Channel preparation Irrigating the field

Fertilizer application Fodder harvesting

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SEED, ITS CLASSES, PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISTICS
AND CALCULATION
Seed is the living link between parents and its progeny. Biologically, seed is a
ripe, fertilised ovule and a unit of reproduction of flowering plants. Agronomically, a
seed, seed material or propagule is the living organ of crop in rudimentary form used for
propagation. It can be any part of the crop from which a new crop will grow. Seed is the
vital input in crop production because only through seed the investment made on other
inputs like pesticide, fertilizer, irrigation and crop maintenance can be realized.The seed
required for raising the crop is quite small. Its cost is less as compared to other inputs, but
farmer gets greater income depending upon the quality of the small quantity of seed he
uses. Therefore, utmost care must be taken to use quality seed. Certified seed guarantees
quality and ensures high and assured yield. This emphasises the need for increasing the
area under quality seed production.
Differences between seed and grain
Seed Grain
It should be viable one It may not be a viable one
It should have maximum genetic and It may not have maximum genetic and
physical purit. physical purity.
It should satisfy minimum seed It may not satisfy minimum seed
certification standards. certification standards.
It should be completely treated with It should never be completely treated with
pesticide / fungicide to protect the seed any chemical, since it is used for
against storage pests and fungi. consumption.
Respiration rate and other physiological Respiration rate and other physiological
and biological processes should be kept at and biological processes may not be kept
low level during storage. at low level during storage.
It Should be compulsorily certified/ No need of certification.
truthfully labeled.
It Should never be converted into grain It can be converted into seed if the
unless warranted. conditions warrant.
It should satisfy all the quality norms. Quality norms are not considered.
Since seeds are units of propagation of most arable crops, successful crop
production relies on establishing an adequate population of vigorous plants for efficient
use of natural resources and applied inputs.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY SEED
• Quality seed ensures uniform crop stand establishment with uniform vigour and
population of seedlings per unit area. Selection of good seed is, therefore, of
prime importance for remunerative farming.
• The seed should be of adaptable crop variety or hybrid fitting into the cropping
system.
• Seed should be pure (true to type) with high germination percentage.
• It should be free from seed borne diseases, insects and insect eggs.
• They should be large, plump, bold, uniform in size, shape, colour with proper test
weight.
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 • Seed should be free from noxious, objectionable or satellite weed seeds.
• The seed should be as fresh as possible or of proper age.
CLASSES OF SEEDS
The crop grown for seed production is periodically inspected to determine the
level of impurities for maintaining seed standards. After harvest, the seed is subjected to
analysis and germination test. The standards for certification of each crop differ, but in all
cases they result in the sale of quality seed to the farmers. Four classes of pure seed are
recognised by the International Crop Improvement Association.
Breeder or nucleus seed: It is directly controlled by the organising or sponsoring plant
breeder or institution. It provides for initial or recurring increase of the foundation seed.
This is the seed that is produced directly under the supervision of plant breeder.
Foundation seed: This includes elite seed, would be seed stock (seeds, tubers, bulbs,
plants, etc.) that are so handled as to maintain specific genetic identity and purity and that
may be designated or distributed by representatives of an experimental station.
Foundation seed is the source of all other certified seed classes, either directly or through
registered seed agencies. It is also known as mother seed. The colour of the foundation
seed tag is white.
Registered seed: This is the progeny of the foundation or registered seed that is so
handled as to maintain satisfactory genetic identity and purity and that has been approved
and certified by the certifying agency. This class of seed is of a quality suitable for the
production of certified seed. It can be produced by the farmers and other growers under
special contract with the certifying agency. Registration seed tag is purple.
Certified seed: This is the progeny of the foundation, registered or certified seed that is
so handled as to maintain satisfactory genetic identity and purity and that is approved
certified by the certifying agency. This is the seed designed for use by farmers for crop
production. Two classes of certified seed are produced: F1 and F2. Recertification is not
permitted from F3 generation of seeds. Certified seed tag contains blue tag.
Hybrid seed: is the seed produced by crossing two or more homozygous inbred lines to
obtain a desirable type with high yield potential. Only FI generation of hybrids is
recommended for use as seed for commercial production. To maintain such FI hybrid
seeds, parents are to be maintained and freshly bred each time, particularly, if the same
vigour and known desired qualities are to be maintained. Hybrid seed may be the product
of single, double or multiple cross.
Genetic purity
Breeder/Nucleus 100.0%
Foundation seed 99.5%
Certified seed 99.0%
Physical purity: Seed should have the required level of physical purity for
certification
All crops 98.0%
Free from other crop seeds , expressed in number /kg
Crop Designated inseparable other crop seeds
Barley Wheat, oats and gram
Oats Wheat, gram and barley
Wheat Oats, gram and barley

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 These are the plants of cultivated crops found in the seed field and whose seed
similar to crop seed that is difficult to separate them economically by mechanical means
cause physical admixture with the crop seed only when these crop mature approximately
at the same time when seed crop matures.
Objectionable weed seeds
These are plants of weed species which are harmful in one or more of the following ways
• The size and shape of their seeds are so similar to that of the crop seed that is
difficult to remove their seed economically by mechanical means.
• Their growth habit is detrimental to the growing seed crop due to competing
effect
• Their plant parts are poisonous or injurious to human and animal beings
• They serve as alternate hosts for crop pests and diseases.
Crop Designated Objectionable weeds
Berseem Chicory (Chicorum intybus)
Cucurbits Wild Cucurbita sp.
Kasuri methi Melilous sp.
Lettuce Wild lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
Bhindi Wild Abelmoschus sp.
Rape and Mustard Argemone mexicana
Wheat Convolvulus arvensis (Hiran kuri)
Paddy Wild paddy (Oryza sativa var. fatua)
Free from designated diseases
It refers to the diseases specified for the certification of seeds and for which
certification standards must be met with. May cause contamination, when they are
present in the seed field or with in the specified isolation distance. The objectionable
designated diseases and their causal organisms of different crops are as under:
Crop Designated diseases Causal Organism
Wheat Loose smut Ustilago tritici
Sorghum Grain smut or Kernel smut Sphacelotheca sorghii
Mustard Alternaria blight Alternaria sp.
Pearl millet Grain smut Tolyposporium penicillariae
Green ear Sclerospora graminicola
Ergot Claviceps microcephala
Sesame Leaf spot Alternaria sp
Brinjal Little leaf Datura virus
Chilies Anthracnose leaf blight Gleosporium piperatum
Leaf blight Alternaria solani
Cucurbits Mosaic Cucumis virus
Cowpea Anthracnose Colletotricum sp.
Bhindi Yellow vein mosaic Hibiscus virus
Potato Brown rot Pseudomonas solanacearum
Root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
Tomato Early blight Alternaria solan i
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 Leaf spot Xanthomonas ves icatoria
Steps to be taken during Seed Production to Insure Genetic Purity
Following are the steps which can help in maintaining genetic purity of seed
material:
1. Control of seed source
Multiplication of seed material from an appropriate class viz. breeder’s,
foundation, registered and certified procured from an appropriate source is essential.
2. Nature of preceding crop
In order to maintain genetic purity of the seed there are certain requirements
pertaining to the nature of preceding crop which may not deteriorate the seed quality and
can help in growing healthy seed crop. Scientific crop rotation should be followed but if
the same crop was grown in previous season, under special case, then the fields should be
irrigated 3 weeks before sowing to allow germination of shattered seeds of previous crop
and they should be destroyed during seed bed preparation like in case of wheat etc. Thus
the volunteer plants of same variety or the crop should be destroyed under all the
circumstances.
3. Isolation
Isolation is an effective distance up to which pollen may be carried by various
agencies like insects; wind etc. from commercial crop to the seed crop and results into
natural crossing or cross pollination. The seed crop must be grown beyond this distance.
4. Rouging
Presence of off type plants causes a potential threat to genetic purity,
contamination; however removal of such plants before flowering or before heading may
not jeopardize the genetic purity of the seed. The off-types may be produced because of
presence of some recessive genes in the variety at the time of release or they may arise by
mutation. The off-types may also grow as volunteer if the same crop or variety is grown
in pervious year or there had been mechanical mixture due to use of same seed drill,
threshing machine, etc.
5. Seed certification
To insure the quality pedigree seed it has to be certified by any registered seed
certifying agency like HSDC, NSC, TDC, etc. Most qualified and experienced seed
certifying personal carry out field inspections to ensure the absence of off-types
objectionable weeds and diseased plants in the field of seed crop. These personals also
draw seed samples from the seed lots and conduct various seed tests to find out purity,
germination, viability and seed healths. The seed lots which meet minimum seed
standards are subsequently in its respective seed class.
6. Adoption of an appropriate agronomic practices
These practices includes selection of suitable agro-climatic zone in which a
successful seed production programme may be carried out, selection of well leveled and
fertile plots which are free from water logging, selection of suitable variety, seed type,
seed treatment, cultivation practices like using proper seed rate, timely sowing, using
proper distance, use of all preventive measures against diseases, insect-pests, weeds,
efficient water and nutrient management, timely harvesting, threshing, drying, grading,

7
bagging, etc. These practices help in raising a healthy seed crop for onward distribution
to the cultivators for raising a good crop of higher productivity.

Higher productivity could also be maintained by renewal of seed lots as under:

Seed renewal period in years
Crops Years
Wheat 5
Paddy 4
Maize hybrid 1
Sorghum hybrid 1
Sorghum composite 2-3
Bajra hybrid 1
Barley 5
Gram, pea, lentil, mung, urd 5
Groundnut 5
Cotton varieties 5
Arhar 3
Seed Testing: Farmers often save seed from the current season's crop for planting in the
next season. The farmer usually saves seed from plant (s) with desirable features (well-
developed bold seed free from pests and diseases). In the case of cross pollinated plants,
such as maize, farms will have to constantly change the cultivar season after season.
Optimum crop stand establishment depends on quality of seed used and soil
environment in which it is sown. Seed testing is the procedure for obtaining reliable
information about its capacity for establishing adequate crop stand. Most seed testing labs
provide information on five aspects of seed quality: viability, purity, vigour, seed health
and presence of noxious weed seed.
Seed germination: Germination is the transformation of an embryo into a seedling.
During the process of germination, the metabolism and growth which were suppress or
suspended are resumed. Seedling develops from the seed from its quiescent state. Water
is the basic requirement for initiating the chemical reactions. Optimum temperature is
essential for good germination. Individual species has its own temperature requirement
which occurs within a limited range. Normally the temperature range for germination is
15- 40°C. Seed germination is also affected by oxygen supply since it is required for
respiration. The primary role of oxygen is electron acceptor in catabolism. Many of the
seeds are markedly light sensitive for germination, primarily to the activity of the
phytochrome system.
Seed viability: Seed viability is defined as the degree to which a seed is metabolically
active and capable of germinating under favourable condition. Seed viability is the
highest at the time of physiological maturity; Seeds with high moisture content
deteriorate quickly due to energy expenditure and accumulation of breakdown process.
Ageing is one of the reasons that affect the seed viability of seed increases, the semi-
permeable membrane of the cell organelles loses their selective permeability and allow
8
the metabolites to leach out. The important changes that take place due to ageing is the
degradation of mitochondria which permanently lose their ability of swelling and
contraction. Normally the viable seeds of many of the field crops germinate within 3-5
days. It is important to maintain the viability of seeds during germination.
Longevity:It means the duration of the viability of seeds. Normally the seeds possess
maximum germination potential during the physiological maturity and the deterioration
of seed quality occurs from this point of maturation onwards. The rate of deterioration
increases due to mechanical injury at the time of harvesting and processing. Higher
moisture content in the seed also causes deterioration of seed quality and longevity.
Stored seeds exposed to microorganisms and insects cause reduction in longevity. Seeds
stored in low moisture, cool temperature and low oxygen tension enable increase in
longevity. However, due to aging, there is break down of compounds that are essential
for germination and accumulation of toxic by-products. Lipid auto oxidation is one of
processes that destroy seed viability due to ageing, particularly in oilseeds. Small millets
retain their viability for a long period. The seeds of tobacco remain viable for 10-15
years, if properly stored.
Viability testing: Seed viability is the capacity of non-dormant seed to germinate under
favourable conditions. There are different techniques for conducting standard
germination test including petri dish test and rolled-towel test. Seeds are placed on
absorbent material in the dish. Small seeds may be sandwiched between two layers of
absorbent material. In the rolled towel test, seeds are arranged in rows and rolled up.
Sand and cotton can be used as absorbent material. After placing the seed in appropriate
medium, it is placed in a germinator at relative humidity of 90 per cent and a temperature
of 20°C for 16 hrs, followed by further exposure for 8 hrs at 30°C for one to several
weeks depending on the seed. Scoring is done by grouping seedlings into different
categories as normal, hard seed, dormant seed, abnormal seed and dead or decaying seed.
Tetrazolium test is a calorimetric test in which a biochemical reaction causes the
test solution to change colour under certain conditions. Tetrazolium (2, 3, 5-
triphenyltetrazolium chloride) solution is colourless, but changes to red insoluble
compound called formagan upon being reduced by hydrogen ion. Viable seed will change
colour to red and dead or nonrespiring seeds remain colourless. This test is quick and
reliable.
Seed purity test: Seed purity is percentage of pure seed (seed without contaminants) in
the sample tested. Contaminants include seeds of other crops, weed seed and inert matter.
Pure live seed: Pure live seed (PLS) is the per cent of desired cultivar that will
germinate.
It is a function of both per cent purity and per cent germination. It is calculated as per
cent.
Per cent = (% germination x % purity)
100
Seed vigour: Vigour of seed is defined as the condition of the seed that permits
germination to proceed rapidly and uniformly and allows production of uniform seedling
stand. Seed vigour is a pre-requisite for rapid and uniform germination and fast growth of
seedlings under field conditions. Vigorous seeds produce seedlings that will have good

9
health and natural robustness. The vigour of the seeds depends on the genome, history of
the individual seed and the environment in which it is sown. Seed vigour is normally
determined by germination, growth and development, resistance to variations
mitochondria and extra active enzyme systems for assimilation, growth and development.
Fully mature seeds possess complete physical and physiological development needed for
maximum expression of vigour.
Prevalence of high humidity and high temperature during seed storage affect the
seed vigour and cause loss of viability. Other factors such as mechanical damage attack
by pathogens and passage of time also affect the seed vigour. Mechanically affected
seeds are prone to infestation by fungi and other microorganism insect incidence,
particularly of seed borer (Bruchus), causes damage to the stored seeds which lose their
vigour. Vigourous seeds are physically sound, germinate quickly and produce rapidly
developing seedlings.
Seed vigour test: Seed vigour indicates the properties of seed that determine its potential
for rapid, uniform emergence and development of normal seedlings under a wide range of
field conditions. It is influenced by genetic factors and external environmental conditions
during seed development and maturity, harvest and storage. An environment of high
temperature and humidity adversely affects seed vigor.
In cold test, seed samples are placed on an appropriate medium in a cold
environment at l0oC for 7 days and brought to an environment mediated at 25°C for 4
days. The seeds that emerge are counted. In accelerated aging test, imbibed seeds are kept
at high temperature (45°C) and at high relative humidity (100%) for about 4 days. The
seeds are then placed under optimal conditions for germination. Vigorous seeds survive
this harsh treatment.
Seed health: It evaluates the presence of pathogens and insect pests on the seed. Seed
heath may be evaluated visually (change in testa colour, presence of spores etc) after
incubating on an appropriate medium for disease development. It can also be determined
by biochemical test such as enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Mechanical seed damage: Mechanical damage to seed affects seed quality.
Damage may include readily visible splits or cracks in testa or chips of cotyledons.
Physically damaged seeds are prone to rotting when planted in the soil. Mechanical
damage to seed may be evaluated by soaking a sample in 0.1 per cent household bleach
(sodium hypochlorite) for 15 minutes. Seeds with cracks in testa will imbibe the solution
and the testa will separate from cotyledon.
Test weight: refers to either weight of a fixed number of seeds, e.g., 100 seed weight or
1000 seed weight or seed weight from a fixed volume, e.g., seeds filled in test tube.
Calculation of real value (RV) of seed
Real value of seed is calculated as follows:
RV = Purity (%) x Germination (%)
100
Calculation of seed purity
Pure live seed (PLS) is calculated as follows:
PLS= Purity (%) x Viability (%)
100

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The test weight of some important crops is given as under-
Crop 1000 seed weight.(g) Seeds per kg. ('000)
Cereals
Wheat 45 22220
Barley 37 27020
Oats 32 31250
Maize 220 4540
Rice 25 40000
Sorghum 15 66660
Pearlmillet 7 142850
Ragi 8 125000
Pulses
Chickpea Desi 140 7140
Chickpea Kabuli 300 3330
Lentil 40 25000
Pigeonpea 60 16670
Mung 30 33340
Urd 30 33340
Moth 25 40000
Cowpea 32 31250
Soybean 100 10000
Fieldpea 30 33340
Rajmash 250 4000
Oilseeds
Linseed 10 100000
Rapeseed 4.5 222220
Groundnut 350-500 2860-2000
Sesamum 6 166670
Sunflower 44 22730
Saflower 35 28570
Castor 500 2000
Fibre crops
Cotton Hybrid 145 7000
Cotton Bt 145 7000
Sunnhemp 15 66660
Green Manuring Crops
Sesbania 20 50000
Sunnhemp 15 66660
Clusterbean 30 33340
Medicinal crops
Isabgol 2 500000
Methi 20 50000
Forage crops
Lucerne 2.4 416670
Berseem 2.5 400000
Alkloid crops

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 Tobacco 2 500000
Calculation of seed rate:
Example 1: Calculate the seed rate of wheat for one hectare area with following
observation: Spacing = 20X 5cm, Test weight of seed = 40 g, Establishment of
plants = 70%, Purity percentage = 90, Germination percentage = 90.
Solution:
Purity % X Germination %
Real value of seed = -----------------------------------
100 x100
90 X 90
Real value of seed = ---------------- =0.81
100 x100
Area in one hectare
Plant population needed/ha = -------------------------------------
Space occupied by each plant

100 X 100 X100 X 100

Plant population needed/ha = ----------------------------- = 1000000 plants
20 X5

Plant population needed X Weight of one seed

Seed rate /ha = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unit established plants X Real value of seed X1000X100

1000000 X 40 X 100 X100

Seed rate needed/ha = ----------------------------------- = 70.546 kg/ha
70 X 1000 X 81X1000 X100

Example 2: Calculate the seed rate of hybrid cotton for one acre area with
following observation: Spacing = 67.5 X 30 cm,Test weight of fuzzed seedand
unfuzzed seed is 140 and 150 g, respectively, Purity percentage = 90. Germination
percentage = 80.
Solution: Purity % X Germination %
Real value of seed = -----------------------------------
100 x100
90 X 80
Real value of seed = ---------------- =0.72
100 x100
Area in one acre
Plant population needed/ha = -------------------------------------
Space occupied by each plant

4000 X100 X100

Plant population needed/ha = ----------------------------- = 19753 plants
67.5 X30
Plant population needed X Weight of one seed

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 Seed rate Kg/ac. = -------------------------------------------------------------------
Real value of seed X1000X100

19753 X 1.4 X 100

Seed rate (fuzzed seed) needed/ac = ----------------------------- = 3.84 kg/ac.
72 X 81X1000 X100

19753 X 1.5 X 100

Seed rate (unfuzzed seed) needed/ac = ----------------------------- = 4.115
kg/ac.
72 X 81X1000 X100

Example 3: Determine the seed requirement of rice to be transplanted in 5 acre

with the following information:
Seed germination = 90%, Seed purity = 90%, Test weight = 25 g, Spacing between
hills = 15 cm x 15 cm, Number of seedlings per hill = 2, Damaged seedlings during
uprooting = 10%, Seedling required for gap filling = 10%.

Solution: 90 x 90
Real value of seed = ---------------- = 0.81
100 x 100
5 x 4000 x 100 x 100 x 2
Plant population required for 5 acre = ------------------------------ = 1777778 plants
15 x 15

110
No. of seedlings required to replace damaged seedlings during uprooting = -------
100

110
No. of seedlings required to replace damaged seedlings during uprooting = -------
100
1777778 x 110 x 110
Plant population needed in nursery = ---------------------------- = 2151111 plants
100 x 100

2151111 x 100 x 25 x 1000

Seed rate required for 5 acre = --------------------------------- = 66.39 kg
81 x 1000

Example 4: Work out the seed rate of sugarcane to be planted with 3 buded setts
for one hectare from the given data: No. of buds on a cane = 30, No. of damaged
buds on a cane = 5, Row spacing = 60 cm, Length of each sett = 30 cm, Average
weight of a cane = 1 kg.

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 10000 x 100 x 100
Solution: No. of setts needed per hectare = ---------------------------- = 55555 setts
60 x 30
No. of buds/ sett x No. of setts /ha
No. of canes needed /ha = ---------------------------------------------------------------
No. of buds per cane – No. of damaged bud per cane
3 x 55555
No. of canes needed /ha = -------------------= 6666.6 canes
30 – 5
Weight of 6666.6 canes = 6666.6 x 1 = 6666.6 kg = 66.666 q/ha

Example 5: Find out the seed requirement of berseem for 2 kanal area sowing
through broadcasting method with required plant stand of 400 plants / m2. The test
weight of berseem is 2.0 g, purity 90%, germination 90% and seedling establishment
80%.
Solution: 90 x 90
Real value of seed = ---------------- = 0.81
100 x 100

Plant stand required = 1000 x 400 = 400,000 plants

400,000 x 2 x 100 x 100x 1

Seed rate required = ------------------------------------- = 1.234 kg
100 x 81 x 80 x 1000

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SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION
The term soil fertility refers to the inherent capacity of soil to supply mineral
nutrients. Soil productivity is related to the ability of a soil to produce yield economic
products. It is the broader term since fertility is only one of a number of factors that
determine the magnitude of crop yields.
Difference between soil fertility and soil productivity
Soil fertility Soil productivity
(i) It is considered as an index of (i) It is a broader term used to indicate
nutrients availability to plants. yields of crops.
(ii) It is one of the factors for crop (ii) It is the interaction of all the factors that
production. The other factors are water determine the magnitude of yields.
supply, slope of the land, depth of (iii) It can be assessed in the field under
water table etc. particular climatic conditions.
(iii) It can be analysed in the laboratory. (iv) It is the resultant of various factors
(iv) It is potential status of the soil to influencing crop yield.
produce crops.
The Arnon's criteria of essentiality of elements in plant nutrition
(i) A deficiency of the elements makes it impossible for the plant to complete its life
cycle.
(ii) The deficiency symptom of the element in question can be prevented or corrected
only by supplying the elements.
(iii) The element is directly involved in the nutrition of the plant and can not be
replaced with other apart from its possible effect in correcting some micro-
biological or chemical condition in the soil.
List of the essential nutrients required for plant growth
Seventeen elements have been considered essential for plant growth are:
_______________________________________________________________________
_
Mostly from air and water From soil solids
--------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Macronutrients Micronutrients
---------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------
Carbon(C) Nitrogen (N) Iron (Fe) Copper (Cu)
Hydrogen (H) Phosphorus(P) Manganese (Mn) Zinc (Zn)
Oxygen (O Potassium (K) Boron (B). Chloride (CI)
Calcium (Ca) Molybdenum (Mo) Cobalt (Co)
Magnesium (Mg)
Sulphur (S)
_____________________________________________________________________
Classification of the essential elements based on the physiological functions
Considering the role played by various essential elements they may be grouped as
follows:
Group Role Essential elements
15
I Energy exchanges Hydrogen, oxygen
II Energy stores Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous& sulphur
III Translocation regulators Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium
IV Oxidation-reduction regulators Manganese, molybdenum, iron, copper,
boron, cobalt & zinc
Difference between macro and micronutrients
Elements which are required by plants in concentrations exceeding one part per
million, often ten times that or more are called macronutrients. Elements which are
required by plants in concentrations less than 1 ppm are considered as micronutrients.
The forms of different nutrients elements used by plants
Nutrients absorbed in uncombined form
Nutrient Form
Potassium K+
Calcium Ca++
Magnesium Mg++
Iron Fe++ (Ferrous), Fe+++ (Ferric)
Mangenese Mn++ (Manganous), Mn+++(Manganic)
Copper Cu+ (Cuprous), Cu++ (Cupric)
Zinc Zn++
Chlorine CI-
Nutrients absorbed in combined form or as salts
Nutrient Form
Nitrogen NH4+(ammonium), NO3 --(nitrate)
Phosphorus PO4--(phosphate)
HPO4- (phosphate)*H2PO4(orthophosphoric acid)
Sulphur SO3(sulphite), *SO"4 (sulphate)
Boron *BO3- -(borate) , HB4O7 (biborate)
Molybdenum HMoO4- (molybdate)
Carbon CO3 - -(Carbonate), *HCO3 – (bicarbonate)
Hydrogen H+ , HO-
* Indicate the forms in which most plants take up these nutrients.
Functions of essential nutrients
Carbon Basic molecular component of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.
Oxygen It is somewhat like carbon in that it occurs in virtually all organic
compounds of living organisms.
Hydrogen Plays a central role in plant metabolism. Important in ionic balance and as
main reducing agent and plays a key role in energy relations of cells.
Nitrogen It is a component of many important organic compounds ranging from
protein to nucleic acids. It is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is the

16
 primary absorber of light energy needed for photosynthesis. It imparts
green colour to plants.
Phosphorus Central role in energy transfer and protein metabolism. It is an important
structural component of many biochemicals inluding nucleic acids. DNA
and RNA are associated with control of hereditary processes. It is also
associated with increased root growth and early maturity of crops.
Potassium Helps in osmotic and ionic regulation. It functions as cofactor or activator
for many enzymes of carbohydrate and protein metabolism. Imparts
disease resistance in cereals and drought resistance in many crops.
Calcium It is involved in cell division and plays a major role in maintenance of
membrane integrity.
Magnesium Component of chlorophyll and a cofactor for many enzymatic reactions. It
is a structural component in ribosomes.
Sulphur Like phosphorus, it is involved in plant cell energetics. It is associated
with chlorophyll formation and sulphur containing amino acids.
Iron An essential component of many hemo and non-hemo Fe enzymes and carriers,
including cytochromes (respiratory electron carriers) and the ferredoxins.
The latter are involved in key metabolic functions such as N fixation,
photosynthesis and electron transfer.
Zinc It is a constituent of several enzyme systems regulating various metabolic
reactions.
Manganese Involved in oxygen evolving system of photosynthesis. It can substitute
for magnesium in many of the phosphorylating and group transfer
reactions. It influences auxin levels in plants.
CopperIt acts as electron carrier in enzymes associated with oxidation-reduction
reactions. It has indirect effect on nodule formation.
Boron It is essential for development and growth of new cells in plant meristcm. It is
necessary for nodule formation in legumes. It is associated with
translocation of sugars, starches, nitrogen and phosphorus.
Molybdenum It is an essential component of enzyme nitrate reductase in plants. It is also
a structural component of nitrogenase associated with nitrogen fixation in
legumes.
Chlorine Essential for photosynthesis and as an activator of enzymes involved in
splitting water. Associated with osmoregulation of plants growing on
saline soils.
Nikle It influences urease activity in nitrogen metabolism and facilitates transport of
nutrients to seed or grain. In free living Rhizobia, its supply is necessary
for hydrogenase activity.
VISUAL SYMPTOMS
The cheapest diagnostic technique for identifying nutrient disorders in crop plants
is visual symptoms. However, visual symptoms are some times confused with disease,
insect or soil moisture stress. There are three steps in identifying nutrient disorders by
visual symptoms.

17
(l) Observing plant for its normal growth and development: stunted growth may be
due to deficiency or toxicity of all elements, but N and P deficiencies have more
influence on growth reduction,
(2) Plant part affected: whether foliar symptoms appear on lower or older leaves, or
on younger or growing points of the plant, and
(3) Recognition of nature of symptoms: chlorotic, necrotic or deformed.
If symptoms appear on lower leaves, they may be due to deficiency of mobile
nutrients such as N, P, K and Mg. Mobile nutrients are those which can be translocated
within plants. Hence, deficiency symptoms occur first on the lower part of the plant. If
deficiency symptoms first appear on the upper young leaves, they may be due to
deficiency of immobile nutrients such as Ca, Fe, Cu, S, B, Mn and Mo. Immobile
nutrients are not translocated to the growing region of the plant but remain in older
leaves where they were originally deposited after absorption from the soil. Key points in
identification of nutrient deficiency symptoms in crops are given in following table.
Practical applicability of this method is rather limited.
• Symptoms are often vitiated by the interaction of elements and also by the
intensification of pests and diseases.
• The very fact that crop is showing deficiency symptoms indicates that its growth
and development has already been hindered and optimum yield may not be
possible even after the remedy.
• Deficiency symptoms may vary from species to species and even from variety to
variety.
• Plants may not exhibit deficiency symptoms due to hidden hunger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMBTOMS
Nutrient
________________________________Symptoms_______________________
N Stunted growth, chlorosis (yellowing) first on lower leaves, reduced tillering in
cereals.
P Purple orange colour of older leaves, new leaves dark green, poor root system,
stunted growth.
K Older leaves may show spots or marginal burning starting from tip.
Ca Failure of terminal bud and root tips, growing point die and curl, new leaves
become white.
Mg Interveinal chlorosis of older leaves with veins remaining green, pinkish colour of
old leaves.
S Chlorosis of younger leaves, severe deficiency leads to chlorosis of entire plant.
Zn Characteristic little leaf and rosetting or clustering of leaves at the top of fruit
trees. In sorghum, its deficiency is called white bud, cotton little leaf and in citrus
mottle leaf.
Fe Interveinal chlorosis of younger leaves, severe deficiency leads to yellowing of
entire leaf first and finally white.
Mn Similar to iron deficiency, at advanced stages, necrosis develops instead of white
colour.
Cu Chlorosis of young leaves, rolling and dieback. In advanced stages dead tissue
appears along the tips and edges of leaves similar to that of potassium deficiency.
Mo Mottled pale appearance in young leaves, bleaching and withering of leaves.

18
B Thickened or curled leaves, thickened, cracked or water-soaked condition of
petioles and stem, cracking or rotting of fuuits, tubers or roots

19
 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

N-deficiency (Wheat) N-Deficiency (Soybean) N-Deficiency (Tobacco)

N-Deficiency (Maize) Zn-Deficiency (Rice) Fe-Deficiency (Groundnut)

P-Deficiency (Sugarcane) Fe Deficiency (Maize) Mn-Deficiency (Wheat)

N-Deficiency (Rice) P-Deficiency (Maize) Fe-Deficiency (Rice)

20
Fe-Deficiency (Groundnut) P-Deficiency (Brassica napus) Mn-Deficiency (Wheat)

Mn-Deficiency (Berseem) N-Deficiency (Soybean) P-Deficiency (Wheat)

P-Deficiency (Sorghum) P-Deficiency (Sugarcane) N-Deficiency (Wheat)

K-Deficiency S-Deficiency (Wheat) K-Deficiency (Berseem)

21
Nutrient Response on Yield Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

22
Deficiency diseases caused by micronutrient deficiency are as follows:
• Iron= Bright yellow green or yellow chlorosis in grain crops.
• Manganese= Grey speck of oats, Speckled yellows of
sugarbeet. Marsh spot of peas. Pahala blight of sugarcane.
• Copper= White tip in grain crops.
• Zinc= White bud of maize. Khaira disease of rice.
• Molybdenum= Yellow spot of citrus.
• Boron= Crown rot or dry rot of sugarbeet. Top sickness of tobacco.
Fertilizers are the nutrient supplying chemicals in concentrated form. There are
different form/types of fertilizers supplying essential nutrients. Some fertilizers supply
only one nutrient and are called straight fertilizers, where as, there are some fertilizers
which supply more than one nutrient are called complex fertilizers.

Classification of nitrogen fertilizers

1. Nitrate (NO3) fertilizers N content (%)
Sodium nitrate Na NO3 15-16
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 33-35
Potasium nitrate KNO3 13.00
2. Ammonium (NH4) fertilizers
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2 SO4 20.60
Ammonium phosphate NH4H2PO4 20.00
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 25.00
Anlydrous ammonia NH3 81.50
3. Nitrate & ammonium fertilizers
Ammoium nitrate NH4NO3 33.50
Calcium ammonium nitrate CaNH4 NO3(NH4NO3.CaCO3) 25.00
Ammonium sulphate nitrate (NH4)2 SO4.NH4NO3 26.00
4. Amide (CN2) fertilizers
Urea CO (NH2)2 46.00
Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 21.00

Relative efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers:

Based on the experiment results the following conclusions have emerged:
• Under most conditions urea, calcium ammonium nitrate and ammonium
sulphate, on equal nitrogen basis, are equally effective.
• Ammonical fertilizers are more effective than nitrate fertilizers fro lowland
rice.
• Nitrate nitrogenous fertilizers are better suited for top dressing.
• For crops such as tea, ammonium sulphate is more effective than others.

23
Phosphatic fertilizers
Fertilizers Total (%)
P2O5 N (%)
Single super phosphate 16.0 -
Triple super phosphate 48.0 -
Dicalcium phosphate 34.0 -
Calcium metaphosphate 63.0 -
Rock phosphate 27.0 -
Basic slag 2.5-7.5 -
Mono-ammonium phosphate 48.0 11.0
Diammonium phosphate 46.0 18.0
Ammonium phosphate sulphate 20.0 16.0
Nitrophosphate (ODDA) 20.0 20.0
Nitrophosphate (PEC) 14.0 16.0
Potassium metaphosphate 60.1 -

Relative efficiency of phosphatic fertilizers

• For short duration crops and those with restricted root system, fertilizers
with high proportion of water soluble phosphorus are advantageous.
• Higher water soluble phosphorus is less important for long duration
crops.
• Higher water solubility is desirable for crops requiring quick start.
• Localized placement of water soluble phosphate fertilizers is more
effective when the rate of application is limited.
• On acid soils, granular fertilizers with high degree of water solubility are
most effective than powdered fertilizers to be mixed with soil.
• On acid to neutral soils, band placement of powdered fertilizers with high
degree of water solubility will give better results than mixing the fertilizers with soil.
• On calcareous soils, granular water soluble phosphate is more effective.
• Fertilizers with low solubility will give good results when applied in
powdered from mixed with soil.
• Monoammonium phosphate is better than diammonium phosphate on
calcareous soils.
• Rock phosphate and bone meal are ideal for strongly acid soils and for
long duration crops.

Potassium fertilizers
K2O(%)
Murate of potash KCl 60
Potassium sulphate K2SO4 48
Potassium nitrate KNO3 44

24
Sulphate containing fertilizers and soil amendments
Fertilizer/amendments Sulphur (%) Fertilizer/amendment Sulphur (%)
Ammonium sulphate 23.7 Potassium sulphate 17.8
Ammonium phosphate 4.5 Gypsum 23.5
Ammonium phosphate 15.4 Copper sulphate 12.8
sulphate
Basic slag 12.4 Ferrous sulphate 18.8
Single super phosphate 22.4 Zinc sulphate 17.8

Micronutrient carriers
Micronutrient Name of salt Micronutrient content
(%)
Zn Zinc sulphate heptahydrate 21
Zinc sulphate monohydrate 33
Zinc oxide 55-70
Zinc EDTA 12
Cu Copper sulphate pentahydrate 24
Copper sulphate monohydrate 35
Copper EDTA 9-13
Mn Manganese sulphate trihydrate 26-28
Manganese sulphate monohydrate 30-32
Manganese 5-12
Fe Ferrous sulphate 19
Iron EDTA 12
B Borax 10.5
Boric acid 17.5
Solubor 19
Mo Sodium molybdate 37-39
Ammonium molybdate 52
Cl Potassium chloride 48

Antagonism among different essential plant nutrients

Some of the enzymatic and biochemical reactions requiring a given micronutrient
may be poisoned by the presence of other second trace element in toxic quantities:
(i) Molybdenum use is limited by excess copper or sulphur
(ii) Excess Zn, Cu or Mo encourages iron deficiency
(iii) Excess phosphorous deficiency of Zn, iron or copper but increases Mo uptake
(iv) High level of nitrogen intensify Cu and Zn deficiencies
(v) Excess Na and K may affect Mn uptake
(vi) Boron uptake is limited by excess lime
(vii) Excess Fe, Cu or Zn may reduce Mn absorption

25
Organic manures: Organic manures are the decomposed organic matter. These are
having plant nutrients in low concentration and are required in large quatity, hence, called
bulky manures. These are crop residue or animal excreta.

AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF ORGANIC MANURES

Manure N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)
Bulky organic manures
Farm yard manure 0.5-1.5 0.4-0.8 0.5-1.9
Compost (urban) 1.0-2.0 1.0 1.5
Compost (rural) 0.4-0.8 0.3-0.6 0.7-1.0
Green manures (averages) 0.5-0.7 0.1-0.2 0.6-0.8
Non edible cakes
Castor cake 5.5-5.8 1.8-1.9 1.0-1.1
Mahua cake 2.5-2.6 0.1-0.9 1.8-1.9
Karanj cake 3.9-4.0 0.9-1.0 1.3-1.4
Neem cake 5.2-5.3 1.0-1.1 1.4-1.5
Safflower cake
4.8-4.9 1.4-1.5 1.2-1.3
(undecorticated)
Edible cakes
Coconut 3.0-3.2 1.8--1.9 1.7-1.8
Cotton seed cak\)
6.4-6.5 2.8-2.9 2.1-2.2
(decorticated)
Cotton seed cake
3.9-4.0 1.8-1.9 1.6-1.7
(undecorticated)
Groundnut cake 7.0-7.2 1.5-1.6 1.3-1.4
Linseed 5.5-5.6 1.4-1.5 1.2-1.3
Niger 4.7-4.8 1.8-1.9 1.3-1.4
Rapeseed 5.1-5.2 1.8-1.9 1.2-1.3
Sesame or til, cake 6.2-6.3 2.0-2.1 1.2-1.3
Manure of animal origin
Dried blood 10.0-12.0 1.0-1.5 0.6-0.8
Fish manure 4.0-10.0 3.0-9.0 0.3-1.5
Bird guano 7.0-8.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0
Bone meal (raw) 3.0-4.0 20.0-25.0
Bone meal (steamed) 1.0-2.0 25.0-30.0
Activated sludge (dry) 5.0-6.5 3.0-3.5 0.5-0.7
Settled sludge (dry) 2.0-2.5 1.0-1.2 0.4-0.5
Night soil 1.2-1.3 0.8-1.0 0.4-0.5
Human urine 1.0-1.2 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.3
Cattle dung + urine 0.60 0.15 0.45
Horse dung + urine 0.70 0.25 0.55
Sheep dung + urine 0.95 0.35 1.00

Green manure crops and the quantity of nutrient added

These are protein rich crops which are rich in nitrogen and succulent in growth.
High succulancy helps in easy and early decomposition after turning in soil by ploughing
at flowering stage with maximum biomass addition and early decomposition because of
low fibre content.

26
N content and addition by leguminous green manuring crops
Crop Av. Yield of Green N content (%) N added (Kg/ha)
matter (q/ha) green
Sannhemp 212 0.43 75.0
Sesbania 200 0.42 68.9
(Dhaincha)
Mung 80 0.53 34.5
Cowpea 150 0.49 50.3
Cluster bean 200 0.34 55.7
(Guar)
Senji 286 0.51 120.0
Khesari 123 0.54 54.9
Berseem 155 0.43 54.2

Chemical composition of the straw fed to animals

Crop straw Percent content
N P2O5 K2O
Paddy 0.36 0.08 0.71
Wheat 0.53 0.10 1.10
Sorghum 0.40 0.23 2.17
Pearlmillet 0.65 0.75 2.50
Maize 0.42 1.57 1.65

Biofertilizers and their probable fixing capacity

Association Strains Remarks
A. Nitrogen
1. Symbiotic Rhizobia, Frambia, Anabeena 40 – 750 kg N/ha
2. Associative Azospirillum, Acetobactor, Herbspirillum 20 – 40 kg N/ha
3. Free living a) Azotobacter, Derxia, Cyanobacteria, 20 – 40 kg N/ha
Rhodospirillum, Beijerinckia
b) Blue green algae (Tolypothrix, Nestoc, 12 – 15 kg N/ha
Calottria, Plectonema)
B. Phosphorus
Phosphorus Pseudomonas and Bacillus Can provide 30 kg P2O5/ha
solublizers
VAM (Vesicular Arbicular Mycorrhiza) Reduce the requirement of
phosphorus by 20%

Rhizobium bacteria species responsible for nitrogen fixation in different legumes

Group Rhizobium species Legume
Alfalfa R. meliloti Melilotus (certain clovers), Medicago (alfalfa), Trigonella
Clover R.trifolii Trifolium spp. (clovers)
Soybean R.japonicum Glycine max (soybeans)
Lupini R. lupine Lupinus (lupines), Ornithopus spp. (serradella)
Bean R. phaseoli Phaseolus vulgaris (dry bean), Phaseolus coccineus
Peas R. leguminosarum Pisum (peas),

27
Crop groups based on response to salt stress
Sensitive group Resistant group
Highly sensitive Medium sensitive Medium tolerant Highly tolerant
Lentil Radish Spinach Barley
Mash Cowpea Sugarcane Rice (transplanted)
Chickpea Broadbean Raya Cotton
Beans Vetch Rice (direct sowing) Sugarbeet
Peas Millets Wheat Tabacco
Maize Pearl millet Safflower
Clover, berseem Oats Taramira
Alfalfa

Calculation on fertilizer requirement

Example 1 : For one hectare cultivation of wheat calculate the amount of calcium
ammonium nitrate, single super phosphate and murate of potash fertilizers if one
one to apply 150 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O per hectare nutrients.
Solution: Wheat area to be cultivate = 1 ha or 10,000 m2 amount of nutrients needed
to be applied: N = 150 kg, P2O5 = 60 kg and K2O = 60 kg.
Fertilizers available:
Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) = 25% N
Single ammonium phosphate (SSP) = 16% P2O5
Murate of potash (MOP) = 60% K2O
Since we are aware total amount of nitrogen to be applied to the crop is 150 kg
and among the above three fertilizers CAN contains only 25% N and other two fertilizers
do not have N content so all the amount of nitrogen should be met through CAN.
150 X 100
Amount of CAN required = --------------- = 600 kg
25
Similarly, single super phosphate contains only 16% P2O5
60 X 100
Therefore, the total amount of SSP = ------------- = 375 kg
16
60 X 100
Similarly, the amount of MOP required = ------------- = 100 kg
60
Therefore, 600 kg CAN, 375 kg SSP and 100 kg MOP is required to provide 150
kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O per hectare to the wheat crop.
Example 2: Calculate the quantity of urea, DAP and murate of potash for a crop
to be grown in 2 acre area. The crop requires 120 kg N, 60 kg P 2O5 and 40 kg K2O
per hectare.
Solution : Total are under the crop = 2 acre or 8000 m2
2
Nutrient required in 1 ha (10000 m ) area are:
Nitrogen = 120 kg
P2O5 = 60 kg
K2O = 40 kg

28
But we have to apply fertilizer to 8000 m2 is as follows:-
120 X 8000
Nitrogen = ---------------- = 96 kg
10000
60 X 8000
P2O5 = ---------------- = 48 kg
10000
40 X 8000
K2O = ---------------- = 32 kg
10000
Fertilizers available: Urea = 46% N, DAP = 18% N and 46% P2O5 and
murate of potash = 60% K2O
Now we can calculate the individual fertilizers. But here one point must be noted
that available fertilizers Urea and murate of potash contains only single nutrient but DAP
contains two nutrient elements i.e. nitrogen and phosphorus. Therefore, first it is required
to find out the amount of DAP to meet 48 kg P2O5 per 8000 m2 demand.
48 X 100
Quantity of DAP required for 48 kg P2O5 = ------------- = 104.35 kg
46
18 X 104.35
Nitrogen in 104.35 kg DAP = ----------------- = 18.78 kg N
100
Total nitrogen required = 96 kg
Nitrogen supplied through DAP = 18.78 kg
Balance N to be supplied = 96 – 18.78 = 77.22 kg
Now, 77.22 kg N should be supplied through Urea (46%)
100 X 77.22
Therefore, the quantity of Urea required = ---------------- = 167.87 kg
46
100 X 32
Similarly, the quantity of murate of potash = ------------- = 53.33 kg
60
Hence, to meet the crop requirement 167.87 kg Urea, 104.35 kg DAP and 53.33
kg murate of potash is required.
Example 3: Estimate total quantity of fertilizers for a crop to be grown in 4000 m2
area. The crop requires 150 kg N, 50 kg P and 40 kg K per hectare. The fertilizers
available with the farmer are Urea, SSP and MOP.
Solution: Area to be grown = 4000 m2
2
Nutrient required in 1 ha (10000 m ) area are: 150 kg N, 50 kg P and 40 kg K.
2
So, the nutrient required for 4000 m is as follows:-
150 X 4000
N = ---------------- = 60 kg
10000
50 X 4000
P = ---------------- = 20 kg
10000

29
 40 X 4000
K = ---------------- = 16 kg
10000
Convert P into P2O5 and K into K2O because SSP and MOP fertilizers contains
16% P2O5 and 60% K2O.
P2O5 = P X 2.29 = 20 X 2.29 = 45.8 kg
K2O = K X 1.20 = 16 X 1.20 = 19.2 kg
Now, we are aware that for 4000 m2 area the nutrient required as per
recommendation is:-
N = 60 kg
P2O5 = 45.8 kg
K2O = 19.2 kg
Now, calculate the quantity of individual fertilizer:-
100 X 60
Quantity of Urea required = ------------- = 130.43 kg
46
100 X 45.8
Quantity of SSP required = --------------- = 286.25 kg
16
100 X 19.2
Quantity of MOP required = --------------- = 32 kg
60
Example 4 : Calculate the quantities of urea, SSP and MOP for sugarcane crop to
be grown on half acre area. The crop requires 250 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O
per hectare. Vermicompost (N 2%, P2O5 1% and K2O 1%) @ 10 t per hectare was
applied at the time of field preparation.
Solution : Total area under wheat crop = Half acre or 2000 m2

Vermicompost application = 10 t/ha or 10000 kg /10000 m2 or 1 kg/m2

Amount of vermicompost applied in wheat crop = 1 X 2000 = 2000 kg

Nutrient content in vermicompost = N 2%, P2O5 1% and K2O 1% (as given)

2 X 2000
Amount of N supplied through vermicompost = ------------- = 40 kg
100
1 X 2000
Amount of P2O5 supplied through vermicompost = ------------- = 20 kg
100
1 X 2000
Amount of K2O supplied through vermicompost = ------------- = 20 kg
100

Rate of nutrient application per hectare = 250 kg N, 100 kg P2O5, 60 kg K2O

per hectare. But we have half acre area or 2000 m2.
250 X 2000
Therefore, for 2000 m2 N required is = ---------------- = 50 kg
10000
30
 100 X 2000
2
Therefore, for 2000 m P2O5 required = ---------------- = 20 kg
10000
60 X 2000
Therefore, for 2000 m2 are K2O required = ---------------- = 12 kg
10000
Balance amount of N required:-
Total N – N supplied through vermicompost = 50 – 40 = 10 kg
Similarly, P2O5 required = 20 – 20 = 0 (Nil)
Similarly, K2O required = 12 – 20 = -8 (Nil)
100 X 10
Quantity of Urea required = ------------- = 21.7 kg
46
No, SSP and MOP is required as the full dose of P2O5 and K2O was supplied
through vermicompost.
Example 5: On a field of one hectare wheat is to be sown after mungbean.
Calculate the amount of Urea and SSP required if the dose of N and P2O5 are 120
and 60 kg per hectare. Assume that mungbean left the residual nitrogen in the field
@ 20 kg per hectare. As per soil test report the field was found sufficient in potash.
Solution :
Amount of N required = 120 kg per hectare
Amount of P2O5 required = 60 kg per hectare
Residual N of mungbean = 20 kg per hectare
Balance N required for wheat crop = 120 – 20 = 100 kg

100 X 100
Therefore, quantity of Urea required = --------------- = 217.39 kg
46
100 X 60
Therefore, quantity of SSP required = --------------- = 375 kg
16
Example 6: Calculate the quantity of water required to spray 0.5% zinc sulphate
along with 3% urea at anthesis stage to remove the zinc deficiency in one acre area.
If the knapsack sprayer of 15 litre capacity saturates the crop canopy in 250 m 2
area.
Solution : 250 m2 area is sprayed with = 15 litre water
1 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 15/250 , , , ,
4000 m2 , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 15/250x 4000 = 240 litre.
Example 7: How much amount of urea is needed to make 3% urea solution for
spray of wheat crop in one acre area at anthesis.
Solution : In 100 litre water the quantity of urea required = 3 kg
1, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 3/100 kg
240 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 3/100 x 240 = 7.2 kg
Example 8: How much amount of zinc sulphate is needed to spray 0.5% solution
in wheat crop in one acre area at anthesis?
Solution : In 100 litre water the quantity of zinc sulphate required = 500 g
1, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 500/100
240 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 500/100 x 240 = 120 g=1.2 kg
31
PRACTICES TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF APPLIED FERTILIZERS
1. The fertilizer scheduling must be based on soil tests.
2. Selection of fertilizers should be done according to the soil reaction viz. acidic
fertilizers for alkaline soils and alkaline fertilizers for acidic soil reactions.
3. Surface application through broadcasting should not be adopted but the fertilizer
should be placed about 3-4 cm by the side or, below the seed.
4. Optimum and balanced use of fertiliser: Neither too low nor any alone nutrient can
increase the productivity therefore, it is essential that most optimum dose of fertiliser and
balanced quantity of nutrients should be applied.
5. About 30 to 50 kg N ha-1 should be reduced after raising a legume crop, growing
Azolla, blue green, algae or practicing green manuring.
6. The phosphatic and potassic fertilizers should be basal placed because P2O5 and K2O
are not lost from the soil but they are adsorbed by the soil particles. Their poor mobility
restrict them to the place of application, therefore, they must be placed in the root zone.
7. Split application of phosphate fertiliser in soils prone to phosphate fixation (in acidic
soils) or reversion (in sodic soils) gives better response.
8. Home mixing of fertilizers should be in accordance with fertilizer mixing guide and
such fertilizer mixtures must be applied as soon as possible.
9. In case of heavy soil types half of nitrogenous fertilizers should be basal placed and
rest half should be top dressed in one split only but in case of light soils. N should be
applied in three equal splits i.e. 1/3 as basal, 1/3 after 30 days of sowing and rest 1/3
about 50-60 days after sowing.
10. Flooding with too deep water or poor drainage should be avoided after application of
fertilizers at least for a week time.
11. Top dressing should be done after draining out the water and weeding so that the loss
of nutrients is minimum.
12. The paddy fields used for transplanting should be puddled and fertilizers should be
applied at the time of puddling because this will help the fertilizers to reach and get
stored in reduced zone of the soil.
13. Skipping the basal application of nitrogen in transplanted/deep water rice and its
application after 3-4 weeks of transplanting increases recovery.
14. Light sandy, calcarious and soils under very high cropping intensity are deficient in
micronutrients like zinc and sulphur. The deficient plants become sickly and cannot
absorb nutrients, thus the fertilizer is not absorbed, therefore such soils must be supplied
with zinc sulphate (ZnS04) at the rate of 20-25 kg/ha every after 2-3 years.
15. The acidic soils should be treated with liming materials as and when required.
16. Drilling of fertilisers under irrigated conditions and deep placement under dryland
conditions increases fertiliser use efficiency and boosts productivity.
17. Deep placement of fertilizers along with foliar feeding of nitrogen through spraying
of nitrogenous fertilizers in place of top-dressing should be done in case of dry lands.
18. Judicious and careful application of micro-nutrients reduces occurrence of
physiological or nutrients deficiencies diseases in crop plants and helps raising healthy
crops.
19. Addition of organic manures should be done at least one in 3-5 years of time.
20. Weed growth should not be permitted in the cropped area during any part of the year.

32
 21. In case of flooded fields or calcarious soils use of slow release nitrogenous fertilizers
like U.F. 30, sulphur coated urea, urea super granules, neem coated or neem blended urea
should be done so that loss of nitrogen can be minimized.
22. An appropriate plant protection measure and proper tillage practices should be
adopted so that plants remain healthy and absorb the applied nutrients from the field.
WEEDS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
Weed .
Plants are differentiated into crops which meet the needs of man and weeds which
compete or interfere in mains affairs. Weeds are defined in different ways:
(i) A weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted
(ii) Weed is an unwanted plant
(iii) A plant out of place.
(iv) A plant that is extremely noxious, useless, unwanted or poisonous
(v) Any plant or vegetation, excluding fungi, interfering with the objectives or
requirements of people.
Characteristics of weeds
i. Most weeds are prolific seed producers. .
ii. Dormancy in weed seeds is a continuous source of weeds on crop land.
iii. Some weeds propogate vegetatively.
iv. Dispersal of weed seeds exposes weeds to different ecosystems.
v. Weeds are hardy and resist to adverse climatic, soil and disease conditions.
vi. Evasiveness of weeds because of their bitter taste, disagreeable odour, spiny
nature and mimicry.
vii. Weeds are self sown plants.
viii. Large number of weed species available to varied ecosystems.
Losses caused by weeds
(a) Land weeds
i. Weeds compete with crop plants for nutrients, soil moisture, CO2, space and
sunlight and reduce the crop yield and production efficiency.
ii. Weeds reduce the quality of farm produce.
iii. Loss of animal health.
iv. Menace to human health, and working efficiency.
v. Weeds damage to industry and public utilities.
vi. Deterioration of aesthetic values.
(b) Aquatic weeds
i. They impede water flow in canals, channels, rivers, drainage etc.
ii. They are menace to fishries.
iii. They are water wasters.
iv. They spoil the recreational value of water bodies.
v. They pose pollution problems in water.
Extent of yield losses caused by weeds
The extent of losses due to weeds depends on intensity of infestation, time of
occurrence and type of weeds. The yield losses in upland rice ranged between 66 to 92.8

33
per cent. Among the field crops sesame, cowpea, soybean and groundnut are most
sensitive to weeds. The average losses due to weeds in different crops were 30 to 40 per
cent in soybean, maize, potatoes, fodder and root crops and 15-20 per cent in other
cereals.

Crop-weed competition
Weeds compete with the crop for different growth factors like nutrients, light,
water and carbon dioxide. Many of the weeds also excrete certain chemicals into soil
which inhibits the growth of crop plants.
Critical Period of Crop - Weed Competition
The basic idea of weed management is to provide curative treatment when
economic damage is caused by weeds. For integrated weed management it is necessary to
work the critical periods of weed competition and also necessity of weed free
environment needed during the initial period of crop growth. This provides the active
duration during which the presence of several cultivated crops in the plots is needed to be
free of weeds. Critical periods vary in different crops due to variation in their growth
habit and crop duration.
Critical period of crop-weed competition and yield losses caused by weeds in
different crops
Crops Critical period (DAS) % reduction in grain yield
A. Cereals
Rice (direct seeded) 15-45 15-90
Rice (transplanted) 30-45 15-40
Wheat 30-45 20-40
Maize 15-45 40-60
Sorghum 15-45 15-40
Pearlmillet 30-45 15-60
B. Pulses
Pigeon pea 15-60 20-40
Greengram 15-30 25-50
Blackgram 15-30 30-50
Cowpea 15-30 15-30
Chickpea 30-60 15-25
Peas 30-45 20-30
Lentil 30-60 20-30
C. Oilseeds
Soyabean 20-45 40-60
Groundnut 40-60 40-50
Sunflower 30-45 30-50
Castor 30-60 30-35
Safflower 15-45 35-60
Sesamum 15-45 15-40
Rapeseed-mustard 15-40 15-30
Linseed 20-45 30-40
D. Commercial crop.
Sugarcane 30-120 20-30
34
Potato 20-40 30-60
Cotton 15-60 40-50
Jute 30-45 50-80

35
Major crops, associated weeds and their recommended herbicides with time and rate of
application:
Name of Major weeds Name of herbicide Rate of Time of
Crop found selective herbicide application
application
Wheat and Fumaria parviflora, For wild oats:
Barley Melilotus spp, Triallate or Diallate 1.25 kg ai/ha PPI
Chenopodium album, For Phalaris:
Vicia spp, Asphodelus Methabenzthiazuron 0.75-1.50 kg/ha Post
tenuifolius, Spergula Metoxuron 1.5 kg/ha emergence
arvensis, Convolvulus Isoproturon 0.75 kg/ha treatment 30-
arvensis, Avena fatua, For Isoproturon 40 days after
Phalaris minor, Poa resistant areas: sowing
annua, Polypogon spp. Sulfosulfuron 24.5 g/ha
Clodinafop 60 g/ha -do
Tralkoxydim 350 glha
For broadleaved
weeds: 0.25-0.50 kg/ha
2,4-D

Rice Echinochloa colona, Butachlor/ 1.5 kg al/ha Within 2-3

Echinochloa crusgalli, Thiobencarb/ days of
Paspalum distichum, Pendimethalin transplanting
Panicum spp., Cyperus in 4-5 cm
spp., Ammania Anilofos 0.4 kg ai/ha standing water
baccifera, Eclipta alba Pretilachlor 1.0 kg ai/ha -do
-do
Maize Cyperus spp, Digera Simazine or Atrazine 1-1.5 kg/ha As pre-
arvensis, Phyllanthus emergence or
nhruri, Euphorbia 7-15 days after
hirta, Trianthema sowing in 500-
monogyma, Solanum 600 l water/ha
nigrum,Cynodon
dactylon
Jowar and Same weeds as of Simazine or Atrazine 0.5-1.0 kg/ha Pre-emergence
Bajra maize or 7-15 days
after sowing
Groundnut Same weeds as of Fluchloralin 1-2 kg/ha As pre-plant
maize Pendimethalln 2 kg/ha soil
Alachlor 1-2 kg/ha incorporation
Sugarcane Cyperus rotundus, Atrazine or Simazine 1-2 kg/ha As pre-
Cynodon dactylon, Metribuzin 0.75-1.5 kg/ha emergence
Euphorbia hirta, Dalapon 0.5-1.0% -do
Commelina Isoproturon + 2,4- D directed spray -
benghlalensis, Digera 1-2 kg/ha + Apply 9 days
arvensis, Phyllanthus 0.25-0.30 kg/ha after planting
niruri,Chenopodium
album, Sorghum
halepense, Croton
sporsiflora, Corchorus
spp
Cotton Cyperus rotundus, Trifluralin or 0.75-1.5 kg/ha PPI

36
 Cynodon dactylon, fluchloralin Pre-emergence
Eleusine spp, Celosia Pendimethalin 1.2-1.5 kg/ha
argentia, Sorghum
halepense, Amaranthus
spp, Corchorus spp,
Trianthema monogyna
Pigeon Pea Cyperus rotundus, Pendimethalin 0.75-1.0 kg/ha Pre-emergence
Amaranthus spp, Alachlor 1-1.5 kg/ha in 500-600 I
Celosia argentia, water/ha
Sorghum halepense,
Convoivulus arvensis,
Solanum nigrum,
Digora arvensis,
Trianthema monogyna,
Phyllanthus niruri
Green Same as above Pendimethalin 0.50 kg/ha Applied as
gram and Alachlor 1-2 kg/ha preemergence
Black gram in 500-600 I
water/ ha
Cowpea Same as above Same as above Same as above Same as above

Soybean Same as above Alachior or 1-2 kg/ha Applied as

Metolachlor 0.50-0.75 kg/ha preemergence
Pendimethalin
Gram and Chenopodium album, Fluchioralin or 0.75 kg/ha PPI
Lentil Asphodelus tenuifolius, trifluralin
Fumaria parviflora, Pendimethalin 0.75-1.0 kg/ha
Ana galls arvensis,
Cyperus rotundus,
Melilotus spp., Vicia
spp
Sunflower Cyperus rotundus,
Cynodon dactylon, Pendimethalin 1-2 kg/ha Applied as
Euphorbia hirta, preemergence
Eleusine spp.,
Trianthema monogyna,
Phyllanthus niruri,
Digera aivensis,
Commelina
benghalensis
Mustard Chenopodium album, Pre-emergence
and Fumaria parviflora, Isoproturon 0.75-1.0 kg/ha -do
Linseed Spurgula arvensis, Trifluralin 0.50 kg/ha
Anagallis arvensis,
Cyperus rotundus,
Vicia spp., Melilotus
spp

37
 IMPORTANT WEEDS (KHARIF)

Echinochloa crusgalli Solanum nigrum Digera arvensis

Tribulus terrestris Achyranthus aspera Eluesine indica

Euphorbia hirta Dactyloctenum aegyptium

Eragrostis japonica

Physalis minima Xanthium strumarium Trianthema portulacastrum

38
 IMPORTANT WEEDS (RABI)

Poa annua Oxalis corniculata

Anagallis arvensis
Polygonum
Chicorium
Malva parviflora
plebijum
intybus

Chanopodium murale Vicia sativa Fumaria parviflora

Polypogon
Asphodelus
Convolvulus
monspeliensis
tenuifolius
arvensis

39
 Circium arvense Lathyrus aphaca Phalaris minor

Avena ludoviciana Chenopodium album Rumex maritimus

Orobanchi aegyptiaca Parthenium hysterophorus

Cornopus dydimus

Melilotus indica Cynodon dactylon Cyprus iria

40
Cynadon dactylon Cyprus iria
Distinguishing characteristics between related crops and weeds
Below given crops and weeds are of rabi season and are associated with each
other. But because of their similar morphology it is difficult to identify them easily for
physical and mechanical control. Hence, some of the peculiar characters of each is given
below for their easy identification and control.

Wheat Barley Wild oats Phalaris

Stem is hollow, no Stem is hollow, no Stem is hollow, no Stem is solid,
branching, seedling branching, seedling branching, pale branched, seedlings
dark green in light green in green purple dot have purple colour
colour. colour. found at the at base up to 50
juncture of the days of growth.
tillers.
Leaves are dark Leaves are light Leaves are green in Leaves are smooth,
green in colour with green in colour and colour, slightly light yellowish
serrations at the smooth. No more rough than colour with purplish
margin of lamina. serrátions and no Phalaris. No green spots at
Leaves are rough hairs at the margin. serrations and hairs juncture of lamina
and have hairs. at the margin. and leaf sheath.
Ligule is small. Ligule is small. Ligule is large and Ligule is the largest
serrated. with smooth curve.
Auricles are small, Auricles are large, No auricles, hairs No auricles, no
hairy and stem is no hairs and stem is are found at the hairs at the juncture
half clasped. fully clasped. juncture of leaf of leaf sheath and
sheath and lamina. lamina.
Plant grows erect. Plant grows erect. Plant grows erect. Tillering is rossete
type.
Tillers do not Tillers do not Tillers do not Tillers branch.
branch. branch. branch.
Produce 50-60 Produce 50-60 Produce 60-70 Produce 10,000 to
seeds per plant. seeds per plant. seeds per plant. 30,000 seeds per
plant.

Morphological differences in rice and Echinochloa spp.

Rice Echinochloa spp.

Leaves have two auricles and a ligule. There are no auricles and ligule.
Plants are 100cm in height in dwarf Plants have generally more height than rice
varieties. plants.
Leaves are dark green in colour. Leaves are lighter in colour than rice.

41
Selection of herbicides
Several herbicides are available in the market today and the selection of a
herbicide depends upon weed flora (broad leaved, sedges, grasses, etc.) and time
of application (before or after planting). A single herbicide can not control all
weeds. Two or more herbicides may be mixed together (tank-mix application) to
achieve broad spectrum weed control. If they are not compatible they may be
applied one after the other after a gap of a few days (sequential application).
Some formulations with mixture of herbicides: are also available (ready-mix) for
ready use by farmers (e.g. Butanil is the mixture of butachlor and propanil,
Almix is the combination of chlorimuron-ethyl and metsulfuron- methyl).Care
may be taken while using herbicides in situations, where simultaneously more
than one crop is grown (inter-or mixed cropping). Select a herbicide which is
safe to all the crops grown. For example, choose atrazine for weed control in
maize and pendimethalin for maize intercropped with legumes. Selection of an
herbicide also depends on its availability in the market and the cost
The following points may be considered for increasing the efficiency of
herbicides and to reduce the cost of weed control
• Apply herbicides at recommended rate and time of application
• Apply pre-plant and pre-emergence herbicides on a well prepared field
free from clods and crop or weed residues.
• Use low dose in light soil and higher dose in heavy soils.
• Ensure optimum soil moisture at the time of application, particularly with
soil-acting herbicides.
• Lower herbicide dose integrated with hand weeding or hoeing is more
effective and economical, than herbicide alone at higher dose.
• Take up spraying of herbicides on a calm, clear and sunny day for
maximum benefit. Do not take up spraying, if the rain is expected in the
next 4-6 hours.
• The performance of some of the herbicides can be enhanced substantially
by adding adjuvants (e.g. surfactants like Teepol, Selwet, etc.) to the
spray solution
• Apply post- emergence herbicides on the actively growing vegetation.
Never apply when weeds are too small or when they are overgrown.
• Follow herbicide rotation (different herbicides in different years) and use
herbicide mixture to prevent weed flora shifts and development of
herbicide resistant weeds.

Application of the herbicide

Uniform application of the herbicide is very crucial for good weed control and for
better crop growth. Often a very small quantity of the herbicide is required to be applied
on a large area. Any deviation would result in serious consequences. While under-dosing
would result in poor weed control, over-dosing may damage the crop. In order to apply
the herbicide uniformly, one needs to calibrate the sprayer and calculate the herbicide
requirement carefully. Herbicides are applied on area-basis (kg or L/ha) not by
concentration basis (%) as is done in case of insecticides or fungicides. However in

42
controlling weeds in non-crop lands, aquatic ecosystem and in spot application, very
often the herbicide is applied on concentration basis.

Herbicide formulations
Most herbicides are formulated as wettable powders (WP) or emulsifiable
concentrate (EC) and aqueous concentrates which are diluted in water and applied with a
sprayer. Granular formulations (G) are used directly mostly in submerged conditions.
There is a growing practice amongst farmers to broadcast the mixture of other
formulations of herbicides with sand, soil or urea, just before irrigation (as done with
isoproturon in wheat) instead of spraying. Many small and marginal farmers in India do
not have a sprayer, and it is natural for them to look for alternative methods to do away
spraying. However, it should be pointed out that mixing of other formulations herbicides
with sand, soil or urea to obtain granules is neither very scientific safe as the farmers
invariably make these mixtures by bare hands. It is difficult to obtain uniform distribution
in the field with sand application.

Calibration of the sprayer

Calibration is nothing but finding out how much area could be sprayed with the
sprayer you have. The area sprayed is also dependent on the type of nozzle, spray
pressure and the speed of application. The most practical way to calibrate the spray is by
actually using it in the field. Spraying can be done by moving the spray lance from side to
side using a flat fan nozzle or walk forward holding the spray lance one position using a
flood jet nozzle. In both cases measure the swath width i.e., the width that is to be
treated.Mark an area having width equal to the swath width. Keep the sprayer on a level
ground and fill the water to a marked level. Carry out spraying on the marked area at a
normal speed. Avoid skipping or overlapping. Refill the sprayer to the original level
marked earlier.The quantity refilled is the quantity required to spray the marked area.

Work out the volume rate/ha.

Marked area 20 square meters Quantity of water used 1 litre
Volume rate = (lXl0, 000)/20
= 500 L/ha or 200 L/acre
With the same swath width and operating speed, the spraying could be
undertaken to apply the herbicides in the field.
The basic principle in calibration of a boom sprayer with more than one
nozzle or tractor-mounted sprayer is also similar, the only difference being the
flow rate all nozzles in a boom has to be taken into account.

Calculation of herbicide requirement

The product label and the literature supplied with the herbicide will provide
details of herbicide name, active ingredient (a.i.), date of expiry, directions for use
etc. It must be read before using the herbicide. It is particularly important to note
the strength of the product (a.i.) as the same herbicide may be sold under different
trade names with varying amounts of active ingredient. For example, isoproturon
is available at 50 and 75% formulations. For this reason only, the

43
recommendations are normally made on kg a.i. basis. Even in liquid formulations
the herbicide present is mentioned in g/L.
The amount of commercial formulation of the herbicide required can be calculated
by the following formula:
Commercial product (kg/ha) = Dose in kg a.i. /ha X 100
% a. i. in the product
Isoproturon is available as 75% WP and 50% WP. If the recommended rate of
application is 0.75 kg ai/ha then the amount of commercial product required is:-
50% WP product = 0.75 X 100 = 1.50 kg/ha
50
75% WP product = 0.75 X 100 = 1.00 kg/ha
75
Paraquat is to be applied at 0.5 kg a.i. /ha. The herbicide is available as
Gramoxone (commercial name of paraquat) which contains 25% paraquat.
The quantity of Gramoxone required is = 0.50 X 100 = 2.0 litre/ha
25
Making stock solution
In order to apply herbicide uniformly in the entire required area, it is
advisable prepare stock solution of the herbicide. Suppose; in order to apply
herbicide uniformly in the entire required area, it is advisable prepare stock
solution of the herbicide. Suppose;
Area to be treated = 1 ha (2.5 acres)
Sprayer capacity = 15 litre
Sprayer calibration = 450 litres / ha
Then,
450 = 30
15
that is 30 refills are required to spray one hectare area. In which case, it is
advisable to dissolve the required amount of herbicide as obtained in calculations
1, 2 or 3 in 30 measures (could be a glass tumbler, plastic mug or a container) of
water which becomes the stock solution. Now add 1 measure of this stock solution
to sprayer tank containing 15 L water, stir it and spray as suggested earlier.
Alternatively one can dissolve the entire quantity of herbicide in 450 liters of
water contained in a big container and use this solution directly for spraying.

Tips for proper application of herbicides

• The spray tank should be at least one-third full with clean water before
any concentrate is added and the contents well mixed while the
concentrate is being put in slowly.
• Wettable powder formulations should be made up into a paste and then
diluted before adding to the spray tank.
• The spray tank should always be emptied completely before refilling to
avoid altering the concentration of the spray.

44
 • The spray should be made as required to avoid storing unused diluted
spray. Should there be a short delay in application, stir or agitate the
contents in the sprayer just before use to prevent settling down of the
herbicide at the bottom.
• Wettable powder formulations are more prone to settling down than liquid
formulations.
• Pressure should be built up before the control lever or tap is moved to the
'spray' position (in case of tractor-mounted sprayers).
• Never operate the sprayer while standing still. In tractor-mounted sprayers open
the nozzles only when tractor starts moving. Never when it is stationary. Do not
apply herbicide, when the tractor is taking turns.
• Accurate swath matching is a must. Spraying along the rows can help in
easy swath matching. With tractor-mounted sprayers adjust the height of
spray boom for uniform application.
• Pumping should stop as soon as the tank is empty and a mark should be
left in the field to indicate from where the spraying should recommence.
• It is worth dividing the area to be treated into convenient units for uniform
spraying particularly for pre-emergence application.
• Do not apply a herbicide, if a crop susceptible to that herbicide is growing
downwind of the area to be treated. Volatile esters of herbicides should be
avoided under such a situation. Early morning is often a good time to
spray when the wind is gentle.
• It is advisable to use a separate sprayer for spraying hormone type
herbicides (MCPA, 2, 4-D, etc.). Small traces of herbicide residues in the
sprayer can cause pytotoxicity in susceptible crops.
• Avoid spraying foliage-active herbicide if rains are expected in the next
two hours or so. However , a light rain or irrigation is often beneficial for a
soil-active herbicide.
• Apply herbicide using a sprayer with 500-600 L/ha water.
• Flood jet or flat fan nozzle should only be used for spraying the
herbicides.

Aftercare of sprayers and nozzles

• Wash the sprayer thoroughly with water before and after each use.
• Any blocked nozzle should be changed or washed in clean water. Do not blow
through blocked nozzle with the mouth or use hard objects (such as knives, wires
etc.) as they may alter spray output and droplet size.
• Nozzles should therefore be checked often and may require replacing once
in a year or so.
• When sprayer is to be stored, it should be thoroughly cleaned by adding
detergent the water and rinsing several times to remove all traces of the
detergent before storing. The tank should be drained and left with the lid
off to allow air circulation.

45
 • All bearings and hinges should be oiled or greased and wheeled machines
should be put on blocks with the tyres out of sun.
• Hoses can be removed and stored hanging vertically to prevent rodent
damage.

Safe handling of herbicides

It is important to read the label before use and follow directions and
precautions properly. The label tells what the herbicide is, lists the amount of
active ingredient and gives recommendations and precautions for use. Most
herbicides are potentially dangerous particularly in concentrated form but they are
not likely to cause injury if used properly and if recommended precautions are
observed. The dangers associated with mishandling and misapplication of
herbicides may include possible injury to the operator and handler, poisoning live
stock, damage to desirable plants, damage to equipments and poisoning fish and
wild life etc. The following points may be taken note of in preventing the abuse of
herbicides.
• Avoid prolonged contact with the skin, breathing vapours or dusts and
splashing herbicide solution in to eyes or mouth.
• Wash off with soap water any herbicide spilled on the body.
• Do not smoke or eat while working with chemicals.
• Do not spray against the wind. Cover the face with a cloth while spraying.
• If unusual symptoms such as dizziness, nausea or skin rashes appear, seek
medical advice at once.
• Dispose of empty containers immediately. Mutilate them to avoid re-use
and bury the remnants deep in an isolated area. Do not use them for
domestic purposes.
• Avoid contaminating water supplies with herbicides.
• Store unused herbicides in original containers in a locked storage area
away from food grains and children.

First aid
In case of accidental ingestion, induce vomiting by putting the forefinger at
the base of the palate or by administering a warm glass of water with a spoon of
common salt. Give a glass of water containing medicinal charcoal. In case of
severe symptoms of toxicity, call for a doctor immediately. Keep the patient in
fresh air.

46
DRYLAND AGRICULTURE
Growing of crops under rainfed conditions is known as dryland agriculture.
Depending upon the amount of rainfall received dryland agriculture can be grouped into
three categories:
1. Dry farming
Dry farming is the cultivation of crops in areas where rainfall is less than 750 mm
per annum. Prolonged dry spells during crop period are most common. Crop failures are
more frequent under dry farming conditions. Dry farming regions are equivalent to arid
regions and moisture conservation practices are important in this region.
2. Dryland farming
Cultivation of crops in areas receiving rainfall above 750 mm is known as dryland
farming. Dry spells during crop period occur, but crop failures are less frequent. Dryland
farming areas are grouped under semi arid regions. Adoption of soil moisture conser-
vation practices and also provision of drainage especially in black soils are necessary.
3. Rainfed farming
Cultivation of crops in regions receiving more than 1150 mm rainfall is known as
rainfed farming. It is practiced in humid regions where crop failures are rare and
drainage is the most important problem.
Distinguish dryland vs rainfed farming
Constituent Dryland farming Rainfed farming
Moisture availability to Shortage Enough
the crop
Growing season (days) < 200 > 200
Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as uplands sub-humid and humid
of sub-humid and humid regions region
Cropping system Monocrop or intercropping lntercropping or double
cropping
Constraints/ problems wind and water erosion water erosion and
drainage
The average values of different soil moisture constants of different soil types
Soil type Field capacity (% Permanent wilting Available soil water
by weight) point (% by weight) (Cm/m depth)
Sandy 5-10 2-6 5-10
Sandy loam 1 0-18 4-10 9-16
Loam 18-25 8-14 14-22
Clay loam 24-32 11-16 17-25
Clay 32-40 15-22 20-28
Major problems of dry farming
(I) Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall
(II) Late onset and early cessation of rains
(III) Prolonged dry spells during the crop period
(IV) Low moisture retention capacity and low soil fertility

47
CROPPING SCHEME
Preparation of cropping scheme
On a farm, various crops are grown in various ways with respect to time and
space on individual fields. The relative area allocated to each crop on the farm depends
on availability of resources, market trends, domestic needs and certain other factors like
location of farm, transportation facilities, distance from the agricultural industries etc.
Therefore, a proper planning of the crops to be raised on the farm is important to get
higher profit. In this context it is important to know certain terms used in crop planning.

1. Cropping systems:
These are the ways or systems according to which various crops are grown on a
given piece of land in a given period of time. The cropping systems can broadly be
divided into two types, monoculture (monocropping) and multiple cropping. In
monoculture same crop is grown continuously (year after year) on same piece of land.
This system is neither common nor desirable as it impairs the soil health, increases
incidence of crop pests and decreases the crop yield. In multiple cropping system two or
more crops are grown in a year or a season on a given piece of land. This system is most
common as it gives more output per unit area per unit time. Growing two or more crops
on the same field in a year is achieved by two ways, either by growing compatible crops
together, called mixed cropping and intercropping, or by growing the suitable crops in a
sequence (one after the other), called sequential cropping. In mixed cropping all
component crops are sown almost at the same time in the same field and plant population
of each crop in the field is reduced proportionately as compared to their pure stand. e.g.
maize + cowpea (as forage crops), barley + gram etc. But in intercropping system the
widely spaced main crops are sown first and then sub-crops (intercrops) are sown in
between the rows of the main crop to make efficient use of the resources namely
moisture, nutrient, space and light available in between the rows. In this case, plant
population of the main crops or area occupied by them remains same as in their pure
stands. e.g. cotton + mung, sugarcane + potato etc.
Multiple cropping systems can also be termed as intensive systems particularly
when more than two crops are grown in a year. The intensity of a cropping system is
determined by a parameter called cropping intensity. The cropping intensity is the ratio of
total cropped area in a year to the net sown area expressed in percentage. Cropping
intensity in irrigated areas is greater than in unirrigated or dryland areas because more
crops can be grown under assured irrigation conditions.
For example the cropping intensity of a farm having 3 hectares of cotton-wheat cropping
sequence can be calculated as:
Cropped area of cotton = 3 ha
Cropped area of wheat = 3 ha
Total cropped area = 6 ha
Net sown area = 3 ha
Total cropped area
Cropping intensity = -------------------------- x 100
Net sown area

48
 6
Cropping intensity = -------------- x 100 = 200%
3
2. Cropping Pattern:
It refers to relative area occupied by a crop or a group of crops in a particular
region during a particular season or year. From the cropping pattern one could know the
relative abundance of a crop in a region. For example a farmer has following cropping
systems on his 20 ha land.
Rice - wheat = 10 ha, Maize - wheat = 6 ha, Maize - berseem = 4 ha
In this case, relative area under rice, wheat, maize and berseem is 10 ha (25%), 16
ha (40%), 10 ha (25%) and 4 ha (10%), respectively. This cropping pattern has
abundance of wheat. Hence, it is called wheat based cropping pattern.

3. Crop rotation:
It is the process of growing different crops in succession on a piece of land in a
specific period of time with an object of getting maximum profit without impairing the
soil fertility. It is well known that yields of crops decrease year after year if grown
continuously in the same field. Therefore, it is advisable to grow crops rotationally to get
higher yield and while maintaining the soil fertility. Therefore, the crop rotation is an
order in which the crops are grown on a piece of land over a fixed period.
Principles of crop rotation: While framing a crop rotation for a field, following
principles must be followed.
 Non-leguminous crops should be followed by leguminous crops because legumes
fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil and thus help in restoring soil fertility depleted by
non-legumes.
 Deep tap rooted crops should be followed by those which have shallow and
fibrous root system so that the crops may not compete for the nutrients in the same root
zone.
 High input requiring crops such as potato, sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize etc.
should be followed by less input requiring crops like pulses and oilseeds.
 Selection of crops should be based on many factors like availability of resources
such as water, marketing facilities, demand, soil and climatic conditions of the area as
well as financial condition of the farmer. For dryland or water scarcity areas, only those
crops should be selected which can tolerate the soil drought. On the other hand for low
lying and flood prone areas the crops like paddy, jute etc. should be selected as these can
tolerate water-logging conditions. The crops which are needed by people of the area as
well as of the family and are marketed easily should be selected for a rotation.
 Erosion permitting crops (like millets) should be alternated with erosion resisting
crops (like legumes).
 The crops attacked by similar type of pests should not be grown in succession as
such crops may act as alternate hosts for these pests and thus the pests damage the crops
throughout the year. Similarly the crops having similar crop associated weeds should not
be included in the same rotation.
 The rotation should provide maximum employment to the farm labour (family
and hired labour), machinery and equipments use throughout the year.

49
Advantages of crop rotation:
 It restores the soil fertility through fixation of atmospheric nitrogen,
encouragement of microbial activity, avoidance of accumulation of toxins and
maintenance of proper physico-chemical properties of the soil.
 It helps in controlling insect-pests, diseases and weeds as change of the crop is
accompanied by change in cultural practices, microclimate and the pesticides so
that certain pests may not become permanent or resistant to a particular pesticide.
 Growing crops of different nature in a rotation helps to ensure better utilization of
farm resources, farm labour, machinery and equipments throughout the year.
 Growing crops of different root depth ensures utilization of soil nutrients from
entire soil mass and thus reducing the cost of cultivation.
 Growing crops of different nature can make better utilization of residual moisture,
fertility and organic residues.
 Growing different types of crops in a rotation can fulfill daily needs of food, fibre,
feed, fuel, spices etc. of the farmer to a great extent.

Some important crop rotations followed in Haryana are:

(a) One year rotations:
Paddy - wheat – mung, Paddy -lentil, Paddy - toria - wheat, Paddy - potato – sunflower,
Paddy – berseem, Pearl millet – wheat, Pear millet – gram, Pearl millet –lentil, Pearl
millet – mustard, Pearl millet – barley, Pearl millet - barley + gram, Pigeon pea – wheat,
Sorghum - berseem + oats, Cotton – wheat, Cotton + mung – wheat, Fallow- gram or
barley, Fallow-mustard, Groundnut – wheat, Guar – wheat, Green manuring - paddy –
wheat, Maize - potato – sunflower, Maize –wheat, Sorghum + cowpea – oats, Sorghum +
cowpea – wheat, Maize - berseem + Japanese rape, Sorghum – barley, Clusterbean –
barley, Sorghum - mustard – mung, Napier grass + cowpea- berseem
(b) Two-year rotations:
Cotton - pea - pearl millet – gram, Fallow - mustard - pearl millet - gram
Green manuring - wheat - bajra – berseem, Maize - potato - wheat - paddy - berseem
Maize - potato – sugarcane, Pearl millet - gram - sorghum -lentil
Sorghum - wheat – sugarcane, Sorghum - berseem - maize + cowpea - oats
Sugarcane (autumn planted) + potato or onion or mustard or wheat- Sugarcane (ratoon)
Sugarcane (autumn planted) + chickpea - Sugarcane (ratoon)
(c) Three-year rotations:
Cotton + mung - potato – sugarcane (planted) - Sugarcane ratoon
Green manuring - paddy - wheat - cotton + mung - wheat – sugarcane
(d) Four year rotation
Paddy - pea - sugarcane (planted) - Sugarcane ratoon - green manuring - paddy – wheat

4. Rotational Intensity: It indicates the number of crops grown in a rotation in a year.

This can be expressed by following formula as:
No. of crops grown in a rotation
Rotational Intensity = ---------------------------------------------- x 100

50
 Duration of crops (In years)
The rotational intensity of following crop rotations can be calculated as:
Maize - potato – mung-Paddy - early potato - wheat - mung
7
Rotational intensity = ------ x 100 = 350%.
2
5. Cropping Scheme:
A cropping scheme is a plan according to which various crops are grown on
individual fields of a farm during a given period of time with the objective of obtaining
maximum return from each crop without impairing the soil fertility. Thus, a good
cropping scheme ensures maximum net income from the farm most profitable use of
resources, land, labour, capital and management alonwith maintaining the soil fertility.
Principles or cropping scheme:
The following points should be considered while framing a cropping scheme for a farm
(i) A proportionate area should be allocated for farm buildings and layout before
distributing the farm area under different plots of crops. This area should be about 5
percent for large farms of more than 50 ha and 10 per cent for smaller farms of 50 ha or
less.
(ii) The number of plots should be either equal to duration of the rotation or a
multiple of that so that each crop in the rotation could be grown on equal area.
(iii) Selection of crops for a farm depends upon (a) situation of the farm and (b)
facilities available on the farm.
(a) If the farm is near a city or a canning factory, at least 60 per cent of net cultivated
area should be under vegetable crops and remaining area can be put under orchards and
other crops. If the farm is situated near a sugar factory, at least 60 per cent of the
cultivated area should be put under sugar crops like sugarcane and sugar beet. A farmer
having his farm near a dairy farm should go mainly for fodder cultivation. Apart from
fodder, he can grow oilseeds and pulses on 10-15 per cent of the area to supply
concentrates to the dairy cattle along with the fodder. If a farm is located near a cold
storage, the farmer should grow onion, potato and fruit crops. On a farm situated near a
highway, port, railway station, the farmer should grow perishable crops like vegetables
etc.
(b) If power, irrigation, inputs, labour, transport etc. are available on a farm, the
farmer should adopt an intensive cropping scheme in order to maximise profits per unit
area per unit time. Under intensive cropping, vegetables and other input and labour
intensive crops should be grown.
(iv) The area of individual plots should be equal unless the farmer is compelled by
topography, soil conditions or any other reason to layout his farm into uneven plots.
(v) In case of mixed cropping or intercropping, the relative area under different crops
should be worked out so that none of the crops is adversely affected due to competition.
For the purpose of calculation, both crops are considered to be one crop only.
(vi) The cropping scheme should efficiently utilize the inputs and other resources
available on the farm and give higher profits, besides meeting daily needs of the fanner.
(vii) At least one leguminous crop should be included in a rotation in order to maintain
soil fertility and physicochemical properties.

51
Example 1: Suggest a suitable cropping scheme for a farm of 10 ha which is situated
near a sugar mill. The farmer has a tube well to irrigate the land. Calculate
cropping intensity and rotational intensity of the farm.

Solution: Net cultivated area will be 9 ha as 1 ha area (10%) is kept for farm layout and
buildings. The farmer will grow sugarcane on 60% of the net area. The crop rotations
may be as follows:
Maize - potato – sugarcane (planted) - ratoon - mung (3 years) = 3ha
Paddy - toria - potato - urd (1 year) = 1ha
Sorghum (fodder) - berseem - maize + cowpea (1 year) = 1ha
Maize – sugarcane (planted) + potato- ratoon + mustard - urd (3 year) = 3ha
Cucurbits - cauliflower - onion ( 1 year) =1ha
Number of plots is 9 as total duration of all the rotations is 9 years.
Cropped area under various crops: Maize = 1+1 = 2 ha, Maize (fodder) = 0.5 ha, Potato =
1+1+ 0.5 = 2.5 ha, Sugarcane = 2 + 2 = 4 ha, Mung = 1 ha, Paddy = 1 ha, Toria = 1 ha,
Urd = 1 + 1 = 2 ha, Sorghum = 1 ha, Berseem = 1 ha, Cowpea = 0.5 ha, Mustard = 0.5 ha,
Cucurbits = 1 ha, Cauliflower = 1 ha and Onion = 1 ha.
Therefore, total cropped area = 20 ha
Cropping intensity = (20/9) X l 00 = 222.2%
Rotational intensity of the farm = Total number of crops x l 00
Total duration of all rotation
=19 X l00=211.1%
9
Example 2: Prepare a suitable cropping scheme for 10 ha farm situated near a dairy
farm. The farm has all the facilities for intensive cropping. Also find out the
cropping intensity of the farm.
Solution: Net cultivated area is 9 ha as 10% i.e. 1 ha area is under buildings and layout.
Crop rotations to be adopted are as follows:
Sorghum-berseem-maize (1 year)
Napier + cowpea - Napier + berseem (1 year)
Maize + cowpea - oats (1 year)
Paddy - wheat - mung (1 year)
Cucurbits-potato-onion (1 year)

Cropping scheme of the farm:

Area (ha) Kharif Rabi Summer

2.0 sorghum berseem maize

2.0 napier + cowpea napier + berseem
2.0 maize + cowpea oats
2.0 paddy wheat mung
1.0 cucurbits potato onion
Total=9ha
52
Cropped area under various crops:
Sorghum = 2 ha, Napier = 2 ha, Paddy=2 ha, Berseem = 3 ha, Cowpea=2 ha, Cucurbits =
1 ha, Wheat=2 ha, Potato = 1 ha, Maize = 3 ha, Oats = 2ha, Mung=2ha, Onion=1ha
Therefore, total cropped area = 23 ha
Cropping intensity = 23/9 x 100 =255.5%

Example 3: Give a cropping scheme for a farm of 10 ha area situated in a village

which is away from the market and has no good transport facilities. The farmer has
all the facilities for crop production including irrigation. Find out cropping intensity
of the farm.
Solution: Since there are no facilities for market and transport, so the farmer will grow
cereals, pulses and oilseeds as these can be stored for a longer period and sold later on.
The farmer can go for high intensity cropping as he has all the input facilities. Therefore,
crop rotations for the farm are as under:
Paddy - wheat - urd (1 year)
Maize - potato – wheat (l year)
Groundnut - wheat - urd (1 year)
Paddy - mustard – mung (l year)
Sorghum - berseem - maize (fodder) (1 year)
Cropping scheme of the farm:
Area (ha) Kharif Rabi Zaid
2 Paddy Wheat Urd
2 Maize Wheat Potato
2 Groundnut Wheat Urd
2 Paddy Mustard Mungbean
1 Sorghum Berseem Maize (F)
Total 9 ha
Paddy = 2+2 = 4 ha, Maize = 2 ha, G.nut = 2ha, Sorghum = 2ha, Wheat = 6 ha,
Mustard= 2 ha, Berseem = 1 ha, Urd = 4 ha, Potato = 2 ha, Mung = 2ha, Maize = 1ha
Total cropped area = 27 ha
27 x 100
Cropping intensity = -------------- = 300%.
9

Example 4: Frame a cropping scheme for a 20 ha farm in a village with no

irrigation facilities. The average annual rainfall of the village is 300 mm in kharif
and 75 mm in winter season. Calculate the cropping intensity of farm.
Solution: Since, the farm do not have the irrigation facilities hence low water requiring
crops will be cultivated and intercropping will be followed to cover risk of crop
failure and better resource utilization. Area under building is 2 hectare and
remaining is under cultivation.

53
 Area in hectare Kharif Rabi
2 Fallow Barley
2 Fallow Mustard
2 Fallow Gram
1 Pearlmillet Mustard
1 Pearlmillet Gram
2 Clusterbean Barley
2 Mungbean Barley
2 Pigeonpea Fallow
2 Pigeon pea + pearlmillet Fallow
2 Pearlmillet + mungbean Fallow
Total area = 18 ha

Cropped area under different crops:

Pearlmillet = 4 ha, Clusterbean = 2 ha, Barley= 6 ha, Mustard= 3 ha, Gram= 3 ha, Pigeon
pea = 3 ha, mungbean = 3 ha
Total cropped area = 24 ha
24 x 100
Cropping intensity = -------------- = 133.3%.
18
Cropping intensity of the individual field can also be computed as number of crops grown
in one year time in percentage e.g.
(i) Fallow- Mustard 100%
(ii) Rice – Wheat 200%
(iii) Mung – Rice – Wheat 300%
(iv) Pearlmillet + mung – Mustard 200%
(v) Sorghum (F) – Berseem – Maize + Cowpea 300%
(vi) Maize – sugarcane+Potato – Ratoon – Mung = 400/3 = 133.33%
(i) Maize – Potato – Wheat – Paddy – Berseem = 500/2= 250%
(ii) Green manuring – Wheat – Pearlmillet – Berseem = 300/2 = 150%

54
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Water is the essential for all metabolic processes in plants. Crops are grown in
different land situations, soil types, climatic conditions, seasons and water supply
situations. Crops also differ in their structures and habitats. Their water requirements thus
vary widely. The water requirement of a crop plant can be met either by the conserved
moisture of rain or by artificial application of water in the form of irrigation. While
applying irrigation to crop serious water losses occur unless it is properly monitored. It is
always advisable to enhance the water use efficiency. The agronomic definition of water
use efficiency (WUE) involves two major terms : a biological component (commonly
called the transpiration efficiency), that specifies the amount of dry matter produced per
unit of water transpired, and a management component that specifies the fraction of the
total water supply use for transpiration . The over all WUE is considerably influenced by
the management of crop and soils. Several scientists have suggested management
practices to reduce evaporation, particularly in areas where the evaporation value is quite
high. It is suggested that any management practice that influences LAI (leaf area index)
will result in increased radiation interception, decreased evaporation and increased WUE.
In a few instances WUE was improved through crop management, either by application
of fertilizers or the improvement of soil fertility by the inclusion of legumes in the
rotation. In semiarid regions intense rain storms are common. Control of runoff assumes
greater importance in increasing infiltration and WUE. The water losses during irrigation
can also be minimized by selecting an appropriate method of irrigation.
Different methods of irrigation
Method of Soil texture Infilteratio Land and Stream size Crops
irrigation n rate slope (%) (litres/sec.)
Check Light or heavy 0.5-10 Levelled, Large more All crops except
Less than 0.1 than 15 those on ridges
and susceptible
to waterlogging
Border Medium 1-2 Uniformly Any, more All crops
graded, 0.1-0.3 than 12-15
Furrow Light to 0.5-2.5 Moderate, Small more Row crops and
moderate 0.3-30. than 12 vegetables
Sprinkler Very light 2.5-2.0 Rolling and Any, more All crops except
undulating than 5 rice and jute
Drip Light to heavy 0.5 or more Level to Any, more Widely spaced
undulating than 5 vegetable and
fruit crops
55
 Classification of irrigation methods
Methods of irrigation are broadly grouped as:
1. Surface irrigation
2. Subsurface irrigation
3. Overhead or sprinkle irrigation
4. Drip irrigation

Methods of irrigation coming under different groups are as follows:

1. Surface irrigation methods

A. Methods involving complete flooding of the soil surface
(i) Wild flooding
(ii) Border or border strip irrigation
(iii) Check or check basin irrigation
(iv) Counter ditch irrigation
B. Methods involving partial flooding of the soil surface
(i) Furrow irrigation
(a) Straight level furrow
(b) Alternate furrow
(ii) Corrugation
(iii) Basin and ring irrigation
C. Surge irrigation

2. Subsurface irrigation methods

i. Irrigation through lateral supply trenches
ii. Irrigation through under ground pipes or tiles

3. Overhead or sprinkler irrigation methods

i. Nozzle line system
ii. Rotatry head sprinkler system
iii. Fixed head sprinkler system
iv. Propeller type sprinkler system
v. Perforated pipe method

4. Drip or trickle irrigation methods

Each method of irrigation has certain advantages and disadvantages and is
adopted based on certain principles. Some methods may be adapted to a fairly wide range
of conditions. In some lands, several methods can be profitably adopted. In other areas,
only one specific method is applicable. The choice of method under a set of conditions
should be made carefully as a wrong method may lead to a considerable loss of water by
runoff and deep percolation. Hence, select the method according to the prevailing
situations.

56
 IRRIGATION METHODS

Wild Flooding Sprinkler Irrigation

Drip Irrigation Ridge and Furrow

Types of Sprinklers Trench Method Sub-surface

57
 Border Corrugation

Check Basin Bed and Furrow

Ridge and Furrow Basin Irrigation

58
Irrigation guide of important field crops
Crop Irrigation schedule Irrigation
ID/CPE Others Depth Number Requirement Critical Stage
(cm)
Rice 1.0-1.4 (1.2)* 1-5 DDPW 5±2 8-26 49-129 Flowering, panicle
(IDDPW) initiation
Wheat 0.8-1.50 (0.9) (For dwarf) 4-7 4-8 30-52 CRI, flowering
(For tall) 7-8 3-4 25-30 Flowering, tillering
Cotton 0.7-0.9 (0.75) 3-8 2-9 28-64 Flowering, boll
formation
Sugarcane 0.6-0.9 (0.8) 50%DASM 6-10 5-20 60-200 Shoot elongation,
tillering
Sorghum 0.8-1.25 (0.8) 45-55% 6-8 1-8 8-48 Flowering, premordia
DASM initiation
Maize 0.75-1.2 (0.9) 5-8 3-6 24-48 Tasselling, silking
Pearl millet 6-8 1-5 8-30 Flowering,
0.4-0.9 (0.6) tillering
Barley 0.5-0.9 (0.6) 50%DASM 4.5-8 2-6 15-24 Tillering, heading
Rapeseed- 0.6-1.05 (0.7) 75%DASM 6-8 1-4 8-24 Flower initiation, pod
mustard formation
Groundnut 0.4-0.9 (0.6) 50-75% 5-8 2-8 15-50 Peg formation, pod
DASM filling
Sesamum 0.5-0.9 (0.6) 60-75% 5-8 1-5 8-30 Flowering, seed
DASM setting
Gram 0.4-0.8 (0.6) 50-75% 6-8 1-4 8-24 Flower initiation, pod
DASM formation
Pigeonpea 0.25-0.9 (0.6) 6-8 1-4 8-30 Flower initiation
Potato 1.0-2.0 (1.2) 3-6 6-9 30-45 Stolonization, tuber
formation
Tobacco 0.4-0.5 bar 4-6 1-10 6-45 Vegetative phase
tension
Lentil 0.4-1.0 (0.6) 6-8 1-3 8-20 Pre flowering, pod
formation
Peas 0.6-0.8 (0.6) 5-8 1-3 8-24 Flower initiation, pod
formation
Sunflower 0.8-1.05 (0.9) 40.50% 5-8 2-6 15-40 Flower bud initiation,
DASM seed setting
Saffiower 0.2-0.6 (0.4) 6-8 1-5 8-30 Flower initiation
Soybean 0.4-0.8 (0.6) 5-6 3-7 18-35 Flower initiation, pod
filling
Berseem 0.9-1.2 (l.0) 0.25 bar 4-5 13-16 80-110 Flowering, seed
tension setting
(for seed purpose)
Greengram 0.6-0.9 (0.6) 80-300 5-8 2-4 15-30 Flowering
mmCPE
Black gram
Cowpea
Sugarbeet 0.6 0.2 bar 4-5 8-10 40-50 Root initiation and
tension development
Linseed 0.5-0.8 (0.6) 6-8 1-4 8-20 Flower initiation,
seed setting
Jute 50- 6-8 1-3 8-20
60%DASM
Finger millet 50%DASM 5-8 2-8 15-45 Heading
DDPW = Days after disappearance of ponded water; DASM = depletion of available soil moisture

59
Example 1: A tubewell has discharge of 1 cusec (cubic feet per second). How much
water it will give if operated for 12 hours?
Solution: 1 Cusec = 1 cubic feet per second = 28.32 litre/second
In one second tubewell will discharge = 28.32 litre water
In one minute , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 28.32 x 60 , , , ,
In one hour , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 28.32 x 60 x 60 ,,
In 12 hour , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , = 28.32 x 60 x 60 x 12 = 1223424 litre
= 1223 m3
Example 2: A canal outlet has discharge of 2 cusec. It takes 4 hours to irrigate 2
hectare area of sorghum grown for fodder on student farm. If the irrigation
efficiency of the field is 80%, work out the depth of irrigation applied.
Solution: I Q t = a.d I: Irrigation efficiency (unit value)
Q: Discharge (cusec)
t: Time (hour)
a: Area (hectare)
d: Depth (cm)
IQt
d = -------------
a
0.80 x 2 x 4
d =------------------ = 3.2 cm
2
Example 3: Measure the quantity of water supplied in a rectangular irrigation
channel running water with a depth of 20 cm and the width of channel is 70 cm if a
paper boat covers the distance of 100 m in 50 second time.
Solution: Volume of water = depth x width x length (distance)
= 20 x 70 x 100 x 100 = 14000000 cc = 14000 litre

Volume of water 14000

Discharge = ----------------------- = -------------- = 280 lt./sec.
Time 50

1 cusec = 28.32 litre

Therefore, Discharge = 280/28.32 = 9.887 cusec
Example 4: Calculate the quantity of water needed to irrigate the wheat crop at
CRI stage in one hectare area. The depth of irrigation should be 6 cm. The time
taken for irrigation was 4 hours and the irrigation efficiency was 70%.
Solution: I Q t = a.d
axd
Q = -------------
Ixt

60
 1 x 6 x 100
Q = ------------------ = 2.14 cusec
70 x 4
Example 5: Calculate the time required to irrigate one hectare area with depth of
irrigation of 8 cm from a tubewell with discharge of 1 cusec and the irrigation
efficiency of 70%.
Solution: I Q t = a.d
axd
t = -------------
IxQ
1 x 8 x 100
t =------------------ = 10.67 hours.
75 x 1
Example 6: How much area can be irrigated in one day with a electric tubewell
having discharge of 2 cusec and depth of irrigation be kept as 6 cm. If the electricity
is available for 12 hours a day. The irrigation efficiency of the field is 80%.
Solution: I Q t = a.d
IQt
a = -------------
d
0.80 x 2 x 12
a =------------------ = 3.2 hectare
6
Example 7: Calculate the amount of water stored in a tank of 5’x5’x5’
diamention.
Solution: 1 ft.= 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
5 ft.= 30.48 x 5 = 152.40 cm
Volume of tank = 152.40 x 152.40 x 152.40 = 3539605.8 cm 3 or cc
1000 cc = litre
= 3539.6 litre say 3540 litre
Example 8: Calculate the size of farm tank to store 1,00,000 litre water with a
depth of 10’.
Solution: 1000 litre = 1 cubic mt. (100 x 100 x 100 cm3)
1,00,000 litre = 100 cubic mt.
10 x 30.48
Depth of the tank = 10 = 10 x 30.48 cm = ------------- = 3.048 m
100
Volume of tank 100 m3
Area of tank = --------------------- = ------------ = 32.81 m2
Depth of tank 3.048
If length is 6 m than width will be 32.80/6 = 5.46 m

61
Irrigation terminology used in state irrigation department

Ahar: is a piece of land having embankments and used for storage of water. The pond,
khata and bed combined together is called Ahar.
Bed: The land where water is stored is called pet or bed of the ahar.
Bed of river: is a space between the banks occupied by the river at its fullest flow.
Canal: is a water course running over the land of a third party even if it irrigate the land
of a third party. It represents a stream of water flowing in a well defined
channel. Canal includes all parts of river stream, natural collection of
water or natural channel of water. Canal includes all canals, channels,
reservoirs, water courses, field drains, all parts of river, stream, lake or
natural drainage channels maintained and controlled by the state
government.
Chaur: Chaur means a village path and this can also be on the embarkment of the
ahar.
Damosh Koha: means a beel or inland pool of shallow water being a part of the deserted
bed for a river.
Degi chur: Daba chur or Nutan chur namely chur, which emerges only at ebb tide and
remains under water at flow tide.
Ghat: means a flight of steps made of wood, brick, stone, iron etc. for access to the
water of a tank or a river. It also means the place on a river bank or a tank,
where people gather or where boats are mooted for puposes of ferry or
which is used for loading and unloading.
Khasra Nehri: It is a register maintained by irrigation booking clerk (Nehri Patwri). It
have record of field number, name of the owner and cultivator, area
irrigated and crop sown and other relevant information.
Khata: The ditch from which earth is taken for repair of that embarkment is called
Khata.
Khatauni: is the demand statement of water charges to be recorded from the
cultivators of village. It is open for inspection and it is maintained by
Patwari.
Outlet: Means a device for supplying water to a water course from a canal.
Parchas or demand slip: Demand slip are prepared by the Patwari (Nehri) and issued to
irrigators as a demand slip for deposition of irrigation charges.
Pind: The embarkment which keeps the water confined is called pind.
Remuneration: The lambardars or other persons collecting water charges, 3% of the
collected amount be paid as remuneration.
Taman: It is penalty charged jointly from the persons who were benefited from the
canal breach on the respective area irrigated by breach basis.
Water allowance: means the discharge authorized for a given culturable command area.

62
PRACTICES FOR IMPROVING WATER USE EFFICIENCY
Water resources of India are limited in relation to the needs and hence available
water has to be used in the most efficient manner. Water is lost in an irrigation system
by evaporation, transpiration by weeds and seepage in reservoirs and carrier
systems. Water is lost by deep percolation beyond root zone in fields, and also by
runoff at the end of borders and furrows. Water use efficiency (WUE) is the yield of
marketable crop produced per unit of water used in evapotranspiration.
WUE = Y/ET
where, WUE = Water use efficiency (kg/ha mm)
Y = Marketable yield of the crop (kg/ha)
ET = Evapotranspiration (mm)
WUE is also known as crop water use efficiency or consumptive water use efficiency
(Ecu) if the water used for metabolic purpose of the crop (G) is also included with ET.
Ecu = Y/( G+ET )
Field water use efficiency (Eu) is the ratio of crop yield to the amount of water used in the
field (WR) which includes G + ET + deep percolation (D)
Eu= Y/( G+ET+D) = Y/ WR
The factors that govern WUE of crops are discussed in physical terms of output
marketable yield or economic yield of crop and irrigation water used ratio. Hence
decrease in water loss or increase in grain yield by any practice will increase the
WUE. The following practices be followed for improving the water use efficiency.
1. Lining of canals: About 40-60% of water released from the reservoir reaches the
field and only 20-40% is used by the crops. Hence, lining of canals and distributaries
reduce the water losses due to deep percolation and ultimately improve the WUE.
2. Climate : Weather affects both yield and ET. Evapotranspiration is an evaporative
process largely controlled by climatic factors. Incident solar radiation and advected
heat provide energy for the evaporative process. Atmospheric vapour content and
wind movement control vapour and flow phenomena. The plant exercises control
over transpiration and radiation utilization in photosynthesis. The amount of
radiation determines the rate of photosynthesis, hence the potential yield. Other
components of climate (temperature, day length, rainfall etc.), influence vital
physiological processes and thereby determine the actual yield.
3. Selection of Crops and Varieties : The transpiration ratio (weight of
water/weight of dry matter) is 300 for C 4 plants, while it is 600 for C 3 plants and
only 125 for CAM plants. Varieties also differ in their adaptation to environment,
resistance to pests and diseases and management levels. Selection of properly
adopted crops with good rooting habits, low transpiration rates and improved energy
consumption in photosynthesis will increase WUE.
4. Agronomic Practices : Time, depth and pattern of sowing influence WUE by
harnessing, incident solor radiation to the maximum possible extent and producing a
uniformly good crop canopy with mutual shading effect amongst the leaves. Timely
sowing ensures proper temperature and other soil physical conditions favouring
optimal crop growth to a greater competition with weed flora. Depth of sowing
affects seedling emergence, vigour and finally yield. Plant population and orientation
of rows of crop influence WUE indirectly by influencing the interception and
utilisation of incident solar energy that influences crop yields.

63
5. Mulches : Manipulation of climate to any great extent is not possible at present.
Organic, Inorganic and dust mulch be used to reduce evaporation from the soil.
6. Ridges and Furrows : The north facing side of the east-west oriented ridge had on
an average 6.l oC lower temperature and the east face of the north-south oriented ridge
2.6 oC higher temperature than flat surface. Therefore, the north face of the east-west
oriented ridges would receive less radiation and less water will be lost in evaporation.
7. Antitranspirants : Reducing transpiration is the most effective means of
increasing the amount of water available to the crop. During 'critical periods'
stomatal closure by the use of antitranspirants might help to tide over deficits this
might conserve or at least delay the loss of water and increase yield.
8. Weed control : Elimination of weeds is the most efficient and practical means of
reducing transpiration. Weeds compete with crop plants for nutrients, space, water
and light. Hence, reduce WUE by reducing crop yield and using water for ET.
9. Shelterbelts: Irrigated crops extract large quantities of energy from the air brought
in from the nearby uncropped area in the farm of sensible heat. Shelterbelts are used at
the leading edges to decrease the damaging effects of winds over the cropped surfaces
and to modify the microclimate by changing wind speed, evaporation, air temperature
etc.Frequency of irrigation can be reduced in shallow rooted crops like onion, garlic etc.,
without affecting the yields adversely by planting them on the leeward side and planting
other deep rooted taller crops like castor,maize, etc., on the windward side.
10. Irrigation Scheduling: Inadequate supply of soil moisture as well as excess moisture
in the soil have an adverse effect on plant growth and productivity and are, therefore,
conducive to low WUE. For each crop and combination of environmental conditions,
there is a narrow range of soil moisture levels at which WUE is higher than with a lesser
or greater supply of water. Excess water application is not only a waste of water, but
impairs soil aeration for lengthy periods increases leaching of plant nutrients, leads to
water logging and salinisation and alkalinisation. Surface runoff and deep percolation
losses should be avoided.
11. Irrigation at Critical Periods of Crop Growth: Moisture stress during the critical
period (moisture sensitive period) will irrevocably reduce the yield and the provision of
adequate water and other inputs at other stages will not offset the loss in yield. The
critical period usually coincides with the formation of reproductive organs and
fertilisation when root growth comes to a stand still.
12. Frequency of Irrigation: In general, yield of most crops increase when soil moisture
level is maintained during crop period as near to field capacity as possible.
13. Methods of Irrigation: Large variations occur in the components of water loss, water
application and field WUE due to different methods of irrigation. Field WUE is generally
greater with sprinkler and drip irrigation methods than surface irrigation methods. Among
the various surface irrigation methods, WUE is highest with furrow and border strip
methods.
14. Fertilization: Irrigation imposes a great demand for fertiliser nutrients. For irrigation
to be profitable, yields must be high. Higher yields mean greater nutrient uptake by crops,
with the nutrient uptake being roughly proportional to crop yield. Nutrient availability is
highest for most crops when water tension is low. Adequate irrigation with suitable
fertilisation increases yields considerably, with relatively small increase in ET and,
therefore, markedly improves WUE.

64
 PACKAGE AND PRACTICES FOR CULTIVATION OF CROPS

Particulars/Operations Mungbean Urdbean Pigeonpea Soybean Lentil Chickpea

Land preparations 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing 2-3
followed by followed by followed by followed by followed by Harrowing
planking planking planking planking planking followed by
planking
Variety and duration Asha (75 )*, T 9 (80 ), Urd 1 Manak ( 135), PK 416 (120 ), HM 1(140), Desi: H 208
K 851 (65 ), (75 ), Pant U 30 Paras (145 ), PK 472 (110 ), Sapna (140), (145), C 235
Muskan (75 ), (75 ), Pant U 35 UPAS 120 ( 125), PK 1024 (118 ), Garima (135) (145), HC 1
Satya (65 ), (85) Jawahar Type 21 (165 ), PK 564 (120 ) (140), HC 3
Pusa bold (70 ), Urd 3 (75 ), Pusa Ageti (160) (150), HC 5
SML 668 (64) Mash 414 ( 72), (142)
Mash 338 (90) Kabuli:
HK1(148),
HK 2(146),
KAK 2(150)
Sowing Ist week of July Ist week of July Type 21 from mid Last week of Mid November Rainfed: Oct.
or with the onset or with the onset March to mid June to Ist week end
of monsoon of monsoon June, Manak & of July Irrigated: 1-15
Paras from June Nov.
end to mid July
Seed rate (kg ha-1) 15-20 15-20 12.5-15 75 Small seed: 30- 45-50 kg for
35 desi and 90 kg
Bold seed: 45-50 for Kabuli and
HC 3.
Sowing method Drilling Drilling Drilling Drilling Drilling Drilling
Fertilizer application
( kg ha-1)
N 20 20 20 25 20 20
P 40 40 40 80 40 40
K Site specific Site specific Site specific Site specific Site specific Site specific
Zinc sulphate (kg ha-1) 25 25 25 25 25 25

65
Time of application Full N, P and Zn Full N, P and Zn at Full N, P and Zn Full N, P and Zn at Full N, P and Zn at Full N, P and
at sowing sowing at sowing sowing sowing Zn at sowing
Number of irrigation 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3
Time of irrigation Vegetative and Vegetative and Vegetative and Vegetative and Vegetative and Vegetative
pod development pod pod development pod development pod and pod
development development development
Major weed flora Cyprus rotundus, Cyprus Cyprus rotundus, Cyprus rotundus, Chenpodium Chenpodium
Trianthema rotundus, Trianthema Trianthema album, album,
monogyna, Trianthema monogyna, monogyna, Asphodelus Asphodelus
Cynodon monogyna, Cynodon Cynodon tenuifolius, tenuifolius,
dactylon, Cynodon dactylon, dactylon, Vicia spp., Vicia spp.,
Amaranthus dactylon, Amaranthus Amaranthus Fumaria Fumaria
viridis,Celotia Amaranthus viridis,Celotia viridis,Celotia purviflora, purviflora,
argentia, viridis,Celotia argentia, Sorghum argentia, Meliotus spp., Meliotus spp.,
Sorghum argentia, helepense Sorghum Anagalis Anagalis
helepense Sorghum helepense arvensis arvensis
helepense
Critical period of crop- 15-30 15-30 15-45 15-45 25-50 25-50
weed competition (days
after sowing)
Manual weeding 2 weeding at 25 2 weeding at 25 2 weeding at 25 2 weeding at 25 2 weeding at 25 2 weeding at
and 45 DAS and 45 DAS and 50 DAS and 50 DAS and 50 DAS 25 and 50
DAS
Promising herbicide(s) Pendimethalin, Pendimethalin, Pendimethalin, Pendimethalin, Pendimethalin, Pendimethalin
Fluchloralin Fluchloralin Fluchloralin Lasso, Fluchloralin , Fluchloralin
Fluchloralin
Time of application PE, PPI PE, PPI PE, PPI PE,PE, PPI PE, PPI PE, PPI
Rate of application 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha 1.0-1.5 kg
ai/ha
Major diseases Root rot, yellow Root rot, yellow Wilt, sterility Wilt, yellow vein Blight and root Wilt,
vein mosaic virus vein mosaic mosaic virus mosaic virus rot alternaria
virus blight,

66
Control methods Seed treatment Seed treatment Seed treatment for Seed treatment Seed treatment Seed
for root rot and for root rot and wilt and resistant for wilt and with 2.5 g treatment with
spray of endosulphan @2 variety for SMV endosulphan @2 Bavistin/kg seed 2.5 g
endosulphan @2 ml/lt of water ml/lt of water for and resistant Bavistin/kg
ml/lt of water for for YVMV YVMV variety seed, and
YVMV resistant
variety
Major insects/pests Leaf minor, pod Leaf minor, pod Pod borer, Tur Leaf minor, Leaf minor, pod Leaf minor,
borer borer pod fly, Hairy white fly and borer pod borer
catter piller Hairy catterpillar
Control methods Spray of Spray of Spray endosulfan Spray of Spray of Spray of
endosulphan @2 endosulphan @2 @1.5lt/ha at pod endosulphan @2 endosulphan @2 endosulphan
ml/lt of water ml/lt of water development ml/lt of water ml/lt of water @2 ml/lt of
water
Time of harvesting Early to mid Early to mid Mannual with Mannual with Mannual with Mannual with
October October long tine blade in sickle in the mid sickle in the mid sickle in the
the mid of of November of April mid of April
November
Grain Yield (q ha-1) 12-15 12-15 20-25 30-35 15-18 20-25
Major constraints YVMV and pod YVMV and pod Wilt and pod borer YVMV and pod Wilt and pod Wilt and pod
borer borer borer borer borer
Soil salinity Soil salinity Soil salinity Soil salinity Soil salinity Soil salinity
Low H.I. Low H.I. Low H.I. Low H.I. Low H.I. Low H.I.
Termite Termite Termite incidence Termite Termite Termite
incidence incidence incidence incidence incidence
Moisture stress at Moisture stress Moisture stress at Moisture stress at Moisture stress Moisture
reproductive at reproductive reproductive stage reproductive at reproductive stress at
stage stage stage stage reproductive
stage
* values in parenthesis are crop duration in days

67
Particulars/Operations Rice Maize Cotton Bajra Wheat Barley
Land preparations 3-4 2-3 Harrowing 3-4 2-3 3-4 2-3
followed by
planking
Variety and duration Jaya 142 HHM-1, HHM- H 777 (180-190) HHB 50 (76-80) C 306 (150) C 138 (138),
PR 1061 (145) 2, HM-4, HM-5 HS 6 (180-185) HHB 60 (74-76) WH 157 (140) C 164 (137),
HKR 120 (146) and HPQM-1 H 1098 (165) HHB 67 (60-62) WH 711 (140) BG25 (136),
HKR 126 (140) HHH 223 (175- HHB 94 (80) WH 542 (142) BH75 (136),
BG105
IR 64 (135) 180) HHB 117 (70) WH 283 (140)
(137),
HKR 46 (135) H 1117 (175-185) HC 10 (75-80) S 308 (141) BH 393
Gobind (115) AAH 1 (180) HC 20 (80-85) PBW 343 (141) (121),
HHH 81 (185) HHB 146 (75- PBW 373 (130) BH 331
HD 107 (180) 80) Raj 3765 (130) (127),
HD 123 (165) HHB 68 (60-62) UP 2338 (135) BH 338
WH 912 (138) (107)
Nursery sowing 15 May to 30 June - - - - -
Transplanting/sowing 15 June – end of July Rainfed: With 15 April – 7 June 1 July – 15 July Unirrigated last Rinfed: 15
the onset of week of October Oct.-15Nov.
monsoon Irrigated Irrigated: 15
Irrigated: June November 1-25 Nov.-30
Nov.
25 to July 20
Late :
December
Seed rate (kg ha-1) 25-30 20 Am Cotton 15-20 4-5 100-125 Rainfed :
Hybrid 1.82-.25, 75
Desi 7.5 Irrigated :
90
Late : 115
Sowing method Transplanting Drilling Drilling Drilling Drilling Drilling
Fertilizer application (kg ha-1) Medium Short Dwarf Hybrid Desi Irrigated Dwarf Tall Irriga Rain
duration duration ted fed
N 150 120 120-150 150 175 50 125 150 60 60 30
P 60 60 60 60 60 - 62.5 60 30 30 15
K 60 60 40-60 60 60 - - 60 30 15 -

68
 Zinc sulphate (kg ha-1) 25 25 25 25 25 25

Time of application Basal 1/3 N + P + K + Zn 1/3 rd N+full P + K + Zn ½ N + P + Zn ½ N + P + K + Zn Irrigted : ½

P+K +Zn/ha N+full P+
K + Zn
Rainfed:
All at
sowing
1st top dressing 1/3 N at second 1/3 rd N at knee ½ N end July ¼ N after ½ N at 1st ½ N at 1st
irrigatin high thinning irrigation irrigation
2nd top dressing 1/3 N at fourth 1/3 rd N at tassel ½ N at flowering ¼ N at head - -
irrigation emergence formation
Number of irrigation 18-20 2-3 3-4 1-2 Desi-2, Dwarf-6 2
Time of irrigation Per week Vegetative End June, Top dressing, 22, 45, 65, 85, 40-45, 80-
stage, tasseling flowering, boll grain formation 105, 120 85
and silking stage formation
Major weed flora Cyprus rotundus, Cyprus Cyprus rotundus, Cyprus rotundus, Chenpodium Chenpodiu
Echinochloa rotundus, Trianthema Trianthema album, Phalaris m album,
crusgalli, Celotia Trianthema monogyna, monogyna, minor, Vicia Phalaris
argentia,Eclipta alba, monogyna, Cynodon Cynodon spp., Fumaria minor,
Echinochola Cynodon dactylon, dactylon, purviflora, Vicia spp.,
colonum, Cyprus iria dactylon, Amaranthus Amaranthus Meliotus spp., Fumaria
Amaranthus viridis, viridis, Anagalis purviflora,
viridis,Celotia arvensis,Avena Meliotus
argentia, ludivicina, spp.,
Sorghum Convolvulus Anagalis
helepense arvensis arvensis,Av
ena
ludivicina,
Convolvulu
s arvensis

69
Critical period of crop-weed 25-45 20-45 25-55 20-40 20-45 25-45
competition (days after
sowing)
Manual with number and Manual at 20 and 45 Manual at 20 3 Manual at 25, 40 30 DAS 2 Manual at 30 Manual at
time of weeding DAT and 45 DAS and 55 DAS and 45 DAS 25 and 45
DAS
Promising herbicide(s) Butachlor, Simazine/ Pendimethalin, Atrazine Isoproturan (50 Isoproturan
Thiobencarb, Atrazine Fluchlorlin, WP and 75 WP), (75 WP),
Anilophos Traclon Topic, Leader 2,4-D
Time of application 2-3 days after PE/7-15 DAS PPI, Pre- Pre-emergence 30-35 days after 40-45 DAS
transplanting emergence, Pre- sowing
emergence
Rate of application 2.5 kg ha-1, 2.5 kg ha-1, 1-1.5kg ha-1 5 kg ha-1, 2 kg ha-1, 1 kg ha-1 2 kg ha-1, 1 kg ha-1,
1.3 kg ha-1 2 kg ha-1 1.25 kg ha-1, 400 1.0 g ha-1
g ha-1, 33 g ha-1
Application method Dusting Spray Foliar spray Foliar spray Foliar spray Foliar spray
Major diseases Stem rot, Blast, Seedling blight Antharacnose, Downy mildew, Brown, Yellow Brown,
Sheeth blight, Downey mildew Wilt, Leaf curl, Ergot, Smut and black rust, Yellow and
Bacterial leaf blight Leaf rust Root rot, Boll rot, Karnal bunt, black rust,
Bacterial blight loose smut loose smut,
covered
smut
Control methods Seed treatment with Seed treatment 75-100 g Seed treatment Seed treatment Seed
Emisan or @ 3g/kg seed Plantomycine/ 15- with emisan @ 2 with 2.5 g treatment
carbendazim @ 20 g g or thiram @ 4 Bavistin/kg seed, with 2.5 g
1g/kg seed, Spray of streptocycline + 4 g / kg seed. Later and resistant Bavistin/kg
500 g carbendazim or 1.5-2.0 kg copper on spray of variety seed, and
hinosan or 300 g bim oxychloride/ha. Quman @ 1 lt/ha resistant
or sivic @/ 500 lt of variety
water/ ha

70
Major insects/pests Root caterpillar, Leaf Stem borer Aphid, Jassid, White fly, Hairy Termite, Aphid, Termite,
hopper, Hopper, Shoot fly and Caterpillar, caterillar Jassid, Toka Aphid,
Gundhi bug, Stem aphid Spotted, American Jassid,
borer and Pink boll Toka
worm
Control method Furadan 25 kg ha-1/ Endosulphan Metasystox 1.0 lt / Monocrotophos Chloropyriphos Chloropyrip
Endosulfan 1.25 lit 1.25 lit ha-1, Endosulfan 1.5 lt/ @ 1.25 lit. ha-1 1.5 ml kg-1 seed, hos 6.0 ml
ha-1,/Methyl parathion 10% Phorate Ekalux 1.5 lt/ Endosulfan 1.25 kg-1 seed,
/ 25 kg ha-1 dust @15 kg/ha Hostathion 1.5 lt/ lit. ha-1 Endosulfan
1.25 lit. ha-1
Cypermethrin 500
ml/ Fenuvalrate
250-300 ml /ha.
Time of application When required When required June end – Mid When required Seed treatment, Seed
October When when required treatment,
required when
required
Time of harvesting Mid September to September – October – September – Mid April Mid April
October October November October
Grain Yield (q ha-1) 60-70 50-60 20-25 25-40 50-60 40-50
Major constraints
Poor water Top borer Seed availability Seed availability Poor soil health Poor soil
availability health
Poor soil health Water logging/ Water supply at Adulterated seed Weed problem Weed
water stress sowing in market problem
Adulterated Poor plant Adulterated Untimely rains Unbalanced Unbalanced
agrochemicals population agrochemicals fertilizer use fertilizer
use

71
 Particulars/ Operations Brassica Sunflower Groundnut Sesamum Castor Sugarcane
Land preparations 2-3 Harrowing followed by 2-3 Harrowing followed 2-3 Harrowing followed by 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing 3-4
planking by planking planking followed by followed by Harrowing
planking planking followed by
planking
Variety and duration Raya:RH 30 (140), Varuna HybridsTimely MH-2(110), MH-4(1150, M- HT 1 (77) Aruna (140), Early (250) :
(142),RH 8113(150), RH sown :KBSH-1,MSFH- 145(125), M-13(145) and CH 1 (110) Co J 64, Co H
8112 (145), RH 781(140), 8,PAC-36,KBSH- Punjab mungfali-1(130) 56, Co H 92
RH 819(148), 44,HSFH-848&PACH- Medium
Vasundhra(135), Savran 234 (275) : Co
Jayoti(135), Geeta (147) Late sown :MSFH- 7717, Co H
Brown Sarson : BSH 17,PAC-1091,Sungin- 99, Co S
1(136), 85,Procin09,HSFH-848 8436, Co H
Yellow srson : YSPb 1 Composit : EC-68415 119
Taramira: T27(150) Late (300) :
Toria: Sangam(112), TL Co 1148, Co
15(90), TH 68(89) H 35, Co S
767, Co H
110
Sowing Toria: Mid Sept. 15 Jan. to 15 Feb. Rainfed: June end to Ist week Last week of June 2nd fortnight of Autumn: Oct-
Sarson: Sept.25 to Oct.10 of July Irrigated: Last week to Ist week of July July Nov
Raya Sept.30 to Oct.20 of June (Not later than 15 Spring: April
July)
Seed rate (kg ha-1) 3.75-5.0 Composite:10 Bunch type:120 3-5 12.5 7500-10000
Hybrid:3.75-5 Spreading:100-110
Sowing method Drilling Drilling/dibbling Drilling Drilling Drilling Flat- Furrow
Fertilizer application Irrigated Rainfed Hybrid Composite Planted Ratoon
N 60-80 40 60 100 15 37.5 37.5 150 225
P 30 20 40 50 50 - - 50 50
K Site specific, 2 bags 2 bags 2 bags 2 bags gypsum Site specific - Site specific Site specific
2 bags gypsum gypsum gypsum
gypsum
Zinc sulphate (kg ha-1) 25 - 25 - - 25
Time of application Full N,P&Zn at sowing in Half N,P at sowing, Full N,P& Full N at Half N at sowing and 1/3 N, full P&Zn at sowing &
rainfed, Half N, full P&Zn at remaining N at Ist gypsum at sowing remaining after 60 1/3N each at II & III irrigation
sowing & remaining N at Ist irrigation sowing days os sowing
irrigation in irrigated
condition
Number of irrigation 2 4-6 2-3 2 2 8-10

72
Time of irrigation Flowering & pod Ist irrigation at 30-35 Depends upon Ist irrigation One at 40-45 and 10-25 days interval depending
development and last at 75-80 days rainfall at 30-35 2nd at 80-85 DAS upon soil moisture
after sowing of crop however one DAS and
irrigation at IInd at post
flowering is capsule
important formation
Major weed flora Chenpodium album, Cyprus rotundus, Cyprus Cyprus Cyprus rotundus, Trianthema portulacastrum,
Asphodelus tenuifolius, Vicia Trianthema monogyna, rotundus, rotundus, Trianthema Convolvulus arvensis,
spp., Fumaria purviflora, Cynodon dactylon, Trianthema Trianthema monogyna, Dactyloctenium aegyptium,
Meliotus spp., Anagalis Amaranthus monogyna, monogyna, Cynodon dactylon, Sorghum helepense, Cynodon
arvensis viridis,Celotia argentia, Cynodon Cynodon Amaranthus dactylon, Ipomoea hyderacea,
Sorghum helepense dactylon, dactylon, viridis,Celotia Physallia minima, Ecliptica alba
Amaranthus Amaranthus argentia, Sorghum
viridis,Celotia viridis,Celo helepense
argentia, tia
Sorghum argentia,
helepense
Critical period of crop- 25-40 15-45 15-45 15-30 30-45 60-90
weed competition (days
after sowing)
Weed control method
Manual weeding 2 weeding at 25 and 45 DAS 2 weeding at 25 and 45 2 weeding at weeding Manual after 1st Two hoeing 30 and 60 DAS
DAS 25 a50 DAS 30DAS irrigation
Promising herbicide(s) Pendimethalin (PE), - Pendimethalin - - Pre-emergence (2-3 DAS)
Fluchloralin (PPI) @ 1.0-1.5 (PE) @ 1.0 kg application of Simazine @ 4
kg ai/ha in irrigated areas ai/ha only in kg/ha or Atrazine @ 2.5 kg/ha or
only irrigated Sencor @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha by
condition mixing in 625-700 L water.
Almix @ 20 g/ha or 2,4-D
Sodium salt @ 2.5 kg/ha in 500-
625 L water at 30 and 60 DAS.
Major diseases Phyllody, alternaria blight, Alternaria blight, Seed and pre- Phyllody, No major disease Red rot, Smut, wilt, Grassy shoot,
downy mildew, White rust Flower rot, Root and emergence rot, Phytopthora Ratoon stunting
stem rot Tikka and blight, Leaf
Charcoal rot curl
Control methods Spray of Mencozeb @1.5 Seed treatment for root For the control Spray zineb - Sett treatment with 0.25%
kg/ha and repeat at 15 days rot with of Seed and @2 kg/ha Emisan- 6 for controlling smut,
interval Bavistin@2g/kg seed pre-emergence for Moist hot air treatment (MHAT)
and spray of Dithane M rot, Charcoal Phytopthora at 54 o C for 2 hours at RH > 95%
45(0.2%) and repeat at rot treat the blight and is most effective against GSD,

73
 15 days interval sedd with metasystox RSD and external sett borne
Thiram@3-5 @ 1ml/litre infection of smut and red rot
kg/kg seed and of water
for Tikka spray
0.2%
Menocozeb
Major insects/pests Hairy caterpillar,Spotted boll Cut worm,Hairy Aphid,Jassid, Jassid, Semi looper and Pyrilla, Black bug, White fly, Top
worm,Aphid and Jassid caterpillar,Flower borer White grub and Sesamum hairy catterpillar borer, shoot borer, stalk borer,
and damage by birds Hairy catter gall fly and mealy bug
piller sesamum
bud fly
Control methods Spray of endosulphan @ 2 Spray of Fenvelrate @ Spray Spray of Spray of Spray endosulfan/ monocrotophos
ml/lt of water 200ml for cut endosulfan @ monocrotop monocrotophos @ @ 1.50lt/ha
worm,endosulphan 1.250lt/ha for hos @ 2 625ml/ha
@1250 ml/ha hairy ml/lt of
caterpillar and water
seed treatment
with
Quinalphos
25EC@ 15
ml/kg seed
Time of harvesting March End of April Mannual in the Mannual October end November to January
end of Oct. or with sickle
early in the end
November of
Septemberr
Grain Yield (q ha-1) 20-25 15-25 25-40 7 15-20 600-700
Major constraints Downy mildew, White rust Irrigation water Incidence of Phyllody Seed availabilty Top borer, red rot
white grub
Soil salinity Vacant land Soil salinity Soil salinity Termite incidence High seed cost
Low H.I. Bird damage Low H.I. Poor soil Moisture stress Water stress / water logging
Low moisture at sowing in Moisture stress at Termite Shattering Threshing Market price
rainfed crop reproductive stage incidence
Moisture stress at Threshing Moisture stress Moisture Poor plant Plant population in ratoon
reproductive stage at sowing and stress at population
reproductive reproductive
stage stage

74
Particulars/Operations Fodder cowpea (F) Berseem (F) Sorghum (F) Bajra (F) Oat (F) Clusterbean (G)
Land preparations 2-3 Harrowing followed 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing followed 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing 2-3 Harrowing
by planking followed by by planking followed by followed by followed by planking
planking planking planking
Variety and duration FOS 1, HFC 42-1, CS 88 Mescavi and HC 136, HC 171, HC 260, F2 seed of any HFO 114, O S FS 277, HFG 156,
Hisar berseem HC 308, HJ 513 and recommended 6, OS 7, HJ 8 HFG 119
1 (HFB 600) Sweet sudan grass 59-3 grain hybrid
(Multicut)
Sowing Summer: March20 to End of Sept. to Summer: March20 to End of March Mid. Oct. to April to mid July
April 10 end of October April 10 or in the mid. Nov.
Kharif: June 25 to July Kharif: June 25 to July 10 beginning of
10 Sweet sudan grass: April April
Seed rate (kg ha-1) 40-50 20-25 50-60 7.5-10 75-100 40-50
Sweet sudan grass:30-40
Sowing method Drilling Broadcasting Drilling Drilling Drilling Drilling
in thin layer of
water
Fertilizer applicationN 25 25 75 80 20
P 62.5 70 15 - 50
K - - - -
Time of application Full N and P at sowing Full N and P at Half N, P at sowing and 50 kg N, P at Half at sowing At the time of
sowing remaining N at 30 DAS, sowing and 25 and half after Ist sowing
however, in sweet sudan kg N one cut
grass apply 25 Kg/ha after month after
each cutting sowing
Number of irrigation 2 4-6 4-5 3-4 3-4 1-2
Time of irrigation Vegetative stage Ist irrigation as 10 days interval 15 days 20-25 days Vegetative and
early as interval interval flowering stages
possible and
later on at 7-10
days interval
Major weed flora Cyprus rotundus, Chicorium Cyprus rotundus, Cyprus Chenpodium Cyprus rotundus,
Trianthema monogyna, intybus Trianthema monogyna, rotundus, album, Phalaris Trianthema
Cynodon dactylon, Cynodon dactylon, Trianthema minor, Vicia monogyna, Cynodon
Amaranthus Amaranthus monogyna, spp., Fumaria dactylon,

75
 viridis,Celotia argentia, viridis,Celotia argentia, Cynodon purviflora, Amaranthus
Sorghum helepense dactylon, Meliotus spp., viridis,Celotia
Amaranthus Anagalis argentia
viridis,Celotia arvensis,Avena
argentia ludivicina,
Critical period of 15-30 20 15-30 25-50 25-45 15-30
crop-weed competition
(days after sowing)
Weed control method Manual weeding at 25 Weeding only Weeding at 25 DAS Weeding at 25 Manual at 25 Manual at 25 and 45
DAS in case of seed DAS and 45 DAS DAS
crop is
required
Promising herbicide(s) - - Atrazine Atrazine - -
Time of application - - PE and PO (7-15days) PE and PO (7- - -
15days)
Rate of application - - 500 g ai/ha 500 g ai/ha - -
Major diseases No major disease No major Grain smut, red leaf spot No major No major -
disease disease disease
Control methods - - Seed treatment with 2.0 g - - -
Emisan/kg seed and
resistant variety
Major insects/pests Jassid - Shoot fly and stem borer No major - Jassid
disease
Control methods Spray of melathion - Spray of endosulphan - - Malathion @ 500
@500 ml /ha @750 ml /ha ml / ha
Time of harvesting 55 days after sowing - Mannual 50-55 days 60-65 days after 60-65 days after
after sowing as sowing as sowing as fodder
fodder crop fodder crop crop
Fodder yield (q ha-1) 350-400 700-800 350-500 400-450 600-700 325-350
Major constraints Soil salinity Seed Good quality seed Germination Moisture stress Good quality seed
availability of availability availability
good variety
Low moisture at sowing Irrigation Weed infestation Moisture stress Seed Weed infestation
availability
Seed availability Poor yield in Fertilizer application Seed - Fertilizer application
the Ist cut availability

76
ESTIMATION OF GRAIN YIELD

Example 1 : Estimate the grain yield of wheat crop in field sown at 20X5 cm
spacing and plant attributes having effective tillers 4 per plant, grains/spike 45 and
test weight is 45g.
Solution : Calculation of plant population in the field:
Row to row spacing of the crop = 20 cm= 0.20 m
Plant to plant spacing of the crop = 5 cm= 0.05 m
I: Space occupied by one plant = 0.20x0.05=0.100 m2
Area of one hectare = 10000 m2
10000
Number of plants per hectare = --------- =1000000 plants
0.01

II: Counting number of plants in one meter row length say 20 at 5 cm plant to plant
spacing.
Row spacing is 20 cm.
Length of one hectare = 100 meter
Breadth of one hectare = 100 meter
Area of one hectare = 100X100 =10000 m2
100
Number of rows at 20 cm in one hectare length = ----------- = 500
0.2
Number of plants in one hectare = 100X20 = 2000
Total plants in one hectare area = 500X2000 = 1000000 plants

III: Per plant yield = No. of effective tillers/plant X No. of grains per spike
X weight of one grain
If number of effective tillers = 4
Number of grains per spike = 45
Test weight = 45g
45
Per grain weight = ---------- = 0.045g
1000
4 X 45 X 45
Per plant yield = ----------------- = 8.1 g
1000
Per hectare yield = Plant population X Per plant yield
= 1000000 X 8.1g = 8100 kg = 81 q/ha.

77
Example 2 : Estimate the grain yield of rice crop having 30 plants/ m2 and plant
attributes having effective tillers 3.5 per plant, 200 grains/panicle and test weight is
25g.
Solution : Grain yield/hectare = No. of plants/hectare X No. of effective tillers/plant
X No. of grains per panicleX weight of one grain
30X10000X3.5X200X25
= ------------------------------- = 52.5 q/ha
10X1000X1000
Example 3 : Estimate the theoretical/ha grain yield of chickpea crop in field sown
at 30X15 cm spacing and plant attributes having 60 pods per plant, 1.5 grains/pod
and 100 seed weight is 20g.
Solution :
Per plant yield = No. of pods/plant X No. of grains per pod X weight of one seed
60 X 1.5 X 20
Per plant yield = ----------------------- = 18 g
100
100 X 100X100 X 100
Number of plants per hectare = ------------------------------- =222222 plants
30 X15
Per hectare yield = Plant population X Per plant yield
= 222222 X 18= 3999996g = 3999 kg = 39.99 q/ha.

Example 4 : Estimate the seed cotton yield of Bt cotton crop sown at 90X60 cm
spacing and having 70 bolls/ plant and weight of each ball was 3.0g.
Solution :
Grain yield/hectare = No. of plants/hectare X No. of effective
tillers/plant X No. of grains per panicleX
weight of one grain

30X10000X3.5X200X25
= ------------------------------- = 52.5 q/ha
10X1000X1000
Per plant yield = No. of bolls/plant X weight of one boll
Per plant yield = 70 X 3.0 = 210 g
100 X 100X100 X 100
Number of plants per hectare = ------------------------------- =18518.5 plants
90 X60
Per hectare yield = Plant population X Per plant yield
= 18518.5 X 210= 3888888g = 3888 kg = 38.88 q/ha.
Example 5 : Calculate the cane yield /ha of sugarcane crop sown at row spacing of
60 cm with 3 buded setts with seed rate of 30 q/Ac. The effective canes per meter
row length is 10 and weight of one cane is 1 kg.
78
Solution :
Number of canes in one row = 10 X 100 = 1000
100 X 100
Number of rows per hectare = ------------------ =166.6 = 167
60
Per hectare yield = No. of rows X No. of canes/ row X Per cane yield
= 167 X 1000 X 1= 167000 kg = 1670 q/ha.

Example 6 : Compute the theoretical seed yield of raya crop sown at 30X15 cm
spacing and having 250 siliqua/ plant, 14 seeds / siliqua and test weight will be 6.0g.
Solution :
Per plant yield = No. of siliqua/plant X No. of seeds/ siliqua
Xweight of one seed
Per plant yield = 250 X 14 X 0.006 = 21 g
100 X 100X100 X 100
Number of plants per hectare = ------------------------------- =222222 plants
30X15
Per hectare yield = Plant population X Per plant yield
= 2222222 X 21= 4666662g = 4667 kg = 46.67 q/ha.

Example 7 : Compute the fodder yield of berseem with a plant population of 400
plants per square meter. Each plant produces 2.5 tillers and weight of each tiller is
2.0 g.
Solution :
Number of plants per hectare = 400 X 10000 =4000000 plants
Weigh of each plant = 2.5 X 2.0 = 5.0 g.
Per hectare yield = Plant population X Per plant yield
= 4000000 X 5= 20000000g = 20000 kg = 200 q/ha.

79
 MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CROPS,
THEIR SPECIES AND RELATED PLANTS
Morphological differences in cultivated species of cotton
Plant part G. arboreum G. herbaceum G. hirsutum G. barbadense

Vegetative Ascending, no Horizontal, no

Horizontal
Branches or few or very few
Fruiting
Two, jointed Many, jointed Many, jointed Many, jointed
Branches
Two third to four Small, half or Big, half or less Big, two third
Leaves fifth cut into less cut into cut into 3-5 cut into 3
5-7 lobes 3-7 lobes lobes lobes
Ovate, oblong or Ovate, rotund Broadly triangular Long, tapering
Lobes
curvilinear To rounded cuminate acuminate
Falcate or Falcate or
Stipules Linear or falcate Linear
auriculate auriculate
Broader than
Longer than Bigger, longer As long as
long, 6-8
broad, 3-4 teeth than broad with broad, 10-15
Bractioles triangular
at apex 4-12 acuminate long acuminate
angular teeth
at margin teeth teeth
Rounded or
Tapering, usually Rounded, 3-4 Rounded or
tapering, 3-4
Capsules 3 locular with locular with tapering, 3-5
locular with
or bolls 6-17 seeds per 6-11 seeds locular with 5-11
5-8 seeds per
locule perlocule seeds per locule
locule

Difference between different species of wheat

Triticm aestivum Triticm dicoccum Triticm durum Triticm spherococum
Chromosomes- Chromosomes-28. Chromosomes-28. Chromosomes-42.Stem
42.Stem hollow with Stems sold or hollow Stems sold or hollow hollow with thin walls
slightly thick walls with thick walls with thick walls
Rachis tenacious Rachis more or less Rachis more or less Rachis tenacious
fragile fragile
Empty glumes long Empty glumes long Empty glumes long and Empty glumes broad with
and narrow and narrow narrow outer face convex
- Keel prominent Keel prominent Keel less prominent or in
upper half only
Grains long and Grains long and Grains long and narrow Grains angled
narrow narrow
- Coleoptile 4-6 Coleoptile 2 nerved. Apical tooth on empty
nerved. Aplical tooth Apical tooth on empty glumes strong, curved and
on empty glumes glumes stout, generally scarbid.
short and blunt. acute and curved blunt.

80
Difference between rape and mustard
Rape Mustard
The plant is shorter, the height ranges The plants are tall, the height ranges between
between 45-150 cm. 90- 200 cm.
The leaves borne sessile and are glabrous The leaves are not dilated at the base and
and hairy. The lower part of the case of lasping as in stalked broad and pinnatified.
rape but are the blade (lamina) grasps the
stalk partially or completely.
The Fruits (pods) are thicker than those The fruits (pods) are slender and 2-6.5 cm
only of mustard (rai) and are laterally long, strongly ascending or erect with short
compressed with the beak one-third to half and stout beaks.
their length.
Seeds are either yellow or brown with a Seeds are brown or dark brown.
smooth seed coat.
Morphological differences in Sorghum, Pearl millet, Napier grass and Johnson grass
Sorghum (Jowar) Maize Pearl millet (bajra) Napier grass

Stem is erect and Stem are completely Stem is erect and produce Perennial grass with erect
cylindrical with no filled with pith, the tillers. and cylindrical stem.The
tillers in most cases. internodes are plant tillers profusely and
somewhat flattened tillers increase in number
or groved on the year after year. The stem
side next to the leaf near the top is usually
sheath. No tillering. hairy.

Leaves have parallel Leaves are rough Leafblade is long and Leafblade is linear and
veins and midrib is and hairy pointed and has hairs on may have hairs on both
white in colour. both sides. The sheath the sides.
clasps the stem almost
fully. Lugule is 5 mm
long.
Inforescence is a It has two types of Inflorescence is a Inflorescence is a dense
panicle or spike and inflorescence – compound spike with spike and is about 15-
the peduncle may bestaminate (tassels) unbranched tapering 30cm long.
branched, erect, and pistilates (cobs) central axis.
curveddownward or at two angles on the
half bent. plant.
The grain covered The grains vary Seed is somewhat Kernels tan, sometimes
by lemma varies in from white to violet flattened on sides but reddish black, oblong and
colour from pale in colour. Seed is more or less ovate with pointed.
yellow to various somewhat flattened one endsome what
shades of brown on sides. taperingand cone shaped.
todeep purple
brown.

81
Difference between different fodder crops
Lucerne (Medicgo sativa)
The plant is a herbaceous
perennial. Branches arise from a
short compact stem at a point, a
little above the ground level.
Leaves are trifoliate oblong, the
middle leaflet possessing a short
petiole with serrated margin. The
serrted edge does extend to lower
margin of leaflet. Veins make
acute angles projecting in the
midrib. Stipules are serrated, broad
and sharply pointed.
Flower colour is usually purple but
it may be blue also. Inflorescence
spike like raceme.
Fruit is indehiscent pod coiled 2-3
times (spiral shaped pod). Seeds
are greenish to yellow turning
brown with age, one half kidney
shaped and one half mitt shaped.
Berseem (Trifolium
alexandrium)
The plant is a herbaceous
annual. Plants are branched
and glaborous.
Leaves trifoliate and
leaflets ovate. The petioler
branches are of nearly
equal length. Leaves are
pubescent with white
markings. Petioles are
pubescent. Stipules are
membranous pointed with
greenish purple veins on
them.
Flower born on long
peduncles, rise in leaf axil,
flower pediceled white or
pinkish
Seeds are redish
Senji (Melilotus spp.)
The stems are erect and
smooth.
Leaves thick trifoliate,
serrated edge, oblong,
narrowed at base,
notched or rounded at
apex, pin point stipules.
Flower is receme,
numerous, often one
sided, white (M. alba)
and yellow (M. indica),
pods ovate, one seeded,
netted hulls.
Seeds mitt or semi-heart
shaped, greenish yellow
turn brown with age.

Kinds of rapeseed and mustard grown in India are as follows-

Independent group Species Common name
(i) Sarson (a) Brassica campestris var. yellow sarson Turnip rape(Yellow sarson)
(b) Brassica campestris var. brown sarson Turnip rape(Brown sarson)
(ii) Toria (a) Brassica campestris var. yellow toria Indian rape (yellow toria)
(b) Brassica Campestris var. black toria Indian rape (Lahi)
(iii) Rai (a) Brassica juncea Indian mustard(Rai, Raya or Laha)
(b) Brassica juncea var. rugosa. Pahari rai (Rugosa)
(c) Brassica nigra Black mustard (Banarsi rai)

82
Difference in C3 and C4 plants
Character C3 plants C4 plants
o
Optimum temperature for 15-30 C 30-45oC
photosynthesis
Optimum light intensity for 30-50% full sunlight Full sunlight
photosynthesis
Photosynthetic rate per unit 50% of C4 under optimal Double of C3 under optimal
leaf area conditions conditions
Maximum growth rates under 34-39 g m-2 day-1 50-54 g m-2 day-1
optimal conditions
Water use efficiency Dry wt. 1.49 mg g-1 water Dry wt. 1.49 mg g-1 water
Leaf chlorophyll a/b ratio; 2.8 + 0.4; 30-70 2.8 + 0.4; 0-10
CO2 compensation point (ppm
CO2)
Photosynthesis inhibited by Yes No
21% O2?
Photorespiration detectable? Yes Only in bundle sheath
-
Dry matter production tons ha 22+ 0.3 39+ 17
1
year-1 (t ha-1 yr-1)
Theoretical energy 1:3:2 1:5:2
requirement
(CO2:ATP:NADP)
Differentiate between sustainable and modern agriculture
Particulars Sustainable agriculture Modern agriculture
Plant Farmyard manure, compost, green Chemical fertilizers are used.
nutrients manures, bio-fertilizers and crop
rotations are used.
Pest control Cultural methods, crop rotation and Toxic chemical are used.
biological methods are used.
Inputs High diversity, renewable and High productivity and low diversity
biodegradable inputs are used. chemicals are used.
Ecology Stable ecology. Fragile ecology.
Use of The rate of extraction from forests, The rate of extraction exceeds the
resources fisheries, underground water rate of regeneration. Falling of trees,
resources and other renewable deforestation, overgrazing and
resources do not exceed the rate of pollution of water bodies takes
regeneration. place.
Quality of food Food materials are safe. Food material contains toxic
material residues.

83
CROP TERMINOLOGY
WHEAT
Anthesis: A developmental main stage when yellow anthers are clearly visible on spikes.
It is also called 'flowering'. Each floret's lemma and palea are forced apart by swelling of
their lodicules, which allows the anthers to protrude. After a day or two, the lodicules
collapse and the florets close again.
Auricle: Also called a collar. It is the pale-coloured papery extension of a leaf blade at
its junction with its leaf sheath. It may be slightly hairy.
Awns: These are coarse hair-like protrusions on a spike. They extend from the tip of
lemmas and sometimes to a small extent on the sterile glumes. Awns photosynthesise
when green.
Band placement: Application of fertilizer along with the rows of the crop.
Basal application: Application of fertilizer at the time of sowing in the soil.
Boot: As the young spike expands inside the leaf sheaths it can eventually be felt and
finally seen after the flag leaf stage as a sheath swelling or boot. It becomes most obvious
shortly before its awns start to protrude out of the top of the last sheath.
Conventional tillage:This involves inverting the soil surface layer incorporating crop
residues and vegetation and breaking up the surface to a fine tilth. Also called clean
tillage.
Cross sowing: Sowing of the seed in both the direction i.e. opposite to each other.
Crusting: This is the sealing of the soil surface by fine soil particles. These particles
block the larger pores reducing the movement of gases into and from the soil and
reducing penetration of water. It is more common on soils high in silts, soils with low
organic matter and soils with high Na (sodium).
Double ridges: This is a developmental stage of the growing apex (growing point) when
it is approximately 0.5 mm long. Prior to this stage the short apex («0.2 mm) had been
producing only leaf primordia or single ridges, which are angular structures. At the
double ridge stage the new leaf primordia are rounded ridges and associated with each
one is a bud in its axil; hence the term double ridge. This bud becomes a spikelet.
Floret: Each spikelet has between 2 and 6 florets where the grains form. Each floret is
made up of a papery lemma with its long awn (both green at anthesis) and an opposing
palea. These together form a cup for the grain. At anthesis each full sized lemma and
palea enclose male stamens with their yellow pollen and the female stigma. Pollen falls
on the stigma and self fertilization occurs to form a grain. The number of grains in a
spike is equal to the number of fertile florets produced by the spike.
Green leaf area index (GLAI or LAI): This is the area of all green leaves on a square
metre of ground. When each one square metre of ground has more than 4 square metres
of leaf growing on it the crop is intercepting about 90% of the solar radiation falling on
it. With more interception than this during stem elongation to booting stage, yields are
unlikely to exceed 4 t/ha. GLAI summed over days is called leaf area duration (LAD).
Like green leaf number after heading, it is well linked to yield.
Heading: A developmental stage when the head, spike or ear emerges from its enclosing
sheath. When only a small part is visible it is called 'ear peep'. The stage from partial to
full appearance is also called 'Ear Emergence'.
Jointing stage: The stem elongates by extending the regions between the stem nodes.
The first nodes (joints) become visible and progressively larger after the terminal spikelet

84
has formed on the microscopic spike. After a crop lodges, it grows back towards the
vertical by adjusting angular growth at these 'joints' that bear some resemblance to
arthritic finger joints.
Ligule: A papery structure one mm or so long which marks the junction between a leaf
sheath and its blade and is in the same plane as the sheath. Together with the auricle it is
called the leaf collar.
Minimum tillage: With a limited number of passes of machinery, minimum tillage aims
to achieve some soil disturbance and physical weed control but to leave much of the crop
residues on the surface of the soil or in the surface layers.
Pan evaporimeter: This is an aboveground circular metal trough about 1.5 m diameter
and 30 cm deep and filled with water. The number of mm of water evaporated from the
pan indicates approximately how much water the crop is losing, providing there is no
water stress. It can be a guide to how much irrigation water needs to be applied to replace
transpiration losses. You can make your own evaporimeter and measure how far the
water surface falls (in mm) every few days. Top it up regularly. Make sure thirsty
animals are not drinking it by covering it with chicken wire or equivalent. Your
measurement is roughly how many mm of water you would have to supply to the crop to
replace losses.
Perennial weeds: Plants that live for several years. The most difficult perennial weeds to
control are those that propagate both by seeds and by vegetative means. Examples are the
perennial grasses that can produce new plants from broken pieces of ‘root’. Broad leaved
weeds such as thistles have the same approach. Both establish extensive networks of
these propagating root systems.
Photosynthesis: A process used by plants to make sugars (carbohydrates) for growth.
Essential ingredients in the process are solar radiation to provide energy, the green
chlorophyll of the leaves and shoots to trap and convert that energy, carbon dioxide from
the air to provide the carbon in the carbohydrate, and water.
Rachis: The long axis of the ear or spike to which the spikelets are attached.
Solar radiation: This is the energy from the sun that reaches the ground, remaining after
passage through the atmosphere and clouds. About half that energy is visible light. Plants
can use about half for photosynthesis.
Spike: An alternative name for the ear or head.
Spikelet: The spike (or ear) is divided into 15 to 30 spikelets. These are in two rows up
the full length of the spike. Each spikelet is made up of 2 to 6 florets where the grains
form, and surrounding structures of glumes, lemmas, and paleas. Split application:
Application of fertilizer in a crop more than one time at different stages of the crop
growth.
Spores: These are the tiny 'seeds' of fungi, the means by which fungal diseases spread.
Usually spores can 'germinate' better and infect new leaves and plants when conditions
are warm and humid. A dense crop canopy is usually humid because leaves transpire.
Stem node: A node is a junction. A stem node is where a leaf arises on the stem. Stem
nodes can be felt as bumps or joints when the finger and thumb are run up the stem.
Internodes are the regions between the bumps.
Stephenson Screen: A white wooden box with angled slatted walls allowing through
ventilation but no direct light, mounted about 1.5 m above the ground in which
meteorological instruments are kept. It is called a screen because it screens out sunlight

85
and rain. Instruments are usually for measuring humidity and maximum and minimum
temperatures.
Stomata: These are the active pores on both surfaces of leaves in wheat that, by
changing their apertures, control the rate at which carbon dioxide (CO2) enters and water
vapour exits the plant. They close in the dark and whenever the plant is short of water.
When stomata are open, the loss of water through them cools the leaf.
Terminal (top) spikelet: The final spike let to be formed. This is at the top of the spike.
It is produced at 90° to the plane of all other spikelets. When it appears, potential fertile
spikelet number for the spike has been determined and can be counted under a
microscope.
Tiller: A tiller is a shoot or branch that grows from the axil (inside base) of a leaf the
point where the leaf joins its own shoot. A tiller bud is formed in the axil of every leaf
but whether it grows into a tiller depends on the 'health' of the plant when the bud is
young. It may remain dormant indefinitely if the plant is short of water when it forms.
When water becomes available again, a recent tiller bud in a later axil will develop
instead.
Top dressing: The application of fertilizer in the standing crop.
Transpiration: Leaves are covered in stomatal pores. When the pores are open, water
vapour leaks through them from the inside of the leaf to the air. This is called
transpiration. Leakage is fastest when the stomata are most open, when the air is very dry
and hot and it is windy. Under these conditions crops can lose water very quickly, at up
to I litre per square metre of ground over three hours (assuming a closed canopy), and
become stressed.
Water use efficiency (WUE): The amount of material produced by the crop for each
unit of water used. The units may be kg biomass or kg grain per kg (litre) of water. It
may also be expressed as the amount of water required to produce biomass or grain.
Depending on genotype, season length and evaporative conditions, crops need to
transpire between 500 and 1000 litres of water throughout growth to produce each one kg
of grain. Depending on the size of plants at anthesis and the previous factors, between
200 and 400 litres of water is needed between anthesis and maturity for each one kg
grain. Crops with more biomass at anthesis commonly produce more grain. They have
more material available to move from store to the developing grains. WUE is often much
poorer than these values because much of the water reaching the field does not pass
through the crop. It is lost in drainage and in evaporation from bare soil early in the
season. Early achievement of ground cover by the crop improves WUE.
Zero tillage: Also called direct drill. In one pass the machinery cultivates a row slot,
drills the seed and places the fertilizer in the slot and covers the seed. Relatively little of
the previous crop residues are disturbed or incorporated.
RICE
Panicle: The rice inflorescence known as panicle is a group of spikelets borne on the
uppermost node of the culm. The primary panicle branch is divided into secondary and
sometimes tertiary branches. These bear the spikelets.
Aus: It is the local name of rice in West Bengal and Bihar which is sown in the month
of May-June and harvested in September-October.
Aman: It is a Kharif season rice crop which is sown in the month of June-July and
harvested in November-December.

86
Boro : It is spring season cultivated rice crop in West Bengal. It is sown in November-
December and harvested in March-April.
Low land: Low land cultivation is the situation where the crop specially rice is cultivated
under assured and adequate supply of water (Ponded water).
Upland : It is the cultivation of crops (rice) under rain fed condition and there is no
assured supply of water and dependence is completely in rains.
Direct seeding: Sowing of seeds directly in the field while seed not seedling without
giving any primary treatment.
Transplanting: It is the planting of seedling in the main field after attaining a certain
age. Seedlings are raised in a small area to save time and energy.
Dapog: This is a method of raising rice seedlings and the method has been introduced in
India from Philippines. It saves almost half of the time in seedling raising. The main
merit of this method is that less area is heeded to raise faster seedlings. The seedlings are
ready for transplanting at about two weeks age.
Hulling: The process of removing husk and bran from the paddy seed in one operation.
Khaira: It is a disease caused by zinc deficiency in rice. Usually appears in
nursery but may appear, in patches, after 10-15 days of transplanting. Growth of the
diseased plant is stunted. The plants show chlorosis between the veins of new leaves,
where brown spots are formed. On lower leaves, a large number of small, brown to
bronze spots appear which collapse to form bigger spots and ultimately the entire leaf
turns bronze coloured and dries.
MAIZE
Silking: The growth stage in maize crop when female flowers are borne inside the young
cobs which spring from one of the nodes on the stem usually located about midway on
the stalk.
Tassels: The male flowers borne in a cluster on the top of end of the maize stem as a
terminal panicle.
Queen of cereals: Maize is known as queen of cereals because it has very high yield
potential, there is no cereal on the earth has so immense potential.
Pod corn: The kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk, the ear formed is also enclosed in
husk. Pod corn is also known as cow corn, forage corn and husk corn. It is not grown
commercially.
Pop corn: The kernels are small and posses a higher percentage of hard endosperm
starch. The ability to pop is due to rapid expansion of moisture in each individual starch
grain upon the application of heat.
Flint corn: The kernels consist of endosperm with soft starch in the centre and
completely enclosed by a very hard outer layer. The kernels shrink uniformly as they
mature.
Dent corn: The kernels are characterized by a depression or dent in the crown due to
shrinkage during ripening in a deposit of soft starch at the crown. This group is the most
widely cultivated corn.
Flour corn: The kernels consist almost entirely of soft starch with a very thin layer of
hard starch on the sides. They are also known as soft corn.
Sweet corn: The kernels are translucent, horney and more or less wrinkled in appearance
when dry. They have a large proportion of sugar to starch and hence sweeter than other
corns.

87
Waxy corn : The endosperm looks waxy adhesives and for textile and proper sizing.
Baby corn: The sweet corn when harvested young before complete development of
kernel and used for table purpose.
TOBACCO
Priming: It is the slow drying of ripe tobacco Nicotiana spp. Leaves from the stalk: it
starts at the bottom and keep on moving upwards as the leaves ripen.
Curing: Method or process of preserving or arresting decomposition: to preserve as by
drying. Course or treatment by which a product is made ready for use as in tobacco.
Toping: Topping consists in removal of the terminal bud with or without some of
the small top leaves just before or after the emergence of flower head in case of tobacco.
Desuckering: Removing of suckers or lateral branches by hand before they become
large enough to retard the development of leaves in tobacco.
CHICKPEA
Pod: A monocarpellary fruit developing from a superior one chambered ovary; when
ripe, it dehisces (splits) along both inner and outer seams- in pulses.
Nodule: Small swelling on roots of various leguminous plants; these contain bacteria
(Rhizobium spp.) living symbiotically with the root tissue and capable of converting
atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds using energy derived from
carbohydrates supplied by plants.
Symbiosis: Any stable condition in which two different organisms live together in close
association to their mutual advantage.
Tendril: A slender, leafless, spirally coiled structure with the help of which plants climb
is called tendril. It is modified leaf.
Nipping: It is the process of plucking the apical buds of the crop at about 30-40 days
after sowing. Nipping stops the apical growth and promotes the lateral branches, thus the
plants become more vigorous and produce more flowers and pods and yield per plant is
increased.
GROUNDNUT
Pegging: In groundnut, at the base of the ovary, a meristmatic region grows and
becomes a stalk like structure (the Gynosphore) that bends downwards and force the
ovary into the soil. The gynospore is commonly referred to as the peg. The peg carrying
the ovary pushes itself into the soil. The whole process is known as pegging.
Shelling: Seperating kernel from the groundnut pod.
Earthing up: Process of putting the earth or soil just near or on the root and stem on
groundnut plant. It gives support to the plant and provides additional food material. It can
be done either by manual labour or bullock or power drawn ridger.
Aflatoxin: Damp nuts (high moisture) if stored will ferment and allow the development
of poisonous mould such as Aspergillus flavus in kernels during post harvest processing
and storage, leads to contamination with aflatoxin a health hazard both for humans and
livestock . The oil expressed from such produce will be rancid (taste like stale fat) and
cake when fed to poultry will result in a heavy mortality of birds.
SESAMUM
Capsule: Dry dehiscent fruit derived from two or more seeded fused carpels; to
release the seeds, the splitting takes place in many ways.
Siliqua: A long, slender, dehiscent fruit of Brassica spp.

88
Shattering: Loss of seeds by splitting of siliqua due to over drying or other natural
calamities like hail storm.
COTTON
Lint: Outgrowth of an epidermal cell of the seed coat having long outgrowth forms the
staple or lint.
Fuzz: Outgrowth of an epidermal cell of the seed coat having short outgrowth forms
fuzz.
Seed cotton: The seed of cotton having lint and fuzz is known as seed cotton.
Cotton seed: Seed of cotton which do not have lint.
Monopodial branch: The vegetative branch develops from the true auxillary bud, which
only bears leaves and no flowers in cotton.
Sympodial branch: The accessory bud in cotton develops into sympodial or fruiting
branch which bear flowers.
Square: In cotton, the flower buds which appear as small, pyramidal shaped green
structure is called square. Square consists of three triangular shaped leafy structures
known as bracteoles and the flower bud.
Ginning percentage: Ratio in percentile of lint to the seed cotton is known as ginning
percentage. It is around 33%.
Ginning: It is the process of cotton lint separation from seed cotton.
Picking: Collection of seed cotton from the open cotton balls is known as picking.
1Bale of cotton: 180 kg of lint.
JUTE AND SUNN-HEMP
Retting: Retting is a process by which the fibres in the bark of jute get loosened and
seprated from the woody stalk. It is a microbial process affected by various aerobic and
anaerobic micro-floras.
Extraction: Removal of fibre from the retted stalks of jute gently, keeping the stalks in
water. Extraction should be done from each reed (stem).
Steep: To soak stem of fibre crop in a liquid for the purpose of cleaning, softening or
extracting a principle.
BARLEY
Six-row barley: It is the barley specie which has three fertile spikelets at each node of
the spike. The spikelets are in six distinct rows and arranged at a uniform distance around
the tough rachis. This is cultivated in India (Hordium vulgare).
Two-row barley: It is the barley specie in which medium spikelets are fertile and set
grains. Although the lateral spikelets are infertile, they possess all floral organs. Hordium
distichon is cultivated in India but Hordium irregulare in not cultivated.
Malting: Process of germinating grain, generally barley, to develops the enzyme
diastase. The diastase is capable of sacharifying not only the starch of malt itself but also
that of the grain mixed with it. Hence, malt is used in the brewing and distilling
industries to convert starch to fermentable sugars.
SUGARCANE
Ratooning: It is a practice in sugarcane to take second crop from the regenerated
shoots from the harvested first years planted crop. Ratooning of cane is very essential for
increasing the benefit to the farmer. Ratooning saves expenses as land preparation,
planting material cost, seed treatment cost, and planting expenses. Proper management of
ratoon crop is necessary for higher yield.

89
Bagasse: The residue of cane left after extacting the juice from the millable canes is
called as bagasse. It is used as sourse of fuel alongwith cane trash.
Earthing up: Hilling the clumps in stages is required to provide habitat to the shoot
roots and sufficient height of the soil thus achieved suppress the formation of late shoots.
The earthing up results in formation of furrows which helps in drainage of excess water
during rains. Earthing up is done at maximum tillering stage. Light earthing in the month
of May and heavy earthing in the end of June, prior to the break of monsoon, should be
done.
Propping up: It is a practice of tying the canes with the dry leaves of the sugarcane
removed from the lower portion of the shoot.This should be carried out in the month of
August and September, so as to prevent lodging of crop.
Raw sugarcane: chewed to extract the juice
Jaggery: Solidified molasses, known as Gur or Gud, traditionally produced by
evaporating juice to make a thick sludge and then cooling and molding.
Molasses: It is a byproduct produced during preparation of jaggery or crystal sugar. It is
of low density semi-solid material which is generally removed from the top of the boiling
juice to clean it. It is a impurity and can be used in distillaries for manufacturing alcohal.
The ethanol produced from the molasses in the spirit industry is also used as a auto
mobile fuel by 5% mixing in petrol. It is also used as a additive to the livestock feed.
Green top:These are the green leaves present at the top of the shoot generally removed at
the time of cane harvest and are used as fodder for cattles.
Press mud:It is also a byproduct of sugar industry specially where sugar is produced by
carbonation method and used as manure in alkaline and saline soils.
Arrowing:The emergence of sugarcane inflorescence in the axial of aplical bud is called
as arrowing. The arrowing causes reduction in juice percentage due to pith formaton as
reduce the tonage.
Adsali: The crop of sugarcane which takes year and half in crop maturity is called as
adsali. In India the adsli crop is cultivated in south India.
Eksali: The crop of sugarcane which takes one year in crop maturity is called as
eksaali. In India the eksali crop is cultivated in north India and resuts in low yield
compared with south India.
Blind hoeing: After the planting of cane setts it takes about one month in germination
depending upon temperature, hence the shallow cultivation to control weeds and conserve
moisture is called as blind hoeing.
Trashing: Stripping of dry leaves immeditely after havest from the cane is called
trashing.

90
WORKING OUT COST OF CULTIVATION OF CROPS

Farmer grows a crop to get more and more production not only for fulfilling his
domestic requirement but also to get higher income or profit from the crop as an
enterprise by selling the product and byproduct in the market. Raising a crop successfully
involves a lot of expenditure on various items like purchase of various inputs required by
the crop and hiring of labour, machinery etc. for performing various field operations. This
expenditure on the various items needed for crop production is called cost of cultivation
or production of the crop. Difference between market value of final crop product obtained
from a given land area and the total expenditure on inputs and other items (cost of
cultivation) gives the net return or profit from the area. Therefore, the net profit per unit
land area can be increased not only by increasing yield of the crop produce but also by
minimizing the cost of production.
An account of the cost of cultivation and return per unit land area is necessary to
find out the profitability of a crop or cropping system grown in a locality or region.
Therefore, cost benefit analysis of the crop enterprise on a farm is necessary for the
following purposes:
 To find out the cost of cultivation of a crop per unit area and the profit per unit
area from the crop enterprise.
 To find out the relative cost of various inputs and other items in order to find out
their relative importance in crop production.
 To compare the profitability of a crop with other crops on a farm in order to find
out the better crops for the farm.
 To compare the best crop or cropping system on a farm with other enterprises on
the same farm to find out the best enterprise on the farm.
 To know the relative allocation of various enterprises with respect to space and
time on a farm so that the best enterprise dominates the farm.
 To help farmers, administrators and policy makers in taking appropriate decisions
about allocation of agricultural resources.
To estimate the cost of cultivation of a crop and incom e from it, it is necessary to know the prices of
items (inputs and outputs).

91
Input output prices of important crops in Haryana (Kharif, 2008)
Input prices Output prices

S.No. Item Average value S.No. Item Average Value

A. Seed (Rs./kg) A. Main Product (Rs./q)

1. Paddy (Hybrid) 48.00 Paddy (Hybrid) 930

2. Paddy (Super fine) 48.00 Paddy (Super fine) 2365

3. Paddy (Basmati) 40.00 - 43.00 Paddy (Basmati) 2545

4. Paddy (Duplicate) 40.00 Paddy (Duplicate) 1545

5. Cotton (Bt)/570g 750 Cotton (Bt) 2700

6. Cotton (Desi) 36.00 Cotton (Desi) 2700

7. Cotton (American) 36.00 Cotton (American) 2460

8. Bajra (Hybrid) 38.00 Bajra (Hybrid) 751

9. Arhar 26.00 Arhar 2206

10. Guar 25.00 Guar 1514

11. Jowar 27.00 Jowar 55

B. Fertilizer (Rs/q) B. By-products (Rs/q)

1. Urea 483 1. Paddy 600-1200

2. DAP 935 2. Cotton 1200

3. SSP 335 3. Bajra 96 -125

4. Zinc sulphate 2370 4. Guar 105-120

5. FYM 15 5. Arhar 500-1125
C. Weedicide/ Insecticide/ Fungicide
1. Butachlor Rs. 170/litre
2. Phorate (Thimet) 10G Rs. 45/Kg
3. Chlorpyriphos Rs.202/litre
4. Emissan Rs.500/100g
D. Hiring Rates (Rs/day or hour)
1. Human Days 100-150
2. Tractor (Rs./Acre) 225-300
E. Tubewell Irrigation (Rs./
1. Irrigation)
Electrical ))iIirrigation/acre)
190-325
2. Diesel 240-380
92
Input output prices of important crops in Haryana (rabi, 2008-09)
Input prices Output prices
S.No. Item Average value S.No. Item Average
Value
A. Seed (Rs./kg) A. Main Product (Rs./q)
1. Wheat (Dwarf) 16.25 1. Wheat (Dwarf) 1080
2. Gram 35.00 2. Gram 2089
3. Barley 16.00 3. Barley 720
4. Mustard 35.00 4. Mustard 2073
5. Sugarcane 1.48 5. Sugarcane 160
6. Berseem 108.80 6. Berseem 60
7. Sunflower 500.00 7. Sunflower 2100
B. Fertilizer (Rs/q) B. By-products (Rs/q)
1. Urea 483-485 1. Wheat (Dwarf) 160-250
2. DAP 943 2. Gram 100-125
3. SSP 335 3. Barley 120-189
4. Zinc sulphate 1800-2600 4. Mustard (per acre) 800-1738
5. FYM 15 5. Sugarcane 25-40
C. Weedicide/ Insecticide/ Fungicide
1. Algrip Rs. 130/ 8g
2. Bavastin Rs.60/100g
3. Topic Rs.425/160g
4. Stomp Rs.400/litre
D. Hiring Rates
1. Human Days(Rs/day) 100-200
2. Bullock/Camel(Rs/da 250-300
3. Tractor (Rs./Acre) 240-300
E. Tubewell Irrigation (Rs./Ac.)
1. Electrical 250-350
2. Diesel 260-400

By knowing the rates of different inputs and outputs of a crop the total cost of
cultivation and income from the crop can be worked out by multiplying the rate of each
item by its corresponding quantity or number and adding the resultant amounts of all the
items as per the following table:

93
Cost of cultivation and profit of crops (Rs./acre) in Haryana for kharif , 2008
Item Paddy Cotton (Bt) Pearlmillet Pigeonpea
(Basmati) (Hybrid)
Qty./ Amount Qty./ Amount/ Qty./ Amount/ Qty./ Amount/
Number / value Number value Number value Number value
(Rs) (Rs) ( Rs) (Rs)
Preparatory tillage 5.60 1413 3.00 768 2.60 668 2.50 687
Pre-sowing 192 335 9 236
Sowing/planting 949 250 264 265
Ridging 72 70 9 31
Seed(kg) 5.60 532 0.60 750 1.70 64 5.50 143
Seed treatment 49 - - -
Manure/FYM (q) 4.60 69 14.0 210 5.90 77 5.50 82
Fertilizer - - - - - - - -
requirement (kg)
Nitrogenous 44.30 466 24.00 252 10.90 124 4.80 51
Phosphatic 19.60 319 8.80 143 2.20 35 4.90 79
Potassic 6.10 45 - - - - - -
Zinc sulphate 6.90 165 - - - - - -
Total 995 395 159 130
Fertilizer 63 70 39 25
application
Irrigation 10.80 2269 3.20 985 0.50 133 0.80 245
Hoeing/Weeding - - - -
Manual 185 - - -
Chemical 72 462 346 240
Plant protection 485 150 - 55
Harvesting/ picking 1781 2800 742 516
Miscellaneous 83 50 435 296
Interest on capital 553 438 51 380
Variable cost 9762 7733 3176 3180
Transportation 180 518 254 191
charges
Managt. charges 994 825 343 337
Risk factor 994 825 343 337
Rental value of land 8992 2500 3230 3728
Total cost 20922 12401 7346 7773
Main product (qts) 11.70 29775 9.40 25380 5706 3.60 7940
By-product (qts) 1191 1000 1644 1692
Gross return 30966 26380 7350 9634
Return over 21204 18647 4174 6452
variable cost
Net return 10044 13979 4 1859
Cost of prodn./qt - - - - - - - -
Without by-product 1788 1319 967 2159
With by- product 1719 1269 750 1780
No. of farmers 36 - 7 - 148 - 113 -
Area (acres) 135 - 18.50 - 452.50 - 195.50 -
Human labour days 38.0 - 32.0 - 26.20 - 25.40 -
Bullock days - - 1.50 - 0.10 - - -
Tractor hours 6.30 - 3.40 - 3.80 - 3.40 -
94
Cost of cultivation and profit of crops (Rs./acre) in Haryana for rabi, 2008-09
Item Wheat (Dwarf) Raya Chickpea Sugarcane
Qty./ Amount/ Qty./ Amount/ Qty./ Amount/ Qty./ Amount/
Number Value Number Value (Rs) Number Value (Rs) Number Value (Rs)
(Rs)
Preparatory tillage 4.32 1136 4.04 1055 2.27 564 6.39 1729
Pre-sowing 286 311 199 245
Sowing/planting 270 262 254 891
Ridging 63 29 - 199
Seed(kg) 47.49 772 1.72 60 15 525 29.20 4319
Seed treatment 27 - 22 85
Manure/FYM (qtl) 10.47 137 7.91 119 1.47 22 37.31 532
Fertilizer requirement - - - - - - - -
(kg)
Nitrogenous 54.26 570 24.72 259 1.56 17 75.34 791
Phosphatic 21.66 352 19.54 318 3.23 53 22.15 361
Potassic 2.34 18 - - -
Zinc sulphate 2.81 72 0.09 2 - 3.50 80
Total 1012 579 70 1232
Fertilizer application 52 51 16 51
Irrigation 4.52 1242 1.11 544 0.93 282 11.27 2473
Hoeing/Weeding - - - - - - - -
Manual 225 - - 32
Chemical 85 175 50 1028
Plant protection 20 41 52 476
Harvesting/picking 1557 781 721 1014
Threshing/winnowing 1011 548 637 2894
Miscellaneous 73 58 43 62
Interest on working 478 277 207 2072
capital
Transportation 332 202 113 2408
charges
Variable cost 8776 5090 3777 21744
Management charges 878 509 378 2174
Risk factor 878 509 378 2174
Rental value of land 6102 3429 2316 14499
Total cost 16633 9538 6848 40591
Production (qts) - - - - - - - -
Main product 17.92 19387 7.20 14927 3.59 7499 180.66 44919
By-product 16.82 3521 - 1461 3.59 425 37.0 2261
Gross return 22908 16388 7924 47179
Return over variable 14133 11298 4147 25436
cost
Net return 6276 6850 1076 6588
Cost of production/qt - - - - - - - -
Without by-product 928 1325 1908 145
With by- product 785 1206 1805 138
Number of farmers 362 - 223 34 60
Area (acres) 2075.40 - 742.50 131.25 196.0
Labour - - - - - - - -
Human days 32.41 22.71 22.66 76.27
Bullock days 0.23 0.29 0.84 0.27
Tractor hours 6.14 5.36 3.79 13.05
The figures in the table give only an average picture of the state based on the information
collected from randomly selected farmers of randomly selected villages in each district. However,
considerable variations in the costs and returns exist among farmers and districts due to
differences in agro climatic conditions resource use pattern, farming practices followed etc.
Charges for irrigation, labour, machinery and rental value of land were considered at prevailing
market rates of the locality.

95
NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL INSURANCE SCHEME
Background and earlier attempts at Crop Insurance
In a country like India, where crop production has been subjected to vagaries of
weather and large-scale damages due to attack of pests and diseases, crop insurance
assumes a vital role in the stable growth of the sector.
An All-Risk Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme (CCIS) for major crops was
introduced in 1985, coinciding with the introduction of the Seventh-Five-year Plan and
subsequently replaced by National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) w.e.f. 1999-
2000. These Schemes have been preceded by years of preparation, studies, Planning,
experiments and trials on a pilot basis.The Scheme is expected to be a critical instrument
of development in the field of crop production, providing financial support to the farmers
in the event of crop failure. It encourages farmers to adopt progressive farming practices
and higher technology in Agriculture. It helps in maintaining flow of agricultural credit.
It provide significant benefits not merely to the insured farmers, but, to the entire
community directly and indirectly through spill-over and multiplier effects in terms of
maintaining production and employment, generation of market fees, taxes etc. and net
accretion to economic growth. It streamlines loss assessment procedures and help in
building up huge and accurate statistical base for crop production.
Area and crops to be covered under the scheme:
HARYANA 71262.78 ha Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Arhar, Gram , Mustard
FARMERS TO BE COVERED:
All farmers including sharecroppers, tenant farmers growing the notified crops in
the notified areas are eligible for coverage. The Scheme covers following groups of
farmers:
a. On a compulsory basis: All farmers growing notified crops and availing Seasonal
Agricultural Operations (SAO) loans from Financial Institutions i.e. Loanee Farmers.
b. On a voluntary basis: All other farmers growing notified crops (i.e., Non-Loanee
farmers) who opt for the Scheme.
RISKS COVERED & EXCLUSIONS:
Comprehensive risk insurance will be provided to cover yield losses due to non
preventable risks, viz.:
a. Natural Fire and Lightning
b. Storm, Hailstorm, Cyclone, Typhoon, Tempest, Hurricane, Tornado etc.
c. Flood, Inundation and Landslide
d. Drought, Dry spells
e. Pests/ Diseases etc.
Losses arising out of war and nuclear risks, malicious damage and other preventable risks
shall be excluded.
SUM INSURED / LIMIT OF COVERAGE:
The Sum Insured (SI) may extend to the value of the Threshold Yield (TY) of the
insured crop at the option of the insured farmers. However, a farmer may also insure his
crop beyond value of Threshold Yield level upto 150% of Average Yield (AY) of
notified area on payment of premium at commercial rates.

96
In case of Loanee farmers the Sum Insured would be at least equal to the amount of crop
loan advanced.
Further, in case of Loanee farmers, the Insurance Charges shall be additionality to the
Scale of Finance for the purpose of obtaining loan.
In matters of Crop Loan disbursement procedures, guidelines of RBI / NABARD shall be
binding.
PREMIUM RATES:
S.No. Season Crops Premium rate
1. Kharif Bajra and Oilseeds 3.5% of SI or Actuarial rate,
whichever is less
Other crops (cereals, other millets 2.5% of SI or Actuarial rate,
and pulses) whichever is less
2. Rabi Wheat 1.5% of SI or Actuarial rate,
whichever is less
Other crops (other cereals, millets, 2.0% of SI or Actuarial rate,
pulses and oilseeds) whichever is less
3. Kharif & Annual Commercial / Annual Actuarial rates
Rabi Horticultural crops
Transition to the actuarial regime in case of cereals, millets, pulses & oilseeds
would be made in a period of five years. The actuarial rates shall be applied at District /
Region / State level at the option of the State Govt.
AREA APPROACH AND UNIT OF INSURANCE:
The Scheme would operate on the basis of 'Area Approach' i.e., Defined Areas for
each notified crop for widespread calamities and on an individual basis for localised
calamities such as hailstorm, landslide, cyclone and flood. The Defined Area (i.e., unit
area of insurance) will be a Gram Panchayat.
Individual based assessment in case of localised calamities, to begin with, would
be implemented in limited areas on experimental basis initially and shall be extended in
the light of operational experience gained. The District Revenue administration will assist
Implementing Agency in assessing the extent of loss.
SEASONALITY DISCIPLINE:
a. The broad seasonality discipline followed for Loanee farmers will be as under:
Activity Kharif Rabi
Loaning period April to September October to next March
Cut-off date for receipt November May
of Declarations
Cut-off date for receipt January / March July / September
of yield data
b. The broad cut-off dates for receipt of proposals in respect of Non-loanee farmers will
be as under :

97
Kharif season : 31st July
Rabi season : 31st December
However, seasonality discipline may be modified, if and where necessary in consultation
with State and the Govt. of India.
ESTIMATION OF CROP YIELD:
The State Govt. will plan and conduct the requisite number of Crop Cutting
Experiments CCEs for all notified crops in the notified insurance units in order to assess
the crop yield. The State Govt. will maintain single series of Crop Cutting Experiments
(CCEs) and resultant Yield estimates, both for Crop Production estimates and Crop
Insurance.
Crop Cutting Experiments (CCEs) shall be undertaken per unit area /per crop, on
a sliding scale, as indicated below:
S.No. Unit Area Minimum number of CCEs
required to be done

1. Taluka / Tehsil / Block 16

2. Mandal / Phirka / any other smaller unit area 10

comprising 8-10 villages

3. Gram Panchayat comprising 4-5 villages 08

A Technical Advisory Committee (T.A.C.) comprising representatives from
N.S.S.O., Ministry of Agriculture (G.O.I.) and IA (Implementing Agency) shall be
constituted to decide the sample size of CCEs and all other technical matters.
Objectives/ Salient Features
LEVELS OF INDEMNITY & THRESHOLD YIELD:
Three levels of Indemnity, viz., 90%, 80% & 60% corresponding to Low Risk,
Medium Risk & High Risk areas shall be available for all crops (cereals, millets, pulses
& oilseeds and annual commercial / annual horticultural crops) based on Coefficient of
Variation (C.V.) in yield of past 10 years' data. However, the insured farmers of unit area
may opt for higher level of indemnity on payment of additional premium based on
actuarial rates.
The Threshold yield (TY) or Guaranteed yield for a crop in an Insurance Unit
shall be the moving average based on past three years Average Yield in case of Rice &
Wheat and five years Average Yield in case of other crops, multiplied by the level of
indemnity.
NATURE OF COVERAGE AND INDEMNITY:
If the 'Actual Yield' (AY) per hectare of the insured crop for the defined area [on
the basis of requisite number of Crop Cutting Experiments (CCEs)] in the insured season,
falls short of the specified 'Threshold Yield' (TY), all the insured farmers growing that
crop in the defined area are deemed to have suffered shortfall in their yield. The Scheme
seeks to provide coverage against such contingency.
'Indemnity' shall be calculated as per the following formula:
Shortfall in Yield
X Sum Insured for the farmer
Threshold yield
98
{Shortfall in Yield = 'Threshold Yield - Actual Yield' for the Defined Area}.
INDEMNITY IN CASE OF LOCALISED RISKS:
Loss assessment and modified indemnity procedures in case of occurrence of
localized perils, such as hailstorm, landslide, cyclone and flood where settlement of
claims will be on individual basis, shall be formulated by IA in coordination with State
Govt.
The loss assessment of localized risks on individual basis will be experimented in
limited areas initially and shall be extended in the light of operational experience gained.
The District Revenue administration will assist IA in assessing the extent of loss.
IMPLEMENTING AGENCY (IA):
An exclusive Organization would be set up in due course, for implementation of
NAIS. Until such time as the new set up is created, the 'GIC of India' will continue to
function as the Implementing Agency.

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AGRICULTURAL LOANING
State cooperative banks are fully engaged in agriculture and rural development
through loaning reaching upto the village level. Similarly Primary land development
banks are also financing for land purchase and development. The role of public sector is
also increasing now because agriculture has been taken on priority list after housing and
vehicle loan. The largest public sector bank of the country State Bank of India runs a
number of schemes for the development of agriculture and rural development. State Bank
of India's branches have covered a whole gamut of agricultural activities like crop
production, horticulture, plantation crops, farm mechanization, land development and
reclamation, digging of wells, tube wells and irrigation projects, forestry, construction of
cold storages and godowns, processing of agri-products, finance to agri-input dealers,
allied activities like dairy, fisheries, poultry, sheep-goat, piggery refurbished second hand
tractors, loans against pledge of warehouse receipts, loans against produce stored by the
farmer at his own premises, loans against book debts of Arthias, mulberry cultivation,
rearing of silk worms and grainages. Infact Bank can cover any other agricultural related
activities undertaken. Some of the schemes are exclusively for agricultural graduates
under self employment scheme. The names of the schemes are as under:

AGRICULTURAL GOLD LOANS

KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC)
PRODUCE MARKETING LOAN
KISAN GOLD CARD SCHEME (KGC)
SETTING UP OF AGRI-CLINIC & AGRI BUSINESS CENTRES
LAND PURCHASE SCHEME
SCORING MODEL FOR TRACTOR LOANS
FINANCING OF SECOND HAND / USED TRACTORS SCHEME
FINANCING POWER TILLERS
FINANCING FOR COMBINE HARVESTERS
SCHEME FOR FINANCING FARM MACHINERY – WHERE TANGIBLE ASSETS
ARE CREATED
DAIRY PLUS SCHEME FOR FINANCING DAIRY UNITS
DAIRY SOCIETY PLUS - SCHEME FOR FINANCING DAIRY SOCIETIES
BROILER PLUS
SCHEME TO COVER LOANS FOR GENERAL PURPOSE UNDER - GENERAL
CREDIT CARD (GCC)
SBI KRISHAK UTHAAN YOJNA
GRAMIN BHANDARAN YOJNA - CAPITAL INVESTMENT SUBSIDY SCHEME
FOR CONSTRUCTION / RENOVATION OF RURAL GODOWNS
SCHEME FOR FINANCING PRIVATE COLD STORAGE/ PRIVATE WARE
HOUSES FOR ONLENDING TO FARMERS
SCHEME FOR FINANCING SEED PROCESSORS
MORTGAGE LOAN TO SEED PROCESSING UNITS
CAPITAL INVESTMENT SUBSIDY SCHEME FOR COMMERCIAL
PRODUCTION UNITS OF ORGANIC INPUTS UNDER NATIONAL PROJECT ON

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ORGANIC FARMING
SCHEME FOR DEBT SWAPPING OF BORROWERS
ARTHIYAS PLUS SCHEME
MINOR IRRIGATION SCHEMES
FINANCE TO HORICULTURE
FINANCING JLG OF TENENT FARMERS
SCHEME FOR FINANCING MICRO FINANCE INSTITUTIONS (MFIs) / NON
GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS (NGOs)

KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC)

Purpose: To provide timely and adequate credit to farmers to meet their production
credit needs (cultivation expenses) besides meeting contingency expenses, and expenses
related to ancillary activities through simplified procedure facilitating availment of the
loans as and when needed.
Who are eligible for the loan?
Owner cultivators, tenant cultivators and Share croppers.
Agricultural borrowers having good track record for the last 2 years (i.e., Maintaining
standard loan accounts).
Creditworthy new borrowers can also be financed.
Loan amount
Loan amount is based on operational land holding, cropping pattern and ancillary
and contingency needs of the farmer for the full year. 100% of the cultivation cost
available as loan upto Rs 50000/ and 85 % of the cost as loan above Rs 50000/. Expenses
to meet important ancillary activities to production can also be financed in addition to the
above. The total limit is inclusive of 20% of production credit, which includes crop
production expenses and working capital for allied agricultural activity, as contingency
credit /consumption loan.
Disbursement of the Loan
As per the cultivation requirements of the crop, the loan will be disbursed in cash.
Security
Loan amount upto Rs 50000/- Hypothecation of Crops.
(1) Hypothecation of crops.
Above Rs 50000/- upto Rs 100000/-
(2) Mortgage of land or third party guarantee*
(1) Hypothecation of crops
Above Rs 100000/-
(2) Mortgage of lands
*For loans upto Rs. 1 lac to farmers having legal ownership of agricultural lands with
good track record for last 2 years, no collateral is required
How do you repay: It is a revolving cash credit limit with any number of withdrawals
and repayments and Limit is valid for 3 years.
How to apply for the loan: You may contact our nearest braches engaged in agricultural
advance or even talk to the marketing officers visiting village.

SETTING UP OF AGRI-CLINIC AND AGRI BUSINESS CENTRES

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Purpose: The scheme is to provide self employment opportunities to technically trained
persons and to augment extension services for agriculture.
Who are eligible for this loan? Agricultural graduates/graduates in subjects allied to
agriculture like horticulture, animal husbandry, forestry, dairy, veterinary, poultry,
pisciculture and other activities.
LIST OF VENTURES:
• Soil and water quality cum inputs testing laboratories.
• Post surveillance, diagnostic and control services.
• Maintenance, repairs and custom-hiring of agricultural implements and machinery
of Micro irrigation system.
• Agri service centers including the above 3 activities (group activities).
• Seed processing units.
• Micro propagation through plant tissue culture lab & hardening units.
• Setting up of vermiculture units, production of Bio-Fertilisers, Bio-Pesticides (Bio
control agents)
• Setting up apiary (bee keeping) and Honey, Bee Products, processing of units.
• Facilitation and agency of Agri. Insurance Services.
• Provision of extension, consultancy services.
• Hatcheries and production of Fish-Fingerlings for Aquaculture.
• Provision of livestock health cover, setting up veterinary dispensaries & services
including frozen, Semen Banks and Liquid Nitrogen supply.
• Setting up of information technology kiosks in rural areas for access to various
agriculture related portals.
• Feed processing and testing units.
• Value addition units.
• Setting up of cool chain from the farm level onwards (group activity).
• Post harvest management centers for sorting, grading, standardization, storage and
Packaging.
• Setting up of metallic/non-metallic storage structure (Group Act).
• Retail marketing outlets for processed Agri products.
• Rural marketing dealership of farm inputs and outputs.Any combination of 2 or
more above viable activities along with any other economically viable activities
selected by the graduates, which is acceptable to the bank.
LOAN AMOUNT
Individual Activity – Rs.10 lacs
Group Activity – Rs. 50 lacs (maximum). In case of group projects, if the group consists
of 5 or more persons, all except one of them would have to be agriculture graduate
trained under the scheme and the remaining could be non-agri graduate with experience
in business development and management.
Loan amount for loans upto Rs 5.00 lacs 100%
Loans above Rs 5 lacs upto 85 % of the cost

SOFT LOAN ASSISTANCE:

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 50 % of margin to be contributed by the applicant is provided by NABARD as
Soft loan without any interest.

SUBSIDY:
Credit linked capital subsidy @ 25% of the capital cost of the project funded
through bank loan would be eligible. This subsidy would be 33.33% in respect of
borrowers belonging to SC, ST, women and other disadvantaged sections and those from
North-Eastern and Hill States. In addition to the above subsidy, full interest subsidy
would be eligible for the first two years of the project. The capital subsidy will be back-
ended with minimum 3 years lock-in period. The interest subsidy would, however, be
concurrent.
SECURITY:
Upto Rs. 5.00 lacs Hypothecation of assets created.

Hypothecation of assets created and Mortgage of land or

Above Rs. 5.00 lacs
Third party guarantee.
How to repay the loan?
The loan should be repaid in 5-10 years with grace period of maximum 2 years.
How to apply this loan?
You may contact our nearest branch for the application and produce your
certificates of qualification and experience, if any.

LAND PURCHASE SCHEME

Purpose:
To assist Small and Marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers for
purchase of land, who are our existing borrowers to consolidate land holdings &
development of wasteland & fallow lands.
Who are eligible?
 Small and Marginal Farmers owning less than 5 acres of unirrigated / 2.5 acres of
irrigated land in their own names, landless agricultural labourers.
 The borrowers should have a record of prompt repayment of the loan for at least
two years.
 Good borrowers of other Banks are also eligible provided they liquidate their
outstandings to other banks.
Loan amount:
Loan may be considered for:
 Cost of land
 Provision of irrigation facilities & land development (shall not exceed 50% of the
cost of the land).
 Purchase of farm equipments.
 Registration charges and stamp duty.
Loan amount will be 85 % of the cost of the land, as assessed by the bank, subject to the
maximum of Rs 5 lakhs
Security
Mortgage of land to be purchased
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How to repay the loan
Max. 9-10 years beginning after the expiry of gestation period, with half-yearly
instalments. Gestation period will be maximum of 1 year for the developed land and 2
years for the land to be developed.
How to apply for this loan?
Contact your Branch. You may contact our nearest branch or talk to the marketing
officers visiting your village.

SCORING MODEL FOR TRACTOR LOANS

Purpose:
Agricultural term loans are sanctioned for purchase of new tractors, accessories
and implements.
Who are eligible for tractor loan?
Agriculturists (individually or jointly ) and Persons offering security like NSCs,
KVPs, the Bank’s Fixed Deposits, surrender value of LIC policy, gold ornaments etc. to
cover more than 60% of the loan amount are eligible for the loan .The applicants should
score minimum score of 40 under the Scoring model of the bank.
Loan amount:
Upto 95 % of the cost of the Tractor, trailer and accessories. (Depending on the
scores in the scoring model).The cost includes the Registration charges and insurance
premium not exceeding Rs 15,000/-. Additional loan equal to 10% of tractor loan for
repairs may be provided for at the time of sanction. Bank will finance only for those
models of tractors which have completed the commercial test from organizations viz.
Central Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute (CFMTTI) Budni (Madhya
Pradesh) or Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute (FMTTI), Hissar
Security:
Hypothecation of the tractor, accessories and implements. Noting of Bank’s
hypothecation charge in the RC Book of the tractor is compulsory in all the cases.
Collateral Security like NSCs, KVPs, Banks Fixed Deposits ,Surrender value of LIC
policy etc OR Mortgage of agricultural lands .However no collateral security is required,
if the score is 70 and above on the scoring model of the bank.
How to repay the loan?
Within a maximum period of 9 years, including a grace period not exceeding 12
months. The installments shall be payable half-yearly / yearly, coinciding with the
harvesting and marketing period of the crops proposed to be grown by you

FINANCING OF SECOND HAND / USED TRACTORS SCHEME

Purpose:
Loans provided for the purchase of second hand tractors refurbished by Mahindra
and Mahindra and Tractors and Farm Equipments Ltd. Tractors which are up to 7 years
old

Who are eligible?

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 Individual farmer or a group of farmers not exceeding three in number (as co-
borrowers) owning minimum 3 acres of perennially irrigated agricultural land. In case of
co-borrowers the land should be in same area.
Loan amount: Upto 85% of the cost. The cost will be based on the price fixed by the
company for each tractor after refurbishing. The overall maximum limit will be Rs.2.50
lac including the cost of implements. The implements purchased shall be new.
Security:
Loan upto Rs 50000/- Hypothecation of tractor and accessories.

(1) Hypothecation of tractor and accessories

(2) Mortgage of the land of the farmer or any other
Above Rs.50,000/-
tangible Security to cover atleast 50% of the loan
amount or suitable third party guarantee.
How to repay the loan?
The loan amount including interest shall be repayable in half-yearly/yearly
instalments coinciding with the harvest of crops grown. The repayment of loan amount
should be completed before the expiry of 9 years from the date of original purchase of the
tractor inclusive of a maximum gestation period of one year.

FINANCING FOR COMBINE HARVESTERS

Purpose:
Finance is given for the purpose of combined harvesters. Makes in the approved
list of the bank will only be financed
Who are eligible?
a. For self propelled Combine Harvester
1. Farmers who are in a position to operate the Harvester successfully and owning
minimum of 8 acres of irrigated land (corresponding acreage for other types of
land).
2. Farmers owning lesser acreage than that prescribed above are also eligible for
availing combine harvester loans provided they could operate the harvesters
successfully and generate sufficient income. Additionally they should provide
additional collateral security like NSCs, Bank Fixed Deposits, LIC policies urban
property etc to the value of at least 50% of the loan amount.
b. For Combine Harvesters as an attachment /equipment
Farmers who are in a position to operate the Harvester successfully and owning
minimum of 6 acres of irrigated land (corresponding acreage for other types of land).
They should own a tractor of not less than 50 HP . Farmers owning lesser acreage than
that prescribed above, are also eligible for availing combine harvester loans provided
they could operate the harvesters successfully and generate sufficient income,
additionally they should provide additional collateral security like NSCs, Bank Fixed
Deposits, urban property etc the value of at least 50% of the loan amount
Loan amount:
Upto 85 % of the cost of combine harvester and accessories.
Security:
1. Hypothecation of assets financed
2. Mortgage of land/buildings
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How do you repay?
Repayment of the loan will be in Quarterly/half yearly/yearly installments’
depending on the liquidity your activity creates and a maximum period of residual
economic life of the tractor owned which is assumed as 9 years.

DAIRY PLUS SCHEME FOR FINANCING DAIRY UNITS

PURPOSE
For construction of shed, purchase of milch animals, milking machine, chaff
cutter or any other equipment required for the purpose.
Who are eligible?
(1) Individual farmers who are members of the milk procuring societies or located on
milk route
(2) They should be less than 65 years of age.
(3) Individual dairy unit having less than 10 animal - should own minimum 0.25 acre
of land for every 5 animals for growing fodder and be in a position to procure the
balance requirements locally.
(4) Individual dairy unit having 10 animals and above - should own or lease a
minimum of one acre of land for cultivation of fodder for every 5 animals.
Other terms:
• Animal purchase should be in 2 batches.
• Only buffaloes producing more than 7 litres of milk per day and cows
producing more than 8 litres of milk per day are financed.
• Animals in first and second lactation alone are eligible for finance.
LOAN AMOUNT:
100% of the cost for loans upto Rs 50000/-
90% of the cost for loans above Rs 50000/- with a maximum of Rs 5 lakhs as Term loan
WORKING CAPITAL: A working capital @ Rs.2500/- per animal per year may be
sanctioned for purchase of feed, fodder and medicine along with the term loan
Security:
Hypothecation of assets created out of bank finance for loans upto Rs 1.00 lac.
For loans Over Rs.1 lac -Mortgage of landed property (or) third party guarantee worth for
loan amount (or) group guarantee of other 2 dairy farmers.
How do you repay?
The loan should be repaid in monthly installments over a period of 5 lactations.

MINOR IRRIGATION SCHEMES

Purpose:
Loan covers various activities like digging of new wells (open / bore wells), deepening of
existing wells, energisation of wells (oil engine/electrical pump set ), laying of pipelines,
installing drip / sprinkler system and lift irrigation system.
Who are eligible?
All farmers having a known source of water available for irrigation purpose are eligible
for the loan.
Loan amount:

106
For loans upto Rs 50000/- 100 % of the project cost

upto 85 % of the project cost will be provided as loan

For loans above Rs 50000/-
cost
What are documents you need to provide?
(1) Land records.
(2) Quotation for the assets to be purchased.
(3) An estimate for the civil works to be undertaken.
(4) Geologist certificate wherever applicable.
(5) Feasibility certificate from the EB Department.
Security:
A) Where movable assets are not created

(a) Upto Rs 10000/- Personal guarantee

(b) above Rs 10000/- Personal guarantee and Mortgage of land

B) Where movable assets are created

(a) Upto Rs 50000/- Hypothecation of assets created

(b) Above Rs 50000/- Hypothecation of assets and mortgage of land

How to repay the loan?
Repayment will be in Quarterly / half yearly / yearly installments’ over a period
of 5 to 7 years depending on the crops or the liquidity created by the agriculture activity
undertaken.

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LAND RECORD TERMINOLOGY
Khewat Number
The Khewat number normally referred as 'KHATA NUMBER' by revenue
officials is the account number given to owner(s) which form a set of co-sharers who own
the land in same or different proportions. It therefore, can be understood as the account
number given to various owners in the Khewat. The Khewat number in the Jamabandi
runs sequentially starting from 1 to N.
The Khewat Number may get changed in the next Jamabandi due to
rearrangements i.e. same owners who were owners in some Khewat earlier may get
another Khewat number in next Jamabandi. To clarify the things further, let us assume
that there are 10 Khewats in a village and owners A, B & C were earlier in ownership of
the Khewat 5 and did some transactions to a person say X who may be an owner in this
village already or may appear in the Shajra and Jamabandi of the village due to this
transaction for the first time. Now due to mutation(s), it may be the case that owners in
Khewat number 5 sold complete land to X. If complete Khewat is sold and owner 'X'
already exists in the village, then all the land will shift to Khewat that belongs to X. In
case owner 'X' is a new owner and was not there in the Jamabandi earlier, then during
mutation entry Khewat number 5 will cease to exist and instead Khewat number 5/1 will
be given to 'X'. During final rearrangement / sequencing of Khewat number, then it may
be the case that depending upon the caste/sub-caste of the Owner 'X' now Khewat
number 5/1 (Khewat created from 5) may get another number.
The arrangement, which has been shown above is a simple one for the purpose of
understanding but in real situations it may be more complicated one depending upon the
nature and type of mutations taking place in the village.
You may say if above is the case then what is the way to know the Khewat of owners in
the previous Jamabandi. This can be known with the help of Khewat number written with
red ink (in computerized print it is shown as underlined) beneath the current Khewat
number. In case you see Khewat number 6 (in blank ink) and beneath that Khewat a
number say 5 is written in red-ink, then you can simply assume that present owners of
Khewat number 6 in the current Jamabandi were owners in Khewat number 5 in the
previous Jamabandi.
Sometimes, a denominator is attached to a Khewat number also. This happens
because of the fact that during the writing of Jamabandi and arrangement of Khewat
numbers, a Khewat is left inadvertently and has to be inserted in between. For example
though there were 10 Khewats and Patwari tried wrote the details for 10 Khewat in
sequence one after another but forgot to mention a Khewat in between. Such Khewat if is
to be inserted after Khewat 6 will be given number 6/1 or if is to be inserted after 8 will
be given number 8/1. Though this practice of writing Khewat number is wrong but there
is no immediate solution available. A facility has been given to enter such Khewats also
by giving additional field i.e. bata (denominator) for such Khewat number. However,
after the mutations, once a new Jamabandi is prepared, such denominators will not be
allowed.
Above is true in case of khatoni number also. But for denominator of Khasra,
there is specific meaning and it has been explained in the section ‘Khasra Number’.

108
Khatoni Number
As Khewat number refers to a set of owners, khatoni number refers to a set of
cultivators in the same sense. This khatoni number is given to the cultivators in the
Khewat and runs sequentially in the village starting from 1 to N. Each Khewat will have
at least one khatoni or more khatonies but will appear in a sequence within the Khewat
and in the village.
The Khatoni number if in one sense shows the cultivators then in another sense
will show who are the persons who have the possession of the Khatoni consisting of
various Khasras in the Khewat. In still another sense it also shows who are the persons
who are owners of various khasras in the khatoni. In the same way as in case of Khewat
where owner may sell, gift or mortgage, same type of transaction also takes place in the
Khatoni also. Before the things start confusing you, the example shown below would
help you to understand this issue.
Say, A, B & C are owners in Khewat number 5 and this Khewat has three
Khatonies number 5, 6 and 7. In Khatoni number 5, it is written 'Kast Va Kabja Swayam'
and has got three khasras. Then this means that these three khasra are collectively
possessed and cultivated by all the three owners mentioned in Col.4 i.e. Owners Details
of Jamabandi. In the next khatoni i.e. Khatoni number 6 which say has one khasra and it
is written 'A, B, C Hissadar Baya X Mustari Kast Va Kabja Swayam Mustari'. This
description means that the Khasra in the khatoni number 6 has been sold by all the three
owners collectively i.e. A, B & C to X who is the owner in 'Khana Kast'. This is because
of the fact that owners A, B and C have sold a particular khasra number to X and X will
be shown in khatoni number 6 as buyer and possession is also with X i.e. the purchaser.
The purchaser will not get any Khewat number for the reason that khasra sold was earlier
under the possession with all the three owners. Purchaser X will get another Khewat only
when this Khewat number gets divided and shares are worked out based upon the area
owned by each owner.
Beneath the khatoni number, another number is written (underlined in
computerised print) in red ink in the manually written Jamabandi) which shows the
Khatoni number of current Khatoni in the previous Jamabandi. In the manually written
Jamabandi this number is not shown. But once the mutations take place through this
software and Khatonies are rearranged, then under each current Khatoni number, old
Khatoni number would be shown as underlined.
As explained under Khewat, that in the manually written Jamabandi, sometimes a
bata (denominator) is added to show the Khewat inserted in between. It is also true in
case of Khatoni.
Khasra Number
The Khasra number is nothing but a plot number given to a specific piece of land
in the village. Same way as one or more Khatonies form a Khewat, similarly one or more
Khasra form a khatoni. The Khasra numbers in a khatoni may or may not be mentioned
sequentially and once a khasra number has appeared in a khatoni, it can not figure in
another Khatoni except in the case if the Khasra is 'Min'. But if it is min then it can not
repeat in the same Khatoni.
The Khasra numbers in a village are created once settlement of village starts. The
settlement officials take village as a whole and on its map start from North East and give
number to each and every plot in each direction and reach to North East direction again
after giving number to each plot in all the directions.
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 Khasra number may get divided due to sale, gift etc. during the mutation and is
given a new number with denominator. For example, because of mutation, Khasra
number 100 is divided into two parts then during mutation two divisions of this khasra
i.e. 100/1 and 100/2 will be created and transaction takes place. Once all the mutations
have taken place the rearrangement of Khasra i.e. numbering is done by Patwari. How
this renumbering/rearrangement is done is explained below:
Say in the village only 499 Khasras were there in the previous Jamabandi and two
new khasra divisions i.e. 100/1 and 100/2 were created due to mutation. During
reorganisation, Khasra number 100/1 will get number 500/100 and 100/2 will get Khasra
number 501/100 and khasra number 100 will cease to exists i.e. the last Khasra number is
incremented by one (that is 499 now become 500 and 501) and in the denominator
Khasra number out of which the Khasra is formed is attached. This will be the case for all
the Khasra divisions. New Khasra number generation takes into account the principal of
'First-In First-Out (FIFO)' that is Khasra which got divided due to mutation number 5 will
have precedence in getting new number over the khasra number which has been divided
due to mutation number 10. To make the things further clear, let us say that khasra 100
was divided due to mutation number 5 and Khasra number 45 was divided into two parts
(i.e. 45/1 and 45/2) due to mutation number 10. Then once the mutations are over and
rearrangement of Khasra is undertaken, then new Khasra numbers are generated based
upon the principal of 'FIFO'. Suppose last khasra in previous Jamabandi was 499 then
new Khasra number will be 500/100, 501/100 (for khasra number 100) and 502/45 and
503/45 (For Khasra Number 45). So the example clarifies though the khasra number 45 is
a number lesser than Khasra number 100 yet Khasra numbers generated out of 45 due to
mutation number 10 will get next i.e. higher numbers.
Group Number
During the execution of this software, you will often encounter the term 'Group
Number' not visible in the Jamabandi anywhere but software making abundant use of this
term. The group number has been given to each owner who himself or along with other
owners owns a specific proportion of land in the Khewat or who have same parentage.
Group number will also refer to the owners in the different proportions even if their
parentage is same. During the writing of Khatoni description also, sometimes group
numbers are generated to show the groups of cultivators.
Min & Salam
In the course of the implementation of Land Records Computerisation software
you will often see the term Min/Saalam (feu / lkye) invariably. The 'Min' means partially
and 'Saalam' means completely. If min is mentioned against an old
Khewat/Khatoni/Khasra number then you can assume that the Khewat / khatoni / khasra
under consideration is carved / formed out of the old Khewat / Khatoni / Khasra partially
or transaction is taking place partially. 'Salam' word refers to the fact that new Khewat /
Khatoni / Khasra is formed out of the old Khewat / Khatoni / Khasra when same was
transacted completely. In case the Khewat / Khatoni / Khasra is formed due to min
transaction, then you will see 'Min' besides the Khewat / Khatoni / Khasra. In case
nothing is mentioned then you can very well assume that the Khewat / khatoni / khasra is
'Salam', by default.
Mortgagee
In case an owner takes loan from some individual or an institution with the
security of his land then the deed is known as Mortgage deed and persons / institutions
110
from which loan is taken are known as mortgagee. If mortgage takes place from one
persons to another, then the mostly mortgage is with possession that is the mortgagee has
the possession of the piece of land mortgaged and in revenue terminology it is known as
‘RAHIN’. If the mortgage takes place and loan is taken from some Government
Institution, then the mortgage is without possession and it is known as ‘AD-RAHIN’
Awaal / Doaym / Soyam
Suppose A took loan from B and after mortgaging the land to B then B is known
as Mortgagee 'Awwal' if B further takes loan from 'C' after keeping the land mortgaged as
security, which he had taken from A. Then C will be known as Mortgagee 'Doyam'. If C
further mortgage the land taken from B to D then D will be referred as Mortgagee
'Soyam'.
Type of Holding
During the course of entering the khatoni details, there is a field known as 'Type
Holding'. The type of holding will be 'Individual' if the possession and ownership rests
with the same family. In case the holding is owned by more than one family then the
holding type will be 'Joint'. If both are not true for a holding then the holding type will be
‘Institutional'. This information is very important to understand and should be entered
carefully as in Agriculture Census the information is analysed based upon this parameter.
Patti
In the British regime a village was divided into number of patties/sections based
upon the caste of the persons residing in that village. For example, Rajput used to dwell
in a separate location, Brahimn in other and 'Shudras' still in another location. These
locations were known as 'pattis'. But after the independence, this classification was
changed and at present refers to various cluster / hemlets in the village in which villagers
reside in groups irrespective of their caste.
Conversion Factor
Conversion factor (ranges from 0.000 to 1.000) is specified to convert the local
area unit prevalent in the village to the Metric System i.e. mentioned in terms of
Hectares-Ares-Centares. When the local unit is multiplied with this conversion factor
then the area in Metric system can be obtained. The reports sent to Government of India
are firstly converted to the Metric system if local unit is different from the Metric system.
If the local unit is Kanal-Marla then a kanal has 20 Marlas. If local unit is 'Bigha-
Biswa-Biswansi' then 20 Biswansi make up a Biswa and 20 Biswa make a Bigha. If local
area unit is 'Meters--Decimetres' (normally in the urban areas where khasra/plots are very
small) then 100 decimetre make up a meter. In case, the local unit is 'Hectare-Ares-
Centeres', then 100 centare (equal to a meter) form an Are and 100 are form a Hectare.
Therefore a hectare refers to 10000 square metres of land.
Revenue Unit
On behalf of Govt., the Nambardar of a village collects land revenue and deposits
the revenue in the Treasury. This service rendered by the Nambardar is a paid one.
The rate of swai changes from time to time and at present it is 65% of total
demand that is if demand is Rs. 1/- then swai will be 0.65 paisa and total revenue to be
collected from the owner(s) will be Rs.1.65/-. Of this 65%, 30 is local rate and 35% is
Nambardari that is the amount given to the Nambardar for this service.

111
Percentage Collection of Land Revenue
The land revenue collection is normally done twice a year by the Govt. through
Nambardar in such a way that land revenue collection is done half in Kharif and half in
Rabi season. But sometimes it is done in different percentage proportion say 60% in
Kharif and 40% in Rabi or as the villagers decide at the time of Permanent Settlement.
Professional Area of Village
The professional area of village is measured by the Survey of India organisation.
And in all the Agriculture Census reports this area figures are mentioned. It has been
observed that normally Patwari is not aware of professional area. If that is the case, then
actual area mentioned in the village may be entered against this field where ever referred
to.
Alamat
This term will appear during the entry of Shajra Nasb. This normally connotes a
person's characteristic. If an owner has alamat as 'Bandobasti Kabij’ then that means that
the owner was also owner at the time of settlement. In case alamat is 'Baap Dada Jivit
Hai' it means that the owner's father/grandfather are alive. These alamat details are to be
entered correctly as the processing & printing of Shajra Nasb depends upon this field
information. For example, even if an owner’s father and grandfather are not alive but
entered as alive then the box of the father and grand father will be depicted left to the
owner's box whereas if this alamat is not there and not filled then owner's box will be
exactly below the box of his father and father's box will be beneath the box of owner's
grand father.
Total Shares
In Jamabandi, in the very beginning, total shares are mentioned. These shares are
in proportion to the total area of the Khewat. For example if there 100 shares mentioned
and total area of the Khewat is 1000 meters then that means each share is worth 10
meters. (1000mts. /100shares). Further each group shares are mentioned which are in
proportion to the total area of the Khewat. For example there are three groups in the
Khewat with respective shares as 10, 30 and 50. If in first group there are 2 owners then
each owner will have 10 shares each and owns 100 meters of land. If in next group also
there are two owners then each will own 15 share i.e. 150 meters of land each. In the
third group there are 5 owners then each owns 10 shares which equivalent to 100 meters
of land to each owner. So the total land comes out to be 1000meters.
Lagan
In case the land is cultivated by other than the owner of the land, then the person
cultivating the land is liable to pay something either is cash or kind to the owner or
agreed based upon the mutual agreement between the two. The agreement between two
parties is known as 'Lagan'. Sometimes if there is sale deed in the Khatoni, then the
revenue will be mentioned in this column in that case.
Mazrua (Krisht)/Giar Mazrua (Akrisht)
In case the land of khasra is such that it is possible to cultivate it either through
man-made irrigation sources or through rainwater then land type is known as 'Mazrua'
otherwise it is known as 'Gair-Mazrua'. Under the 'Gair-Mazrua' land classification one
term is usually referred to, as 'Gair-Mumkin' which specifies that anything constructed on
it, is impossible to shift. For example, if a house is constructed on a piece of land, then

112
the classification of that Khasra will be 'Gair-Mumkin Makan' as it is impossible to shift
the same house somewhere else.
Wazib_Ul_Arj and Peshani
The customary rights of the village are shown in a report known as
'Wazib_Ul_Arj'. The attestation of these customary rights by the revenue officer in front
of village and signature of villagers to whom the customary rights information is read is
known Peshani.
Bartan
The TD rights or forestry rights of the villagers in revenue terminology are known
as ‘Bartan.
SHAJRA NASB
Prepared in every estate at the time of settlement, it forms a part of record of
rights. Shajra Nasb is a pedigree table showing succession to ownership rights occurring
from time to time in an estate. It is revised after every five years along with Jamabandi
and in the interval, changes occurring from time to time are reflected in the Patwari's
copy through suitable references. The Shajra Nasb also serves as an index for locating an
owner’s accounts (Khata Numbers) in the Jamabandi. In the new Jamabandi owner's
accounts are arranged as per arrangement in the Shajra Nasb. The name of owner in the
Shajra Nasb is arranged according to caste and sub-caste.
JAMABANDI REGISTER
It is prepared quinquenially in duplicate for every estate on the basis of entries
existing and changes recorded on the Mutation Register, Khasra Girdawari Register and
Fard Badr over a period of 5 years. It is the document to which a presumption of truth is
attached. The form of the Jamabandi has 12 columns and gives Khewat / Khatoni
number-wise information of total holding of each owner of land in a particular revenue
estate. It also indicates cultivation, rent and revenue and other cesses payable on land and
constitutes an up to date record of various rights in land. The new Jamabandi is prepared
by the Patwari and is attested by the Revenue Office in a public meeting of local villages.
Two copies of the revised Jamabandi are prepared, one copy is filed to the District
Record Room and other copy remains with the Patwari. All changes in title/interests of
the revenue estate coming into the notice of Revenue Authorities are duly reflected in the
Jamabandi according to set procedures.
MUTATION REGISTER
All changes in title or interest are incorporated into the Jamabandi through
attestation of mutation. The Patwari enters the mutations on the basis of a
document/verbal information presented by the concerned parties for the change in
title/interest on land. This information is first entered into the Patwari’s Diary
(Roznamcha Wakyati) giving serial no. And date and then into the mutation register
referencing the Roznamcha no. However, the final changes in the Jamabandi are made
only after the Revenue officer has attested the mutation. The mutation form has 15
columns and every entry is given a Serial Number, which is called Mutation Number.
This Mutation Number runs continuously from one settlement to another for each estate.
The Mutation register is maintained by the Patwari and all entries are made in duplicate.
The Patwari’s copy (PARAT PATWAR) contains the brief substance of the Revenue
Officer’s order, while the other copy (PARAT SARKAR) contains the detailed order and
is kept in the Tehsil in separate estate-wise bundles. Whenever a mutation is entered, the

113
Patwari makes a note in the remark column of the Jamabandi in pencil giving the
Mutation No. and type of mutation. When the mutation is attested, he makes the entry in
Red ink, giving Mutation No., type and date of attestation. When the new Jamabandi is
written, all the mutations accepted are attached to the new Jamabandi for cross-reference
and an index sheet linking the mutations to the Khatas is placed in the Jamabandi.
KHASRA GIRDAWARI
It is a register of harvest inspections unlike the Jamabandi, which is Khewat-wise,
the Girdawari, is Khasra-wise. The Patwari conducts a field to field harvest inspections
every six months in the month of October and April. He records the plot-wise details
regarding crop grown, land description and status of the cultivator. This register is
considered important as it acts as master file for the preparation of many returns and
reports. This document is retained in the custody of Patwari for the period of 12 years
after which it is retrieved from him and destroyed. No presumption of truth is attached to
this record though entries in it are often used as evidence in courts. Changes in the
tenancy however are made through mutations in view of Section 10-A on the Tenancy
Act.
FIELD MAP
A field map for every revenue village is prepared at the time of the Settlement.
The original map is called ‘MUSAVI’. Its updated version is called ‘SHAJRA
KISTWAR’ and these are kept in safe custody in the Record Room. A wax copy called
‘MOMI’ is available in the Tehsil. All changes in field boundaries occurring due to
partition, sale etc. attested in Mutation are entered from the Parat Sarkar Mutation onto
the Momi. A copy on cloth called ‘LATHA’ is kept and updated by the Patwari.
VILLAGE NOTE BOOK
Popularly known as "LAL KITAB" these are prepared at the time of settlement.
The kitab has valuable information regarding crops grown in the estate, soil
classification, area under different crops, land use, transfers in land, wells and other
means of irrigation in the village and abstract of the livestock and cattle census in the
village. The data is updated regularly through harvest inspections and revisions of other
records, which are the main source of the data to this kitab. These Lal Kitabs are prepared
at village, tehsil and district level and maintained in the Patwari Office, Kanungo and
Sadar Kanungo respectively.
WAZIB-UL-ARJ
In this customary rights of the villagers are maintained. This information is
attached at the end of the Misal Hakiyat (Permanent Settlement). In the subsequent
Jamabandies this information is not attached.
NAKSHA BARTAN
The forestry right popularly known as TD rights details is maintained in this
document. This too is the part of Misal Hakiyat (Permanent Settlement). In subsequent
Jamabandies, this information is not attached.

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Term Description of Term
Abadi Deh Site of village where predominantly people live.
Badastur Unaltered / Same As
Banjar Uncultivated land
Banjar Jadid New fellow (land not cultivated for continuous four harvests though it
was cultivated earlier.
Banjar Kadim Old fallow (If continued to be uncultivated for next four harvests)
Barani Dependent on rainfall
Bigha A measure of area (It is different in different areas based upon local
Karam unit) 5Bigha=1Kila (Acre)
Biswa One twentieth of a bigha
Biswansi One twentieth of a biswa
Chahi Irrigated from well
Chahi Nahri Irrigated partly from a well and partly from canal.
Chkota Lump sum grain rent or rent consisting of a fixed amount of grain in
the Rabi and Kharif.
Gair-Mumkin A type of land on which existing arrangement are difficult to move.
Girdawar Kanungo or Supervisor of Patwaris
Girdawari Harvest Inspection
Karam Unit of Length and varies from tehsil to tehsil and district to district.
Kharaba Portion of crop that has failed to come due some calamity
Kharif Autumn harvest
Khasra List of fields, field register
Khasra Girdawari Harvest Inspection Register
Khata Holding of tenant (Fard Patwar)
Khatauni Holding slips prepared at re-measurement
Khewat A list of Owner’s holding
Khud Kashat Cultivated by the owner himself
Killabandi Rectangular measurement
Lamaberdar Village Headman (Person who collects land revenue from cultivators)
Latha Girdawari Cloth copy of the Patwari’s Map (Sizra)
Marla Measuring of Area (9 square Karam), 20 marla= 1Kanal
Mauza Village

115
Min Portion / Part
Misal Haqiyat Record-of-Right prepared at the time of settlement.
Musavi Mapping Sheet
Nahri Irrigated from canal
Parat Patwar Patwari copy of the new settlement record
Parat Sarkar Government Copy of the new settlement record
Rabi Spring Harvest
Sabika Former
Taccavi Loan granted by a Government to landowner for agriculture purposes.
Waris Successor
Wasil Baqi Revenue Accountant in the Tehsil
Nawis
Zamindar Landowner
Varsal This type of Mutation is caused by either death or will of a person. In
case of death of a person in the family, Patwari records the details
regarding name of the person who has died, date of death and entry
number of Chawkidar Register in his Roznamcha Waqaiti (Diary of
daily events). Land can also be transferred to the successors i.e. sons,
daughters, relative or any other person even if the owner is alive by
way of his will.
Bai Whenever a person sells his land either completely or partially, to
another person, this type of mutation is know as Bai or Sale. The
information recorded in this case is Sale Deed No., date of Registry
and amount of Registration etc.
Tabdeel Malkiat: This type of mutation is carried out after the settlement of dispute by
some court. This is also know as degree by court (Ba Hakumat
Adalat). The information recorded in this case includes Case Number,
Date of starting of Case, Date of Judgment, Name of the Court, Name
of the Judge, names of the persons who filed the Case, Names of the
persons on whom Case is filed & Judgment Details etc.
Rahin (Mortgage Whenever a land is mortgaged, completely or partially, to another
Deed) person or party, mutation is of Rahin type. The deal can be either
verbal or through Registry. In this case information like Date of
Mortgage, Amount and Registry No. (or Roznamcha No. in case the
deal is verbal). The land can be mortgaged with or without possession.
Fak-Ul-Rahin This type of mutation is reverse process of Rahin. Whenever a person
(Redemption who has mortgaged his land want to get it back after paying dues to
deed of the mortgagee, the type of mutation is called Fak-ul-Rahin. It can be
Mortgage) of two sub types. Verbal (through Roznamcha) or through
Registry. In case of verbal type, the details include type of Mortgage

116
 Serial No. of Roznamcha Waqaiti amount of Mortgage returned etc.
In case of Registry, Deed No. is also recorded in addition to the above
information.
Tabadala Tabadla or mutation of exchange is the mutation, when two owners
decide to exchange their lands. It can Again be either verbal (through
Roznamcha Waqaiti) or through Registry.The details recorded are
similar as those in the previous case i.e. either through Roznamcha
Waqaiti entry or through Registry.
Hibba (Gift): Whenever a part of complete land is gifted to some person, the
mutation is called Hibba or Gift. The details of the person to whom
land has been gifted are recorded.
Pattanama Whenever a piece of land is given on lease for a long period, the
mutation is known as Pattanama.
Takseem Whenever there is a division of land in a joint holding, the mutation is
known as Takseem or Mutation of Partition. The partition can be
verbal among the landowners or when court directs the partition.

117
 ANNEXURE - I
Certified seed and subsidised rates (Rs./qt.) of different varieties of crops at sale
counter of Haryana Seed Development Corporation for 2009-10.
Crop Variety Full sale Subsidy Subsidised rate
rate
Wheat C 306 2700 - 2700
WH 147, WH 542, WH 283, 1400 - 1400
WH 1021,
DBW 17 2100 700 1400
UP 2338,WH 711, 2100 700 1400
PBW343,PBW502,
PBW 373,PBW 509,Raj
3765, HD2851
Barley All varieties 1900 1000 900
Oat Kent 3850 - 3850
Raya All varieties 4500 2000 2500
Gram Desi varieties 5000 2000 3000
Lentil Sapna/Garima 5500 2000 3500
Pea 6500 6500
Methi 6500 6500
Toria T9 6000 3000 3000
Paddy CSR 30,HBC 19 6800 500 6300
PR 1121 6200 500 5700
Pusa 1 4500 - 4500
PR 111, PR 113, PR 114 2200 500 1700
Pusa 44,HKR 47, HKR 126
IR 64 1700 - 1700
PR 78 3630 - 3630
Arhar Manak, Paras 4400 1200 3200
Moth RMO 40 4000 1200 2800
Guar HG 365, HG 563, RGC 936 3500 1200 2300
Bajra HHB 60,HHB 67, HHB 117, 4200 - 4200
HHB 94, HHB 197
PB 48 (Hybrid) 15000 - 15000
HC 10, RBC 2 2100 500 1600
Til HT 1 8600 1200 7400
Groundnut All 4000 1800 2200
Soybean All 3000 1200 1800
Mung Muskan, Asha, 4850 1200 3650
Pusa bold, SML 668
Dhainch All 2350 2115 235
Cotton Desi: HD 123 6300 1500 4800
Narma (Gas delinted) 6600 1500 5100
Narma (Mechine delinted) 6300 1500 4800
AAH 1, HHH 287 50000 - 50000
Bt cotton BG 1, 750/450 g - 750/450 g
BG 2 925/450 g 925/450 g

118
 ANNEXURE – II

Farmers welfare schemes rendered by Marketing board, Haryana

i) Subsidy for purchase of high/improved/hybrid seeds and purchase of

implements:
In order to introduce better seed and produce hybrid seeds, it is proposed to
help farmers by way of giving subsidy on certified seeds through Haryana
Seed Development Corporation. A Provision of funds to the tune of Rs.
112.50 lakhs for the purchase of Specific Gravity Separators and other
machinery/equipments has been made. The scheme would aim at encouraging
organic agricultural produce in consultation with Agriculture department and
H.S.D.C. Therefore, HSAMB has provided a budget of Rs. 1.00 crore for
providing assistance to the Haryana Seeds Development Corporation.

ii) Subsidy on purchase of gypsum for reclamation of Alkaline land:

Gypsum is the important component of improving productivity of soil. Govt.
of India has declined to give subsidy; hence the use of Gypsum has reduced.
Alkaline land can be made fertile only if the Gypsum is used by the farmers.
This expenditure is now to be borne by the Haryana Gov. Therefore HSAMB
has provided a budget of Rs. 1.00 crore for grant to HLRDC as subsidy for
purchase of Gypsum.

iii) Providing working capital to Haryana Seeds Development Corporation:

Availability of quality seeds at affordable price is of utmost importance for
improving agriculture production. A proposal has been received from H.S.D.C
for financial support in shape of loan. It is HSAMB who can help HSDC in its
endeavor to provide farmers better quality seeds. HSAMB proposes to provide
working capital of Rs 5.00 Crore to HSDC on an interest @ 6% p.a. for the
purpose as requested by the Managing Director, HSDC. The amount will be
released by 15th April and will be returned by HSDC to HSAMB after sale of
seeds and not later than 15th Dec of the same year.

Market Fee and Charge

The income of the HSAMB/Market Committees is derived from the collection of
market fee on the sale and purchase of agricultural produce which is levied @ 2%
advalorem basis. The market committees contribute 30% of the total collection of market
fee to the Board. The other source of income of the Board/Market Committees is from
sale of plots in the new mandis and license fee etc. The total income from the collection
of market fee during the year 2006-2007 was Rs. 166.63 crores. The income during the
current financial year is Rs. 222.39 crores upto Feb, 2008. Incidental charges are payable
by seller.

BUY
/
119
Incidental charges payable by seller/buyer
Category 'A'
Wheat Paddy Bajra,Mash,Moong,Moth,
Massar,Sarson,Toria Til
Methi,Oats,Guar, Maize.
Gram, Barley Jowar Arhar,
Groundnut, Sun Flower Seed
Incidental Rates in rupees per unit filling
Charges
(Payable by 50 Kg. 50 Kg
Seller)
1. Unloading 0.65 0.89 1.00
Cleaning and
Dressing
Manually 0.65 1.15 1.15
By machine 1.25 1.54 1.50
Market charges
1. Filling and 0.67 0.84 0.87
Placing the unit
on the
platform/balance.
2. Weighing 0.65 0.64 0.62
3. Unloading 0.50 0.48 0.47
from the balance
4. Stitching 0.35 0.35 0.35
manually by 0.75 0.77 0.77
machine
5. Auction 0.08 per 0.08 per hundred 0.08 per hundred rupees
Charges hundred rupees rupees
6. Commission 2.50 per 2.50 per hundred 2.50 per hundred rupees
hundred rupees rupees
7. Brokerage 0.16 per 0.16 per hundred 0.16 per hundred rupees
hundred rupees rupees
Category 'B' Cotton,Wool, Category 'C' Category 'D' Perishable
Ground-nut Non-persihable vegetables and fruits.
(Unshelled) vegetables viz.
Chillies (Dry) Potatoes,
Shakarkandi,
Onion, Arvi,
Garlic and
Ginger.
Incidental Charges
(Payable by
Seller)
1. Unloading 0.60 0.50 per bag 0.30 per unit
Cleaning and 0.60 5.00 per trolley 10.00 per trolley
Dressing 0.70 15.00 per truck 20.00 per truck

120
 Manually
By machine
Market charges
1.Filling and 0.62
Placing the unit
on the
platform/balance.
2. Weighing 0.54 0.80 per unit
3. Unloading 0.37 1.00 per unit
from the balance
4. Stitching 0.15 per unit
manually by 0.17
machine 0.77
5. Auction 0.08 per
charges hundred rupees
6. Commission 2.00 per 5.00 per hundred 5.00 per hundred rupees
hundred rupees rupees
(2.50 per
hundred rupees
for cotton only).
7. Brokerage 0.16 per
hundred rupees

121
 ANNEXURE - III

HAFED
One of the unique strengths of this organisation is its direct contact with the
farmers. The raw material for all Hafed’s consumer products, be it paddy, oilseeds or any
other agricultural produce, is directly procured from the farmers by specialised and
experienced purchase staff of Hafed, thus ensuring that the consumers get only the best.
Scrupulous quality checks at all levels of Procurement, Production and Packing in ISO
9001:2000 and HACCP certified processing units ensure purity, safety and natural taste
of Hafed Products to the consumers. This organization is also formulating a large variety
of high quality, economically priced agro chemicals for different uses such as
insecticides, weedicides and fungicides for all major crops of Haryana.
Rates of input sold by HAFED at its sale point
Particular Rates (Rs.)/ Particular Rates (Rs.)/liter or
liter or kg kg
Phorate 10% CG 11.00 Isoproturon 75% WP 512.00
Chloropyriphos 170.00 Sulphosulfuron 255.00
20% EC 75%WG
Monocrotophos 36 280.00 Clodinopfop Propanyl 315.00
SL 15% WP
Endosulphan 220.00 Butachlore 50%EC 157.00
35%EC
DDVP 76% EC 290.00 2,4-D 38% Ethyl Ester 180.00
Imidaciprid 17.8 SL 560.00 Urea 241.50/ 50 kg
Pretacholore 50% 280.00 DAP 467.50/50 kg
EC
Malathion 50% EC 195.00 ZnSO4 22.30
Fenvelrate 0.40% 1.40 TSP (12:32:16) 381.85/50 kg

Rates of herbicides sold in open market

Particular Rates (Rs.)/ Particular Rates (Rs.)/liter
liter or kg or kg
Butachlore 50%EC 140.00 Metsulfuron (10%) + 120.00/ 8g
chlorimuron (10%)+ RM
2.0%
Pretilachlore 50 EC 300.00 2,4-D 38% Ethyl Ester 280.00
Anilophos 215.00 2,4-D 58% Amine 350.00
Oxadiargyl 80 WP 165.00/ 45 g Ethoxysulfuron 15 WDG 2800
Bispyribac - 6000.00 Atrazine 50 WP 240.00
Sodium
Clodinofop 350.00/ 16 g Trifluralin 380.00
Sulphosulfuron 300.00/ 13g Pendimethalin 400.00
Fenoxaprop 275.00/ 100 g Carfentrazone 130.00/ 20 g
Metsulfuron methyl 110.00/ 8 g Oxyflurofen 1400.00
Glyphosate 58% SL 280.00 Paraquat 370.00

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 ANNEXURE - IV

Water rates for the purposes of irrigation from Canals and drains
(Rates in Rs./acre)
Category/Crop Bhakra Yamuna Per crop
Command Command
Category A: Ploughed in green before 15th September are
Dhaincha, Guar, Arhar, Cowpea (other not assessable to water rates
green fodder crop)
Category B: 35.00 35.00 Per crop
Groundnut, Bajra, Maize, Sorghum,
Arhar
Category C: 40.00 10.00 Per crop
Urd, Moong, Gram, Guar, Til, Lentil,
Soyabean and other pulses
Category D: 50.00 45.00 Per crop
Wheat, Cotton, Barley, Mustard, Melon
and fibre crops
Category E: 60.00 60.00 Per crop
Paddy, Oat, Vegetables, Potato, Onion,
Bersem, Water nuts, Tobacco, Spices,
Medicinal and aromatic plants
Category E-1: 80.00 70.00 Per crop
Sugarcane
Category F: Garden,
(i) Gardens and orchards, Floriculture 60.00 60.00 orchard and
and plantation plantation /
(ii) Single watering for ploughing half year the
followed by a crop or not followed by a rest per crop
crop in the same or succeeding harvest 10.00 10.00 Per crop
(iii) Single watering for grass
10.00 10.00 Per crop
Note : The water rates will be charged 50% of the termed water rates for:
(i) Using water saving devices like drip and sprinkler irrigation by the irrigation
on lift outlets.
(ii) Lift maintained and operated by cultivator.

123
 ANNEXURE – V
Area - Million Hectares
Production - Million Tonnes
Yield - Kg./Hectare
Table 1: Area and production of food grains of different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All - India Production % to All - India

Uttar Pradesh 20.04 16.20 41.21 18.97
Punjab 6.30 5.09 25.31 11.65
Andhra Pradesh 7.27 5.88 16.23 7.47
West Bengal 6.36 5.14 15.97 7.35
Haryana 4.35 3.52 14.76 6.79
Rajasthan 12.70 10.27 14.21 6.54
Madhya Pradesh 11.78 9.52 13.75 6.33
Maharashtra 13.45 10.87 12.65 5.82
Bihar 6.70 5.42 11.10 5.11
Karnataka 7.45 6.02 9.60 4.42
Tamil Nadu 3.17 2.56 8.26 3.80
Orissa 5.40 4.37 7.34 3.38
Gujarat 4.57 3.69 6.50 2.99
Chhattisgarh 5.06 4.09 5.81 2.67
Jharkhand 2.38 1.92 3.69 1.70
Assam 2.38 1.92 3.06 1.41
Uttarakhand 0.99 0.80 1.74 0.80
Others 3.36 2.72 6.09 2.80
All India 123.71 100.00 217.28 100.00

Table 2: Area, production and poductivity of wheat in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

Uttar Pradesh 9.20 32.87 25.03 33.02 33.02 2721
Punjab 3.47 12.40 14.60 19.26 52.28 4210
Haryana 2.38 8.50 10.06 13.27 65.55 4232
Madhya Pradesh 3.99 14.26 7.33 9.67 75.21 1835
Rajasthan 2.56 9.15 7.06 9.31 84.53 2751
Bihar 2.05 7.32 3.91 5.16 89.68 1908
Gujarat 1.20 4.29 3.00 3.96 93.64 2498
Maharashtra 1.23 4.39 1.63 2.15 95.79 1325
Uttaranchal 0.39 1.39 0.80 1.06 96.85 2049
West Bengal 0.35 1.25 0.80 1.06 97.90 2282
Himachal Pradesh 0.36 1.29 0.50 0.66 98.56 1385
Jammu & Kashmir 0.26 0.93 0.49 0.65 99.21 1893
Karnataka 0.27 0.96 0.21 0.28 99.49 762
Jharkhand 0.08 0.29 0.13 0.17 99.66 1529
Assam 0.06 0.21 0.07 0.09 99.75 1117
Others 0.14 0.50 0.19 0.25 100.00 @
All India 27.99 100.00 75.81 100.00 2708

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Table 3: Area, production and poductivity of rice in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

West Bengal 5.69 12.99 14.75 15.80 15.80 2593
Andhra Pradesh 3.98 9.08 11.87 12.71 28.51 2984
Uttar Pradesh 5.92 13.51 11.12 11.91 40.42 1879
Punjab 2.62 5.98 10.14 10.86 51.29 3868
Orissa 4.45 10.16 6.82 7.31 58.59 1534
Tamil Nadu 1.93 4.41 6.61 7.08 65.67 3423
Chattisgarh 3.72 8.49 5.04 5.40 71.07 1354
Bihar 3.36 7.67 4.99 5.34 76.41 1486
Karnataka 1.40 3.20 3.45 3.70 80.11 2470
Haryana 1.04 2.37 3.37 3.61 83.72 3238
Jharkhand 1.62 3.70 2.97 3.18 86.90 1828
Assam 2.19 5.00 2.92 3.13 90.03 1332
Maharashtra 1.53 3.49 2.57 2.75 92.78 1680
Gujarat 0.73 1.67 1.39 1.49 94.27 1894
Madhya Pradesh 1.66 3.79 1.37 1.47 95.74 824
Kerala 0.26 0.59 0.63 0.67 96.41 2390
Others 1.71 3.90 3.35 3.59 100.00 @
All India 43.81 100.00 93.36 100.00 2131

Table 4: Area, production and poductivity of pearlmillet in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

Rajasthan 4.88 6.4 3.42 40.62 40.62 701
Uttar Pradesh 0.88 4.5 1.29 15.32 55.94 1455
Maharashtra 1.45 6.3 1.06 12.59 68.53 729
Gujarat 0.94 16.9 1.02 12.11 80.64 1088
Haryana 0.62 29.8 1.02 12.11 92.76 1649
Madhya Pradesh 0.19 0.1 0.25 2.97 95.72 1365
Karnataka 0.39 6.3 0.19 2.26 97.98 483
Tamil Nadu 0.07 8.4 0.10 1.19 99.17 1511
Andhra Pradesh 0.06 22.1 0.05 0.59 99.76 770
Jammu & Kashmir 0.02 0.5 0.01 0.12 99.88 591
Others 0.01 - 0.01 0.12 100.00 @
All India 9.51 8.9 8.42 100.00 886

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Table 5: Area, production and poductivity of maize in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

Karnataka 0.96 12.17 2.72 18.01 18.01 2829
Andhra Pradesh 0.73 9.25 2.46 16.29 34.30 3396
Bihar 0.64 8.11 1.72 11.39 45.70 2671
Uttar Pradesh 0.87 11.03 1.16 7.68 53.38 1335
Maharashtra 0.58 7.35 1.15 7.62 60.99 1983
Rajasthan 1.03 13.05 1.12 7.42 68.41 1086
Madhya Pradesh 0.86 10.90 0.84 5.56 73.97 976
Tamil Nadu 0.20 2.53 0.76 5.03 79.01 3838
Himachal Pradesh 0.30 3.80 0.70 4.64 83.64 2326
Jammu & Kashmir 0.32 4.06 0.49 3.25 86.89 1505
Punjab 0.15 1.90 0.48 3.18 90.07 3123
Gujarat 0.52 6.59 0.36 2.38 92.45 698
Jharkhand 0.24 3.04 0.30 1.99 94.44 1230
West Bengal 0.09 1.14 0.25 1.66 96.09 2968
Others 0.40 5.07 0.59 3.91 100.00 @
All India 7.89 100.00 15.10 100.00 1912

Table 6: Area, production and poductivity of chickpea in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

Madhya Pradesh 2.46 32.84 2.41 38.07 38.07 980
Maharashtra 1.31 17.49 0.92 14.53 52.61 706
Rajasthan 1.01 13.48 0.87 13.74 66.35 863
Andhra Pradesh 0.60 8.01 0.65 10.27 76.62 1085
Uttar Pradesh 0.68 9.08 0.50 7.90 84.52 742
Karnataka 0.65 8.68 0.31 4.90 89.42 473
Gujarat 0.25 3.34 0.21 3.32 92.73 870
Chattisgarh 0.21 2.80 0.18 2.84 95.58 843
Haryana 0.11 1.47 0.09 1.42 97.00 843
Bihar 0.06 0.80 0.05 0.79 97.79 818
West Bengal 0.03 0.40 0.02 0.32 98.10 769
Orissa 0.04 0.53 0.02 0.32 98.42 652
Others 0.08 1.07 0.10 1.58 100.00 @
All India 7.49 100.00 6.33 100.00 845

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Table 7: Area, production and poductivity of pigeonpea in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

Maharashtra 1.12 31.46 0.82 35.50 35.50 726
Uttar Pradesh 0.41 11.52 0.30 12.99 48.48 749
Karnataka 0.60 16.85 0.28 12.12 60.61 470
Gujarat 0.29 8.15 0.22 9.52 70.13 751
Madhya Pradesh 0.32 8.99 0.22 9.52 79.65 683
Andhra Pradesh 0.40 11.24 0.16 6.93 86.58 401
Orissa 0.13 3.65 0.11 4.76 91.34 803
Jharkhand 0.07 1.97 0.06 2.60 93.94 645
Bihar 0.04 1.12 0.04 1.73 95.67 989
Tamil Nadu 0.03 0.84 0.02 0.87 96.54 732
Others 0.15 4.21 0.08 3.46 100.00 @
All-India 3.56 100.00 2.31 100.00 650

Table 8: Area, production and poductivity of cotton in different states (2006-07)

Production
M Bales of
170 Kgs.
State Area % to All India Each % to All India Cumulative% Yield
Gujarat 2.39 26.15 8.79 38.84 38.84 625
Maharashtra 3.11 34.03 4.62 20.42 59.26 253
Punjab 0.61 6.67 2.68 11.84 71.10 750
Andhra Pradesh 0.97 10.61 2.18 9.63 80.73 381
Haryana 0.53 5.80 1.81 8.00 88.73 582
Madhya Pradesh 0.64 7.00 0.83 3.67 92.40 220
Rajasthan 0.35 3.83 0.75 3.31 95.71 363
Karnataka 0.38 4.16 0.61 2.70 98.41 276
Tamil Nadu 0.10 1.09 0.22 0.97 99.38 374
Others 0.06 0.66 0.14 0.62 100.00 @
All India 9.14 100.00 22.63 100.00 421

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Table 9: Area, production and poductivity of soybean in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

Madhya Pradesh 4.76 57.14 4.78 54.01 54.01 1006
Maharashtra 2.52 30.25 2.89 32.66 86.67 1147
Rajasthan 0.64 7.68 0.77 8.70 95.37 1203
Andhra Pradesh 0.10 1.20 0.16 1.81 97.18 1515
Karnataka 0.13 1.56 0.09 1.02 98.19 718
Others 0.18 2.16 0.16 1.81 100.00 @
All India 8.33 100.00 8.85 100.00 1063

Table 10: Area, production and poductivity of sugarcane in different states (2006-07)

State Area % to All India Production % to All India Cumulative% Yield

Uttar Pradesh 2.25 43.69 133.95 37.68 37.68 59626
Maharashtra 1.05 20.39 78.57 22.10 59.78 74898
Tamil Nadu 0.39 7.57 41.12 11.57 71.34 105123
Karnataka 0.33 6.41 28.67 8.06 79.41 87944
Andhra Pradesh 0.26 5.05 21.69 6.10 85.51 82167
Gujarat 0.21 4.08 15.63 4.40 89.90 73037
Haryana 0.14 2.72 9.58 2.69 92.60 68429
Uttarakhand 0.12 2.33 6.10 1.72 94.32 50413
Punjab 0.10 1.94 6.02 1.69 96.01 60808
Bihar 0.13 2.52 5.96 1.68 97.69 45953
Madhya Pradesh 0.06 1.17 2.81 0.79 98.48 43639
West Bengal 0.02 0.39 1.27 0.36 98.83 76307
Orissa 0.02 0.39 1.27 0.36 99.19 63403
Assam 0.03 0.58 1.06 0.30 99.49 39074
Others 0.04 0.78 1.82 0.51 100.00 @
All India 5.15 100.00 355.52 100.00 69022

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 ANNEXURE – VI

Three Largest Producing States of Important Crops during 2006-07

Production : mt
Crop/ Group of Crops States Production

I. Foodgrains
Rice West Bengal 14.75
Andhra Pradesh 11.87
Uttar Pradesh 11.12
All - India 93.35
Wheat Uttar Pradesh 25.03
Punjab 14.60
Haryana 10.06
All - India 75.81
Maize Karnataka 2.72
Andhra Pradesh 2.46
Bihar 1.71
All - India 15.10
Total Coarse
Cereals Maharashtra 6.14
Rajasthan 5.50
Karnataka 5.06
All - India 33.92

Total Pulses Madhya Pradesh 3.20

Maharashtra 2.30
Uttar Pradesh 1.98
All - India 14.20
Total Foodgrains Uttar Pradesh 41.21
Punjab 25.31
Andhra Pradesh 16.23
II .Oilseeds All - India 217.28
Groundnut Gujarat 1.44
Tamil Nadu 1.01
Andhra Pradesh 0.74
All - India 4.86
Rapeseed &
Mustard Rajasthan 3.81
Uttar Pradesh 0.87
Haryana 0.80
All - India 7.44
Soyabean Madhya Pradesh 4.78
Maharashtra 2.89
Rajasthan 0.77

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 All - India 8.85
Sunflower Karnataka 0.52
Andhra Pradesh 0.33
Maharashtra 0.20
All - India 1.23
Total Oilseeds Madhya Pradesh. 5.81
Rajasthan 5.17
Maharashtra 3.72
All - India 24.29
III . Other Cash Crops
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh 133.95
Maharashtra 78.57
Tamil Nadu 41.12
All - India 355.52
Cotton @ Gujarat 8.79
Maharashtra 4.62
Punjab 2.68
All - India 22.63
Jute & Mesta$ West Bengal 8.51
Bihar 1.39
Assam 0.58
All - India 11.27
@ : Production in million bales of 170 kgs. each.
$ : Production in million bales of 180 kg. each.

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 ANNEXURE – VII
National Agricultural Research Institutes in India
• Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
• Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra.
• Central Institute for Sub-Tropical Horticulture, Lucknow, UP.
• Central Potato Research Institute, Simla, HP.
• Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied fibres, Barrackpore, WB.
• Central Agricultural Research Institute for Andaman and Group of Islands,
Portblair.
• Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, MP.
• Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod, Kerala.
• Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, AP.
• Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa.
• Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun,
• Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivendrum, Kerala.
• Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana.
• Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry, AP.
• Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra.
• Directorate of Oil seeds Research, Hyderabad, AP.
• Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, AP.
• Directorate of Wheat Research, Kamal, Haryana.
• Directorate of Water Management Research, Rahuri, Maharashtra.
• Indian Agricultural Research Institute (Deemed University), Pusa, New Delhi.
• Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, UP.
• Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, UP.
• Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, MP.
• Indian Institute of Pulse Research, Kanpur, UP.
• Indian Agricultural Statistics Institute, New Delhi.
• Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka.
• Indian Lac Research Institute, Ranchi, Bihar.
• Jute Technological Research Institute, Kolkata, WB.
• National Centre for Mushroom Research and Training, Solan, HP.
• National Research Centre for Agro-forestry, Jhansi, UP.
• National Research Centre for Cashew, Puttur, Karnataka.
• National Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh, Gujarat.
• National Research Centre on Soybean, Indore, MP.
• National Research Centre on Citrus, Nagpur, Maharashtra.
• National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Faridabad, Haryana.
• National Research Centre for Sorghum, Hyderabad, AP.
• National Centre for Weed Science, Jabalpur, MP.
• National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi.
• National Research Centre for Spices, Calicut, Kerala.
• National Research Centre for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
• National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur, Maharashtra.
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 • National Research Centre on Rapeseed and Mustard, Bharatpur, Rajasthan.
• National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, LBS Centre for Bio and Plant
Protection, Pusa, New Delhi.
• National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, Library
Avenue, New Delhi.
• National Biotechnological Centre for Crop Science, Pusa, New Delhi.
• National Research Centre for Oil Palm, Pedavegi, West Godavari, AP.
• National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic, Pune.
• Nuclear Research Laboratory, Pusa, New Delhi.
• Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Meerut, UP.
• Plant Quarantine Regional Station, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources,
Hyderabad, AP.
• Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, TN.
• Vivekananda Parvatia Krishi Anusandhana Shala, Almora, UP.
• Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region, Bhubaneswar, Orissa.

INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTRES

• Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Indonesia.

• Centre International de Agricultural Tropical (CIAT), Colombia.
• Centre International de la Papa (CIP), Peru.
• Centre International de la Mejoramiento de Maizy Trigo (CIMMYT), Mexico.
• International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), Rome.
• International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Area (ICARDA), Syria.
• International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Kenya.
• International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Nepal.
• International Centre for Research in Agro-forestry (ICRAF), Kenya.
• International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISA T), India.
• International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria.
• International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), Sri Lanka.
• International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD), Kenya.
International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), Ethiopia.
• International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines.
• International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR), Netherlands.
• West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), Ivory Coast.
• Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development (WINROCK
INTERNATIONAL), Canada.

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 ANNEXURE - VIII
Abbreviations of important agricultural institutes
CARl - Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair (Andman and Nicobar).
CAZRI - Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur (Rajasthan).
CCRI - Central Coffee Research Institute, Chikmanglur (Karnataka).
CFTRI - Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore (Karnataka).
CICR - Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur (Maharashtra).
CPPTI - Central Plant Protection Training Institute, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)
CPRI - Central Potato Research Institute, Simla (Himachal Pradesh).
CRRI - Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack (Orissa).
CSSRI - Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal (Haryana).
CSWCRTI - Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun (Uttaranchal).

CSIR - Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.

CTRI - Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajamundry (Andhra Pradesh).

CTRI - Cotton Technological Research Institute, Mumbai (Maharashtra).
DPR/IIPR - Directorate of Pulse Research, Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) or lndian Institute of Pulse Research, Kanpur (UP)

DRR - Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh).

FRI - Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (Uttaranchal).

IARI - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
IASRI - Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi.
ICAR - Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
ICARDA - International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dryland Areas, Aleppo (Syria).

- International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh).
ICRISAT
IGFRI - Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh).

IGSI - Indian Grain Storage Institute, Hapur (Uttar Pradesh).

ILRI - Indian Lac Research Institute, Ranchi (Jharkhand)
IIHR - Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore (Karnataka).

IISR - Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh).

IRRI - International Rice Research Institute, Manila (Philippines).

IVRI - Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh).
JARI - Jute Agricultural Research Institute, Barackpore (West Bengal).
JTRI - Jute Technological Research Institute, Kolkata (West Bengal).
NAARM - National Academy for Agricultural Research & Management, Hyderabad (AP).
NBPGR - National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi.
NBSSLUP - National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur (Maharashtra).
NCERT - National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
NCDC - National Cooperative Development Corporation, New Delhi/
NDRI - National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (Haryana).
NSI - National Sugar Institute, Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh).
NRCG - National Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagarh (Gujarat)
SBI - Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu).
VPKAS - Vivekanand Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhanshala, Almora (Uttaranchal).
PBCS - Potato Breeding and Certification Station, Kufri, Simla (Himanchal Pradesh).

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 ANNEXURE - IX

Conversion Factors between Important Primary and Secondary Agricultural

Commodities

Commodity Conversion Factor

Rice
Rice (Cleaned) Production 2/3 of Paddy Production
Cotton
Cotton Lint Production 1/3 of Kapas Production
Cotton Seed Production 2/3 of Kapas Production
2 Times of Cotton Lint Production
100 Yards of Hessian 54 lbs. of Raw Jute
4148 Yards of Hessian 1 Ton of Raw Jute
1 Ton of Sacking 5.55 Bales of Raw Jute (of 180 Kgs. each)
1 Ton of Hessian Sacking etc. 54 lbs. of Raw Jute
Groundnut
Kernel to Nuts in Shell 70 Percent
Oil to Nuts in Shell 28 Percent
Oil to Kernels Crushed 40 Percent
Cake to Kernels Crushed 60 Percent
Sesamum
Oil to Seeds Crushed 40 Percent
Cake to Seeds Crushed 60 Percent
Rapseed and Mustard
Oil to Seeds Crushed 33 Percent
Cake to Seeds Crushed 67 Percent
Linseed
Oil to seeds Crushed 33 Percent
Cake to Seeds Crushed 67 Percent
Castor seed
Oil to Seeds Crushed 33 Percent
Cake to Seeds Crushed 67 Percent
Coconut
Copra to Nuts One Ton of Copra = 6773 Nuts
Oil to Copra Crushed 62 Percent
Cake to Copra Crushed 38 Percent
Nigerseed
Oil to Seeds Crushed 28 Percent
Cake to Seeds Crushed 72 Percent
Kardi Seed
Oil to Seeds Crushed 40 Percent
Cake to Seeds Crushed 60 Percent
Mahua Seed
Oil to Seeds Crushed 36 Percent
Cake to Seeds Crushed 64 Percent

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Neem Seed
Oil to Kernels Crushed 45 to 50 Percent
Cake to Kernels Crushed 50 to 55 Percent
Soyabean Seed
Oil to Soyabean Seed Crushed 18 Percent
Meal to Soyabean Seed Crushed 73 Percent
Hull from Soyabean Seed Crushed 8 Percent
Wastage from Soyabean Seed Crushed 1 Percent
Sugar
Gur from Cane Crushed 11.20 Percent to 11.50 Percent
Crystal Sugar from Gur Refined 62.5 Percent
Crystal Sugar from Cane Crushed (Cane
Factories) 10.20 Percent
Khandasari Sugar (Sulpher and Non-
sulpher) from standard Gur Refined 46 Percent
Molasses from Cane Crushed 4.0 Percent to 4.5 Percent
Cane - Trash* from Cane Harvested 8.0 Percent to 12.0 Percent
Lac
Seed Lac 66.0 Percent of Stick Lac
57.4 Percent of Stick, or
Shell Lac 87.0 Percent of Seed Lac
Cashew nut
Cashew Kernel 25 Percent of Cashewnuts

135
 ANNEXURE - X

Glossary
Acid soil. A soil with a pH reading of less than 7.0 on a scale from 0 to 14.
Adaptability. In plants, a modification in the structure or function to fit a changed environment.
Aerobic. Requiring oxygen to function, as opposed to anaerobic.
Agriculture. The science of using crops and animals to transform sunlight energy into products that can be stored and
used by humans elsewhere and at a later date.
Agrologist. One who understands and practices the science of agriculture.
Agronomy. A science combining crop production and soil management. The word is derived from two Greek
words: agros (field) and nomos (to manage).
Alkaline soil. A soil with a pH above 7.3 on a scale from 0 to 14.
Anaerobic. Not requiring oxygen to function.
Anatomy. The study of structure.
Annuals. Plants that complete all developmental and reproductive stages in one season or year.
Anthesis. The period when anthers are extruded from the glumes.
Apical dominance. The inhibition in plants of lateral buds by high levels of auxins produced in the lead shoot or apical
meristem.
Apomixis. A form of asexual reproduction. Seeds are formed in plants without sexual fertilization.
Arid climate. A region with an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm (10 in). Aridic soils are dry more than half the
time.
Ash. The residue remaining after complete combustion of organic matter.
Assimilation. In plants, the conversion of photosynthetic products into substances used by the plant.
Auricles. Ear or finger-like clasping appendages located at the base of the leaf blade and at the top of the leaf
sheath.
Awn. A bristle like extension of the glumes (lemma) of cereal and grass plants.
Axillary buds. Vegetative buds arising from leaf axils.
Backcross. Combining the progeny of a cross with one of the parents.
Bearded. In plants, having awns.
Biennials. Plants that live for two years and reach reproductive development in the second year.
Biological significance. Differences between any two treatments that have a high (usually I to 5 out of 100) probability
of being caused by the treatment and a low probability of being caused by chance variation.
Biological variation. The difference between any two measurements resulting from factors other than the treatment
(error, chance) within defined limits.
Biological yield. The total dry-matter weight of above-ground parts including economic or grain yield and non grain
plant parts.
Biomass. The total dry-matter production of a crop, the net result from photosynthesis, respiration, and mineral uptake.
Blade. In plants, the leaf portion above the sheath.
Bloat. In ruminant animals, a condition of excess stomach gas, often caused by succulent legumes, that
can cause death.
Bog soils. Imperfectly drained soils developed from peat.
Boll. The oblong fruit of the cotton or flax plant.
Bolt. In plants, the undesirable formation of reproductive organs on plants grown for their vegetative
organs such as sugar beets, turnips, carrots, or parsnips.
Boot stage. The point in cereal plant development when the developing inflorescence is encased in the leaf
sheath (boot).
Breeder lines. 150 to 300 individually selected heads from a plot of a potential new cereal cultivar, grown in
individual head rows, closely checked for uniformity, and bulked to produce the initial seed of a
new cultivar.
Broadcast. A method of seeding by distributing seed on the soil surface.
Cambium. A cellular layer of tissue separating the xylem and phloem in the stems of dicots.
Canola. A name applied to rapeseed or any derivative of the crop.
Carbohydrate. Sugar, starch, and cellulose components.

136
Carbon: nitrogen ratio. The ratio of the percentage of carbon to that of nitrogen in organic materials.
Cardinal temperatures. Plant development is governed by three cardinal temperatures: the minimum is the temperature
below which plant functions are not detectable; the maximum is the temperature above which it is
not detectable; and the optimum is the temperature at which the function proceeds at maximum
speed.
Cell. In plants, a unit of structure.
Cellulose. A long chain structure of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serves as the building material of
plant cells.
Cereal. A member of the grass family grown for its grain, including rice, barley, wheat, oats, rye.
Chaff. The glumes or bracts covering the kernels or grains of plants removed by threshing.
Check. A standard reference cultivar for comparison in tests. Check row planting. Plants spaced in hills
equally in all directions.
Chlorophyll. The green pigmentation in the chloroplasts of the plant cell that is necessary for photosynthesis.
Chromosomes. Precisely arranged chemical threads carrying the units of heredity and found in the nucleus of
cells.
Clay. A mineral soil comprised of small layered particles, 0.002 to 0.005 mm in size.
Climate. The total long-term weather conditions of an area.
Cobalt. A minor element required by rhizobia bacteria in plant nodules for the formation of vitamin B12, which in
turn is essential to the formation of haemoglobin needed for nitrogen fixation.
Combine. A machine that incorporates the operations of cutting, threshing, and separating grain, straw, and
chaff.
Companion crop. A crop grown in association with forage seedlings to act as a cover crop to suppress weeds.
Compensation point. In plants, the intensity of a photosynthetically related input required to equal the loss of carbon
compounds through respiration. At the compensation point, the amount of CO 2 absorbed is equal to
the amount given off.
Competition. Events associated with a retardation in plant growth arising from an association with other plants.
Controlled storage. Units to reduce respiration to extend storage life and quality of stored plant products.
Cotyledons. The two halves of a pea or bean seed that form the first leaves of a plant. Cotyledons are storage
organs.
Coumarin. The bitter flavor substance of sweet clover. Coumarin may occur in lesser amounts in other plams.
Coumarin may be converted to toxic substances when spoilage of sweet clover hay or silage occurs.
Cover crop. A crop grown to protect the soil from erosion or nutriem leaching.
Crop physiology. The science of plam functions and the phenomena of plams studied in a community of plams under
field conditions.
Crop production. A science aimed at maximizing photosynthesis to increase economic crop yield.
Cross-inoculation groups. Symbiotic bacteria are specific for many legumes such as soybeans, but in some
cases bacteria will cross-inoculate with several species, e.g., alfalfa and sweet clover.
Crown. In plants, the top of a root where buds and new shoots arise.
Crown buds. Differentiated cells on the top of roots capable of initiating new shoot growth.
Culm. The stem or straw of grasses with joints or nodes at intervals.
Cultivar (cv.). An inclusive term for lines, varieties, hybrids, or selections of crops. Each cultivar is
distinct from other cultivars of the same species.
Cultural energy. Energy from human and animal labor, and from fossil fuels used by machines in their manufacture
and operation in all aspects of food production, transportation, processing, and distribution.
Cultural energy efficiency. The ratio of useful output of energy to energy inputs.
Cytology. The study of individual cells.
Denitrification. The release of inert nitrogen through the breaking down action of plant tissues and nitrates to
nitrites, ammonia, and N2gas.
Detassel. Removal of the pollen-producing organ (tassel) of corn.
Determinate species. Plants having definite limits, i.e., a definite distinction between vegetative and reproductive
stages.
Dicots. Plants having two cotyledons at the first node. The word dicot is derived from dicotyledon meaning having
two cotyledons.
Differentiation. The formation of specialized tissues during growth and development.

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Diploid. Having two sets of chromosomes, one from the female and one from the male parent.
Direct-seeded forages. Seeded without a companion crop.
Double cropping. The practice of producing two successive crops from the same piece of land in one year.
Dryeration. The combination of high temperature drying and aeration.
Durum wheat. A hard spring wheat high in protein that is favored for the production of semolina flour used to
make pasta products such as spaghetti and macaroni.
Ecofallow. A system combining crop rotation minimum tillage and weed control to conserve soil and moisture
and to control disease.
Ecology. The study of reciprocal relations among plants and animals and their environment.
Economic yield. The grain tubers, fiber, oil, or plant component of value, in contrast to noneconomic yield of stover,
straw, leaves, or other residue.
Ecosystem. The interaction of natural forces in a harmonious situation.
Egg. In plants, the reproductive cell of the female.
Empirical. Practices based on observation and experience without a scientific understanding; e.g., ancient
agriculturists knew that manure increased crop yields and accordingly recommended manure
application, but it took centuries to learn that it was nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash and other
microelements that were associated with yield increases.
Energy. The potential of light, heat, or chemical energy to do work.
Ensilage (silage). Chopped plant material preserved by fermentation.
Enzyme. A substance that catalyzes and often initiates a biochemical reaction.
Erosion. In soil, the loss by water, wind, or other action.
Etiolation. The elongation of plant cells caused by a high concentration of auxins (plant hormones) usually as
a result of low light intensity.
Eutrophication. A process whereby phosphorus-induced algae growth in still water depletes oxygen from the water
as the algae decay. The reduced oxygen supply may suffocate fish or other living forms.
Evapotranspiration. The combined loss of water from an area from evaporation and transpiration.
Fallow. A field uncropped, usually for one growing season to conserve moisture.
Fermentation (silage). A process whereby bacteria act on the energy content of the chopped plant material to produce
an acid that preserves or pickles the crop material.
Fertilization (plant). The union of the nucleus from the male pollen grain with the embryo or egg of the female ovary.
Fertilization (soil). The addition of plant nutrients to the soil to promote photosynthesis and growth.
Fibrous root. A root with many fine branches as opposed to a single or multiple taproot.
Filial generation. (Fl, F2, etc.). The generation of the progeny following a cross.
Flag leaf. The final, uppermost leaf to develop. Usually refers to cereal plants.
Forage (herbage). Plant biomass that serves as animal feed.
Fungicide. A chemical used to control plant disease (fungi).
Gamete. A sex cell containing half the chromosome number as other body cells. The male gamete and the female
gamete combine in fertilization to produce the normal chromosome number.
Gasohol. A blend of gasoline and alcohol.
Genes. Unit of inheritance having a specific chemical composition and having specific location on a chromosome.
Genetics. The science that deals with the inheritance of traits.
Genotype. The heritable or genetic composition of an individual (see phenotype).
Geotropism. Growth or movement of a plant part with respect to gravity forces. Vegetative plant parts are
usually negatively geotropic and grow upward; roots are geotropic and grow downward.
Glumes. Bracts (chaff) covering a kernel. Wheat glumes are easily removed at threshing; in barley they often adhere to
the kernel.
Grain. The kernels of a crop.
Grazing. Livestock harvesting plant material.
Groat. The endosperm of an oat kernel with the lemma and palea (hull) removed.
Growing point. The lead meristematic tissue from which subsequent growth arises.
Growth. An increase in dry weight usually as a result of an increase in cell size or cell number.
Haemoglobin. The "blood" in a legume root nodule resulting in a pink-red color.
Harvest index. The ratio of grain yield to biological yield by weight. ~
Haylage. A silage product made from forages and preserved at 40 to 60% moisture.
Herbage. The fresh or preserved plant parts of a crop.

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Herbicide. A substance used to kill or destroy plants, sometimes called weedicides. Selective herbicides have
a relatively specific action in contrast to the relatively general action of nonselective herbicides.
Heterozygous. An individual having unlike genes at one or more points (loci) on its chromosomes.
Homozygous. An individual having similar genes at all points (loci) on its chromosomes.
Hormones. Naturally occurring chemicals produced in plant cells to regulate plant functions.
Humus. A form of soil organic matter that is somewhat resistant to further rapid decomposition. Humus has a
carbon:nitrogen ratio of 10:1.
Hybrid. The first generation progeny of a cross between two different strains of the same species. A hybrid
may combine characteristics derived from the two parent stocks and may be more desirable than
either parent.
Hybrid vigor or heterosis. The extra vigor or yield often obtained from progeny following a cross.
Ideotype. In plants, a biological model that is expected to perform in a predictable manner within a defined
environment.
Indeterminate. Plants having no defined limits of vegetative and reproductive development.
Inflorescence. The flowering parts of a plant such as a spike of wheat, a head of barley, a panicle of oats.
Inoculation. The application of a rhizobium strain to seed or soil of a legume crop to promote nitrogen fixation.
Insecticide. A chemical used to kill insects.
Intercropping. The production of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field.
Internodes. The region between two nodes of a plant stem. In grasses, the leaf sheath encases much of the
internode.
Interseeding crops. Establishing a second crop between the rows of an existing crop.
In vitro. Conducted in a test tube as contrasted to in vivo, which means conducted in a living organism. e.g.,
in vitro digestibility of plant material.
Isolines. Lines identical in all aspects but one.
Lateritic soils. Mineral-rich (iron and aluminum) soil that hardens irreversibly into rocklike material when dried.
The name comes from the Latin word for "brick."
Leaching. The action of water removing soil materials in solution.
Leaf Area Index (LAI). The ratio of leaf area to land area. A LAI of 4 means that on one hectare there are four hectares
of leaf area, usually one side of the leaf lamina only.
Legume. A plant capable of forming a symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria to fix atmospheric
nitrogen.
Lemma. The outer structure of a single floret of grasses often bearing an awn. The lemma and palea cover the
grain of oats and barley. The lemma is larger than the palea and, in oats and barley, adheres to the
grain on the opposite side of the crease. In wheat and rye, the lemma and palea are usually removed
at threshing.
Light saturation. When photosynthesis is not increased by additional light intensity, a leaf has reached light saturation.
Lignin. A differentiation product in cell walls that makes them strong and firm.
Ligule. A thin membranous extension of the leaf sheath positioned against the culm of grasses where the leaf
blade forms. This clear-cut division between leaf blade and sheath is not present in a ligule less line,
and the leaf blade adopts an upright position.
Loam. A soil comprised of a mixture of clay, silt and sand, or gravel.
Lodging. The permanent displacement of the stems of crops from their upright position.
Lodicules. Small organs in grasses and cereals located between the ovary and the surrounding glumes. The
lodicules swell at the time of fertilization to force open the glumes.
Magnetic response. A reaction to the earth's polarity whereby roots become aligned to the N-S magnetic force.
Mediterranean climate. Typified by mild wet winters and hot dry summers with 200- 300 mm of rainfall.
Meristem regions. Areas in the plant where cells are rapidly dividing. Cells in meristem regions are not differentiated.
Minimum tillage. The minimum soil manipulation necessary for maximum crop production under existing soil and
climatic conditions.
Mitochondria. Cellular bodies contained in cell protoplasm that serve as sites for the breakdown of food energy.
Mixed grain. Usually refers to oat and barley mixtures in a 50:50 ratio or a 65:35 ratio of oats to barley. Spring
wheat may be added to a mixture of oats and barley.
Molybdenum. A minor element required by rhizobia for nitrogen fixation in plants.
Monocots. Plants having a single cotyledon or leaf at the first node of the lead shoot or stem. The word monocot
is derived from monocotyledon meaning having one cotyledon.
Monoculture. The production of a single species on an ongoing basis.

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Morphology. Referring to plant shape or structure.
Muck. A black soil developed from fairly well decomposed organic material formed under poor drainage
conditions.
Multilines. A blend or mixture of lines of one species that are genetically very similar (e.g., a multiline of
wheat).
Multiple cropping. Growing two or more crops on the same field in a year.
Mutant. A selection resulting from a heritable variation (mutation).
Natural ecosystem. A geographic area virtually untouched by man.
Neutral soil. On a scale from 0 to 14, a neutral soil has a reading of 7.0 and is neither acidic nor alkaline.
Nitrogen fixation. In plants, the conversion of inert atmospheric nitrogen N2 into a form useful to plants.
Nodes. Solid regions or joints in stems. In grasses, the leaf sheath is attached to the node. Lateral buds may
develop at a node.
Nodules. In plants, refers to nitrogen-fixing nodules on a legume root consisting of plant cells crammed full of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Nubbin. A small, poorly developed ear of corn.0
Organic farming. An attempt to minimize the use of chemicals and inorganic inputs in crop production.
Organic matter. Plant residues (roots, leaves, stems) in soil.
Palea. The small inner structure of a single floret in grasses. In barley and oats, the palea adheres to the
grain in the crease area. In wheat and rye, the palea is removed by threshing.
Panicle. In grasses, the spikelets may be attached by fine branches or subdivisions of the stem. In this case the
inflorescence is called a panicle.
Parasitic leaves. When the loss of energy by respiration exceeds the contribution from photosynthesis, a leaf is
considered to be parasitic.
Penultimate leaf. The next to last leaf to develop on a plant such as corn and cereals.
Petiole. The stalk on which the leaf blade is attached to the stem. In ladino clover, the petiole arises from the
stolon. In rhubarb, the petiole is the harvested portion.
Perennial. A plant that lives for more than one year. A perennial plant may reach reproductive development in
the first season and in each subsequent season.
Pesticide. Includes chemicals such as rodenticides, insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides used to control
pests in plants and animals.
Phenotype. The physical appearance of a plant resulting from the action of genotype and environment.
Phloem. Conducting tissue within a plant to transport the products of photosynthesis to other plant parts.
Photosynthesis. The basis of all agriculture; the process that transforms CO2 into food.
Phototropism. A growth, enzyme-regulated plant response of bending toward a light source.
Physiological maturity. The point in economic yield development at which no further increase in dry weight takes
place.
Phytoplankton. Simple plant forms that are part of the plankton group, are capable of photosynthesis, and are the
major source of sustenance for all animal life in the seas.
Pistil. The female reproductive organ in flower consisting of a stigma, style and ovary.
Plankton. The small plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) that drift and float in the oceans.
Plant breeding. Organized attempts to produce progressively better adapted populations.
Plant physiology. The science of functions and phenomena of plants as studied individually.
Plastic responses. The ability of plants to respond (within limits) to competitive stress such as seeding rate.
Pollen. Plant germ cells produced in the anthers containing the genetic material of heredity in the nucleus.
Pollination. The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma.
Productivity score. A measure of crop performance obtained by summing grain yield, biological yield, and harvest
index values.
Prolific corn. Plants that are consistently capable of producing two or more ears per plants.
Proteins. Substances comprised of amino acids and present in all living systems.
Protoplasm. A viscous, gel-like living substance within a cell that includes the nucleus, chloroplasts in green
cells, and mitchondria.
Relay cropping. A term to describe the seeding of one cropimmediately into another standing crop, in quick succession
Respiration. The release of energy involving the use of oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide.
Rhizobium. A microorganism capable of entering the root hair of a legume to form a nodule and fix nitrogen
from the atmosphere.

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Rhizomes. Underground stems of plants which grow horizontally beneath the soil surface and which are capable
of developing new roots and shoots at internodes.
Rotation. Varying the sequence of crops grown on the same piece of land.
Ruminant animals. Multistomached livestock capable of utilizing cellulose and inorganic nitrogen forms to produce
protein.
Silage (ensilage). A form of feed preserved by the acid-producing action of fermentation.
Sink. In plants. the storage capacity of the economic yield component.
Soil capability. The capacity of a soil or tract of land to be used for sustained and profitable production of food.
Soil salinity. Soils with a high level of soluble salts, but not highly alkaline.
Source. In plants, the photosynthetic capacity to provide assimilate.
Spike. In grasses, if the spikelets are directly attached to the stem or rachis the entire inflorescence is called
a spike.
Spikelet. The inflorescence of grasses consists of a series of spikelets. The spikelet therefore is the basic unit
of the spike. Each spikelet may have one or more florets encased by a pair of outer glumes.
Stamens. The pollen-producing organs of plants.
Stolons. Horizontal, above ground stems of plants.
Stomata. An opening in the epidermis of a leaf contained between two guard cells which regulate the size of
the opening. Stomata allow for free exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen within the leaf and the
outside air and are the openings through which water vapor passes in transpiration. (Singular form is
stoma).
Stooling. A term to indicate branch or tiller development in plants.
Sucker. A shoot or tiller arising from the base or axils of plants.
Sward. A canopy of crop leaves.
Symbiotic relationship. When two different organisms live in close association and depend on each other for their
mutual benefit.
Taxonomy. The classification and naming of organisms.
Teleology. The doctrine that final causes influence events. As applied to plants, the view that plant development
is due to the purpose served by them is considered unscientific and incorrect: e.g., roots do not grow
toward a moisture source, leaves do not orientate themselves to maximize photosynthesis, and plants
do not develop large horizontally disposed leaves so that they can compete in evolutionary processes.
Topsoil. The upper productive layer of soil.
Transpiration. Water loss from the plant that accounts for 99% of the water used by plants.
Turgid. Swollen with water.
Unstable soils. Soils subject to rapid loss of organic matter and erosion.
Urea. A solid form of nitrogen fertilizer containing 46% nitrogen and produced by reacting ammonia with
carbon dioxide under pressure at an elevated temperature.
Vacuole. A region in a plant cell filled with cell sap and stored food products and by-products. The vacuole is
bounded by a membrane.
Vernalization. In plants, a cold temperature-photoperiod requirement to develop reproductive organs.
Vertical integration. When a producer becomes a middleman by processing his own agricuhural products for sale
directly to the consumer.
Weed. A plant out of place.
Whorl. A circular arrangement of plant leaves.
Xylem. Conducting tissue in plants to transport water and nutrients absorbed by the root to other plant parts.
Zero-tillage. A system in which a crop is planted with minimum soil disturbance directly into an untilled stubble
from the previous crop, using chemicals for weed control.

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