Submitted to: Sir Jesus Menoy

Computer and Computer History

A computer is
general purpose
equipment
that
can
be programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical
operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily

changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of

problem.

Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing

element and some form of memory. The processing element
carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing
and control unit that can change the order of operations
based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow
information to be retrieved from an external source, and the
result of operations saved and retrieved.

The first electronic digital computers were developed between

1940 and 1945 in the United Kingdom and United States.
Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as
much power as several hundred modern personal computers
(PCs). In this eramechanical analog computers were used for
military applications.

Modern computers based on circuits are millions to billions of

times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a
fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to
fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered
by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms
are icons of the Information Age and are what most people
think
of
as
"computers".
However,
the embedded
computers found in many devices from mp3 players to fighter
aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most
numerous.

Computing hardware evolved from machines that needed

separate manual action to perform each arithmetic operation,
to punched card machines, and then to stored-program
computers. The history of stored-program computers relates
first to computer architecture, that is, the organization of the
units to perform input and output, to store data and to
operate as an integrated mechanism.

Before the development

of the general-purpose
computer,
most
calculations were done
by humans. Mechanical
tools to help humans
with digital calculations
were
then
called
"calculating machines",
by proprietary names, or
even
as
they
are
now, calculators. It was
those humans who used
the machines who were
then called computers.
Aside
from
written
numerals, the first aids
to computation were
purely
mechanical
devices which required the operator to set up the initial values
of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the
device to obtain the result. A sophisticated (and
comparatively recent) example is the slide rule in which
numbers are represented as lengths on a logarithmic scale
and computation is performed by setting a cursor and aligning
sliding scales, thus adding those lengths. Numbers could be
represented in a continuous "analog" form, for instance a
voltage or some other physical property was set to be
proportional to the number. Analog computers, like those

designed and built by Vannevar Bush before World War II were

of this type. Numbers could be represented in the form of
digits,
automatically
manipulated
by
a
mechanical
mechanism. Although this last approach required more
complex mechanisms in many cases, it made for greater
precision of results.

The invention of electronic amplifiers made calculating

machines
much
faster
than
their
mechanical
or
electromechanical predecessors. Vacuum tube (thermionic
valve) amplifiers gave way to solid state transistors, and then
rapidly to integrated circuits which continue to improve,
placing millions of electrical switches (typically transistors) on
a single elaborately manufactured piece of semi-conductor
the size of a fingernail. By defeating thetyranny of numbers,
integrated circuits made high-speed and low-cost digital
computers a widespread commodity. There is an ongoing
effort to make computer hardware faster, cheaper, and
capable of storing more data.

Computing hardware has become a platform for uses other

than mere computation, such as process automation,
electronic communications, equipment control, entertainment,
education, etc. Each field in turn has imposed its own
requirements on the hardware, which has evolved in response

to those requirements, such as the role of the touch screen to

create a more intuitive and natural user interface.

As all computers rely on digital storage, and tend to be limited

by the size and speed of memory, the history of computer
data storage is tied to the development of computers.

Laptop Computers

In this day and age, computer technology develops so rapidly

that it seems there is no end to the possibilities of the miracle
machine. Computers, once monstrous behemoths that could
dominate

whole

rooms,

can

now

be

compacted

into

lightweight, portable notebook systems. The laptop computer

was likely unimaginable when computers were first created
more than 60 years ago, but today it features incredible
technology in a very small package.

Earliest Laptops

Portable computers first became commercially available in

1981
with the Osborne 1 system
(Wilson
2006). Th
is

computer was
about the size
of
a portable sewing machine, featured a tiny monitor, and could
not be run on battery power. However, it revolutionized the
business world, allowing business professionals to carry their
computer data with them for the first time, even on
airplanes. But due to the unwieldy size of the Osborne I and
its inability to run on battery power, the system never really
took off in the commercial market, though it would remain a
vanguard of technological advances to come.

The first true laptop computer, which featured a flat display

screen that could fold down on the keyboard, was introduced
in 1982. Termed the GRID Compass, the computer featured
the clamshell design that is still used for most modern laptops
and could be run on battery power (Wilson 2006). However, its
incredibly high price and IBM incompatibility limited its
attractiveness in the commercial market, and it was used
primarily by only the U.S. military and NASA.

Two other portable computers, introduced in 1983, would

prove to be slightly more successful in the commercial
market. The Compaq Portable and Epson HX-20 featured
revolutionary changes that would make them much more
viable for business use. While the Compaq system required AC
power, it was the first portable computer to be compatible
with the MS-DOS operating system and IBM software, allowing
for ease in data transfer from desktop computers. The Epson
HX-20, while fairly simple in its programming, was relatively
inexpensive and could be run on rechargeable batteries.

By late 1983, the market for laptop computers was wide open,
and traveling business people were hungry for improved
technology. Correspondingly, this year saw the launch of one
of the most popular early laptops, the Kyocera Kyotronic 85
(Wilson 2006). This product was first introduced in Japan and
experienced relatively slow sales, but American computer
engineers quickly saw its potential and began marketing it in
the United States with substantially increased commercial
success. The laptop featured an internal modem and several
programs designed by Microsoft. It was also capable of
running on regular AA batteries. Although it did not feature
the clamshell design most common in todays laptops, it was
about the size of a standard paper notebook. The computers
low price (as little as $300) and convenient portability made it
a bestseller among journalists and correspondents.

IBM-Compatible Laptops

Despite

the

relative

success of some early

laptops and
business

the

people

for

clamor
more

by

portable

computers,

producers
popularity

encountered
for

their

some
systems

difficulty
that

gaining
were

laptop

overall

not

IBM

compatible. Because IBM was the major platform for most

desktop computers, it became essential that laptop computers
were IBM compatible in order to promote the transfer of data
from one computer to another. To fulfill this need, two IBMcompatible laptops were launched in 1986 and 1987 to
moderate success (Wilson 2006). Produced by IBM and
Toshiba, the units were fairly limited in their operating
capabilities but they were light enough to be carried in a
backpack, could be run on batteries, and included a pause

feature that allowed users to resume work between sessions

without restarting. While the IBM-compatible systems were
useful, they were still limited in their viability and did not
experience large-scale commercial success.

Laptops Experience True Success

By 1987, several laptop manufacturers had emerged on the
market, and competition was fierce to produce the first, truly

successful laptop computer. In that year, a contract from the

United States Air Force for the purchase of 200,000 laptops
was up for grabs, and computer manufacturers competed
heavily to win the contract. Each company rushed to develop
prototypes that would secure the deal, with Zenith Data
Systems (ZDS) eventually emerging as the victor. On the
strength of the contract from the Air Force, ZDS became the
largest manufacturer of laptop computers in the late 1980s
(Wilson 2006).

In order to capitalize on its leadership role, ZDS partnered

with a Japanese equipment supplier that would speed the

design and manufacturing process of its laptop

computers. Soon, other laptop manufacturers followed suit
and began working with Japanese equipment
suppliers. However, as Japanese currency became stronger in
the early 1990s, the profit margin of U.S. companies
decreased, and many manufacturers began to turn to Taiwan
as the major source of equipment (Wurster 2001). Companies
that formed partnerships with Taiwanese suppliers (including
Dell, Gateway, and Micron) quickly began to rise to leadership
positions in the laptop market. By this time, laptop computers
had become quite popular among business people, and
suppliers rushed to furnish the growing market with lighter,
faster, and more viable machines.

Apple Enters the Market

Apple
Inc.,
while quite
prominent
in
the
desktop computer
market during the
1980s, was relatively
slow entering the market of
laptop computers. It was not until 1989 that the company
released its first portable computer, the Macintosh Portable
(Wilson 2006). The computer was praised for its incredibly
clear display and long battery life, but it was too bulky and
heavy to be truly competitive with other available laptop
computers. Because Apple had not yet provided a truly
successful Macintosh laptop, several other suppliers began
producing compatible machines; however, copyright law
required that the user of one of these laptops must also
purchase a new or used Macintosh computer to supply the
necessary Mac ROM images.

While Apple was slow to enter the market and was unable to
provide a truly successful laptop model on its first attempt,
the companys 1991 PowerBook series revolutionized laptop
technology. Computers in the series were the vanguard of
several standard features in todays laptop computers,
including the placement of the keyboard, the touchpad
mouse, and built-in network adapters.

Microsoft Standardizes the Laptop

Perhaps the most significant event in the history of laptop

computers was the release of the Windows 95 operating
system by Microsoft in 1995 (Wurster 2001). Prior to this,
operating systems for laptops varied widely, and suppliers
experienced a great amount of flexibility in the design of their
computers. The introduction of Windows 95 as the most
prominent operating system served to standardize and
stabilize most aspects of laptop design. It was also during this
year that CD-ROM drives, Intel Pentium processors, and floppy
disk drives became standard features on nearly all
laptops. Leading laptop suppliers like Dell, Gateway, and
Toshiba quickly released models that complied with the
expected features of a standard laptop computer.

As technology has developed since 1995, the popularity and

viability of laptop computers have greatly increased. Improved
battery life, displays, processors, and network connectivity
have all served to increase the ubiquity of laptop
computers. Today, the average laptop computer is a far cry
from the heavy, bulky portable computers of the early
1980s. Indeed, there is no telling how the laptop will continue
to develop in future years as computing technology advances.