Professional Documents
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Mechanical
Mechanical
Module I & II
Chapter-1 ........................................................................................................................... 2
Basic Concepts ................................................................................................................... 2
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Preamble to Thermodynamics .................................................................................. 3
1.2 Basic Concepts .......................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 System ................................................................................................................ 4
1.2.2 Surroundings ...................................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Boundary ............................................................................................................ 4
1.2.4 State.................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.5 Properties ........................................................................................................... 5
1.2.6 Process ............................................................................................................... 7
Chapter - 2 ....................................................................................................................... 10
First Law of Thermodynamics ...................................................................................... 10
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Statement................................................................................................................. 10
2.2.1 Corollary .......................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Standard Reversible Processes ................................................................................ 12
2.3.1 Constant Volume Process ................................................................................ 13
2.3.2 Constant Pressure Process................................................................................ 14
2.3.3 Isothermal Process ........................................................................................... 15
2.3.4 Reversible Adiabatic Process ........................................................................... 17
2.4 First Law Applied to Open System ......................................................................... 21
2.4.1 Boiler................................................................................................................ 23
3.4.2 Turbine ............................................................................................................. 23
2.4.3 Condenser ........................................................................................................ 24
2.4.4 Compression Device ........................................................................................ 24
Chapter-3 ......................................................................................................................... 26
Second Law of Thermodynamics .................................................................................. 26
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 26
3.1 Second Law ............................................................................................................. 28
3.1.1 Kelvin-Planck Statement ................................................................................. 28
3.1.2 Claussius Statement ......................................................................................... 29
3.1.3 Observations .................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Factors Causing Irreversibility................................................................................ 31
3.2.1 Friction ............................................................................................................. 31
3.3 Carnot Cycle ........................................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Carnot Theorems ............................................................................................. 31
3.3.1 Efficiency of Carnot Cycle .............................................................................. 32
3.4 Absolute Temperature Scale ................................................................................... 33
Chapter - 4 ....................................................................................................................... 36
Cycles ............................................................................................................................... 36
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 36
4.2 Otto Cycle ............................................................................................................... 36
4.2 Diesel Cycle ............................................................................................................ 37
Property of GEC
Chapter-1
Basic Concepts
_____________________________________________________________
1.0 Introduction
Primarily study was classified as Arts and science. In arts literature, music, painting etc
are included. Arts is one step ahead of materialistic. It is more towards spiritualism and
more of philosophical. Whereas science is knowledge based. It is built on facts of life. It
is logical. Engineering is evolved from science.
Engineering is the art of utilizing unfathomable sources of power in nature for the
benefit, convenience and survival for mankind. It involves men, materials, machines and
energy. It is differentiated from pure science in that it is primarily concerned with how to
direct the discoveries of pure science to useful and economical ends and formulate
acceptable theories and practices from them. Engineering therefore demands creative
imagination and originality to innovate useful applications of natural phenomena.
Environment for sustenance of mankind is shown schematically in Fig 1.
Individual
Engineering
Society
Civil
Military
Mech
Electrical
Electronics
Computers
Manufacturing
1. Production Engg
2. CAD/CAM
3. Mfg systems
Industrial Engg
1. OR
2. Quality Mgmt
3. Industrial Engg
4. Reliability based
design
5. Maintenance mgmt
Design
1. M/C drg
2. M/C design
3. Theory of m/cs
4. Mechanics of solids
5. Dynamics of
machineries
6. Mech sys design
Thermal
1. Thermodynamics
2. Energy conversion
3. Heat and mass transfer
4. Power plant engg
5. Refrigeration and A/C
Property of GEC
4
One way of defining thermodynamics is that it is science of relations between heat, work
and relevant properties of a system. This name is stemmed out form Greek word Therme,
which means hotness and dynamics referring power. Thus thermodynamics is a joint
word of therme and dynamics. This term was used for the first time by a renouned
Brittish scientist by name William Thompson (popularly known as Lord Kelvin), who is
referred as father of thermal sciences in 1849, in an international journal. In the first book
written by William Rankine, professor from Glasgow University, it was used. It is rather
logical to start with basics and then build mathematical model and analysis.
Surroundings
Boundary
System
Figure 4: A system
1.2.2 Surroundings
It is defined as those portions of matter external to system, which are affected by changes
occurring within the system. It is to be noted that the effect of system on surroundings is
not having major thrust.
1.2.3 Boundary
It is the one which separates the system from surroundings. It may or may not have
physical dimension. If it does not then in the analysis an imaginary boundary will be
drawn. It may be even stationary or non-stationary (rotating). If the boundary is having
physical dimension, it will entrap the system and therefore, it is what known as closed or
non-flow system. If it is imaginary it can not entrap and hence the flow of system is
possible, in which case it is known as open system or flow system.
1.2.4 State
For analysis the condition of system is to be known. State of a system is the condition of
the system at the instant of investigation. As analysis becomes convenient and effective if
the state is measured.
1.2.5 Properties
Properties are those identifiable and hence measurable characteristics which are relevant
to the investigation. They possess unique values at the time of measurement. To achieve
unique value, it is a must to have equilibrium, in this case, thermodynamic equilibrium.
Thermodynamic equilibrium: A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if no
further changes occur within it when it is isolated from its surroundings. The isolation
may be physical or conceptual.
1.2.5.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if no further changes occur within it
when it is isolated from its surroundings. The isolation may be conceptual too.
Entire classical thermodynamics is based on closed system for better modeling and the
concepts evolved are extended to open system with appropriate modifications. In general,
a closed system is viewed as piston-cylinder arrangement as it possesses flexibility in
movement of the boundary, which is required for generation of work. There are three
important properties to deal with closed system which are: volume, pressure and
temperature. Measurement of these properties is discussed in the following sections.
1.2.5.2 Measurement of properties
Volume (V): As region space will have regular shape for the sake of easiness in
manufacturing, say, cylinder, measurement volume need not be discussed.
Pressure (P): microscopically, force of net repulsion and attraction per unit area is known
as pressure exerted by the system. While measuring it is assumed that force is normal to
the area. There are many instruments like pressure gauges to measure pressure of a given
system. Manometer is one among them. It is a simple device and it is specially used for
measuring smaller pressure differentials. As atmosphere too comprised of matter, it is
having its own pressure known as atmospheric pressure. Therefore, a given system can be
either above or below atmospheric pressure.
Manometer principle: It is a principle used for measuring difference in pressure between
two given systems.
A
liquid
Property of GEC
FA
FB Fliq
V1
Figure 7: P-V plane
In the conversion process, we are concerned with the change in state of the system.
Moreover, investigation demands this change.
1.2.6 Process
Process is the path of succession of states through which the system passes. System can
only change its state for one or both of the following reasons (mechanical, thermal).
1. Mechanical: There will be change of state of a system if part of the boundary is
displaced by a force so that some mechanical work is done.
2. Thermal: There will be change of state of a system if the system is brought into contact
with a portion of surroundings which is at a different temperature, so that some heat
flows.
1.2.6.1 Postulates for Changing State
These two ways of changing state of a system leads to the definition of work and heat
energies.
1. Work: Work is something which appears at the boundary when a system changes its
state due to the movement of part of the boundary under action of a force.
2. Heat: Heat is something which appears at boundary when a system changes its state
due to the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings during the
contact.
As work and heat are appearing during the change of a system they are energies in
transition and graphically they will have a path and hence known as path function.
Mathematically they are referred to as inexact differentials. Normally, they are denoted
by two suffices one is to refer the initial point and the other end point, ex., W1-2. Work
can be classified into: displacement work, paddle (wheel) work, shaft work out of which
displacement work is common in closed system and shaft work for flow processes by
virtue of their better modeling properties and common applications. Unless otherwise
stated W refers to displacement work and is expressed as follows.
Course Instructor: Dr. V. Mariappan
Restricted circulation only
Property of GEC
8
dW = F. dx
dW = (F/A) A.dx
= P.dV
(1.5)
From Eqn (1.5) it is clear that V will go along X-axis and P on Y axis. Area under the
curve will yield displacement work. Hence, P-V co-ordinates are popular coordinates for
closed system. This plane provides the opportunity of movement of the part of the
boundary. It will be clearer from the Fig-8.
P
1
P1
P2
P.dV
V1
V
V2
1.2.6.4 Cycle
When a system in a given initial state goes through a number of different changes of state
(or processes) and finally returns to its initial state, the system is said to have undergone a
cyclic process or simply a cycle. This is of course thermodynamic cycle, which is
different form mechanical cycle wherein the system comes back to initial mechanical
state.
1.2.6.5 Irreversible Process
It is a process on reversal it can not restore the system and surroundings to respective
initial states. All actual processes which are spontaneous and involve energy in
dissipation are irreversible processes. They can not be expressed mathematically due to
discontinuity. As long as factors causing dissipation like friction are present the process
can not be reversible. As friction is inevitable, irreversible process can only exist in
practice. To analyze problems related thermodynamic, that too processes, it is a must to
transform the problem mathematically, having once modeled carryout the analysis and
then extrapolate the findings to infer the solution for the actuality. The hard core energy
conversion from heat to work takes place only in a cycle. A cycle will be reversible if all
the processes associated are each reversible. Even one of the processes of the cycle is
irreversible; the entire cycle will be irreversible. Thus, all devices, be it, an engine (Power
producing) or power consuming device like refrigerator will be nothing but irreversible
cycles only.
Now we may have to go ahead on cycle and hence various processes involved with for
appropriate modeling, which is discussed in the next chapter.
Property of GEC
10
Chapter - 2
First Law of Thermodynamics
________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) was working very sincerely in establishing the fact of
conservation of energy. Though it was stated by Leibnitz in 1693, the international
community did not accept his claim as he had not considered thermal energy,. In fact this
gave motivation to J. P. Joule to carry out the research in that direction involving heat.
His constant work during 1843-1850 made him realize the fact that in a cycle heat and
work are mutually convertible. This fact came as First law of thermodynamics. There are
many interpretations and statements on first law, of which the following one is being
used more commonly.
2.2 Statement
When any closed system is taken through a cycle, the net work transfer taken place is
dW
proportional to the net heat transfer taken place with the surroundings.
J , where,
dQ
J is Joules constant which is taken as unity in SI units.
2.2.1 Corollary
As the process is the one which we can perform and the cycle is comprised of many
processes, the fact to be reduced down to a process. In this process, three corollaries are
developed, which are as follows.
There exists a property of a closed system such that a change in its value is equal to the
difference between the heat and work transfers taken place during any change of state.
Proof:
P
r
o
p
2
2
A
B
1
Property-1
Figure 1: application of Ilaw to a process
Consider two cycles 1A2B1 and 1A2C1 and applying I law, we get
2A
1B
2A
1B
1A
2B
1A
2B
dQ dQ dW dW
(2.1)
11
2A
1C
2A
1C
1A
2C
1A
2C
dQ dQ dW dW
(2.2)
1C
1B
1C
2B
2C
2B
2C
1B
1C
1C
dQ dQ dW dW
rearranging,
1B
dQ dW dQ dW
2B
2B
2C
(2.3)
2C
The above expression reveals difference between heat and work transfer as far as same
end points are concerned, is independent of path. That is, it is property. Thus it reveals
that that quandity is a property X. Eqn (2.3) can be written as
1
2
1
dQ dW dQ dW
1
dQ dW dX
(2.4)
In differential form
dQ dW = dX
(2.5)
as LHS is energy, X is also is to be energy and moreover, X is a property this is total
energy that possessed by the system.
Significance of energy: this energy, E is available in varieties of form and it can be
broadly classified into Macrocopic and microscopic energy.macroscopic form is energy
of the system as a whole with respect to chosen co-ordinate frame. Kinetic energy (KE)
and potential energy (PE) come under this category. Mocroscopic form is energy
associated with the motion and position of the molecules, which is referred as internal
energy, U.
Potential energy:
m
z
m
Figure 2.2: Potential energy
F= m g
Energy required to lift stored as potential energy,
dW = mg dz
Total energy, PE =
z
Property of GEC
12
i.e., PE = mgz
(2.6)
Kinetic energy:
0V
m
V
m
i.e., KE = () mV2
(2.7)
Therefore, E = KE + PE + U
dE = dKE + dPE + dU
For a non-flow process, KE does not exist because V = 0 and during the process the
datum level does not change or does not change significantly dPE = 0. Thus, dE = dU.
Therefore, Eqn (2.5) becomes,
dQ dW = dU or dQ = dW + dU
(2.8)
The above equation is often called as non-flow energy equation (NFEE). This is very
often used in analyzing processes.
As we are interested in analysis, mathematical modeling is a must as we have agreed, for
which processes is to be reversible. Either power producing or power consuming devices,
they are nothing but thermodynamic cycles. For a reversible cycle all the process
involved are necessarily to be reversible. We will see certain standard reversible
processes that are commonly used to comprise cycles in reality.
13
Heat
rejection
V
(2.13)
P1 T1
Equations (2.9), (2.10) and (2.13) will be quite useful in the analysis. This process is used
as a standard experiment in knowing the nature of the system as it involves the energy
input transforms to the change in internal energy, which is based on the molecular
structure of the system.
W=0
Q>0
Property of GEC
14
Nature of a system vary its temperature for a heat input at a fixed volume represents a
constant volume process. Temperature will rise as the sytem receives an enrgy input at a
fixed space, frequency of collision will definitely increase due to increase in velocity of
molecule. Therefore specific heat at constant volume is defined as the amount of heat
required to show an unit temperatire rise in temperature for an unit mass of the system.
Thus the change in internal energy which is nothing but the heat transfer in a constant
volume process is
dU = m Cv dT
(2.14)
This is to be remembered that it is a property and therefoe irrespective of the process
Eqn (2.14) will hold good.
Process direction:
dQ = m Cv dT which is positive only when dT is positive. That is, T increases. As T
increases P also will increase as per Eqn (2.13). that is, upward is for heat addition and
downward is for heat rejection.
2.3.2 Constant Pressure Process
It is a process wherein thoughout the interaction the pressure is kept constant. This is
known as Isobaric process also (Iso means constancy and bar means pressure). Any
heating process in an open vessel can be of good example. By definition the process
equation becomes P = C and the corresponding plot is given below.
P
1 Heat
2
addition
Heat
rejection
V
(2.15)
As Eqn (2.15) is an energy equation, (PV+U) is also energy. As U is internal energy and
therefore PV is also energy. Whenever a system having volume V and excerting pressure
P will have energy PV used for flow known as flow energy. But in the closed system this
energy is not used for flow. The combinaiton of U and PV is termed as Enthalpy, H.
Therefore, Eqn (2.15) becomes,
15
dQ = dH
(2.16)
Work transfer:
By definition, the displacement work
dW = PdV
= dPV
= mRdT
Properties:
Applying ideal gas equaiton at point 1 and 2, we get
P1V1 = mRT1
P2V2 = mRT2
Operating (2.20)/(2.19)
(2.17)
(2.18)
(2.19)
(2.20)
V2 T2
V1 T1
(2.21)
Equations (2.16), (2.17), (2.18) and (2.21) will be quite useful in the analysis. This
process is used as a standard experiment in knowing the nature of the system as it
involves the energy input transforms to the change in enthalpy.
Q>0
(2.22)
Property of GEC
16
Heat transfer:
Applying NFEE
dQ = PdV + dU
dQ = PdV.. as dU = 0 due to T = C
i.e., dQ = dW
(2.24)
2 Heat addition
Heat rejection
V
Work transfer:
By definition, the displacement work
dW = PdV
Integrating from state 1 to state 2, we get
2
1
2C
W1 2 dW PdV
V
dV C ln 2
V1
1V
V
V
PV ln 2 or mRT ln 2
V1
V1
(2.25)
Properties:
Using process equation, we get
P1V1 = P2V2 = C = PV
(P2/ P1) = (V1/ V2)
(2.26)
Equations (2.24), (2.25) and (2.26) will be quite useful for the analysis.
Process direction:
As heat transfer equals to work transfer, the same direction of poston movement can be
assigned to heat transfers. That is, heat addition will be having the same direction of
expansion and similarly the heat rejection.
Comment: The process curve is known as isotherm which can be used conveniently to
locate temperature in P-V plot. Form the ideal gas equation PV = mRT, it is clear that for
17
a given value of V, P increases with increase in temperature, which means that higher
isotherms are placed above in P-V plot as shown in the Fig 2.11.
P
T2 > T1
T1
V
Figure 2.11: Placement of Isotherms
2.3.4 Reversible Adiabatic Process
It is a process that involves no heat transfer. If the poston moves very fast practically we
can achieve no heat transfer as ther is no much time provided for heat transfer between
system and surroundins have different temperatures. Or else we have to providse ideal
thermal insulators around the boundary to arrest heat transfer. By definition the process is
dQ = 0. As the definition does not give the process equation, we may have to establish it.
Using NFEE, we get
dQ = dW + dU
dW
= - dU by definition
PdV
= -mCvdT
(2.27)
Eqn (2.27) is a ordinary differential equation, solving which we get the process equation.
mRT(dV/V) = -mCvdT
Applying variable seperable method the above differential equation can be solved.
R (dV/V)
= -CvdT/T
= -dT/T
= -lnT + C1
ln(V-1T)
= C1
V-1T
= C2
V-1PV/mR
= C2
PV
(2.28)
Property of GEC
18
i.e., dP/dV = -P/V
(2.29)
2 Expansion
Compression V
Figure 2.12: P-V plot of reversible adiabatic process
Heat transfer:
dQ = 0 by definition
Work transfer:
By definition, the displacement work
dW = PdV
Integrating from state 1 to state 2, we get
2
1
2
(2.30)
W1 2 dW PdV
1V
PV
dV C
V 1
1
1 2
PV (V2
1
1
V1 1 )
1
1
P V V 1 PV
)
1 1 V1
2 2 2
1
P V PV
mR(T2 T1)
2 2 1 1 or
1
1
(2.31)
Using NFEE also we can get theexpression for work transfer. As per NFEE
dQ = dW + dU
dW = -dU by defintion dQ = 0
= - m Cv dT
(2.32)
The above equattion reveals that as heat transfer is 0 the work transfer is at the cost of
internal energy.
Properties:
Using process equation, we get
19
P1V1 = P2V2 = C = PV
(P2/ P1) = (V1/ V2)
(2.33)
V
1
mRT1
V
V1 2
V2
T2V1 V1
T1V2 V2
V
T
2 1
T1 V2
Using Eqn (2.32) on Eqn (2.33)
(2.34)
1
P
T2 P2 1
(2.35)
( )
2
T1 P1
P1
Equations (2.30), (2.31), (2.32), (2.33), (2.34) and (2.35) will be quite useful for the
analysis.
Process direction:
As no heat transfer direction of piston movement will decide the direction of the process.
Comment: The process curve is similar to process curve and as the temperature decreases
for an expansion process, for any starting pivot, in the expansion direction this process
will have to intrsect lower isotherm and hence it has to proceed below the initial
isotherm. The same fact is quite evident comparing the rate of change of slope, i.e.,
Equations (2.23) and (2.29). This fact is illustrated in Fig 2.13.
P
1
T1
PV=C
V
Figure 2.13: Isotherm & reversible adiabatic curves
2.3.5 List of Formulae Common to all Processes
1. Boyles law:
PV = mRT
2. Characteristic gas constant
R
R
where Rbar is univrsal gas costant = 8.3143 KJ/kmolK and M is
M
molecular weight
Course Instructor: Dr. V. Mariappan
Restricted circulation only
Property of GEC
20
3. Mass:
m = nM where n is number of mols
4. Specific heats:
Cp Cv = R
Cp/Cv =
5. For air:
R = 0.287 kJ/kgK
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK
6. Energy:
Potential energy, PE = mgZ, where Z is elevation
Kinetic energy, KE = mV2/2, where V is velocity
Enthalpy, H = U + PV, where, P is pressure and V is volume
Change in internal energy, dU = mCvdT
Change in enthalpy, dH = mCpdT
Displacement Work, dW = PdV
2.3.6 Units of Measurement
No.
1
2
3
Force
Kgf
N (Newton)
Pressure
1kgf/m2
6
7
Temperature
Work
K (=C + 273)
kgfm
K (=C + 273)
Nm = J (Joule)
Heat
cal (caloie)
Power
HP
J/s = w (watt)
Remarks
1kgmxg =1kgf
1x1x9.81=1kgf
10N 1kgf
1kgf/m2 10 Pa
1bar 1kgf/cm2
kgfm 10 J
1 cal = 4.1868 J
heat and work are
same in SI
1HP=736w or
746w
21
Process
eqn
Constant
volume
V=C
Constant
pressure
P=C
Isothermal
Reversible
adiabatic
Polytropic
P-V plot
PV = C
Work
Heat
Property
dQ = dU
P2/P1=T2/T1
dW = d(PV)
= mRdT
dQ = dH
V2/V1=T2/T1
W12
=PVln (V2/V1)
= mRTln (V2/V1)
Same as
work
P2/P1=V1/V2
dW
PV = C
d ( PV )
1
or
V
P2
1
P1
V2
mRdT
1
= mCvdT
dW
PV = C
P
T2
2
T1
P1
d ( PV )
n 1
V
T2
1
T1
V2
or
mRdT
n 1
dQ =
mCndT
V
P2
1
P1
V2
V
T2
1
T1
V2
n 1
P
T2
2
T1
P1
n 1
n
Abbreviation
d
c
m
n
p
da
h
k
M
G
T
Meaning
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
101
102
103
106
109
1012
Property of GEC
22
velociity of flow, angle of flow etc. But in real life there are application of flow system
(open system) and hence we are force to extend the fact applied to closed system to open
system. As open system does not possess physical dimension, we may have to assign an
imaginary one, the volume of which is known as control volume and the surface of which
is known as contrl surface. Thus control volume technique refers to open system and
control mass (mass entrapped in the closed system) is referred to colsed system. As per
the first corollary of Ilaw,
Q = W + E
(2.36)
(2.37)
Q W ( E2 E1)
or rearranging, it becomes
E1 Q W E2
wsh
Z2
Z1
q
Ground Level
After simplification,
1
1
u1 p1v1 gZ1 V12 q wsh u2 p2v2 gZ 2 V22
2
2
(2.38)
23
The above equation is popularly referred to Steady State SteadyFlow Energy Equation
(SSSFEE)
2.4.1 Boiler
It is a steady state steady flow single inlet and single exit device. It is a device where in
incoming water will be converted into steam by adding heat to the system. Symbolically
it is represented as mentioned below.
steam
water
q
Figure 2.17: Boiler
Applying SSSFEE on boiler i.e wcv = 0 as it does not aim to produce work, Eqn (2.38)
becomes
hi pei kei q he pee kee
as the amount of heat energy is far greater than the changes in potential and kinetic
energies, the above equation can be written as
q he hi h 0 as he hi
(2.39)
In an open system undergoes a cycle, heat addition normally involves boiler in vapour
power cycle. It provides heat that avilable to be converted into work as per the definition
of thermodynamics.
For gas refrigeration cycle, similar to this functioanl device known as evaporator. The
amount of heat added will be coming from the stuff ot be refrigerated, thus, this heat
transfer will be known as refrigerating effect. Otherwise, rest all will be the same as
boiler.
3.4.2 Turbine
It is a steady state steady flow single inlet and single exit device. It is a device where in
higher energy system achieved by proevious heat addition process will be forced to go for
expansion process so as to produce work. Symbolically it is represented as mentioned
below.
T
wsh
Property of GEC
24
As the amount of power produced is far greater than the changes in potential and kinetic
energies, the above equation can be written as
wsh hi he h 0 as hi he
(2.40)
In an open system undergoes a cycle, work generation normally involves turbine, say it a
vapour power cycle or gas power cycle.
2.4.3 Condenser
It is a steady state steady flow single inlet and single exit device. It is a device where in
incoming expanded steam will be converted into water by rejecting heat to
thesurroundings. Symbolically it is represented as mentioned below.
q
water
steam
As the amount of heat energy getting is far greater than the changes in potential and
kinetic energies, the above equation can be written as
q he hi h 0 as he hi
(2.41)
In an open system undergoes a cycle, heat rejection normally involves boiler in vapour
power cycle.
2.4.4 Compression Device
To complete a cycle whether it is power plant or power consuming cycle, we need either
compressor or a pump ( a dvice to deliver a substance from low pressre to a higher
pressure). We will see them in the following sections.
2.4.4.1 Compressor
It is a steady state steady flow single inlet and single exit device used in gas power cycle
compressible gas is to be compressed and delivered to a higher pressure. It is a device
where in lower energy system is made to gain higher energy by work input. This is just
opposite to the expansion device. Symbolically it is represented as mentioned below.
wsh
25
As the amount of power required to compression is far greater than the changes in
potential and kinetic energies, the above equation can be written as
wsh hi he h as hi <he
(2.42)
2.4.4.2 Pump
It is a steady state steady flow single inlet and single exit device. It is a device where in
lower energy system is made to gain higher energy by work input. It transfers fluid from
lower pressure to higher pressure. This is just opposite to the expansion device.
Symbolically it is represented as mentioned below.
wsh
As the amount of power required to pump is far greater than the changes in potential and
kinetic energies, the above equation can be written as
wsh hi he h as hi <he
(2.43)
Property of GEC
26
Chapter-3
Second Law of Thermodynamics
______________________________________________________
3.0 Introduction
The first-law thermodynamics gave impetus to almost all the developments in thermal
engineering. As a statement it means energy heat which can be converted into work in a
cyclic device or process. The first corollary derived out of first law reduced down the
facts to a process, in which heat at one side will be equal to the sum of work transfer and
change in internal energy in the other side. It is just the energy balance, with out regard to
their nature. For instance, if heat rejected from a hot cup of tea to the surroundings is
extracted and if one claims to convert that in to work in a process, still the first law will
be applied and to our surprise it will not be violated. But we all know that such extraction
of heat is impossible. If assigning a direction is also incorporated such kind of violations
can be revealed. Moreover, the first law does not categorically say how to apply the
situation wherein irreversibility is involved. It does not quantify irreversibility. These are
the major shortcomings of I-law.
Second law works on this direction of assigning direction constraint to a process. It
introduces a concept of Thermal Energy Reservoir (TER). TER is one which will be
having heat capacity either to give or to receive depends on the temperature of the
system. Therefore it can be classified into source or sink. Source is TER which will be at
higher temperature than the source and sink would be having lower temperature. Further
source and sinks can be classified in to hypothetical and finite reservoirs. Hypothetical
source is a source having infinite capacity of energy by the virtue of being at higher
temperature to give to the system yet its temperature will not fall down. It is to be noted
that it is a hypothetical one and it is assumed to have many temperature blocks, any one
of which can be picked up as infinitesimal higher temperature in comparison with the
system. As a infinitesimally higher temperature can be chosen every time from the
constant temperature source, it is thus theoretically possible to add or reject heat
reversibly as it becomes infinitesimal variations and not spontaneous one. It can be
represented pictorially as shown in Figures 3.1a and 3.1 b. For the sake of simplicity they
are being commonly represented by rectangles as shown in Figures 3.2 a and b.
T1
T1
+T
T1
-T
Q at
T1
Q at
T1
T1 T1
+T
T1
-T
27
Q at Tsys
TK
Source
TK
Sink
Q at Tsys
In case of finite reservoirs, they will behave like their hypothetical counter parts but after
the energy transfer the temperature of them will be changed with respect to the type of
heat transfer whether it has received or rejected. They are also represented like
hypothetical ones by rectangles and they do not have temperature blocks.
Let us consider a cycle completed by a paddle wheel for work transfer system and system
with surroundings as shown in the Fig 3.3a. Take a system at ambient temperature and
pressure in a container. Lowering the weight work can be done on the system, which will
in turn increase the internal energy by virtue of churning, which can be conveniently
rejected to the surroundings bringing the system at initial temperature and pressure. Thus
a cycle can be completed practically, wherein work and heat are negative. This cycle is of
course possible. But the reversal (refer Figure 3.3b); the rejected heat to the surroundings
is added to the system is first of all is not possible as heat flowing naturally from
surroundings which is at the same temperature of the system and secondly this heat can
not turn the paddle to raise the weight to initial position. But if you apply I law, it will not
be violated; which does not mean that the heat flowing from atmosphere and heat turning
the wheel are possible. In short, with paddle wheel and system cycle can be converted
only when they are negative.
W
-ve work
-ve heat
Q
Figure 3.3 a: A possible cycle
W
+ve work
+ve heat
Q
Figure 3.3 b: An impossible cycle
Course Instructor: Dr. V. Mariappan
Restricted circulation only
Property of GEC
28
Now consider another case where heat flows from a source to a sink. This is quite natural.
It is just a process and to complete a cycle the heat is necessarily to be taken form sink
which is not possible. This is represented by Figure 3.4. Therefore, it is not possible to
complete a cycle with only TERs.
TH K
Source
TL K
Sink
Source
29
TH
Source
QH
TH
QH
Wnet = QH-QL
Wnet = QH
Figure 3.6a: An impossible heat engine
QL
Sink
TL
Property of GEC
30
Source
TH
Source
QH = Q L
TH
QH = QL
Wnet = QH-QL
Wnet = 0
QL
Sink
QL
TL
Sink
COP
TL
QL or QH
Wnet
QL
QL
1
COPref
Q
H
Wnetinput QH QL
1
Q
(3.2)
(3.2a)
QH
1
Wnetinput QH QL 1 QL
QH
As QH > QL, COPHP > 1, however, this may not be true for refrigerator.
COPHP
QH
(3.2b)
Q QH QH QL QH QH
QH
COPref L
1
COPHP 1 (3.3)
Wnetinput
QH QL
QH QL
Heat pump and refrigerator differ in location of the sole effect. In refrigerator the sole
effect is the amount of heat extracted from the sink, known as refrigerating effect. But in
the case of heat pump the sole effect is the amount heat pumped to the source, known as
heat pumped. There is a popular unit for refrigeration is tonne of refrigeration (TR). It is
nothing but amount of heat is to be removed from 1 short metric ton (= 900kg) of water at
STP to ice at 0C in a day. At STP the latent heat of water is 80 kcal/kg, TR becomes
80(900)
(3.4)
3000kcal / hr or 50kcal / min
24
Normally air-conditioners specified as 1 tonner, i.e., 1.5 tonner, where the ton refers to
this ton of refrigeration, i.e., the cooling effect.
TR
3.1.3 Observations
Both the statements put together and is known as second law of thermodynamics. There
are three observations one could make, which are delineated here below.
If one looks at the statements, he will understand both are negative statements and it is
quite difficult prove mathematically a negative statement. Secondly, this law like the first
law based on the experiment and logic, it does not have a mathematical proof. Every
31
relevant experiment that has been conducted directly or indirectly verifies the second law,
and no experiment has ever been conducted that contradicts the second law.
As we have seen that efficiency of a heat engine can not be 100%. The very next question
occurs to us is what would be the highest value that efficiency can take. Answer to this
comes from the definition of a reversible cycle. If we recall the definition of a reversible
process that any factor which does not make the system and surroundings not to come
back to their respective initial states.
Property of GEC
32
Let us recall the concept of reversible cycle. If there is no irreversibility present,
maximum work can be obtained from such heat engines. That is, such heat engines will
reject the least to the sink. Where as, the irreversible one (actual) will have to spend some
amount of work to overcome the friction which leads into reduction in the net work as
(w-wfri). This work of friction finally gets dissipated as heat and rejected to the sink
naturally. The amount of heat rejected to the sink would be Q Lrev + wfri (= QLfri as work
can be converted completely into heat). This professes a fact that for a given amount heat
from a given source, the reversible heat engine will reject minimum to the sink.
Theorem-2: All engines that operate on the Carnot cycle between two given constant
temperature reservoirs have the same efficiency.
From the two Carnot theorems one thing is pretty clear that efficiency of Carnot cycle is
purely depending upon the temperatures of the TERs, not the working substance and type
of system comprising the cycle. Let us see the derivation of the Carnot heat engine using
the process equations, to substantiate the findings.
3.3.1 Efficiency of Carnot Cycle
The P-V diagram of the cycle is depicted in Fig. 3.9.
2
3
1
4
(3.5)
33
QL
and as per
QH
Carnot theorem it is function of temperatures of the TERs, i.e., TL and TH. In other words
QL/QH = f (TL, TH)
(3.6)
It can be viewed that this single engine rejecting QL to sink at TL and receiving heat from
source at TH into two engines in series (as shown in LHS of Fig. 3.10). Applying
Equation (3.6) individually on each of the engines in series, we get
QL/QLI = f (TL, TLI)
QLI/QLH = f (TLI, TH)
(3.7)
(3.8)
But ,
QL
Q QLI
f (TL , TH ) L
f (TL , TLI ) f (TLI , TH )
QH
QLI QH
f (TL , TH ) f (TL , TLI ) f (TLI , TH )
(3.9)
(3.10)
(3.11)
Property of GEC
34
Source
TH
QH
QH
W = QHE
QL1
TLI
QL1
QL
Sink
QL
TL
QH TH
(3.12)
But the realization Carnot engine is not possible as it involves two extreme processes in a
stroke of piston in case of closed system. Isothermal is a dead slow process to maintain
the equilibrium and adiabatic is deadly fast process wherein we should not provide any
opportunity for the heat transfer. It means that the process should take theoretically 0
time unit. Practically having two extreme processes make otherwise also the reliability of
the engine as low as 0. But Lord Kelvin in his experimental set took care that by fixing
saturated steam at atmospheric pressure as source and ice at 0C as sink. For the sake of
hypothetical TER a large quantity of steam spread over in a longer pipe by fixing fixed
quantity of water approaching to 100C, which takes in comparatively a smaller quantity
of heat per unit length of pipe and still the temperature is maintained as 100C. similar
care had been taken at the sink side. In case of work transfer, he just introduced
irreversibility purposely so that the portion of heat added to the water to saturated steam
is rejected (as good as that portion of work could have been produced had he used an
expander). Then the system was taken through the sink similar to source side during
which the system is cooled to water. He did not introduce pump as he was not interested
to repeat the cycle and every cycle produce certain quantity of work. He could measure
the heat added and heat rejected from respective source and sink sides. The ratio obtained
was
QL/QH = TL/TH = 0.732
(3.13)
He was for simple system for units of measurement. He took conveniently the difference
between TH and TL as 100. i.e.,
TH - TL = 100
35
(3.14)
Solving Equations (3.13) and (3.14), we get TH and TL as 373.13 (=100C + 273.13) and
273.13 (= 0C 273.13) respectively for 100C and 0C temperatures of source and sink in
centigrade scale. That is, we can setup a relation between absolute scale and centigrade
scale as
T = C + 273.13
(3.15)
Thus the absolute temperature scale involves a mathematical thermometer (not a physical
thermometer). One can as usual measure the temperature using centigrade scale with the
existing thermometer and adding approximately 273 to that measurement will give us the
thermometer in absolute scale.
Property of GEC
36
Chapter - 4
Cycles
________________________________________________________________________
4.1 Introduction
As per the definition of thermodynamics and the primary objective in thermal
engineering, energy conversion devices are the ones which can accomplish the task of
work generation. Modeling such devices is important. For light to medium power
generating units are known as engines while major power production units are known as
power plants. Based on this, the models also can be classified into:
i) Air-standard cycle
ii) Vapour power cycles
In the curriculum, only air standard cycles which are used for light to medium power
production. The major applications of these cycles are:
Automobile Engineering
locomotives
earth-moving machineries
generator sets
marine engineering
The air standard cycles used for these applications are Otto and Diesel cycles. The air
standard cycles are models with the following assumptions.
air as system obeys ideal gas equation
heat transfers are reversible using external hypothetical reservoir
cp, cv are temperature independent
all processes are irreversible
QH
Figure 4.1: P-V plot of Otto cycle
37
Efficiency, = 1-(QL/QH)
Q
T T
1 4 1 1 4 1
Q 2 3
T3 T2
The above equation can be finally simplified to 1
, where r is compression
r
ratio which is ratio of volume at the beginning of compression to volume at the end of
compression
1
QL
QH
Figure 4.2: P-V plot of Diesel cycle
Efficiency, = 1-(QL/QH)
c p (T4 T1)
Q
(T T )
1 4 1 1
1 4 1
Q2 3
cv (T3 T2 )
(T3 T2 )
1 r 1
Property of GEC
38
Chapter-5
Solution Procedure and Problem Solving Methodology
______________________________________________________
r 1 (rc 1)
1
1 1 for Otto cycle
r
Qrejected
1
Qadded
Wexp ansion Wcompression
Wnet
Qadded
Qadded
Follow also the procedure enlisted in solution procedure for First law as it is
after all first law applied to multiple process involving closed system
39
5.3 Exercise
1) Air is initially at 1.05 bar has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is first compressed reversibly
according to the law pv1.3 = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, and then allowed to expand
Property of GEC
40
iii) Air standard efficiency
iv) Maximum efficiency that can be achieved theoretically
7) Two engines are to operate on Otto and Diesel cycles with the following data:
Maximum temperature: 1400K
Exhaust temperature: 700K
Initial condition: NTP
Cut-off ratio if applicable: 1.4
Estimate compression ratios, the maximum pressures, efficiencies and work outputs for each
engine.