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History of Mexico PDF
History of Mexico PDF
History of Mexico PDF
The history of Mexico, a country in the southern portion of North America, covers a period of more than three
millennia. First populated more than 13,000 years ago,[1]
The territory had complex indigenous civilizations before
being conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. One
of the important aspects of Mesoamerican civilizations
was their development of a form of writing, so that Mexicos written history stretches back hundreds of years before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519. This era before the arrival of Europeans is called variously the pre- The Age of Santa Anna is the period of the late 1820s
hispanic era or the precolumbian era.
to the early 1850s that was dominated by criollo military
The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan became the Spanish man turned president Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna. In
1
2
1846, the MexicanAmerican War was provoked by the
United States, ending two years later with Mexico ceding
almost half of its territory via the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo to the United States. Even though Santa Anna
bore signicant responsibility for the disastrous defeat, he
returned to oce.
The Liberal Reform began with the overthrow of Santa
Anna by Mexican liberals, ushering in La Reforma beginning in 1854. The Mexican Constitution of 1857 codied
the principles of liberalism in law, especially separation
of church and state, equality before the law, that included
stripping corporate entities (the Catholic Church and indigenous communities) of special status. The Reform
sparked a civil war between liberals defending the constitution and conservatives, who opposed it. The War of
the Reform saw the defeat of the conservatives on the battleeld, but conservatives remained strong and took the
opportunity to invite foreign intervention against the liberals in order to forward their own cause.
ture after the end of the Daz era. Although little had been
done for the nations poor, the sparking forces of the Mexican Revolution were elites outside Dazs inner circle,
such as Francisco Madero, a member of one of the richest land owning families in Mexico, plus liberal intellectuals, and industrial labor activists. The fraudulent election of 1910 keeping 80-year-old Daz in power brought
opposition elements together, unleashing a 10-year civil
war known as the Mexican Revolution (191020). The
conict was not a unied one, but took place mainly in
Mexicos north with organized armies of movement under leaders such as Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregn and
in the center of Mexico, particularly the state of Morelos
with guerrilla peasants ghting under the leadership of
Emiliano Zapata. The war killed a tenth of the nations
population and drove many northern Mexicans across the
U.S. border to escape the ghting. The Revolution ended
the system of large landed estates, or haciendas that had
originated with the Spanish Conquest.
A new legal framework was established in the Constitution of 1917, which reversed the principle established
under Porrio Daz that gave absolute property rights
to individuals. Article 27 of the Constitution, empowered the State to expropriate owners and gave the State
subsoil rights, which had been the principle during the
colonial era. Organized labors contribution to the revolution was recognized in Article 123, guaranteeing labor unions rights. In Article 3, the State strengthened
its anticlerical measures to control the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Northern revolutionary generals
Alvaro Obregn and Plutarco Elas Calles each served a
four-year presidential term following the end of the military conict in 1920. The assassination of president-elect
Obregn in 1928 led to a crisis on succession, solved by
With the end of the Second Mexican Empire, the period the creation of a party structure in 1929.
often called the Restored Republic (186776) brought
back Benito Jurez as president. Following his death from The post-revolutionary era is generally marked by politia heart attack, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada succeed him. cal peace whereby conicts are not resolved by violence.
He was overthrown by liberal military man Porrio Diaz, This new period has been marked by changes in policy
who after consolidating power ushered in a period of sta- and amendments to the 1917 Mexican Constitution to albility and economic growth. The half-century of eco- low for neoliberal economic policies. Following the fornomic stagnation and political chaos following indepen- mation in 1929 of the precursor to the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), this single party controlled
dence ended.
national and state politics after 1929, and nationalized the
The Porriate is the era when army hero Porrio Daz oil industry in the 1930s. Following World War II, where
held power as president of Mexico almost continuously Mexico had been a strong ally of the United States and
from 1876-1911. He promoted order and progress that had beneted signicantly by supplying metals to build
saw the modernization of the economy and the ow of war materiel as well as guest farm workers, who freed
foreign investment to the country. The period is generally U.S. American men to ght in the two front war. Mexcalled the Porriato, which ended with the outbreak of ico emerged from World War II with wealth and politithe Mexican Revolution in 1910. Under Daz, Mexicos cal stability and unleashed a major period of economic
industry and infrastructure was modernized by a strong, growth, often called the Mexican Miracle. It was orgastable but autocratic central government. Increased tax nized around the principles of import substitution indusrevenues and better administration brought dramatic im- trialization, with the creation of many state-owned indusprovements in public safety, public health, railways, min- trial enterprises. The population grew rapidly and being, industry, foreign trade, and national nances.
came more urbanized while many others moved to the
The Mexican Revolution is the chaotic period between United States.
1910 and 1920 when Mexicans fought to determine fu- A new era began in Mexico following the fraudulent 1988
The French Intervention is the period when France invaded Mexico (1861), nominally to collect on defaulted
loans to the liberal government of Benito Jurez, but
it went further and at the invitation of Mexican conservatives seeking to restore monarchy in Mexico set
Maximilian I on the Mexican throne. The US was engaged in its own Civil War (186165), so did not attempt
to block the foreign intervention. Abraham Lincoln consistently supported the Mexican liberals. At the end of the
civil war in the US and the triumph of the Union forces,
the US actively aided Mexican liberals against Maximilians regime. France withdrew its support of Maximilian
in 1867 and his monarchist rule collapsed in 1867 and
Maximilian was executed.
1.1
Beginnings
Pre-Columbian Mexico
3
5. reliance on agriculture often supplemented by hunting and shing and the complete absence of a pastoral (herding) economy, since there were no domesticated herd animals prior to the arrival of the Europeans;
6. trade networks and markets.
It is remarkable that so many civilizations arose in a region with no major navigable rivers, no beasts of burden,
and dicult terrain that impeded the movement of people and goods. Indigenous civilizations developed complex ritual and solar calendars, a signicant understanding of astronomy and developed forms of written communication in the form of glyphs, clear testimony to their
advanced level of sophistication.
The history of Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest is
known through the work of archaeologists, epigraphers,
and ethnohistorians (scholars who study indigenous history, usually from the indigenous point of view), who analyze Mesoamerican indigenous manuscripts, particularly
Aztec codices, Mayan codices, and Mixtec codices.
1.1 Beginnings
The Castillo, Chichen Itza, Mexico, ca. 800-900 CE. A temple to
Kukulkan sits atop this pyramid with a total of 365 stairs on its
four sides. At the winter and summer equinoxes, the sun casts a
shadow in the shape of a serpent along the northern staircase.
1 PRE-COLUMBIAN MEXICO
1.3
Religion
Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, Maya, linted 24 of temple 23, Yaxchilan, Mexico, ca. 725 ce. Limestone, 3'7 2' 6.5. British
Museum, London. The Maya built vast complexes of temples,
palaces, and plazas and decorated many with painted reliefs.
cient Mesoamerica.[7]
Thus, this quality of acceptance of new gods to the collection of existing gods may have been one of the shaping characteristics for the success during the Christianization of Mesoamerica. New gods did not at once replace the old; they initially joined the ever growing family
of deities or were merged with existing ones that seemed
to share similar characteristics or responsibilities.[7] The
The spiritual pantheon was vast and extremely complex. Christianization of Europe also followed similar patterns
However, many of the deities depicted are common to the of appropriation and transformation of existing deities.
various civilizations and their worship survived over long A great deal is known about Aztec religion due to the
periods of time. They frequently took on dierent char- work of the early mendicant friars in their work to conacteristics and even names in dierent areas, but in eect vert the indigenous to Christianity. The writings of
they transcended cultures and time. Great masks with Franciscans Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia and
gaping jaws and monstrous features in stone or stucco Fray Bernardino de Sahagn and Dominican Fray Diego
were often located at the entrance to temples, symboliz- Durn recorded a great deal about Nahua religion, since
ing a cavern or cave on the anks of the mountains that al- they viewed understanding the ancient practices as essenlowed access to the depths of Mother Earth and the shad- tial for successfully converting the indigenous to Chrisowy roads that lead to the underworld.[7]
tianity.
Cults connected with the jaguar and jade especially permeated religion throughout Mesoamerica. Jade, with its
translucent green color was revered along with water as
a symbol of life and fertility. The jaguar, agile, powerful and fast, was especially connected with warriors
and as spirit guides of shamans. Despite dierences of
chronology or geography, the crucial aspects of this religious pantheon were shared amongst the people of an-
1.4 Writing
Mesoamerica is the only place in the Americas where
indigenous writing systems were invented and used before European colonization. While the types of writing
systems in Mesoamerica range from minimalist picture-
2.1
They consolidated power and exercised inuence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and religion. Over
a span of 3,000 years, other regional powers made economic and political alliances with them; many made war
Although many indigenous manuscripts have been lost or on them. But almost all found themselves within their
destroyed, texts known Aztec codices, Mayan codices, spheres of inuence.
and Mixtec codices still survive and are of intense interest
to scholars of the prehispanic era.
2.1 The Olmecs (1400400 BC)
The fact that there was an existing prehispanic tradition
of writing meant that when the Spanish friars taught Mexican Indians to write their own languages, particularly
Nahuatl, an alphabetic tradition took hold. It was used in
ocial documents for legal cases and other legal instruments. The formal use of native language documentation lasted until Mexican independence in 1821. Beginning in the late twentieth century, scholars have mined
these native language documents for information about
colonial-era economics, culture, and language. The New
Philology is the current name for this particular branch
of colonial-era Mesoamerican ethnohistory.
The identities of the Olmec colossi are uncertain, but their individualized features and distinctive headgear, as well as later
Maya practice, suggest that these heads portray rulers rather than
deities.
ahau, or king, can be traced from 300 BC onwards. During the centuries preceding the classical period, Mayan
kingdoms sprang up in an area stretching from the Pacic
coasts of southern Mexico and Guatemala to the northern
Yucatn Peninsula. The egalitarian Mayan society of preroyal centuries gradually gave way to a society controlled
by a wealthy elite that began building large ceremonial
temples and complexes.
During the pre-Columbian period, many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power
and prestige. Ancient Mexico can be said to have produced ve major civilizations: the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, Toltec, and Aztec. Unlike other indigenous Mexican societies, these civilizations (with the exception of The earliest known long-count date, 199 AD, heralds the
the politically fragmented Maya) extended their political classic period, during which the Mayan kingdoms supand cultural reach across Mexico and beyond.
ported a population numbering in the millions. Tikal,
the largest of the kingdoms, alone had 500,000 inhabitants, though the average population of a kingdom was
much smallersomewhere under 50,000 people. When
the Spaniards came, they brought disease, guns, and steel.
With those tools they wiped out most of Mayan civilization.
2.3
The Teotihuacan
and the Maya region. The Aztecs may have been inuenced by this city. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of
Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups.
Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state.
Goddess, mural painting from the Tetitla apartment complex at
Teotihuacan, Mexico, 650-750 CE. Pigments over clay and plaster. Elaborate mural paintings adorned Teotihuacans elite residential compound. This example may depict the citys principal
deity, a goddess wearing ajade mask and a large feathered headdress.
Colossal atlantids, pyramid B, Toltec, Tula, Mexico, ca. 9001180 CE. Stone, each 16' high. The colossal statue-columns of
Tula portraying warriors armed with darts and spear-throwers
reect the military regime of the Toltecs, whose arrival in central
Mexico coincided with the decline of the Maya.
2.5
2.5
Aztec religion was based on the belief in the continual At their peak, 350,000 Aztec presided over a wealthy
need for regular oering of human blood to keep their tribute-empire comprising 10 million people, almost half
3.1
3.2
The aftermath
9
cannon shots. Those Aztecs who survived were forbidden
to live in the city and the surrounding isles, and they went
to live in Tlatelolco.
3.2
3.2.1
The aftermath
Religious. Corts immediately banned human sacrice throughout the conquered empire. In 1524
Corts requested the Spanish king to send friars from the mendicant orders, particularly the
Franciscan, Dominican, and Augustinian, to convert
the indigenous to Christianity. This has often been
called the spiritual conquest of Mexico.[12] Christian evangelization began in the early-1520s and
continued into the 1560s. Many of the mendicant
friars, especially the Franciscans and Dominicans,
learned the native languages and recorded aspects
of native culture, providing a principal source for
our knowledge about them. One of the rst twelve
Franciscans to come to Mexico, Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia recorded in Spanish observations
of the indigenous. Important Franciscans engaged
in collecting and preparing native language materials, especially in Nahuatl are fray Alonso de Molina
and fray Bernardino de Sahagn.[13] By 1560, more
than 800 clergy were working to convert Indians in
New Spain. By 1580, the number grew to 1,500 and
by 1650, to 3,000.
Economics. The Spanish colonizers introduced the
encomienda system of forced labor, which in central
Mexico built on indigenous traditions of rendering
tribute and labor to rulers in their own communities
and local rulers rendering tribute to higher authorities. Individual Spaniards were awarded the tribute and labor or particular indigenous communities,
with that population paying tribute and performing
labor locally. Indigenous communities were pressed
for labor services and tribute, but were not enslaved.
Their rulers remained indigenous elites, who retained their status under colonial rule and were useful intermediaries.[14] The Spanish also used forced
labor, often outright slavery, in mining.
10
3.2.2
4
Analysis of the defeat
Military Tactics. The Alliances use of ambush dur- Main article: New Spain
ing indigenous ceremonies, such as during The Feast of See also: History of Mexico City
Huitzilopochtli, allowed the Spanish to avoid ghting the Spanish conquerors did not bring all areas of Aztec Embest Aztec warriors in direct armed battle.
Smallpox and its Toll. Smallpox (Variola major and Variola minor) began to spread in Mesoamerica immediately
after the arrival of Europeans. The indigenous peoples,
who had no immunity to it, eventually died in the millions. A third of all the natives of the Valley of Mexico
succumbed to it within six months of Spaniards arrival.
Chihuahua cathedral
4.2
The most important source of wealth in the rst years after the conquest of central Mexico was the encomienda, a
grant of the labor of a particular indigenous settlement to
an individual Spanish and his heirs. Conquerors expected
to receive these awards and conqueror Hernn Corts in
his letter to the Spanish king justied his own allocation
of these grants. Spaniards were the recipients of traditional indigenous products that had been rendered in tribute to their local lords and to the Aztec empire. The rst
Spanish viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza has his name
given to the title of an Aztec manuscript Codex Mendoza,
that enumerates in glyphic form the types of tribute goods
and amounts rendered from particular indigenous towns
under Aztec rule. The earliest holders of encomiendas,
the encomenderos were the conquerors involved in the
campaign leading to the fall of Tenochtitlan, and later
their heirs and people with inuence but not conquerors.
Indigenous labor was the other big source of wealth from
holding an encomienda, was forced labor, which could be
directed toward developing land and industry in the area
the Spanish encomenderos Indians lived. For this immediate conquest period then, land was not the key source
of wealth, indigenous labor was. Where indigenous labor
was absent or needed supplementing, the Spanish brought
African slaves, often as skilled laborers or artisans, or as
labor bosses of encomienda Indians.
11
Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included Cuba, Puerto
Rico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, the
southwestern United States including Florida, and the
Philippines. The Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts
had conquered the great empire of the Aztecs and established New Spain as the largest and most important of
all Spanish colonies. Spain during the 16th century focused its energies on areas with dense populations that
had produced Pre-Columbian civilizations, since these
areas could provide the settlers with a disciplined labor
force and a population to catechize.
Territories populated by nomadic peoples were harder to
conquer, and though the Spanish did explore a good part
of North America, seeking the fabled "El Dorado", they
made no concerted eort to settle the northern desert regions in what is now the United States until the end of
16th century (Santa Fe, 1598).
Colonial law with native origins but with Spanish historical precedents was introduced, creating a balance between local jurisdiction (the Cabildos) and the Crown's,
whereby upper administrative oces were closed to the
natives, even those of pure Spanish blood. Administration was based on the racial separation of the population
among the Republics of Spaniards, Indians and Mestizos,
autonomous and directly dependent on the king himself.
The population of New Spain was divided into four main
groups, or classes. The group a person belonged to was
Evolution of the race
determined by two things: racial background and place of
birth. The most powerful group was the Spaniards, peoDuring the three centuries of colonial rule, less than ple born in Spain and sent across the Atlantic to rule the
700,000 Spaniards, most of them men, settled in Mex- colony. Only Spaniards could hold high-level jobs in the
ico. The settlers intermarried with indigenous women, colonial government.
fathering the mixed race (mestizo) descendents who today constitute the majority of Mexicos population.
4.2
Members of the second group, called creoles, were people of Spanish background who had been born in Mexico rather than Spain. Many creoles were prosperous
landowners and merchants. But even the wealthiest of
the creoles had very little say in the government, which
was controlled by Spaniards. The third group, the mesti-
12
5.1
War of Independence
13
gave way in New Spain to many of nowadays Mexican sta- much faster.[17]
ple and world-famous cultural traits like tequila (rst distilled in the 16th century), mariachi (18th), jarabe (17th),
charros (17th) and the highly prized Mexican cuisine, 5.1 War of Independence
fruit of the mixture of European and indigenous ingreMain article: Mexican War of Independence
dients and techniques.
Insurgents, inspired by the record of the American and
The creoles, mestizos, and Indians often disagreed. But
all three resented the small minority of Spaniards who
had all the political power. By the early 1800s many
native-born Mexicans were beginning to think that Mexico should become independent of Spain, following the
example of the United States. The man who nally
touched o the revolt against Spain was the Catholic
priest Father Miguel Hidalgo Y Costilla [ee-DAHL-go
ee coss_TEE-ya]. He is remembered today as the Father
The congress of Chilpancingo, 1813.
of Mexican Independence.
Californias
Nuevo Mxico
Texas
Sonora
Isla Guadalupe
Isla Cedros
Co
a
hu
ila
Nueva
Vizcaya
Nuevo Reino
de Len
GOLFO DE MXICO
Santander
Zacatecas
Islas Maras
San
Luis
Potos
Guanajuato
Quertaro
Guadalajara
Valladolid
Mxico
Isla Cozumel
Mrida de
Yucatn
Tlaxcala
Ve
rac
Isla Revillagigedo
ruz
Oaxaca
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
1030'
Isla Clipperton
ESCALA
Costa Rica
1030'
0 km
200 km
400 km
GRAN COLOMBIA
14
"Plan of Iguala", demanding an independent constitutional monarchy, a religious monopoly for the Catholic
Church, and equality for Spaniards and creoles. On
September 27, 1821, Iturbide and the viceroy signed the
Treaty of Cordoba whereby Spain granted the demands
and withdrew.
5.2
The Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico was an effort by the Spanish government to regain possession of
its former colony of Mexico, resulting in episodes of war
comprised in clashes between the newly born Mexican
nation and Spain. The designation mainly covers two
periods: the rst attempts occurred from 1821 to 1825
and involved the defense of Mexicos territorial waters,
while the second period had two stages, including the
Mexican expansion plan to take the Spanish-held island
of Cuba between 1826 and 1828, and the 1829 expedition of Spanish General Isidro Barradas, which landed on
Mexican soil with the object of reconquering Mexican
territory. Although the Spanish never regained control of
the country they did damage the edgling Mexican economy.
By 1823, Mexicans of all classes were fed up with Iturbides corrupt and oppressive rule. They overthrew the
emperor and sent him into exile. In 1824, Mexico was
proclaimed a republic. The new government adopted a
new constitution partly modeled on the constitution of the
United States, which guaranteed basic human rights and
The newly independent nation of Mexico was in dire divided the responsibilities of government between a censtraits after eleven years of ghting its War of Indepen- tral government and a number of smaller units known as
dence. There were no clear plans or guidelines estab- states.
6.2
5.4
Comanche raids
Mexican Republic
6
6.1
15
of Spanish America during the early post-independence
era, military strongmen or caudillos dominated politics,
which has resulted in this period generally being designated The Age of Caudillismo.
The federalists asked General Antonio Lpez de Santa
Anna to overthrow Bustamante; after the removal of Bustamante, Santa Anna declared General Manuel Gmez
Pedraza (who won the electoral vote in 1828) president.
Elections were held thereafter, and Santa Anna took ofce in 1832.
Constantly changing political beliefs, as president (he
served as president 11 times),[19] in 1834, Santa Anna
abrogated the federal constitution, causing insurgencies
in the southeastern state of Yucatn and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas.
Both areas sought independence from the central government. Negotiations and the presence of Santa Annas
army brought Yucatn to recognize Mexican sovereignty,
Santa Annas army turned to the northern rebellion.
The inhabitants of Tejas, calling themselves Texans
and led mainly by relatively recently arrived Englishspeaking settlers, declared independence from Mexico at
Washington-on-the-Brazos on 2 March 1836, giving birth
to the Republic of Texas. At the Battle of San Jacinto
on April 21, 1836, Texan militias defeated the Mexican
army and captured General Santa Anna.
In 1845, the U.S. Congress ratied Texas petition for
statehood.
6.3 Texas
See also: Texas Revolution
Soon after achieving independence, the Mexican government,
in an eort to populate its northern territoLithograph depicting head and shoulders of a middle-aged General Santa Anna leading his troops into Texas in 1836 wearing a ries, awarded extensive land grants in Coahuila y Tejas
to thousands of families from the United States, on conmilitary uniform.
dition that the settlers convert to Catholicism and become
The period of the late 1820s until Santa Annas ouster in Mexican citizens. The Mexican government also forbade
the 1854 Revolution of Ayutla that brought Liberals to the importation of slaves. These conditions were largely
power, is often called the Age of Santa Anna. In much ignored.[20]
16
17
18
Liberal Ignacio Comonfort became president. The Mod- Alegora de la Constitucin de 1857, Petronilo Monroy, 1869.
erados tried to nd a middle ground between the nations
liberals and conservatives. There is less consensus about
the ending point of the Reforma.[26]
Common dates are 1861, after the liberal victory in the
Reform War; 1867, after the republican victory over the
French intervention in Mexico; and 1876 when Porrio
Daz overthrew president Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada.
Liberalism dominated Mexico as an intellectual force
into the 20th century. Liberals championed reform and
supported republicanism, capitalism, and individualism;
they fought to reduce the Churchs conservative roles in
education, land ownership and politics.[26] Also importantly, liberals sought to end the special status of indigenous communities by ending their corporate ownership
of land.
7.1
7.3
19
7.2
7.3
General Bazaine attacks the fort of San Xavier during the siege
of Puebla, 29 March 1863.
20
following repeated Imperial losses in battle to the Republican Army and ever decreasing support from Napoleon
III, Maximilian chose to remain in Mexico rather than return to Europe. He was captured and executed along with
two Mexican supporters, immortalized in a famous painting by Eduard Manet. Jurez remained in oce until his
death in 1872.
7.4
Porrio Daz
Juarez and the restoration of the rement from Britain and the U.S., and a strong, stable cenpublic (18671872)
tral government.[30]
8.2
21
22
8.3
Economy
Cities were rebuilt with modernizing architects favoring the latest European styles, especially the Beaux-Arts
style, to symbolize the break with the past. A highly visible exemplar was the Federal Legislative Palace, built
Mexico had few factories by 1880, but then industrializa- 18971910.[43]
9.1
8.3.2
Tutino examines the impact of the Porriato in the highland basins south of Mexico City, which became the
Zapatista heartland during the Revolution. Population
growth, railways and concentration of land in a few families generated a commercial expansion that undercut the
traditional powers of the villagers. There was anxiety and
insecurity among the young men regarding the patriarchal roles they had expected to ll. The rst signs came
in violent crime within families and communities. However, after the defeat of Diaz in 1910 villagers expressed
their rage in revolutionary assaults on local elites who had
proted most from the Porriato. The young men were
radicalized, as they fought for their traditional roles regarding land, community, and patriarchy.[44]
23
a framework of ocial revolutionary institutions, with
the constitution providing that framework.[46] Organized
labor gained signicant power, as seen in Article 123 of
the Constitution of 1917. Land reform in Mexico was
enabled by Article 27 of the Constitution. Economic nationalism was also enabled by Article 27, restricting ownership of enterprises by foreigners. Also in the Constitution were further restrictions on the Roman Catholic
Church in Mexico, which, when implemented in the late
1920s, resulted in major violence in the Cristero War.
No re-election of the president was enshrined in the Constitution and in practice. Managing political succession
was achieved in 1929 with the creation of the Partido
Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), the political party that
has dominated Mexico since its creation, now called the
Institutional Revolutionary Party.
One major eect of the revolution was the disappearance
of the Federal Army in 1914, defeated by revolutionary forces of the various factions in the Mexican Revolution.[47]
The Mexican Revolution was based on popular participation. At rst it was based on the peasantry: they demanded land, water, and a more sympathetic national
government. Wasserman nds that:
Popular participation in the revolution and its
aftermath took three forms. First, everyday
people, though often in conjunction with elite
neighbors, generated local issues such as access
to land, taxes, and village autonomy. Second,
the popular classes provided soldiers to ght in
the revolution. Third, local issues advocated by
campesinos and workers framed national discourses on land reform, the role of religion, and
many other questions.[48]
24
This set o a spate of political activity by potential candidates, including Francisco I. Madero, a member of one of
Mexicos richest families. Madero was part of the AntiRe-electionist Party, whose main platform was the end
of the Daz regime. Daz reversed his decision to retire
from the presidency and ran again. He created the ofce of vice president, which could have been a mechanism to ease transition in the presidency. But Daz chose
a politically unpalatable running mate, Ramn Corral,
over a popular military man, Bernardo Reyes and popular civilian Francisco I. Madero. He sent Reyes on a
study mission to Europe and jailed Madero. When the
ocial election results were announced, it was declared
that Daz had won reelection almost unanimously, with
Madero receiving only a few hundred votes in the entire country. This fraud by the Porriato was too blatant
for the public to swallow, and riots broke out. Popular
uprisings against Daz occurred in the fall of 1910, particularly in Mexicos north and in the southern state of
Morelos. Helping unite opposition forces was a political plan drafted by Madero, the Plan of San Luis Potos.
in which he called the Mexican people to take up arms
and ght against the Daz government. The rising was set
for November 20, 1910. Madero managed to ee prison,
escaping to San Antonio, Texas, where he began preparations for the overthrow of Dazan action today regarded
as the start of the Mexican Revolution. Diaz attempted
to use the army to suppress the revolts, but most of the
ranking generals were old men close to his own age and
they did not act swiftly or with sucient energy to stem
the violence. Revolutionary forceled by, among others,
Emiliano Zapata in the South, Pancho Villa and Pascual
Orozco in the North, and Venustiano Carranzadefeated
the Federal Army.
Leaders of the 1910 revolt pose for a photo after the First Battle of Jurez. Present are Jos Mara Pino Surez, Venustiano
Carranza, Francisco I. Madero (and his father), Pascual
Orozco, Pancho Villa, Gustavo Madero, Raul Madero, Abraham
Gonzlez, and Giuseppe Garibaldi Jr.
9.3
25
Daz, plotted with the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Henry ing force against the revolutionaries, ceased to exist.[55]
Lane Wilson to topple Madero and re-assert the policies
of Daz.
Within a month of the coup, rebellion started spreading
in Mexico, most prominently by the governor of the state
of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza along with old revolutionaries demobilized by Madero, such as Pancho Villa.
The northern revolutionaries fought under the name of
the Constitutionalist Army, with Carranza as the First
Chief (primer jefe).
In the south, Emiliano Zapata continued his rebellion in
Morelos under the Plan of Ayala, calling for the expropriation of land and redistribution to peasants. Huerta
oered peace to Zapata, who rejected it.[49]
General Pancho Villa in the entrance of Ojinaga
Huerta convinced Pascual Orozco, whom he fought
while serving the Madero government, to join Huertas With the exit of Huerta, the revolutionary factions deforces.[50] Supporting the Huerta regime were business cided to meet and make a last ditch eort to avert more
[56]
interests in Mexico, both foreign and domestic; landed intense warfare than that which unseated Huerta.
elites; the Roman Catholic Church; as well as the German Called to meet in Mexico City in October 1914, revoand British governments. The Federal Army an arm of lutionaries opposed to Carranzas inuence successfully
the Huerta regime, swelling to some 200,000 men, many moved the venue to Aguascalientes. The Convention of
Aguascalientes did not, in fact, reconcile the various vicpressed into service and most were ill-trained.
torious factions in the Mexican Revolution, but was a
The U.S. did not recognize the Huerta government, but
brief pause in revolutionary violence. The break between
from February to August 1913 it imposed an arms emCarranza and Villa became denitive during the Conbargo on exports to Mexico, exempting the Huerta govvention. Rather than First Chief Carranza being named
ernment and thereby favoring the regime against emergpresident of Mexico, General Eulalio Gutirrez was choing revolutionary forces.[51] President Woodrow Wilson
sen. Carranza and Obregn left Aguascalientes, with far
sent a special envoy to Mexico to assess the situation.
smaller forces than Villas. The convention declared CarWilson concluded from reports on the numerous rebelranza in rebellion against it and civil war resumed, this
lions in Mexico that Huerta was unable to maintain order,
time between revolutionary armies that had fought in a
and arms ceased to ow to Huertas government.[52] This
united cause to oust Huerta.
beneted the revolutionaries cause.
The U.S. Navy made an incursion on the Gulf Coast, occupying Veracruz in April 1914. Although Mexico was
engaged in a civil war at the time, the U.S. intervention
united Mexican forces in their opposition to the U.S. Foreign powers helped broker the U.S. withdrawal in the
Niagara Falls peace conference. The U.S. timed its pullout to throw its support to the Constitutionalist faction
under Carranza.[53]
Initially the forces in northern Mexico were united under
the Constitutionalist banner, with able revolutionary generals serving the civilian First Chief Carranza. Pancho
Villa began to split from supporting Carranza as Huerta
was on his way out. The break was not simply on personalist grounds, but primarily because Carranza was politically too conservative for Villa. Carranza was not only a
political holdover from the Daz era, but was also a rich
hacienda owner whose interests were threatened by the
more radical ideas of Villa, especially on land reform.[54]
Zapata in the south was also hostile to Carranza due to
his stance on land reform.
26
9.4
President Obregn. Note that he lost his right arm in the Battle of
Celaya (1915), earning him the nickname of Manco de Celaya
(the one-armed man of Celaya).
10.1
27
and needed plenary powers to fulll its mission.[61] After the nearly decade-long violence of the Mexican Revolution, reconstruction in the hands of a strong central
government oered stability and a path of renewed modernization.
Obregn knew it was necessary for his regime to secure
the recognition of the United States. He had come to
power by joining with Sonoran allies and eliminating Carranza. With the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, the Mexican government was empowered
to expropriate natural resources. The U.S. had considerable business interests in Mexico, especially oil, and the
threat of Mexican economic nationalism to big oil companies meant that diplomatic recognition could hinge on
Mexican compromise in implementing the constitution.
In 1923 when the Mexican presidential elections were
on the horizon, Obregn began negotiating with the U.S.
government in earnest, with the two governments signing
the Bucareli Treaty. The treaty resolved questions about
foreign oil interests in Mexico, largely in favor of U.S. interests, but Obregns government gained U.S. diplomatic
recognition. With that arms and ammunition began ow- Plutarco Elas Calles, president of Mexico 1924-28, and power
behind the presidency during the Maximato when he did not hold
ing to revolutionary armies loyal to Obregn.[62]
Since Obregn had named his fellow Sonoran general,
Plutarco Elas Calles, as his successor, Obregn was
imposing a little known nationally and unpopular with
many generals,[62] thereby foreclosing the ambitions
of fellow revolutionaries, particularly his old comrade
Adolfo de la Huerta. De la Huerta staged a serious rebellion against Obregn. But Obregn once again demonstrated his brilliance as a military tactician who now
had arms and even air support from the United States
to suppress it brutally. Fifty-four former Obregonistas
were shot in the event.[63] Vasconcelos resigned from
Obregns cabinet as minister of education.
formal power
Although the Constitution of 1917 had even stronger anticlerical articles than the liberal constitution of 1857,
Obregn largely sidestepped confrontation with the
Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. Since political opposition parties were essentially banned, the Catholic
Church lled the political void and play the part of a
substitute opposition.[64]
The 1924 presidential election was not a demonstration
of free and fair elections, but the incumbent Obregn
did not stand for re-election, thereby acknowledging that
revolutionary principle, and he completed his presidential term still alive, the rst since Porrio Daz. Candidate Calles embarked on the rst populist presidential
campaign in the nations history, as he called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, more education,
additional labor rights, and democratic governance.[65]
Calles indeed tried to fulll his promises during his populist phase (192426), and then began a repressive antiCatholic phase (192628). Obregns stance toward the
church appears pragmatic, since there were many other
issues for him to deal with, but his successor Calles, a ve-
revolution against the Calles regime set o by his persecution of the Catholic Church in Mexico[66] and specically the strict enforcement of the anti-clerical provisions
of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 and the expansion
of further anti-clerical laws.
A number of articles of the 1917 Constitution were at is-
28
litical process. General Lzaro Crdenas, who was a revolutionary general and had a political power based in the
state of Michoacan, became part of the PNR. In 1934, after a series of puppet presidents while Calles remained
the eective power, Crdenas out-maneuvered his former patron and sent him into exile. Crdenas reformed
the PRN structure, resulting in the creation of the PRM
(Partido Revolucionario Mexicano), the Mexican Revolutionary Party, which included the army as a party sector.
He had convinced most of the remaining revolutionary
generals to hand over their personal armies to the Mexican Army; the date of the PRM partys foundation is
thus considered by some to be the end of the Revolution.
In 1946, at the six-year transition of the Mexican presidency, the party was reformed again, with the army no
longer included as a party sector. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional) or
PRI is the latest form of the party that evolved from the
PRN and PRM. The name institutional in its title reects its supporters notion that the Mexican Revolution
has been preserved in its structure.
The party is typically referred to as the three-legged stool,
in reference to its sectors of Mexican workers, peasants,
and bureaucrats.
After its establishment as the ruling party, the PRI monopolized all the political branches: it did not lose a senate seat until 1988 or a gubernatorial race until 1989.[70]
It was not until July 2, 2000, that Vicente Fox of the
opposition "Alliance for Change" coalition, headed by
the National Action Party (PAN), was elected president.
10.2 Formation of the Ruling Party
His victory ended the PRIs 71-year hold on the presidency. Fox was succeeded by the PAN candidate, Felipe
In 1929, the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) was
Caldern. In the 2012 elections, the PRI regained the
formed by the former president, General Plutarco Elas
presidency with its candidate Enrique Pea Nieto.
Calles. Calles was to be succeeded by General Alvaro
Obregn, who had served as president from 1920-24.
Obregn was assassinated by a Catholic in July 1928 before he could take oce. There were no viable presiden- 10.3 Revitalization of the Revolution under Crdenas
tial candidates acceptable to Calles, who was excluded
from taking formal power again. A solution to the problem was the formation of the PNR, which brought to- Main article: Lzaro Crdenas
gether regional caudillos and integrated labor and the Lzaro Crdenas was hand-picked by Calles as the sucpeasantry in a party that was better able to manage the po- cessor to the presidency in 1934. Crdenas managed to
29
with the United States was unclear during Lzaro Crdenas' rule, as he remained neutral. Capitalists, businessmen, Catholics, and middle-class Mexicans who opposed
many of the reforms implemented by the revolutionary
government sided with the Spanish Falange[73] i.e., the
fascist movement.[74]
Nazi propagandist Arthur Dietrich and his team of agents
in Mexico successfully manipulated editorials and coverage of Europe by paying hefty subsidies to Mexican newspapers, including the widely read dailies Exclsior and El
Universal.[75] The situation became even more worrisome
for the Allies when major oil companies boycotted Mexican oil following Lzaro Crdenas nationalization of the
oil industry and expropriation of all corporate oil properties in 1938,[76] which severed Mexicos access to its
traditional markets and led Mexico to sell its oil to Germany and Italy.[77]
unite the dierent forces in the PRI and set the rules
that allowed his party to rule unchallenged for decades
to come without internal ghts. He nationalized the oil
industry (on 18 March 1938), the electricity industry,
created the National Polytechnic Institute, and started
land reform and the distribution of free textbooks to
children.[71] In 1936 he exiled Calles, the last general with
dictatorial ambitions, thereby removing the army from
power.
30
11
consulates in Mexico.[80] The Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM) and the Confederation of Mexican
Peasants (CNC) staged massive rallies in support of the
government.[80] Immediately following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Mexico went
on a war footing.[81]
Mexicos biggest contributions to the war eort were in
vital war material and labor, particularly the Bracero Program, a guest-worker program in the U.S. freeing men
there to ght in the European and Pacic theaters of War.
There was heavy demand for its exports created a degree
of prosperity.[82] A Mexican atomic scientist, Jos Rafael
Bejarano, worked on the secret Manhattan Project that
developed the atomic bomb.[83]
The rst Braceros arrive in Los Angeles by train in 1942. Photograph by Dorothea Lange.
12.2
1985 earthquake
31
32
13
CONTEMPORARY MEXICO
PRI.[95]
1988 Presidential Election The Mexican general election, 1988 was extremely important in Mexican history. The PRIs candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, an
economist who was educated at Harvard, had never held
an elected oce, and who was a technocrat with no direct
link to the legacy of the Mexican Revolution even through
his family. Rather than toe the party line, which would
have been for the other disappointed PRI candidates to
support the ocial PRI choice, Cuauhtemoc Crdenas,
the son of former President Lzaro Crdenas, broke with
the PRI and ran as a candidate of the Democratic Current, later forming into the Party of Democratic Revolu- Three world leaders: (background, left to right) Mexican Prestion (PRD).[96] The PAN candidate Manuel Clouthier ran ident Carlos Salinas de Gortari, U.S. President George H. W.
a clean campaign in long-standing pattern of the party.
Bush, and Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, observe
The election was marked by irregularities on a massive
scale. The Ministry of the Interior (Gobernacin) controlled the electoral process, which meant in practice that
the PRI controlled it. During the vote count, the government computers were said to have crashed, something the
government called a breakdown of the system. One observer said, For the ordinary citizen, it was not the computer network but the Mexican political system that had
crashed.[97] When the computers were said to be running again after a considerable delay, the election results
they recorded were an extremely narrow victory for Salinas (50.7%), Crdenas (31.1%), and Clouthier (16.8%).
Crdenas was widely seen to have won the election, but
Salinas was declared the winner. There might have been
violence in the wake of such fraudulent results, but Crdenas did not call for it, sparing the country a possible civil war.[98] Years later, former Mexican President
Miguel de la Madrid (198288) was quoted in the New
York Times that the results were indeed fraudulent.[99]
13
13.1
the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement. Commenced in San Antonio, Texas on December 17, 1992.
commerce.
Contemporary Mexico
Subcomandante Marcos
The United States intervened rapidly to stem the economic crisis, rst by buying pesos in the open market, and
then by granting assistance in the form of $50 billion in
loan guarantees. The peso stabilized at 6 pesos per dollar.
By 1996, the economy was growing, and in 1997, Mexico
repaid, ahead of schedule, all U.S. Treasury loans.
Zedillo oversaw political and electoral reforms that reduced the PRIs hold on power. After the 1988 election,
which was strongly disputed and arguably lost by the government, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral Federal
Electoral Institute) was created in the early 1990s. Run
13.5
13.3
13.4
33
failed to set priorities, and turned a blind eye
to alliance building....By 2006, as political scientist Soledad Loaeza noted, the eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided
tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the oce.
...He had little success in ghting crime. Even
though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic
growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of scal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that
of Haiti....Finally, during Foxs administration,
only 1.4 million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the
United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.[106]
Emphasizing the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, integrate with the
U.S. economy, and allow private investment in the energy sector, Vicente Fox Quesada, the candidate of the
National Action Party (PAN), was elected the 69th president of Mexico on 2 July 2000, ending PRIs 71-year-long
control of the oce. Though Foxs victory was due in
part to popular discontent with decades of unchallenged
PRI hegemony, also, Foxs opponent, president Zedillo,
conceded defeat on the night of the electiona rst in
Mexican history.[105] A further sign of the quickening
of Mexican democracy was the fact that PAN failed to
win a majority in both chambers of Congressa situation that prevented Fox from implementing his reform
pledges. Nonetheless, the transfer of power in 2000 was
quick and peaceful.
34
13.6
15
REFERENCES
President Enrique Pea Nieto (in- President Calderon Hinojosa decided to use brute force
to combat some drug lords and in 2007 started a major
cumbent)
14 See also
History of Roman Catholicism in Mexico
MexicoUnited States relations
List of Presidents of Mexico
List of wars involving Mexico
The Mexican army in Apatzingn in 2007.
15 References
[1] Oldest American skull found, CNN, December 3, 2002
[2] Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early
History of Greater Mexico, Pearson 2003: pp. 914.
[3] Bakalar, Nicholas (2006-01-05). Earliest Maya Writing
Found in Guatemala, Researchers Say. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
[4] Paul R. Renne; et al. (2005). Geochronology: Age of
Mexican ash with alleged 'footprints". Nature 438 (7068):
E7E8. doi:10.1038/nature04425. PMID 16319838.
[5] Native Americans. Encarta. Archived from the original
on 2009-10-31.
The states where most of the conict takes place, marked in red.
35
36
15
REFERENCES
[67] Luis Gonzlez (John Upton translator), San Jose de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition (University of Texas
Press, 1982), p154
[68] Espinosa, David (2003). "'Restoring Christian Social Order': The Mexican Catholic Youth Association (1913
1932)". The Americas 59 (4): 451474. JSTOR
1008566.
[70] Mexico (The 1988 Elections)". Federal Research Division. June 1996. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
[71] Dan La Botz (1995). Democracy in Mexico: Peasant Rebellion and Political Reform. South End Press. p. 55.
ISBN 978-0-89608-507-7.
[72] Leonard 2006, p. 17
[73] Leonard 2006, p. 18
[74] Friedrich E. Schuler (1999). Mexico Between Hitler and
Roosevelt: Mexican Foreign Relations in the Age of Lzaro
Crdenas, 19341940. UNM Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780-8263-2160-2.
[75] Leonard 2006, pp. 1819
[76] Leonard 2006, p. 19
[77] Smith, Peter H. (April 1996). Talons of the Eagle: Dynamics of U.S. - Latin American Relations (2nd ed.).
Oxford University Press, USA. p. 79. ISBN 0-19508303-2.
[78] Stephen R. Niblo (2000). Mexico in the 1940s: Modernity,
Politics, and Corruption. Rowman & Littleeld. p. 75.
ISBN 978-0-8420-2795-3.
[79] Howard F. Cline, The United States and Mexico. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1961, 271.
[80] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, p. 266.
[81] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, pp. 265-66.
[82] Monica A. Rankin (2010). Mxico, la Patria!: Propaganda and Production During World War II. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2455-1. p. 29495
[83] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, p. 271.
[60] Jean Meyer, Mexico in the 1920s in Mexico since Independence ed. Leslie Bethell. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press 1991, p.203.
37
[89] Scruggs, Otey M. (1963). Texas and the Bracero Pro- [110] Comprando armas en la frontera". Proceso. Retrieved
gram, 19421947. Pacic Historical Review 32 (3):
23 March 2015.
251264. JSTOR 4492180.
[111] http://www.gov.harvard.edu/files/uploads/Rios_
[90] Cline, U.S. and Mexico, pp. 333-359.
EstePais_DealersS.pdf
[91] educational ~ civil war. San Lucas Mission. Retrieved [112] https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40582.pdf
11 June 2013.
[92] Robert E. Looney (1985). Economic Policymaking in
Mexico: Factors Underlying the 1982 Crisis. Duke University Press. p. 46.
[93] Mark D. Anderson (2011). Disaster Writing: The Cultural
Politics of Catastrophe in Latin America. U. of Virgidrug
nia Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-8139-3196-8.
[94] Vikram K. Chand, Mexicos Political Awakening.
Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press 2001.
[95] Chand, Mexicos Political Awakening.
[96] Kathleen Bruhn, Taking on Goliath: The Emergence of
a New Left Party and the Struggle for Democracy in Mexico. University Part: Penn State Press 1997.
[97] Enrique Krauze, Mexico: Biography of Power. New York:
HarperCollins 1997, p. 770.
[98] Krauze, Mexico: Biography of Power, p. 772.
16 Further reading
16.1 Surveys
Alisky, Marvin. Historical Dictionary of Mexico
(2nd ed. 2007) 744pp
Batalla, Guillermo Bonl. (1996) Mexico Profundo.
University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70843-2.
Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer. The Oxford
History of Mexico (2nd ed. 2010) excerpt and text
search
Beezley, William, ed. A Companion to Mexican History and Culture (Blackwell Companions to World
History) (2011) excerpt and text search
Fehrenback, T.R. (1995 revised edition) Fire and
[99] http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/09/world/
Blood: A History of Mexico. Da Capo Press; popuex-president-in-mexico-casts-new-light-on-rigged-1988-election.
lar overview
html
[100] William A. Orme, Understanding Nafta: Mexico, Free
Trade, and the New North America (1996)
[101] CIA World Factbook; Mexico, CIA.gov
[102] Julia Preston; Samuel Dillon (2005). Opening Mexico:
The Making Of A Democracy. Macmillan. p. 257.
ISBN 978-0-374-52964-2.
[103] John Stolle-McAllister (2005). Mexican Social Movements and the Transition to Democracy. McFarland. p.
9. ISBN 978-0-7864-1999-9.
[104] Morris, Stephen D. (2005). Mexicos Long-Awaited Surprise. Latin American Research Review 40 (3): 417428.
JSTOR 3662849.
[105] Daniel Drache (2008). Big Picture Realities: Canada and
Mexico at the Crossroads. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p.
128. ISBN 978-1-55458-045-3.
[106] Philip Russell (2011). The History of Mexico: From PreConquest to Present. Routledge. p. 593.
[107] http://www.te.gob.mx/documentacion/publicaciones/
Informes/DICTAMEN.pdf
38
16.2
16 FURTHER READING
Werner, Michael S. ed. Concise Encyclopedia
of Mexico (2001) 850pp; a selection of unrevised articles
Primary sources
16.3
Adams, Richard E.W. Prehistoric Mesoamerica: Revised Edition. University of Oklahoma Press. 1996.
ISBN 0-8061-2834-8.
Austin, Alfredo Lopez and Leonardo Lopez Lujan.
Mexicos Indigenous Past University of Oklahoma
Press. 2001. ISBN 0-8061-3214-0.
Aveni, Anthony. Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico.
University of Texas Press. 2001. ISBN 0-29270502-6.
Berdan, Frances. The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An
Imperial Society Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1982)
Bierhorst, John. Cantares Mexicanos: Songs of the
Aztecs Stanford University Press (1985)
Codex Mendoza
Coe, Michael. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the
Aztecs. Thames & Hudson. 2004. 5th edition.
ISBN 0-500-28346-X.
Diehl, Richard A. The Olmecs: Americas First Civilization. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-50002119-8.
Knight, Alan. Mexico: Volume 1, From the Beginning to the Spanish Conquest (v. 1 of 3 vol history
of Mexico) (2002) excerpt and text search
Mann, Charles. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. 2005. ISBN 1-40004006-X.
Oner, Jerome A. Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco
Cambridge University Press 1983.
Portereld, Kay Marie and Emory Dean Keoke.
American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000
Years of Inventions and Innovations. Checkmark
Books. 2003. Paperback edition. ISBN 0-81605367-7.
16.4 Conquest
Hassig, Ross.Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (2nd
ed. 2006) excerpt and text search
Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Cortes, Montezuma, and
the Fall of Old Mexico (1995) excerpt and text search
16.4.1 Primary sources
Corts, Hernn. Letters from Mexico. Yale University Press. Revised edition, 1986.
Diaz, Bernal. The Conquest of New Spain. Penguin
Classics,
Lockhart, James (editor and translator) We People
Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
University of California Press (1992)
Len-Portilla, Miguel, editor. The Broken Spears:
The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Beacon Press. 1992. excerpt and text search
16.7
Primary sources
16.6
39
Hamill, Hugh. The Hidalgo Revolt (1966)
Hamnett, Brian R. Juarez (1994)
Harvey, Robert. Liberators: Latin Americas Struggle For Independence, 18101830 (John Murray,
London, 2000). ISBN 0-7195-5566-3
Henderson, Timothy J. The Mexican Wars for Independence (2010) excerpt and text search
Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico
and Its War with the United States (2008) excerpt
and text search
Riguzzi, Paolo (2009). From Globalisation to
Revolution? The Porrian Political Economy:
An Essay on Issues and Interpretations. Journal of Latin American Studies 41 (2): 347368.
doi:10.1017/S0022216X09005598.
Rodrguez O., Jaime E. We Are Now the True
Spaniards": Sovereignty, Revolution, Independence,
and the Emergence of the Federal Republic of Mexico, 18081824 (2012) excerpt and text search
Scholes, Walter V. Mexican Politics during the
Jurez Regime 18551872 (University of Missouri
Press, 1957)
Sinkin, Richard N. The Mexican Reform, 1856
1876:A Study in Liberal Nation-Building (University
of Texas Press, 1979)
Tenenbaum, Barbara. The Politics of Penury: Debts
and Taxes in Mexico, 1821-1856 University of New
Mexico Press (1986)
Tutino, John. From Insurrection to Revolution in
Mexico: Social bases to agrarian violence, 17501940 Princeton University Press (1986)
Van Young, Eric. The other rebellion : popular violence, ideology, and the Mexican struggle for independence, 1810 1821 Stanford University Press
(2001)
Coatsworth, John H (1979). Indispensable Railroads in a Backward Economy: The Case of Mexico. Journal of Economic History 39 (4): 939960. 16.7 Primary sources
JSTOR 2120337.
Raat, W. Dirk, ed. Mexico: From Independence to
Fowler, Will. Santa Anna of Mexico (2009) excerpt
Revolution, 18101910 (1982), 308pp; 26 scholarly
and text search
articles & primary documents
Fowler-Salamini, Heather, and Mary Kay Vaughn,
eds. Women of the Mexican Countryside, 1850
16.8 Revolution
1990: Creating Spaces, Shaping Transition (1994).
Hale, Charles A. Mexican Liberalism in the Age of
Mora, 1821-53. Yale University Press (1968)
Hale, Charles A. The Transformation of Liberalism
in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico. Princeton University Press (1989)
40
16 FURTHER READING
Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution, Volume 1: 16.10 Historiography and memory
Porrians, Liberals, and Peasants (1990); The Mexican Revolution, Volume 2: Counter-revolution and
Benjamin, Thomas; Ocasio-Melndez, Marcial
Reconstruction (1990); a standard scholarly history
(1984). Organizing the Memory of Modern Mexico: Porrian Historiography in Perspective, 1880s Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution: Bour1980s. Hispanic American Historical Review 64
geois? Nationalist? Or Just a 'Great Rebellion'?"
(2): 323364. JSTOR 2514524.
Bulletin of Latin American Research (1985) 4#2 pp.
137 in JTSOR
Boyer, Christopher R., ed. Land between Waters:
O'Malley, Ilene V. The Myth of the Revolution:
Hero Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-1940 (1986) online
Richmond, Douglas W. and Sam W. Haynes. The
Mexican Revolution: Conict and Consolidation,
1910-1940 (2013) online
Ruiz, Ramn Eduardo. The Great Rebellion: Mexico, 19051924 (1980).
Snodgrass, Michael. Deference and Deance in
Monterrey: Workers, Paternalism, and Revolution in
Mexico, 18901950. (Cambridge University Press,
2003) ISBN 0-521-81189-9.
Womack, John. Zapata and the Mexican Revolution
(1968)
16.9
Since 1940
41
17
External links
42
18
18
18.1
18.2
Images
43
18.2
Images
44
18
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Junio de 2007
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File:Mayan_Frieze_from_Classic_Era_-_Palenque_Archaeological_Site_Museum_-_Chiapas_-_Mexico_-_01_(15057686313)
.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Mayan_Frieze_from_Classic_Era_-_Palenque_Archaeological_
Site_Museum_-_Chiapas_-_Mexico_-_01_%2815057686313%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Mayan Frieze from Classic
Era - Palenque Archaeological Site Museum - Chiapas - Mexico - 01 Original artist: Adam Jones from Kelowna, BC, Canada
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Bayot
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File:Solemne_y_pacfica_entrada_del_Ejrcito_de_las_Tres_Garantas_a_la_Ciudad_de_Mxico.jpg
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