Technological Institute of the Philippines

Manila

Module #4
Making Proposition and Judgment

Dr. Babur, Eddie K.

(2009)Logic the Philosophical Discipline of Correct
Thinking
C&E Publishing, Inc.

Unit 1: Understanding Judgment and

Proposition
Judgment and Propositions
A term is the basic unit of a proposition. It is the expression
of an idea. In the preceding discussion, it was made clear that the
mind forms ideas through simple apprehension (the first mental
operation). However, the mind does not just form ides; it also
compares ideas. Hence, a discussion of the second mental
operation, called judgment, which is expressed through a
proposition, is required.

Nature and Meaning of Judgment

It takes two ideas for the mind to form a judgment. As the
mind draws a judgment, it makes a comparison between these
two ideas. In comparing these ideas, the mind enunciates their
relation whether they are in agreement or disagreement with
each other. In drawing a judgment the mind compares two ideas,
and then it enunciates or declares whether they agree or disagree
with each other. Judgment is considered as the second act of the
human mind. It is viewed as the cause of logical predication. We
define as the act of the mind affirming or denying one concept
with another.
Examples:
Pedro is Filipino
(Affirmative)
Pedro is not Filipino (Negative)
.

Prerequisites in making Judgment

These prerequisites must be fulfilled first below any judgment
can be made.

1. Apprehension of the two ideas or concepts.

This means that the human mind must have an
understanding of the two ideas about which it intends
to make a judgment.

2. Mental comparison of the two ideas or concepts.

Through this process, the mind studies the
comprehension of ach recognizes their identity or non
identity, and thus be ready to pronounce an agreement
or disagreement.
3. Perception of the objective agreement or disagreement
between the two ideas being compared with one another.
4. Pronouncement of the agreement or disagreement between
the two ideas being compared.

Definition of Proposition
A proposition is statement through which a judgment is
expressed. This means that propositions are the building blocks of
judgments. Without Propositions, there can be no judgments.
Inasmuch as there are affirmative and negative judgments, there
are also affirmative and negative propositions. In addition to
affirmative and negative judgments, there are also true and false
judgments in like manner that corresponds to fact, while a false
proposition is one that does not correspond to facts.

Elements of Proposition
1. Subject
The Subject of a proposition is the term which is either
denied or affirmed. It has to be noted, however, that
the logical subject of a proposition is not always the
same as its grammatical subject.

2. Predicate
The predicate of a proposition is that which is either
denied or affirmed of the subject.

3. Copula
The copula of the proposition normally appears in the
present tense in the indicative mood of the verb to be.
Examples: All al- Qaeda fighters are terrorists.
(Affirmative)
All Al- Qaeda fighters The subject
Are Copula
Terrorists Predicate

All al- Qaeda bandits are not terrorists.

All Al- Qaeda bandits The Subject
Are not Copula
Terrorists Predicate

(Negative)

Kinds of Propositions
Propositions may be classified in various ways; for example,
they may be causal, modal, existential, non existential,
categorical, or hypothetical, depending on the method of
classification used.

Categorical Propositions
A categorical proposition is a kind of proposition that
expresses unconditional judgment. This unconditional
judgment expressed in a categorical proposition is made
manifest in such a way that the predicate either affirms or
denies the subject.

1. Kinds of categorical propositions.

Categorical Propositions can be viewed from the standpoint of
quantity and from the standpoint of quality.

A. From the standpoint of quantity, categorical propositions are

classified according to the number of objects to which the
proposition is applied.
B. From the standpoint of quality, what is identified is the
relation established between the subject and the predicate
terms of the proposition whether they agree (affirmative) or
disagree (negative) with each other.
C. The combination of quantity and quality of categorical
propositions results in the following four types of categorical
propositions:
Universal Affirmative;
Universal Negative;
Particular Affirmative;
Particular Negative.
Categorical proposition is signified by the letter:

A
E
I
O

All men are mortal.

Universal Affirmative
No men are mortal.
Universal Negative
Some men are mortal.
Particular Affirmative
Some men are not mortal
Particular Negative

2. The quantity of the predicate term of categorical

propositions.
The subject term of any proposition always has quantity (as
determined by the quantity of the subject term). And, its
predicate term always has quantity.
A. The following are the rules in determining the quantity of the
predicate:
All affirmative propositions always have particular
(undistributed) predicate terms.
All negative propositions always have universal
(distributed) predicate terms.

B. All affirmative propositions (A and I) always have particular

predicate terms. This means that the predicate terms of A and I
propositions are contained in the comprehension (totality) of
the subject term so that the subject and predicate terms are
identified with each other.

The following table summarizes the relationships among the

types of categorical propositions:
Types of
Categorical
Propositions
A
E
I
O

Quantity of the Quality of the

subject term
Proposition (or
the copula)
Universal
Affirmative
Universal
Negative
Particular
Affirmative
Particular
Negative

Quantity of the
Predicate
Particular
Universal
Particular
Universal

3. Reduction of propositions to logical form

If proposition contains all these parts in proper order, the
proposition is drawn in its logical form. Nonetheless, in order
to arrive at certitude, it is good to consider the guidelines on
the next page in reducing a proposition into its logical form.
A. Determine what type of categorical proposition is the given
proposition.
B. Determine or identify the subject term of the proposition.
C. Determine the quantity of the subject term.

D. Determine the quality of the copula. The quality of the

copula (affirmative or negative) determines the quality of the
proposition.

Hypothetical Propositions
The hypothetical proposition is a compound or complex
proposition that shows a condition, dependency, opposition,
or similarity between two or more propositions.

1.

2.

3.

Three kinds of Hypothetical propositions

Connective or conditional hypothetical proposition.
This is a proposition in which the consequent depends upon
the antecedent to the effect that only if the antecedent is
true can the consequent also be true.
Conjunctive Hypothetical proposition
This is the kind of hypothetical proposition that enunciates
the impossibility of two things occurring simultaneously, or
two facts to be true at one and at the same time. This means
that the component parts of a conjunctive hypothetical
proposition exclude one another.
Disjunctive hypothetical proposition
This is a kind of hypothetical proposition which readily
exhausts all possibilities such that no which can be true or
false at the same time.

Unit 2: Opposing Logical Proposition

Logical Opposition
Opposition exists between two propositions when they have
the same subject and predicate terms but differ from each
other in quantity, quality, or both.

Four types of Opposition:

1. Contradictory opposition

This is an opposition existing between a pair of propositions

having the same subject and predicate terms but differing in
both quantity and quality. In the illustration of the square of
opposition, the following propositions are contradictories:

2. Contrary Opposition (contrariety)

This is an opposition existing between a pair of universal
propositions having the same subject and predicate terms
but differing in quality, like A is affirmative while E is
negative.

3. Sub contrary opposition

This is an opposition existing between a pair of particular
propositions having the same subject and predicate terms
but differing in quality.

4. Subaltern opposition
This is an opposition existing between a pair of propositions
having the same subject and predicate terms and the same
quality, but differing in quantity.

Square of Opposition
CONTRARIES
A
Universal Affirmative

S
U
B
A
L
T
E

E
Universal Negative

S
U
B
A
L
T
E

R
N
S

R
N
S

I
Particular Affirmative

O
Particular Negative

CONTRARIES

Unit 3: Applying Logical Equivalence

Logical Equivalence
This is kind of immediate inference where a new proposition
is formulated either by interchanging the subject and predicate
terms of the original proposition or by the use or removal of
negatives.

1.Conversion
This refers to the formulation of a new proposition by way of
interchanging the subject and the predicate terms of an
original proposition, with the quality of the original
proposition retained. Conversion has two parts, namely, the

converted (the original proposition) and the converse (the

new proposition).

A. Simple Conversion

Is a kind of conversion in which the quantity of the

convertend is retained in the converse. If it follows that if the
convertend is universal, the converse must also be universal,
or if the convertend is particular, the converse must also be
particular

B. Partial Conversion
Is a kind of conversion wherein the quantity of the
convertend is reduced from universal to particular. This
implies that partial conversion is applicable only to A and E
propositions.

2.Obversion
This is a kind of eduction In which a new proposition is
formulated by retaining the positions of the subject and
predicate terms and the quantity of the subject and
predicate terms and the quantity of the original proposition;
however, the quality of the original proposition is changed
and the predicate term is replaced by it contradictory.

3.Contraposition
This is a kind of eduction which results from a formulation of
a new proposition whose subject term is the contradictory of
the predicate term in the original proposition.
A. Partial Contraposition
Involves the formulation of a new proposition (contra posit)
as follows: A) its (contra posit) subject is the contradictory of
the predicate term of the original proposition
(contraponend); B) the quality of the contraponend is
changed in the contra posit; and C) the predicate term in the
contra posit is the subject term in the contraponend.

B. In Complete contraposition
A new proposition (contra posit) is formulated according to
the following conditions: A) the subject term in the contra
posit is the contradictory of the predicate term in the
contraponend; B) the quality of the contraponend is not
changed in the contra posit; and C) the predicate term in the
contra posit is the contradictory of the subject term in the
contraponend.

4.Inversion
This is a method of education in which the mind, through
obversion and conversion, finally arrives at a judgment
(inverse) thats subject and predicate terms are
contradictories of the subject and predicate terms in the
original proposition (invertend).

Rules of Eduction
1. Rules of Conversion
A. Interchanging the subject and the predicate terms.
B. Retain the quality of the convertend in the converse.
C. Do not extend any term (subject or predicate) of the
convertend in the converse in simple conversion, from
particular to universal and vice versa.
D. Reduce the quantity (but retain the quality) of the
convertend in the converse in partial conversion.
2. Rules of Obversion

A. Retain the positions of the subject nd the predicate terms.

B. Retain the quantity of the obvertend in the obverse.
C. Change the quality of the obvertend in the obverse.
D. The predicate term of the obvertend should be changed to
its contradictory in the obverse.
3. Rules of Contraposition
A. Simple/ Partial Contraposition:
The subject term of the contraposit is the contradictory of
the predicate term in the contraponend.
The quality of the term of the contraponend is changed in
the contraposit.
The predicate term of the contraposit is the subject term in
the contraponend.
B. Complete Contraposition:
The subject term of the contraposit is the contradictory of
the predicate term in the contraponend.
The quality of the contraponend is not changed in the
contraposit.
The predicate term of the contraposit is the contradictory of
the subject term in the contraponend.