Observations:

Using a step generator, and a load mismatched with the transmission line, this
experiment essentially measured the voltage reflections along the line based on
transient conditions. Since it is already known that mismatched purely resistive
load, Thevenin (generator), and characteristic impedances in the line would
constitute the existence of a reflected voltage either from the load to the generator
or back, the experiment demonstrated and focused on the successive reflected
voltages that occur during transient time and its effects on the transmission line.
a) Infinite (Open) Load; Load Impedance is higher than the Thevenin impedance
At the onset of the generators operation, the signal will be transmitted from the
generator to the load, travelling along the transmission line with a designated
velocity of propagation Vp which was found to be , until it reaches the load,
constituting a transmission time T which was found to be . However, because the
load is mismatched with the lines impedance, a reflected voltage will be produced
this time from the load to the generator. The extent of a reflected voltage can be
described by its reflection coefficient, which is either a ratio of the levels of the
reflected to the incident (step generator) voltages, or the ratio of the difference to
the sum of the characteristic and load impedances. By this definition, level of
reflected voltage is actually the incident voltage multiplied by a factor which is the
reflection coefficient. This reflected voltage, upon reaching the generator after
travelling at the same velocity and transmission time, will return (re-reflected) to
the load, obviously because the line and Thevenin impedances are also
mismatched, but this time it is multiplied by a factor which is another type of
reflection coefficient based on the Thevenin impedance instead of the load. This
back-and-forth process of voltage reflection, with the level continuously affected
each time by the reflection coefficient either in the generator or load and
approximately at the 6th multiple of the transmission time T, a stabilized voltage
value higher than the incident is achieved. This level is actually the sum of the
incident and all the reflected voltage values occurred from onset until steady-state.
Viewing the waveform in these conditions, a sequence of rising and falling
exponential curves offset from the incident level can be found. The rising curves
indicate the voltage reflection felt from the load, occurring at odd intervals, while
the falling curves are felt from the generator, occurring at even intervals. Another
interpretation to the rising and falling is the overshoot and undershoot,
respectively. The width of the overshoots or undershoots is proportional to the
measured distance from the generator. The largest width can be obtained when
measured at the load.
b) Zero (Shorted) Load; Load Impedance is higher than the Thevenin impedance
A similar effect can be obtained when the load is shorted. However, although a
reflection coefficient from the load exists, there is no reflected voltage that is felt
from the load. In turn, the dominant reflected voltages existing at any point in the
transmission line are only those produced from the generator, further implying that
the overall reflected voltage is reduced. Consequently, the waveform takes on a
slight irregularity. The first overshoot occurs at half the transmission time earlier

than that for the open load, although the interval of the overshoot and undershoot
sequence remained constant.

c) Infinite (Open) Load; Load Impedance is lower than the Thevenin impedance
Comparing to when the load was higher than the Thevenin impedance, a very
significant reduction of all reflected voltages can be obtained. In line with this, the
overshoots and undershoots have also been very much reduced to the form of
spikes instead of obvious curves. The overall transient waveform for a point in the
line is a descending staircase. However, the steady-state level is below the incident
value. This implies that the reflected voltages felt from the generator subtracts
from the incident voltage. In hindsight, it can be said that the response grows closer
to balanced or matched transmission line.
d) Zero (Shorted) Load; Load Impedance is lower than the Thevenin impedance
With a shorted load, there is no reflection that can be felt at the load, and with a
higher Thevenin impedance at the generator, the collective value of all reflected
voltages, this time with the generator reflections considered to be dominant, have
been reduced to a near-insignificant value (to the error ranges of 0.1 to 0.2). There
are still spikes in the waveform, but the substantial ones are only felt until the
3rd multiple of the transmission time T.

In collective discussion, the oscilloscope results of each configuration, the actual,

over time, becomes out-of-phase with the theoretical waveform. This takes place
simply because the line, the load, and the Thevenin impedances altogether
contribute to the attenuation and distortion of both the transmitted and reflected
signals. Furthermore, the voltage reflection diagram utilized in the experiment
establishes a relationship between the distance measured from the generator (the
abscissa), and the magnitude of the occurring voltage reflections for every multiple
of the transmission time (the ordinate). Within the graph, oblique lines are drawn to
represent the individual reflections or re-reflections from either the load or
generator, and their values.