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Sex dIfferences in mathematics performance

among senior high students in Ghana
ARTICLE DECEMBER 2010
DOI: 10.4314/gab.v8i2.61947

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Kwaku Oppong Asante
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SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE AMONG

SENIOR HIGH STUDENTS IN GHANA
K. Oppong Asante*
Department of Human Development and Psychology, Regent
University College of Science and Technology, Accra, Ghana.
This study explored sex differences in mathematics
performance of students in the final year of high
school and changes in these differences over a 3year period in Ghana. A convenience sample of 182
students, 109 boys and 72 girls in three high
schools in Ghana was used. Mathematics
performance was assessed using their classroom
marks in the first and third year. The results
revealed that there was a significant difference
between mathematics performance between boys
and girls. These findings, consistent with previous
Western studies, are discussed and educational
implications of the findings suggested.
Introduction
Over the last decades, psychologists have grappled with the nature
and the origin of sex differences in behaviour and cognition.
Research on sex differences, its causes and consequences is not only
of academic interest, but concerns general academic policy. Sex
differences in mathematics performance and ability remain a concern
as scientists seek to address the underrepresentation of women at
the highest levels of mathematics, the physical sciences, and
engineering (Halpern, et al., 2007). Stereotypes that girls and women
lack mathematical ability persist and are widely held by parents and
teachers (Frome & Eccles, 1998).
Mathematics, as a tool for understanding and application of
science and technology, plays an important role of a precusor and
harbinger to the much needed technological and of course national
development, which has become an imperative in the developing
nations of the world. The choice of this topic is predicated on the
current world trend and research emphasis on gender issues
*

Corresponding author: Kwaku Oppong Asante, P.O.Box AT 1125, Achimota Accra. Email: kwappong@gmail.com;
kwappong@yahoo.co.uk; Tel: Tel: (+233) 208 375 184 / 246 121 018

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Gender & Behaviour; Volume 8 Number 2, 2010

following the millennium declaration of September 2000 (United

Nations, 2000) which has as its goal, the promotion of gender equity,
the empowerment of women and the elimination of gender inequality
in basic and secondary education by 2005 and at all levels by 2015.
In realization of the significant role of mathematics to nation
building, the Ghanaian government made the subject compulsory at
the basic and secondary levels. This was aimed at ensuring the
inculcation of mathematics literacy and the associated equipment
with logical and abstract thinking needed for living, problem solving
and educational furtherance. For full realization of this laudable
objective of mathematics education, subject mastery and
demonstrated achievement should be evenly distributed across
gender. Unfortunately, gender inequality in education has remained
a perennial problem of global scope (Bordo, 2001; UNESCO, 2003;
Reid, 2003).
Several research studies have shown that gender differences
in mathematics learning are not clear during the elementary school
years (Hyde & Geiringer, 1975; Mann, Sasanuma , Sakuma, &
Masaki, 1990), but girls begin to fall behind boys during the interm
ediate school years, and they fall further behind during the high
school years (Fennema, 1974, 1980; Leder, 1985).
Kimball (1989) cited many studies showing that boys in high
school generally achieved higher scores than girls on standardized
tests. Studies of gender differences in mathematics achievement
(Hedges & Nowell, 1995; Peterson & Fennema, 1985; Randhawa,
1994) found that, in general, males outperformed females in
mathematics during the high school years. Other studies (Fox,
Brody, & Tobin, 1980) emphasized high mathematics achievement
being dominated by males. Leder (1992) has also reported the
existence of gender differences in science subjects, in general, as well
as in mathematics
The evidence reported so far indicates that males appear to do
better than females in mathematics performance; however, recent
studies have challenged this trend by showing that this gap has
declined (Barker, 1997; Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990; Knodel,
1997). Catsambus (1994) believes that it persists for some race and
ethnic groups, and among high-performing students who may
constitute a nations mathematics talent pool. These changes in the
magnitude of the overall trend seem to have reduced, whereby,
gender differences in areas traditionally favouring boys are
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K. Oppong Asante: Sex Differences in Mathematics Performance

diminishing or shifting to favour girls. Other studies have shown no

gender differences in mathematics performance (Bronholt,
Goodnow,& Conney,1994; Ma, 1995; Guiso, Monte,Sapienza, &
Zingales,2008; Hyde, et al, 2009).
The entire debate on sex differences, literature and observations
reached have centered on Western samples and a few ones from Asia,
whilst very little data came from developing countries such as
Ghana. The paucity of data in this respect limits our understanding
of the general phenomenon of sex differences worldwide. Perhaps, a
consideration of the African factor, or a third world, in general would
have shaded some light on our understanding of the general sex
differences, and a quest of social mediators in the debate. It is the
aim of this study to find out whether such evidence would be found
among Ghanaian high school students. It is also the aim of this
study to examine whether the performance of males in mathematics
differ in any significant way from their females counterparts.
Method
Participants
Participant for the study were high school students in the
Greater Accra region in Ghana. Three high schools were selected
based on the Ghana Education Service categorization of schools into
first, second and third classes of schools. In each of these selected
schools, students in their final year (Level III) were sampled. In all
184 students made up of 111 boys and 74 girls. Three students
records were excluded because their record marks were incomplete.
Their mean age was 17.39 years (range 16 21 years).
Measures
Actual mathematics Performance
Mathematics performance scores for each student current year
(third year) in school and for the preceding first year were derived
from a composite of each students mark. The average of their marks
in the three terms for each of the year (both first and third) was used
as measure of mathematics performance.
Procedure
The survey was administered during their mathematics class
and instructions were read aloud by the researcher as they listened
attentively. Instructions were in English, which is the official
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Gender & Behaviour; Volume 8 Number 2, 2010

language in Ghana. Before the distribution of the questionnaire, the

participants were assured that the data was for academic purposes
only. The participants were instructed to concentrate hard on the
task and to work speedily but accurately. Independent work was
ensured by telling them that they were not allowed to consult fellow
students. Questionnaires and pencils were handed out, and the
students were to write the name of their school, the class in which
they were in, and their own sex and age. They were given 30 minutes
to fill in the questionnaire.
The students performance in mathematics was assessed
through the use of their classroom records, and their mathematics
score was examined with the help of their class teachers. Data on
both their first year performance and third year performance were
collected. This study presents only the preliminary findings on
mathematics performance and the gender dimension.
Results
Sex differences and effect sizes
To examine whether there was sex difference in mathematics
performance, the students scores were subjected to an independent
sample t-test. The result indicated that there was a significant sex
difference in the first year performance, t (179) = 4.47, p<.001 and
the third year, t (179) = 10.8, p<.001. The performance in
mathematics showed reliable and clear cut sex differences in favor of
males. Also the magnitudes of the sex differences correspond to a
large effect size (Cohen, 1992) on both the first year and the third
year performance in mathematics.
Table1. Classroom mathematics performance for boys (n=109)
and girls (n=72)
Boys
_____________
M
SD

Girls
_____________
M
SD

Differences
______________
t
Cohen d

First year

57.05

11.09

48.79

12.02

4.47*

Third year

73.07

10.37

56.06

11.91

10.18*

Source

Note: * p<.001 (two tailed)

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1.60

K. Oppong Asante: Sex Differences in Mathematics Performance

In addition to the differences between boys and girls, the within

sex differences for boys and girls in their first and third year
performance in mathematics was also explored. The results indicated
that there were a significant difference between first and third year
performance for boys, t (108) = 21.21, p<.001 and between first and
third year performance for girls, t (71) = 4.42, p<.001.These
differences were very large among the boys (d = 4.08) than that of the
girls (d =1.05).
Discussion
In general, the present analyses suggest that high school males
in this study outperformed females in mathematics performance, in
contrast with several other studies in which females outperform
males (Alhateeb, 2001; Benbow,1992; Robinson, Abbott, Berninger,
& Busse; (1996) and where there are no differences in mathematics
performance (Bronholt, Goodnow, & Conney,1994; Ma, 1995; Guiso,
Monte,Sapienza, & Zingales,2008; Hyde, et al, 2009). Findings in this
study indicate a clear-cut sex differences in mathematics
performance between boys and girls in high schools in Ghana. Thus
the gap found in this study is in line with gender differences in
cognitive abilities reported by some authors cited earlier.
Some of the socio-cultural factors in Ghana may be considered
to explain the gap between the sexes. The large sex differences in
mathematics performance in Ghana may be attributed to social
perception. The information gathered is that families looked forward
to the sex of a new born baby to predict its future, based on cultural
expectations and sanctions. Therefore the male dominance factor in
African societies cannot be underestimated in mathematics ability
and conceptual developments. In most African societies of which
Ghana is of no exception, boys are expected to be socially mobile
because parents generally invest more money into their education
than the girl child. Girls are generally looked upon to preserve the
status quo of tradition, thus, in many cases, girls education are
curtailed by early marriage. Gallagher (1998) noted that children are
socialized from birth into male and females cultures based on their
sex classification. Different set of behaviors are either rewarded or
discouraged by parents, teachers and peers depending on the gender
group to which a child has been assigned.
The school environment is also an equally important influence
in the gender difference in mathematics. Changes in mathematicrelated attitudes are associated with developmental change in gender
identity (Gallagher & Kaufman, 2006). During this stage, girls begin

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to firmly establish their feminine identity and thus become

susceptible to social and environmental pressures that undermine
their self-confidence and performance in male dominated subject like
mathematics. The learning environment that students face when they
enter high school in Ghana may interact with adolescent
development changes in ways that may result in low interest in
mathematics as suggested by Steincamp & Maehr, (1984). Numerous
studies have tried to identify the aspects of the schooling
environment that contribute to the gender difference in mathematics
performance. Existing research has concentrated on three general
features of the schooling experiences namely organizational
characteristics of students and classrooms, social interaction within
the school (between students and school authorities, or among
students themselves) and methods of assessment and curriculum
content (Gallagher & Kaufman, 2006).
Some researchers believe that there are genetic reasons for the
differences between males and females in mathematics performance.
However, if gender differences in mathematics achievement are due
to biological factors, they should remain relatively constant among
different cultures. Findings in this study support the claim of
Fennema and Sherman (1977) that the difference in mathematics
achievement is due to societal influence and not genetic (Benbow &
Stanley, 1980; Halpern, 1997; Scarr, 1993). Similarity of gender
differences in mathematics achievement in favor of males across
many different cultures supports the influence of biological factors
like sex on academic achievement (Hacker, 1992). Such similarity
implies that biological factors may positively influence males' school
performance more than females' and supports the findings in this
study. Also, findings in this study do support the pattern of gender
difference (Peterson & Fennema, 1985), in which girls begin to fall
further behind boys in the high school years.
Implications for educational policy
Even though sex differences in mathematics performance have
been found, different kind of educational objective for each sex would
not be recommended. However, attempts to match students learning
style and attitudes with their performance for a group of students
have generally proved to be disappointing (Glaser, 1972).Yet, Glaser
suggests that teachers must fill the need missed of a students
previous level of education.

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K. Oppong Asante: Sex Differences in Mathematics Performance

The gender influence of sex-role stereotypes in determining

behavior is an important issue in human endeavor. With particular
regard to sex difference in mathematics performance, the stereotypic
behavior in the classroom and school environment as well as the
family are found to be decisive in behavior emission. Research into
the classroom behavior has shown that girls are more likely to get
positive remarks if they stand close to their teachers, while boys are
also likely to get positive reinforcement from their teachers if they
stand distant from them (Serbin et al., 1973). If a teacher in his
wisdom thinks that his or her students possess certain qualities
depending on the sex, he/she may recommend specific line of studies
for the pupil. In Ghana, some schools are designated as boys schools
and girls schools, and in such situations it will be the prerogatives of
the teachers to teach what may be appropriate for either sex based
on the stereotypes the teachers have. This would eventually lead to
neglecting to a large extent, areas thought of as male domain when
the school happens to be a female one and vice versa.
Other studies bearing on this issue have been reported that,
among junior high school students, and even among students at
higher levels, girls generally receive more positive feedback than boys
from their teachers for extra-curriculum activities such as neatness
and orderly behavior while boys are reinforced more than girls for
curriculum activities like doing home work and scoring higher marks
in assignments (Dweck & Bush, 1976). If this positive male-teacher
approach continues, the resultant effect is that girls would begin to
show more motivation to mathematics and science related subjects.
Greater collaboration in school funding should be pursue by
the government at all levels so that the public schools which are so
poorly funded could improve their capacity for productivity. The
government should apply itself to the United Nations prescribed
minimum budgetary allocation for education.
Guidance machinery in the school should be energized to
encourage more females participation in effective mathematics
learning. The female students should be informed that mathematics
could be studied and passed just like other subjects, and that the
subject is an essential tool, a prerequisite for further education in a
host of vocations. Failure in mathematics is therefore a serious setback in capacity building and human development.
Conclusions
The study corroborated other research findings that Western
empirical findings on sex differences in mathematics performance

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Gender & Behaviour; Volume 8 Number 2, 2010

can be generalized to African culture or perspective. For a better

understanding of gender differences, it is recommended that further
studies should be conducted to carefully investigate the individual
contribution of each of these conjectures or combinations of these on
gender differences, using standardized achievement tests to explain
the way these factors affect the mathematics achievement
level.Moreover, it would be interesting to investigate the effect of the
socioeconomic status on sex differences in mathematics performance
in Ghana.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests
Authors' contributions
The author designed the study, carried out the fieldwork and
statistical analyses for a Master thesis under the supervision of Prof
Sturla Krekling. I drafted this write up.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Dr. Charity Akotia, University of Ghana for her immense
guidelines during the data collection. I also wish to thank Gifty
Pabitey, fieldwork assistants and the numerous students that
participated in the study. Finally, my special thank you goes to Prof
Sturla Krekling for guidance during the preparation of both my
master thesis and this article. Many thanks to all colleagues who
read the draft manuscript and made comments The study was
funded by the Norwegian Educational State Fund (Quota Program).

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K. Oppong Asante: Sex Differences in Mathematics Performance

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