02.08.

31 - 010

Social skills

Teamwork
Working in groups
Work is often carried out in groups numbering two, three or more people. This
way of working means that in addition to carrying out the tasks at hand, you
must also work together. In the previous lessons we have seen how people
communicate with one another, what their needs are and how we can deal with
these needs. Working together in a group requires one more thinginsight into
the group process. How does a group function and what are the issues involved?
This lesson will deal with a number of important aspects of groups and group
dynamics. The need to work together places extra demands on those working
together in a formal, employment-related situation. We will deal with the skills
and conditions necessary for doing this. We will also discuss how and when the
process of working together can go wrong.

Contents of the lesson

1

What is a group?

Task aspects of a group

Relationships within a group

Norms and values

Conditions needed for teamwork

Characteristics of good and bad teamwork

Behaviour in the group

Group tasks

Managers task

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Social skills 02.08.31 - 010

Lesson
1. What is a group?
A group is a number of people who share a common goal. The school board is a
group. The fire brigade is a group. The soccer team is also a groupa group of
sports lovers who try to reach a shared goal, be it to become the champions or to
enjoy an active and healthy form of recreation
A group often forms part of a larger organisation. A soccer team is usually part
of a soccer association, and it often plays competitively in a soccer league.
The employees in a department also make up a group. The larger organisation in
which they work together is the whole company.
We define a group as:
A collection of people who strive to achieve a shared goal.

- task-oriented
groups

A group of school children getting on a bus to go on an excursion is a group.

People waiting for a bus at a bus stop are not usually a group. They tend to have
different goals. When people work together to achieve a goal, the work that
needs to be done is usually shared between the members. Everyone is assigned a
task, which is why these groups are called task-oriented groups.
Although such a group is focused on performing specific tasks, this is only one
aspect of the group. People are not machines. You like some of the people you
work with better than others. How you work together does not just depend on
the rules, but also on who is involved.
In reality these two aspects are intertwined, so that it is not enough to learn the
rules of the game when working in a group. Nor is knowing the rules enough to
be able to provide leadership to a group. You also need a certain amount of
intuition in order to be able to discover what is going on. You need insight into
how the group operates, and you need insight into how you yourself operate.
Everyone who is part of a group tends to have the same questions:
1. What is the goal of this group?
2. What do we need to achieve that goal?
3. How will we interact with one another?
Working, co-operating, coaching, leading, training: we need to address those
questions for all of these aspects.
Question 1
What insight do you need in order to be able to function well in a group?

Social skills 02.08.31 - 010

2. Task aspects of a group

Goals
The goal is probably the most important aspect of the group, as it determines the
extent to which the groups activities are productive and useful. In general,
groups do not pay enough attention to the goals, assuming instead that they are
perfectly clear to everyone involved.
Goals can be said to be clearly defined if they communicate the following:
- What do we want to achieve?
- Within what time frame do we want to achieve it?
- How are we going to achieve it?
- group goals

- work goals

- input in setting
goals

- make goals
operational

If the goals within a groupthe group goalsare not clear, the group will not
function. It will not be a team. A soccer team cannot play without a game plan.
Members blame one another when things go wrong, and spend more time
fighting amongst themselves than facing the other side.
Part of the reason why goals are so important is that they provide group
members with guidelines on how to act. They define what things need to be
done, and why. Knowing what you are trying to achieve motivates you to work,
and when people are motivated they are much more likely to reach their goals.
It is just as important that the goals are clearly defined in our own groups or
teams at work. For instance, we could discuss the goals of our work during
routine work discussions, so as to clarify them and adjust them as necessary.
When working together we are not only confronted with the work goals, but also
the goals of the individual group members. The group members will be more
motivated if they have a say in establishing the group goals, and this in turn
improves the quality of those goals. By having a say, group members are able to
contribute important information that is needed in order to be able to formulate
the goals accurately and responsibly. After all, they are the ones who must work
towards these goals and are often in the best position to judge what is possible
and what is not.
For a group to be able to work together well it is essential that all the group
members know what the goals are and what the best way is to achieve them.
This means that goals have to be made operational, which means that they have
to be made tangible, workable and measurable.
Goals are operational when they are self-explanatory in terms of what actions
are needed to achieve them. When that happens, the work becomes clear and
people have insight into what needs to be done; everyone knows what they are
supposed to be doing.
The best way to fine-tune daily workboth our own and that of the groupis
through work discussions.

Social skills 02.08.31 - 010

- personal goals

Personal goals
So far we have only discussed the group goalsgoals that everyone in the group
more or less agrees with. In addition, members of the group have their own goals
too, these we call personal goals and they can vary widely.
Peoples reasons for working towards group goals can vary from person to
person; we read about this in the first lesson on motivation. Goals are about to
what we want to achieve, motivation is about why we want to achieve it.
Motivation addresses the underlying needs.
Every group member has their personal goals and motives that they hope to
achieve together with the rest of the group. Usually group members try to realise
their own goals at the same time as they try to realise the group goals.
It is easier to work together if the personal goals of the group members are more
or less the same. But when the personal goals vary too widely, it becomes more
difficult to work together.
Question 2
What do we mean by making the goals operational?
Teamwork and task assignment
How should we view teamwork? We will define this so that you have a
framework to help you understand the concept.

- definition of
teamwork

Definition of teamwork:
Teamwork is what happens when people work together in a way that has been
previously agreed and that allows the group to make use of each members
contribution so that they can accomplish their tasks and achieve the end goal.
There are three different types of individual contributions, those related to:
1. the tasks.
2. the relationships.
3. the work method.
1. The tasks
Some people have more knowledge than others, so that they can transfer that
knowledge. If someone has more difficulty understanding something you can
help them by explaining things in a different way, just as you can increase
someones knowledge by giving them more information.
2. The relationships
Some people are quicker to learn and communicate better than others. You can
help one another by listening and by showing others that their contributions are
valuable too.
3. The work method
You can also help one another making decisions, keeping an eye on the
timetable, being aware of safety, filling in the work reports in the right way,
using one anothers ideas and knowledge.

Social skills 02.08.31 - 010

- allocation of tasks

- factors influencing
communication

This assumes that everyone agrees that the group consists of individuals who
need one another to proceed . It also assumes that the group members all have
their own expertise, that everyone has the opportunity to make their own
contribution, and that every group member is prepared to ask for and to offer
help as needed. Working together usually leads to an allocation of tasks. We can
do everything together, or we can share the tasks among the group members. It
is more logical that members do whatever they are best at.
Communication within the group
An earlier lesson dealt with communication between two people. The model
discussed in that lesson is actually the basis for every situation involving
communication, including the group situation.
In order to be able to carry out the tasks successfully, group members will need
to provide one another with information, discuss differences of opinion, make
plans and take decisions, they will have to allocate the various tasks, etc. They
must also be able to understand one another, to trust one another and to deal with
any conflicts. All of this is only possible if there is good communication. The
continued existence of the group is largely dependent on it. Good
communication does not just happen, it is influenced by many factors.
The first important factor is that the nature of the task itself largely determines
the communication. A group that is dealing with controlling a manufacturing
process will not talk to one another in the same way as a group that is concerned
with transport issues.
A second important factor is the quality of the relationships within the group.
The communication in a group where the relationships are strained will be very
different from the communication in a group in which the members get on well
together.
Apart from these two factors (task and relationships) there are other factors such
as:
- the expertise of the group members in relation to the task at hand;
- the different phases of working on the task;
- the level of experience of working as a group;
- the size of the group;
- etc.

- communication
structures

- open structure

All these factors influence communication and lead to certain communication

structures. Every group has its own way of communicating, its own
communication structure. It is a network of pathways along which the
communication continuously takes place; every group member forms part of that
structure.
In order to be able to discuss the work you need a pattern of communication.
Typically this is characterised by very intensive communication that involves all
or some of the group members. If we were to draw a schematic representation of
this pattern we would see something that looks like a wheel. It is an open
structure in which the members trust one another, and provide one another with
a sense of security and safety. In other words, everyone feels at home. The
members are highly involved both with the task at hand and with one another.
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They are very much prepared to listen to one another, both in terms of ideas and
in terms of feelings.

5617-010-001-P

Figure 1
The wheel as a structure for intensive communication

The advantages of the wheel structure are:

- the members of the group are very motivated to deal with the task on their
own terms, there are many opportunities for taking the initiative;
- because everyone takes part in the decision-making process, the decisions
are of relatively high quality in that they have been carefully thought
through, are reasonable and feasible;
- there is no need to check all of the work carried out by the group as the
process of working together is self-monitoring;
- in general the group will be flexible in dealing with changing demands.
- forms of
communication

As well as the structure of communication, each group will develop a form of

communication. Examples of communication forms include communication that
is aimed at acquiring information and knowledge (view forming), and
communication that is aimed at providing information. Communication can also
be aimed at fostering discussions that involve the group in handling suggestions,
conclusions and decision-making.
Question 3
Name at least three factors that influence communication within a group.
Question 4
What are the characteristics of the wheel structure for communication?

3. Relationships within a group

Atmosphere in the group
By atmosphere in the group we mean the relationships between the various
individuals that make the group a 'group', and the personal feelings that everyone
has. The atmosphere does not just happen, it is created. All group members
contribute to this by talking, listening or remaining silent, by making jokes or by
being serious, by bringing up personal matters or by keeping it strictly business.
All of this creates an atmosphere and so is important for the way in which group
members will deal with one another and work together.
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It usually takes some time to create a good, comfortable atmosphere. It happens

once the group members are open and frank in their dealings with one another.
At the beginning, when a group is just getting started, this kind of openness has
not yet developed.
For some groups, for instance those in work discussions, it may be the first time
that they are brought together in this way. They may already know one another
within the context of another group, but the work discussion aspect is new.

- goal and
implications
- atmosphere and
implications

Imagine you find yourself in a group with people you do not know, or you go
into a group of people you do know but where you are not familiar with the
procedures so that the way of working is new to you.
In both cases most group members will react with the same kinds of questions:
1. questions about the goal and the implications. What are the goals of this
group, how will they be achieved and what are the implications for me
personally? What do they expect from me?
2. questions about the atmosphere and the implications. Why am I in this
group? What do I want to do here? How will I do that? Is this a nice group?
How will I behave? Shall I leap in or sit back and watch for a while? Will I
be able to contribute?
At first, the situation is unclear for everyone. No one really knows how they will
react to the other people. The rules are not yet clear. It is not surprising that in
such a situation you may feel unsure or nervous, even if you do not quite
understand why.
Formation of a group
As a group matures it undergoes a process of development. Just as with people,
this development can be broken down into a number of different phases. Where
people go from childhood to puberty to adulthood, groups go through the
following phases.
Phase 1
Our level of uncertainty as to how we should behave in the group is at its
highest. Everyone is holding back and observing, waiting to see what the others
will do. There is no sense of trust.
Phase 2
Slowly we start to explore how we can work with one another. In the process, a
number of the group members will reveal a little more of themselves, usually
their best side. Contact between the group members is still careful and
impersonal. During this phase everyone tries to find answers to the questions
voiced in phase 1, through a process of trial and error. Everything the group
members do can be seen as an attempt to reduce the tension and uncertainty.
Phase 3
At a certain point in time it becomes clear to everyone how they will interact
with one another. Group members know what it is that the group expects from
them, and they know what they can expect from the group. There is now a sense
of openness and trust. Contact between the group members becomes more
personal.
We must take these phases into account when we start up a new group.
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4. Norms and values

- norms
- values

Every group has rules about what kind of behaviour is acceptable and what is
not. These rules determine what kind of behaviour is considered normal or
abnormal. These rules are called norms. A norm represents what the group
members expect from one another in terms of how each should behave.
These norms are based on certain values. A value is a measure of the importance
that we attach to a certain kind of behaviour, or to an object or an event.
Example
If you think it is very important that the group starts on time, then that can lead
to a group norm whereby everyone is expected to arrive on time. From that point
on it is considered abnormal to be late.
Norms make it easier to work in a group because you know what you can expect
from the others, and what they expect from you. This is why it is important to
know what the norms are within a group at any given time, and particularly
whether or not you agree with them. Often groups hold on to rules because it is
considered to be the right thing to do, without stopping to consider whether or
not these rules are actually useful to the group.
Every person participates in different groups.
Something that is considered normal in one group may be considered abnormal,
or even taboo, in another group.
Example 1
When at home you probably hug your wife and children, but this would not be
appropriate amongst friends or colleagues.
Example 2
You may always arrive at work strictly on time, but at home or when visiting
friends it is quite all right to be a little late.
Group norms
All groups have their own norms and these have a major impact on the way
members behave. These norms may have different goals. Some aim to promote
effective work practices, others to keep the atmosphere within the group
optimal. We will now discuss a number of different types of norms.
Task norms
Within task-oriented groups it is very important to work together towards a goal.
Hence the group has rules that improve the way it works on this task. These
rules indicate how certain difficulties may be dealt with, how decisions should
be made, etc. Often these rules are agreements that the group itself has
developed. It is easier to work together when we agree how we are going to do
something and then stick to the agreements. Deviating from these norms may
make it impossible to reach the group goal.

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Social norms
Whilst working on their task(s), group members are constantly in contact with
one another. By agreeing on how this contact will take place, it can be made
smoother and more effective. If some group members have a habit interrupting
other members, there could be a problem. Members will need to agree to give
everyone a chance to say what they want to say, without interruption. These
communication rules are very important. all kinds of other rules will develop
about helping one another, being polite to one another, demanding honesty from
one another, considering it more important to talk about feelings than to give an
opinion, etc. In order to fit into a group, you must adapt to these rules. They
make it easier to interact with one another.
Examples of group norms
- everyone arrives on time and we get started right away;
- everyone should be able to have a say during the task allocation phase;
- conflict must be avoided at all times;
- no smoking;
- we do not discuss group issues with outsiders;
- we give one another a chance to finish speaking;
- it is important to be able to trust one another;
- you can be a valuable group member without being very vocal;
- everyone is an active participant.

- discipline

Strict and flexible application of the norms

In some groups the norms must be followed exactly, and hardly any deviation is
allowed. The word discipline, as used in the army, indicates a strict application
of the norms. Sometimes this is a good thing, for instance if not following the
rules could place people in danger. Traffic rules and safety regulations are good
examples of these. But in most task-oriented groups, following the rules too
strictly would hinder co-operation. Even though group members need strict and
clear norms so that they know exactly what to expect and what is expected, it
also means that the likelihood of accidentally going against a norm becomes
much greater.
As a result, the atmosphere is such groups is often very tense. In general, people
working in groups that apply the norms very strictly tend to be less creative and
not very spontaneous. This is because they are not free to experiment with their
behaviour.
In other words, you need a certain degree of freedom in interpreting the rules.
Supple and flexible group norms give people a chance to experiment with their
behaviour. These sorts of norms stimulate creativity, make for a relaxed
atmosphere, and are easily changed.
Question 5
What are group norms, task norms and social norms?

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5. Conditions needed for teamwork

We have discussed in detail what things group members need to know as a basis
for being able to work together. In order to be able to work together, everyone
involved must meet three criteria:
- they must be prepared to work together;
- they must have the skills for working together;
- they must have an opportunity to work together.
Being prepared to work together
Everyone can see that it is often necessary to work together, particularly in a
work situation. This does not mean that everyone is automatically prepared to
co-operate 100%. A number of conditions must be met before people are
optimally prepared to work together.
These preconditions offer the group the possibility to:
- have common goals;
- accommodate individual functioning;
- create opportunities for the group members.
The more opportunities someone has to meet their personal needs, the more
prepared they are to make an effort. Naturally the very need to work together
limits the scope for individual functioning, so that the trick is to find the right
balance between working together for group goals and working for personal
goals.
Skills needed for working together
We can divide the skills needed for working together into three types: technical
skills, conceptual skills and social skills.
- technical skills

By technical skills we mean:

- the expertise needed to be able to do a job;
- the ability to apply this expertise in practice, together with other people.

- conceptual skills

By conceptual skills we mean:

- the ability to visualise the issues;
- the ability to gain an overview;
- the ability to develop- plans;
- the ability to conceive solutions by working with others to analyse and solve
problems.

- social skills

By social skills we mean:

- the ability to form relationships;
- the ability to maintain relationships;
- the ability to behave in a communicative manner;
- the ability to participate.
Opportunity for working together
Two factors influence the opportunity for working together within a group:
- the structure for working together;
- the style of leadership.
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- structure

All forms of working together between a group of employees are influenced by

the way in which the organisation, the department, and/or the group are
organised. This structure must be compatible with the nature and the goal of the
group. The structure can be so dominating that it hinders individual and group
behaviour. This will adversely affect teamwork. Here again we have to find a
way of striking a balance between the necessary structure and the demands of
human behaviour.
The managers approach to leadership also has an effect on the way the group
works as a whole. If he is to get the most effective teamwork possible, his
management style has to be geared to the nature, the needs and the purpose of
the group and to the competence and willingness of the individual group
members. Leadership that is too strict and authoritative can, under some
circumstances, lead to resistance from individual group members and make it
harder for the group to work together. One of the requirements the manager must
satisfy is the ability to change the style of leadership to make it compatible with
the demands of the situation and the group members involved. This is also one
of the prerequisites for good teamwork.
Question 6
What are the three types of skills needed to be able to work together, and what
do they entail?

6. Characteristics of good and bad teamwork

To a certain extent we can judge whether the teamwork is good or bad by the
attitudes of the manager and his subordinates. The following characteristics
define the extremes within which we can identify the various levels of
teamwork.

- tactical attitude
- co-operative
attitude

Bad teamwork
Tactical attitude by leader and/or group
member
* personal goals dominate
* camouflage
* suspicious caution
* isolation
* looking out for oneself: first me, then
you
* personal criticism: often negative, the
other is to blame
* hidden conflicts: complaining,
grumbling, gossiping
* static balance (maintain the status quo,
resistance to change)

Good teamwork
Co-operative attitude of leader and/or
group member
* Know and accept shared goals
* Openness
* Mutual trust
* Sense of belonging
* Searching together for alternatives and
solutions
* Professional criticism: constructive,
working together for improvement
* Open conflicts: talk them through,
clear the air
* Dynamic balance: receptive to
changes and new developments

Figure 2
Characteristics of good and bad teamwork

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7. Behaviour in the group

We have two ways of looking at the teamwork in a group and the co-operation
between individual group members. In the first instance we look at what
someone says or does, and ask ourselves what the role of a person with his
contribution in the team is. We can make a distinction between two types of
contributions: contributions that aim to complete the task and contributions that
aim to facilitate the process of teamwork.
Task activities
The following task activities must be carried out if we, as group members, are to
be able to work at a task productively:
- establish and/or clarify goals;
- assign tasks and explain them, develop activities, make proposals and
question the work method, indicate which procedures are to be followed;
- give and ask for instructions, opinions and information;
- organise and co-ordinate the work, assign tasks;
- carry out the work;
- determine how far we have progressed and what remains to be done;
- check, evaluate and adjust.
Relationship activities
In order to be able to work together with, for example, the manager and staff of
another department it is important to pay attention to social needs and to build
and maintain a good relationship.
In order to do this, all involved should:
- be attentive, give encouragement;
- be understanding, give encouragement;
- interpret feelings and share their own feelings;
- offer support, safety, security and warmth;
- build in relaxation;
- make room for individual contributions;
- encourage participation.
In general, it appears that some people have a certain affinity and aptitude for
either task activities or relationship activities. However, if you want to be able to
work productively and effectively, and at the same time derive satisfaction from
your work, both types of activities must be accommodated.
The manager and group members are expected to work together to ensure that
all these activities are carried out. However, it is not realistic to expect a
manager to be fully competent to carry out all of these tasks, particularly given
the fact that each person has an individual affinity for either task-oriented or
relationship-oriented performance. All group members are responsible for
encouraging participation, as well as the right attitude and effort. They can
enhance their skills in these areas through training, practice and experience.

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Dysfunctional activities
In addition to the task and relationship-oriented activities described above, there
are also other forms of behaviour that hinder both the teamwork in a group and
its ability to produce results.
The following forms of behaviour that some people may exhibit are an
expression of immaturity in work situations:
-

- role model

aggressive, attacking behaviour;

hindering, counterproductive behaviour;
self-exoneration;
rivalry;
defensive/passive behaviour;
looking for sympathy;
hobby horses;
clowning around;
discriminating/telling jokes;
looking for recognition;
making a show of pulling out;
withholding information.

For the sake of the group, it is important to discuss dysfunctional behaviour. It is

not good to waste too much time on it, as this usually has a reinforcing effect. It
is much more important to pay attention to the task and relationship behaviour,
and to show appreciation for this. By setting a good example we can exert a
positive influence on the task and relationship-oriented behaviour of our
colleagues.
Question 7
What are task activities, relationship activities and dysfunctional activities?
Give three examples of each type.

8. Group tasks
If we divide the task and relationship oriented activities in a way that we are
more familiar with, then we get the following five tasks that apply to the whole
group. In other words, all group members are able to participate in these tasks.
These five tasks are:
a. Taking the initiative in helping others to be more involved (to participate),
for instance by asking for and putting forward proposals; indicating what the
goals are; asking about how to approach the task, giving or asking for an
explanation or clarification.
b. Co-ordinating and influencing the direction and rate of work of group
members, by helping to define and ask about clear target setting. Examples
of this include setting quality standards, setting a time frame for the work,
formulating other requirements such as health/ safety/environmental, etc.
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c. Keeping one another informed by providing, asking for and exchanging

information, opinions and views, both about the work itself and the
commitment to carrying it out. It is equally important to provide clear and
sufficient information when filling out reports and forms.
d. Supporting the process of teamwork by creating a stimulating work
environment that strengthens the relationships and makes it easier for the
group to produce results. This can be done by encouraging a good
atmosphere, encouraging relaxation, expressing feelings, giving one another
encouragement.
e. Evaluation is the process of helping one another to evaluate decisions, goals
and procedures, to appraise them and where necessary, adjust them. This
may include seeking consensus; monitoring participation or adherence to
procedures, discussing the task, work methods or procedures to be followed,
discussing the atmosphere in the group; discussing the level of co-operation
between the leader and group members.

9. Managers task

- functional
leadership

The extent to which the manager will carry out these tasks himself will depend
on the willingness of the group to co-operate in a positive way. Gradually you
will find that as a group member, you start to take on more of these tasks. The
level of co-operation may vary from person to person. We call this functional
leadership. It does not mean that the manager no longer has a specific role. The
manager will continue to be responsible for the performance and functioning of
the group as a whole.
The manager has one specific responsibilityto make sure the group performs
all the necessary tasks. If it does not, the manager will have to (temporarily) take
on these tasks, and must be able to call upon each member of the group to join in
the discussion and determine who is best suited and prepared to take on certain
tasks.
Question 8
What is the one responsibility a manager cannot delegate?

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Summary
Working together is something we do when, as part of a group, we carry out
activities designed to achieve a common goal. We recognise two main factors
when working together in a groupthe task, being that which the group needs to
carry out, and the co-operation.
Working together can be described as following an agreed plan of action that
enables all involved to carry out their tasks and in so doing to achieve the end
goal.
The extent of co-operation can be jeopardised if we place too much emphasis on
the task function, whereas if we place too much emphasis on the co-operative
function it may jeopardise the task function. The two functions are intertwined,
and depending on the exact circumstances, one or the other may get/need extra
attention. As the situation changes, this focus can change too.
How we work together is influenced by how prepared we are to commit to doing
so, how well qualified we are to do so in terms of skills, and on having the
opportunity to do so. In order to work together, group members need technical,
conceptual and social skills. Each group member is able to carry out taskoriented and relationship oriented-activities. Each member is also capable of
disrupting the functioning of the group, this we call dysfunctional behaviour. In
order to be able to work in a group and to co-operate, all group members must
show initiative, co-ordinate the work, keep one another informed, exert
influence, provide support, and monitor and evaluate the progress.

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Test
Exercises
Do not send in your answers for correction
1. What is the definition of a group?
2. Which three points must be clear in order to work together well in a group?
3. Are the personal goals of group members always in agreement with the
group goals?
4. What is the definition of working together?
5. What types of contributions are there to working together?
6. What developmental stages does a new group go through?
7. Which three criteria determine the level of teamwork?
8. Give a few examples of things that could come into play if a member or
member displays a tactical attitude.
Give a few examples of things that could come into play if a manager or
member displays a co-operative attitude.
9. Name and describe the five group tasks that members must fulfil in order to
work together to achieve a good result.

Answers to the questions in the lesson

1. In order to work well in a group you need:
a. insight into group behaviour;
b. insight into your own behaviour.
2. Making the goals operational means that they are made tangible, workable
and measurable. Once they are operational, they are self-explanatory in
terms of what needs to be achieved and how to achieve it.
3. Factors that effect communication in a group include:

the content of the group task;

the quality of the relationships in the group;

the skills of the group members with respect to the task;

the various stages of the work in completing the task;

the level of experience of working as a group;

the size of the group.

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4. The wheel structure for communication is characterised by the following:

- intensive communication, involving all or some group members;
- an open structure: the group members share a sense of trust and provide
one another with security and safety;
- the group members are highly committed to the task and to one another.
5. A group norm is a norm that is characteristic for a particular group: how are
members expected to behave and what do they expect of one another.
Task norms are rules that dictate how the work can best be carried out or
improved.
Social norms are rules about how to behave so that the communication in the
group is as good as it possibly can be. They also describe what kind of
behaviour is desirable within the group.
6. The types of skills that are needed to be able to work together can be divided
into three groups:
1. Technical skills: the necessary expertise for the job and the ability to
apply that expertise in practice together with others.
2. Conceptual skills: the ability to visualise the issues, gain an overview;
the ability to develop plans; the ability to conceive solutions by working
with others to analyse and solve problems.
3. Social skills: the ability to form and maintain relationships, to behave in
a communicative way, the ability to participate.
7. Task activities are activities that are related to the tasks. Examples include
determining or clarifying the goals, allocating assignments, giving
instructions, monitoring progress, evaluating and adjusting etc.
Relationship activities are activities that are related to the social needs and
the building/maintaining of good relationships. Examples include paying
attention and showing understanding, offering support, security and safety,
encouraging participation etc.
Dysfunctional activities are activities that hinder the progress and/or
teamwork within the group. Examples include aggressive behaviour,
hindering progress, rivalry, passive behaviour, discrimination etc.
8. The manager always retains the responsibility for ensuring that all the group
tasks are being carried out. If necessary the manager can (temporarily) take
on any tasks that are being neglected.

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Answers to the exercises

1. A group is defined as:
A collection of people who strive to achieve a shared goal.
2. The members of a group will be able to work together well if the following
questions have been answered:
a. what is the goal of the group?
b. what is needed to achieve that goal?
c. how will we interact with one another?
3. Members of a group have their own goals, known as personal goals. In
addition, there are the group goals.
The personal goals of the individual members are not always compatible
with the group goals. If someones personal goals are not in agreement with
the group goals, or are not an extension of the group goals, then the
functioning of that person in this group can be significantly hindered.
4. By working together we mean:
Teamwork is what happens when people work together in a way that has
been previously agreed to and that allows the group to make use of each
members contribution so that they can accomplish their tasks and achieve
the end goal.
5. There are three possible types of contribution to working together. They are:
1. task-related contributions: what needs to be done?
2. relationship-related contributions: how will we interact with one
another?
3. method-related contributions: how will we achieve our goals?
6. A new group goes through the following stages of development:
Phase 1:
uncertainty; wait-and-see, little or no sense of trust
Phase 2:
a number of group members start to come out of their shells; careful and
impersonal contact; reduce uncertainty
Phase 3:
group members know what the group expects of them, and what they can
expect from the group; openness and trust; more personal contact
7. The following three criteria determine the level of teamwork:
a. the extent to which members are prepared to work together;
b. the extent to which members have the skills for working together;
c. the extent to which members have an opportunity to work together.

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8. These are a few examples of things that could come into play if a manager
or member displays a tactical attitude:
personal goals dominate; camouflage; suspicious caution; isolation; first me,
then you; personal criticism; keeping conflicts hidden; resistance to change.
These are a few examples of things that could come into play if a manager
or member displays a co-operative attitude:
knowledge and acceptance of shared goals; openness; sense of trust; sense of
belonging; searching together for solutions; professional criticism; open
conflicts; receptive to change.
9. The five group tasks that members must fulfil in order to achieve a good
result are:
a. Taking the initiative, involving others, for example by asking questions;
b. Co-ordinating and influencing the direction and rate of work of group
members, by helping to define and ask about clear target setting;
c. Keeping one another informed by providing, asking for and exchanging
information, opinions and views, both about the work itself and the
commitment to carrying it out;
d. Supporting the process of teamwork by creating a stimulating work
environment, for instance fostering a good atmosphere or by giving
encouragement;
e. Evaluating: help one another to evaluate and appraise decisions, goals
and procedures, and where necessary, to adapt them.

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Problems and assignments

Answer and send in for correction
1. Make a list of the groups you belong to (both at work and outside work) and
identify what role or function you fulfil in each group.
2. Evaluate the norms and values of the various groups that you belong to in
terms of safety, environment, social security, and reward and performance;
indicate what your own norms and values are:
With respect to:

What do you think are the norms and values of:

Society
Your own
Your own
organisation
working
group

What are your own norms

and values?
Describe them in this
column:

Safety
Environment
Social security
Reward and
performance

3. Using figure 2 as a reference, name a few characteristics that you think

could be improved in your group. Include what action you think is
necessary.
4. Give a few examples of task, relationship and dysfunctional activities in the
groups listed in question 1.
5. Groups can work together in terms of tasks, relationships or work method.
Explain what these three aspects mean and give an example of an
opportunity for teamwork for each.

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