CHAPTER1

ENERGYSOURCES

1A. Forms of Energy

Energy may be described
as "the ability
to produce heat".
Power is the rate of
energy flow from one place or form to another.
If no energy flows across the
boundaries
of a given region (an "isolated
system"),
then the total
amount of
energy inside
remains constant,
although
many forms of energy may be present,
in
varying
amounts.
Some forms of energy are listed
in Table lA1, and units of
energy are described
in Appendix A. Strictly
speaking,
energy is not "the ability
to do work", since thermal energy cannot be fully
converted
into work.

lB,
energy

Energy Demand
uses

Energy is needed in food production,

transportation,
communication,
heating
and cooling
buildings,
materials
processing
and manufacturing,
and virtually
all
aspects of modern life.
The distribution
of energy usage in the United States is
illustrated
in Table lB1.
The historical
growth of energy input to the food system and of food energy
consumed in the United States are shown in Fig. 1Bl.
More and more energy input
is needed per calorie
of food produced,
as we attempt to grow food on arid lands,
replenish
exhausted
soil nutrients,
etc.
Great amounts of energy are needed to produce materials,
such as lumber,
cement, metals,
and plastics,
for construction
and industry.
The energy required
to produce one kilogram
of various
materials
is shown in Table 182, along with
the fraction
of the product price which is due to energy cost.
As ores become
scarce and depleted,
more energy must be expended for mining,
refining,
and processing.
Recycling
of scarce materials
also demands more energy consumption,
for
separation,
transportation,
and processing
of materials.
relation

to standard

of living

The gross national

product
(GNP) per capita
is one measure of the "standard
of living"
in a country.
The relationship
between the GNP per capita and the
energy consumption
per capita for various
countries
is shown in Fig. lB2.

lA, Formsof Energy

TabZe ZAZ.

Some

form
rest-mass

kinetic

energy

energy

forms

of energy

(mks units)

definition

variables

= mOc2

m0 =
C
=

particle
speed

relativistic
particle

= mc2-m0c2

kinetic
energy
(nonrelativistic
case)

= mv2/2

electrostatic
potential
of 2 point

= q

1q2/4mzOr

energy
charges

= mass

energy

= m /

dT

Cm

m
rn

T
potential
of gravitation

potential
of spring

energy

energy

work

Gmlm2/r

kx2/2

= mass
= heat
=

electric
energy

magnetic
energy

field

= Itl?/2

= /d;:

cE2/2

vo 1 ume

field

/d;:

B2/2p

vo 1 ume

energy
stored
in capacitor

= c@/2

energy
stored
in inductance

(lA3)

(m/s)

<<

(C)

ttivi

(lA4)

ty

of

between

free
the

space
charges

(lA5)

(kg)
capacity

(J/kg-K)

temperature

= spring
= extension

dz

= differential

(K)

constant
of

hw

path
(N)

I
w

= moment
= angular

of

E
dz
E

= electric
= differential
= permittivity
material

field

= magnetic
= permeability
(H/m)

induction
of

(m)
length

ww

(ml

force

(lA7)

(J/m2)

B
1-I

the

spring

5
LIZ/2

(IA21

(kg)

kinetic

(IAl)

of

G = constant
(J-m/kg2)
(kg)
ml ?m2 = masses
= distance
between
r
masses
(m)
k

= Id;;

rotational
energy

(kg)

(ml

T
thermal

mass

charges

permi
(F/m)
r = distance

mass
(m/s)

(kg)

speed

ql,q2=
EO =

rest
light

of

inertia
(Js2)
speed
(t-ad/s)

(1AlO)
(m3)

(F/m)

= capacitance
= voltage

(V)

=
=

(A)

inductance
current

(V/m)
volume
of the

(IA91

(F)

(H)

(T)
medium

(lAl1)

(lAl2)

(lAl3)

lB, EnergyDemand
TabZe ZBI. Distribution
of energy
usage in the United States, 1968.
From Stanford Research Institute,
Patterns of Energy Consumption in the
United States, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, 1972.
industrial

percent

8.7

primary
metals
chemicals
petroleum
refining
food
and
related
paw
stone,
other

clay,

E::
products

glass,

concrete

13.3

transportation
17.1
and

res

idual

fuel

;:;

0.3
1.2
25.2

comme rc i a 1
space
heating
air
conditioning
asphalt
and
water
heating
refrigeration
other

road

oils

energy
input
(MJ/kg)

2.2
2.1
2.1
41.2

gas01 ine
jet
fuel
distillate
raw materials
other

TabZe lB2. TypicaZ energy contents

of materiak and manufactured products. The actual values of a given
product may vary considerably from
these values, From The Technology of
efficient Energy Utilization,
NATO
Science Conunittee Conference (1973).
Reprints avaiZabZe from Pergamon Press
ratio
of
energy
cost
to value
of
product

25-30
25-30

steel
copper
aluminum
magnes i urn

0.3
0.05

60-270

0.4

80-100

0.1

30-50

glass

paper

25

0.3
0.04
0.3

inorganic
chemicals
(average)
cement
1 umber

12

0.2

(bottles)
plastic

10

0.5
z

0.1

6.9
1.8
1.6
1.1
1.1
ii+

residential
space
heating
water
heating
refrigeration
cooking
other

11.0

2.9
1.1
1.1

2.4
19.2

Fig. lB1. Annual energy input to United

States food system and annua2 food energy
consumed in the United States for the
;;er;od 1940-1970. 1 ExaJoule (EJ) =
J. 1 EJ/year = 31.7 GW.
Adapted from ENERGY:SOURCES,USE, AND
RODEIN HUMANAFFAIRS, by CaroZ E.
Steinhart and John S. Steinhart.
@ 1974 by Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont,
California,
94002.

10

annual
energy
consumed

food
'

1940

1950

0 a.

.
1960

I
1970

1980

lC, EnergySources

10

sz

SW

FRWG
#
AL
JAAU
, UK EG

Fig. lB2. Gross nationa; product per

capita vs. per-capita energy consumption
rates for various countries, 2977-78
AL = Australia,
z
data. AC = Argentina,
AU = Austria, BR = Brazil, CA = Canada, &
mO
CH = China, CZ = CzechosZovakia, EG =
East Germany, FR = France, GR = Greece,
HU = Hungary, ID = Indonesia, IN = India,
.1
IR = Iran, IT = Italy, JA = Japan, MX = z
Mexico, PK = Pakistan, SA = South Africa, q
SK = South Korea, SP = Spain, SW=
ik
0
Sweden, SZ = Switzerland, TU = Turkey,
UK = United Kingdom, UR = USSR, US = USA,
WC= West Germang.

/
/ IO

SK

CH

PK

predictions

of demand

where

IN
I
1

O-tI.1

The total
energy consumption
rate of
the world P, may be written
as the sum of
the energy consumption
rates of the various
pW

geographical

10

KW/CAP

regions:

(1Bl)

(Watts)
=

k NkPk

Nk is the

population

of region

k and pk is the average

consumption
rate of that region (W/person).
almost every region of the world.

per-capita

Both Nk and pk are increasing

energy
in

Estimates
of the growth of populations
and per-capita
energy consumption
rates for various
geographical
regions
from 1975 to 2025 are shown in Table 183.
The uncertainty
in the 31 TW total
is about + 30%. (1 TW = 1012 W). Similarly,
the world energy demands in 2000 and 2050 are estimated
to be around 18 TW and 50
TW. World energy production
rates must be greatly
expanded to supply these needs,
especially
in developing
nations.

lC, Energy Sources

power

flows

Renewable energy sources,

such as solar,
geothermal,
biomass, hydroelectric,
Nonwind, wave, and tidal
power, are limited
by the usable power they provide.
renewable
fossil
and nuclear
fuels are limited
by the total
amount of energy they
can provide.
About 178,000 TW of solar energy are incident
on the earth,
of which various
amounts are reflected,
reradiated,
absorbed by evaporation
and flow into wind,
Geothermal
heat flow and tidal
power add
waves, and photosynthesis
(Fig. 1Cl).
Although
the solar and geothermal
power flows are
about 35 TW to the balance.
large,
the useful fractions
are small.
tation
world
after

The rate of consumption

of fossil
fuels is limited
by availability,
transporfacilities,
and environmental
impact.
An estimate
of the complete cycle of
petroleum
production
is shown in Fig. lC2.
Production
will
probably
decline
The restrictions
of fossil
fuel consumption
necessary to
the year 2000.

lC, Energy Sources

TabZe lB3. Ccwparison of popuZations,per-capita
power demands, and total power
Fra R. M. Rotty, %mstraints
on
demands in 1975 and estimated for 2025.
fossi fueZ use", Interactions
of Energy and CZimate, Bach, Pankrath and
WiZZioms, editors, ReideZ PubZishing Co., 1980; and R. M. Rotty, Energy &
881-890 (1979).
total
power demands
populations
Nk
pk
(millions)
( :hg;l;mal
1975
2025
---

REGION

237
N. America
W. Europe
305
E. Europe 81 USSR
359
Japan, Australia,
N.Z, 128
Latin America
323
Africa
370
China & Indochina
1029
South Asia
1170
Mid-East
110
--World average
4031
or total

315
447
480
320
797
885
1714
2665
353

11.5

7976

2.0

;*Ei
4:3
0.93
0.16
0.61
0.20
1.0

Nkpk
k,l;l:c,w 1
1975
--15.0
1;*2
6:3
2.8
:$I
2;
--3.4

(TW = 1012 W)
growth
2025
ratio

2.72
1.70
1.90
0.55
0.30
0.06
0.63
0.23
0.11
8.20

4.74
2.47
6.54
2.02
2.22
0.94
3.43
2.80
1072
26.9

i::
2':
7.4
16
5.4
12
16
3.3

178000 TW solar
radiation
incident
62000 TW reflected

76000 TW heat

conduction
nuclear

fuels

reradiated

immediately

to surface

0.3 TW geothermal
heat
convection
in volcanoes
and hot springs

Fig. ICI. TerrestriaZ pawer fZaws. PracticaZZy aZZ incident energy is

uZtimateZy reradiated as heat (not show).
Based on data from M. K. Eubbert,
"Energy resources of the em?th", Scientific American (September, 19711,
J. M. Weingart, "GZobaZ aspects of sunzight as a major energy source", Energy 5
775-798 (19791, and J. M. Weingart, private conmzunication, 1981.

lD, Solar Energy

247 X 108 tonnes

Year

Fig. lC2.
Estimate
production
rates for
Energy axd Technology

p. 6.

of world crude oiZ

the future.
From
Review, March 1977,

Courtesy 0fLLiVL.
YEAR
Fig. lC3,
Necessary
fue 2 conswnption,
if

prevent
various
CO2 concentrations

increases
are

in
shown

atmospheric
in Fig.

If the CO2 concentration

becomes
too high,
then
the
resulting
climate
change
could
melt
the polar
ice
caps,
increasing
the ocean
levels
and flooding
major
coastal
cities.
Therefore,
not
of the available
coal
can be safely
burned.
limits

of

usable

atmospheric

1~3. kept below

CO2

limits
on fossi Z
the increases
of

concentration

are

to

be

50%, 100%, and 200%. What

change can safely be tolerated
is not
yet known,
From W. HaefeZe and W.
Sassin, Energy strategies,
Energy J 147
(1976).
Copyright
19 76, Pergmnon
press,
Ltd.

all

energy

Estimates
of the
Comparing
these
values
we see that
only
solar,
needs.

limits
of
with
the
fission,

various
energy
sources
estimated
power
demand
and fusion
power
can

Nuclear
fission
power
appears
near .future.
It has an excellent
blems,
such
as radwaste
disposal,
hindering
its
development.
Some estimates
of
the 3 TW limit
reflects
tities
of material
and

to be the most
safety
record.
have
been
found,

are
listed
in Table
1Cl.
of 50 TW in the year
2050,
meet our
long-term
energy

economical
power
source
Solutions
to environmental
but political
opposition

in

the
prois

solar
power
available
in 2030 have
been over
10 TW, but
the time
it takes
to manufacture
and move enormous
quanto "penetrate
the market"
economically
(Haefele,
1979).

1D, Solar Energy

Solar
heating
some locations,
Four
attractive.

and cooling
Solar
electric
schemes
are

of

buildings
is already
economically
power,
however,
may take
longer
to
receiving
wide
attention:
photovoltaic,

competitive
be economically
satellite

in

lD, Solar Enemy

Table lC1. Limits of various energy sources. Data from Rotty (1976),
Weingart (1979), Hubbert (1975), HaefeZe (1979), and WaZton and Spooner (1976).
These are rough estimates, but indicate the order of magnitude which coonbe
expected.
POWER LIMITS,
TW
renewable
solar

energy

sources

electric,

2030

by

heating

& cool

$3

ing

~1001

biomass
wind

power

wave

power

& tidal

hydroelectric

power

power

geothermal

power

organic

wastes

practically
fossi

E lignite

crude

oi 1

natural
tar-sand
shale

(3.4~10~~

oi 1 (3~10~~
oil

(1.9x1O11

tons)

fusion

I ithium
for
on land
in oceans,
deuterium

power

stations

2.9
0.4

0.1

0.1
LIMITS
TW-yea

rs

1690

12.4~10~~

390

13.1x1021

415

barrels)

1 .8x1021

barrels)

57

35

1.1x1021

fuels

Th-232

nuclear

0.2

m3)

J-235
u-238,

barrels)

i1
fission

.1
1.5

53.2~10~~

total

nuclear

10

Joules

(2.35~1012

(2.1~10~~

gas

ENERGY

recoverable
1 fuels

coal

ultimately

fuels

.6x1021

2590

Joules

. TW-years

1 022

300

1o25

Joules

3x105

TW-years

DT reactors
containing
in

0.17

ppm

Li

oceans

, solar

thermal,

and

ocean

2xlOTf
2x107-8

6x1 o4
6x108

8x10~~

2x101

thermal

power.

The simplest
is photovoltaic
panels
(solar
cells),
which
can be located
on
individual
buildings.
They
cost
about
10 $/peak
Watt
in 1980.
Mass production
may reduce
the price
by an order
of magnitude
or more,
as it did
for
the manufacture
of transistors.
However,
a storage
system
will
more than
double
the
initial
cost,
and the average
power
is about
l/4
the
peak
power,
so the effective
cost
per average
Watt
is an order
of magnitude
higher
than
the
peak-Watt
cost.

lE, Fusion Reactions

Solar
satellite
power
stations
(SSPS)
would
collect
power
with
panels
on a satellite
station
in geosynchronous
orbit
(stationary
on earth)
and transmit
the power
to earth
via
2.45
GHz microwaves.
appear
to be technologically
feasible,
the
SSPS can be economical
reductions
in the
cost
of orbiting
heavy
payloads
are achieved.
The most
popular
solar
thermal
central
boiler
heated
by sunlight
example,
a 10 MWe demonstration
tower
boiler
surrounded
by about
incorporates
3-4 hours
of thermal
(Caloria).
Assuming
that
a 50%
storage,
commercial
STEC plants
conditions
might
cost
2000-3000
$/m2 or less.

photovoltaic
over
one point
While
they
only
if major

electric
conversion
(STEC)
schemes
involve
a
from
an array
of heliostats
(reflectors).
For
plant
at Barstow,
California,
uses
a central
1800 heliostats,
each
with
40 m2 area,
and
energy
storage
in rock
and heat-transfer
oil
load
factor
were
achieved
with
on-site
thermal
of similar
design
operating
under
ideal
solar
$/kWe,
if collector
costs
could
be held
to 100

Ocean
thermal
electric
conversion
(OTEC)
systems
use a fluid
temperature
, such
as ammonia,
to run a Rankine
cycle
heat
engine
perature
gradients.
For example,
warm surface
water
at 300 K
ammonia
in a boiler
and drive
a vapor
turbine.
Cool
subsurface
278 K could
cool
the ammonia
condenser
to complete
the cycle.
so small
(around
20 K),
the cycle
efficiency
will
be very
low,
water
flow
rates
and large,
expensive
heat
exchangers.
Other
are
the floating
ocean
platform,
the cold
water
pipe,
and the
electricity
to shore.
Alternatively,
the electricity
could
be
hydrogen
by electrolysis
of water,
and liquified
hydrogen
could
Excluding
the cable
cost,
a 250-400
MWe plant
is expected
fuel.
2000
$/kWe
(1978
$).

with
a low boiling
from
ocean
temcould
evaporate
sea water
at
Because
the AT is
necessitating
high
dominant
cost
items
cable
to carry
the
used
to produce
be shipped
as a
to cost
about

It appears
that
various
forms
of solar
power
could
produce
electricity
at
costs
of 70-100
mills/kWh,
compared
with
about
20-40
mills/kWh
for
other
sources
(1 mill
= .OOl
$).
Rapid
deployment
of solar
electric
power
stations
is limited
by the huge surface
areas
which
must
be covered
with
collectors.
The 24-hour
average
solar
power
flux
in the Southern
United
States
is on the order
of 200300 W/m2.
The flux
is somewhat
higher
near
the equator,
and lower
in northern
latitudes.
About
100 TW thermal
energy
might
ultimately
be collected
by covering
10% of the earth's
desert
areas
with
collectors.
This
is the
basis
for
the
speculative
figure
of Table
lC1.
In
cheaper
areas,

spite
of the advantages
of solar
power,
it is
power
stations
which
do not
require
a sunny
and large
energy
storage
systems.

still
climate,

desirable
large

to develop
collector

lE, Fusion Reactions

energy

release

Nuclei
with
intermediate
masses
have the
lightest
When light
elements
are fused
as shown
in Fig.
1El.
are
split
apart,
the resulting
intermediate
elements
The excess
mass AM is converted
into
kinetic
energy

average
together

have less
:

masses
per nucleon,
or heavy
elements

mass per nucleon.

lE, Fusion Reactions

W = 4Mc2
where

c is

= (total
the

inital

speed

of

mass

- total

final

mass)c2

(1El)

light.

EXAMPLEPROBLEM
7El
CaZcuZate the energy reZeased
reaction
D + T+ 4He + n.
Using

nuclear

masses

from

App.

1.OOlO -

by the
B,

we

have

AM = 2.013553

+ 3.015501
- 1.008665
= 0.018887
= 3.13631x1O-2g
kg,

so

AMc2 = 2.8188x10-l2

W =
=

17.593

- 4.001503
u

MeV.

79990

Fig. lE1. Average mass per melleon vs.

atomic mass nwnber. From R. D. Evans,
The Atomic IVzuZeus, p. 295, copyright
1955, McGraw-Hill, Neu York. Used by
pemrission of McGraw-Hi22 Book Company.

fusion

m
F.9985

9
?9980-

I
0

50
Atomic

150 200
Number
A

fuels

Possible
fusion
reactor
fuels
include
H, D, T, 3He,
nuclear
reactions
of interest
are
shown
in Table
1El.
have
energies
~0.1
MeV, then
the
kinetic
energy
of the
divided
up approximately
in inverse
proportion
to their
entum).
For the DT reaction,
the
neutron
gets
4/5
and
gets
l/5
of the kinetic
energy.
The DT reaction
fusion
reactors.
2.)
Since
deuterium
The amount
of tritium
It can be produced
(Seawater
contains
The DT reaction
*
It is necessary
*
The 14.1
MeV
(Chapter
*
Precautions
(Chapter
*
Only
l/5
of
directly
The
ities.
then

I
100
Mass

two
If
the

is the most
probable
reaction
at temperatures
attainable
in
(Reaction
rates
and probabilities
will
be discussed
in Chapter
constitutes
0.0153%
of natural
hydrogen,
it is very
abundant.
in nature
is negligible,
so it must
be produced
artificially.
by neutron
absorption
in lithium,
as indicated
in Table
1El.
0.17
ppm of Li and 0.003
ppm of U.)
has the
following
disadvantages:
to breed
tritium
from
lithium
(Chapter
27).
neutrons
cause
radiation
damage
and make walls
radioactive
24).
are needed
to minimize
release
of radioactive
tritium
28).
the
reaction
energy
is carried
by charged
particles
and can be
converted
into
electricity
(Chapter
26).

branches
of the DD reaction
the T and 3He produced
by
net
reaction
is

6D + 2H + 2n +

6Li,
and llB.
Some
If the
initial
particles
reaction
products
is
masses
(to
conserve
momthe alpha
particle
(4He)

24He

+ 43.2

MeV

(DDn,
DDp)
these
reactions

have

roughly
react
with

equal
more

probabildeuterium,

(1E2)

10

lF, Fusion Reactors

Table lE1. NucZear Reactions

of Interest.
Numbers in parentheses are approximate energies
of reaction products, MeV. The exact energies vary with angle
q $n$derf
partitle
energies.
!l!he symboh p, d, t, n, and a represent
1 '1 '1
name

' 0 n, and ,He.

-fusion
D + T + 2He

DT:

reactions
(3.s)

DDn :

abbreviated
+

zHe(.82)

in

(14.05)

energy
MeV

form

T(d,n)4He

+ in(2.45)

D(d,n)

yield
Joule

17.59

2.818xlo-'2

3.27

5.24~10-~~

4.03

6.46x10-3

3He

D+D+
DDp :

T(l.01)

D-3He:

D + ZHe

+ ;Hei3.66)

+ ~(14.6)

3He (d , p) 4He

p + :Li

+ ZHe

+ ZHe

6Li (p,a)

p-llB:

p +ltB

reactions
n-6Li

for
:

!Li

ln

D(d,p)T

T + T + in

p-6Li

+ ~(3.02)

TT:

+ ZHe

+ 3(zHe)
breeding

ZLi

tritium

+ in(therma1)

+ in

11.3

1.81~10~~

18.3

2.93x10-12

3He

11B(p,2a)4He
(Natural

lithium

is

7.5%

(fast)

T(2.73)

+ T + ZHe

7Li (n,n

6.44x10-13

8.68

1.39x1012

92.5%

7Li.)

IzT2.5~

6Li (n,a)T

+ in

4.02

6Li,

7*-

-t

;He(2.05)
n-7Li

T(t,2n)4He

4.78

7.66x10=

-2.47
-3.g6x10-13
(endothermic)

,a)T

which
is called
the
"catalyzed
DD reaction",
since
the
high-probability
DT
reaction
has the effect
of a catalyst.
The average
yield
per deuteron
is 7.2 MeV,
which
is an energy
yield
of 3.44~10'~
J/kg. The "catalyzed
DD" fuel
cycle
eliminates
the need
to breed
tritium
from
lithium,
but
it requires
higher
temperatures
and has lower
power
densities
than
the
DT reaction.
Because
of the more
advanced
technology
required
for
the DD and D-3He
reactors,
these
are called
"advanced
fuel"
reactors.
The 3He produced
burned
in a "satellite
of D-sHe
satellite
reduced,
resulting
The p-6Li
the
reaction
ever,
these
temperature
an economical

IF,
to

in

a DD reactor
could
either
reactor"
using
primarily
reactors
is that
the neutron
in much
less
wall
activation

be burned
in the same reactor
or
the D-3He
reaction.
The advantage
emission
rate
could
be greatly
and radiation
damage.

and p- llB reactions

are practically
free
of neutron
emission,
and all
products
are charged
particles,
amenable
to direct
conversion.
How"exotic
fuels"
also
have
low power
densities
and require
even
higher
operation
than
the
"advanced
fuels",
so it will
be difficult
to make
reactor
using
the exotic
fuels.

Fusion Reactors
The two
ignition

Why
charged
reaction

is

main
requirements
temperature
and

heating
necessary
nuclei
repel
each
to occur
unless

for
to

building

confine

it

a fusion
while
it

reactor
"burns".

before
fusion
reactions
occur
other,
and cannot
approach
close
they
have
high
relative
velocities.

are

The
enough

to

heat

the

fuel

positively
for
a nuclear

11

1F. Fusion Reactors

Imagine trying
to break an
eggs in foam rubber spheres at
you throw them at high velocity.
deuterium
or tritium,
and the
Only
surrounding
the nucleus.
they push through the coulomb

egg inside
They
it.
In this
foam rubber
when the
barrier
to

a foam rubber sphere by throwing

other
will merely bounce off unharmed unless
analogy the egg is like the nucleus of
represents
the coulomb potential
field
ions have large relative
velocities
can
produce a nuclear
reaction.

In order to overcome the barrier,

the ion's
kinetic
energy must almost equal
the potential
energy of repulsion
of the two point charges,
For example, the
required
ener y for a deuteron
and a triton
to approach within
a nuclear
diameter
(about 5x10-l 3 m) is found from Eq. (lA4) to be about 290 keV. Because of the
"tunneling"
effect
and because some particles
have much higher
quantum-mechanical
velocities
than the average,
the actual fuel temperatures
required
for the DT
reactions
are
T z 10 keV -.lOs
The required

K.

confinement

(lF1)
time

T is given

approximately

by the

"Lawson

criter-

ion"

where n is the plasma ion density

(ions/m3).
required
confinement
time is about 1 s.

If

The temperatures
required
to burn various
fuels will
study of nuclear
reaction
rates in Chapter 2. Following
tion losses in Chapter 3, the confinement
times required
will
be derived
in Chapter 4.
research

n = 102* mm3, then

the

become apparent
from a
a discussion
of radiafor various
conditions

progress

Fusion research
experiments
fall
into two general
categories:
magnetic
confinement
and inertial
confinement.
Magnetic confinement
employs strong
magnetic fields
to provide
thermal
insulation
between the plasma and the chamber
walls.
Inertial
confinement
allows free plasma expansion
and cooling,
but relies
on an extremely
high density
n to attain
the Lawson criterion
in the short
expansion
time (typically
a few ns).
The high density
is attained
by compressing
a solid
fuel pellet
to over 1000 times its initial
density,
using laser beams
or ion beams.
Fusion research
experiments
began in the 1950's, with hopes of rapid success,
but plasma instabilities
spoiled
confinement.
Ways to prevent
various
instabilities
were found in the 1960's,
as plasma theory made great progress.
Many nations
shifted
experimental
emphasis to tokamaks in the 1970's,
following
Soviet experimental
success.
Major experimental
programs in inertial
confinement
fusion
(ICF) were initiated
in the 1970's,
following
optimistic
predictions
of
attainable
energy yields,
In the late 1970's several
other plasma confinement
schemes have shown promise,
including
tandem mirrors,
the field
reversed
pinch,
ohmically-heated
toroidal
experiment,
stellarators,
Elmo bumpy torus,
and
compact toroids.
The magnetic confinement
and ICF programs will
conditions
(fusion
power exceeding
input power) in
engineering
problems remain.
A Fusion Engineering
demonstrate
small-scale
power production,
to test
develop various
aspects of fusion
technology.

both demonstrate
break-even
the mid-1980's,
but many
Device will
be constructed
reactor
materials,
and to

to

lF, Fusion Reactors

12

Fig. 3Fl. Schematic diagram of a magnetic confinement fusion power pkwzt. From
H. J. WiZZenbeq, T. J. Kabele, R. P. May, axd C. E. WiZZingham, "MateriaZs flow,
recycle, and disposal for deuterium-tritium
fusion", PA?&2830 (1978), Fig. 1, p.3.
power

plants

Some elements of a fusion power plant are illustrated

in Fig. 1Fl. The plasma
heating
system is not shown.
An ICF power plant will
have similar
components,
but no magnet coils
(unless the blast chamber walls are magnetically
protected).
Potential
applications
of fusion power are shown in Fig. lF2.
Fusion reactor
design studies
estimate
electrical
power costs of about 35-40 mills/kWh
(1980
constant
$),which
are comparable
to costs of power from fission
and fossil
fuel
Estimated
costs of solar electrical
power are 70-100 mills/kWh
plants.
(Weingart,
1979).
Fusion power will
be especially
valuable
if
* fuel imports are limited
* coal use cannot rapidly
increase
(due to mining,
transportation,
or
environmental
limitations)
* the LMFBR is not rapidly
cotmnercialized
* solar electric
power costs do not become competitive
* discount
(interest)
rates are not too high
* fusion can be developed
rapidly.
The development

of fusion

power will

probably

cost

about30

billion

dollars.

lF,
FORMS OF
FUS I ON ENERGY
OUTPUT

13

Fusion Reactors
POTENT I AL
APPLICATIONS

PROCESSES

METHANOL
HYDROGEN
& COAL

I.

I.LI.

OF FISSION

--)

/
+

WASTES

) NEUTRON ACTIVATION
ANALY S I S
NEUTRON
RAD I OGRAPHY

FUSION
PLASMA

ELECTRICITY

IRON E ALUMINUM
ORE REDUCTION

TORCH WITH
CENTRIFUGE

WASTE

HYDROGEN
BY
PHOTOLYS IS OR
L RAD IULY>IS
* - -

1 tlYlJKULY3lS

MATERIAL
RECYCLE

FERTILIZER
HYDROGEN
NITROGEN
1

&

METHANE GAS
HYDROGEN
&

FISH & SHRIMP

PRODUCTION

I
)

t
I

STERILIZATION
& SEWAGE
TREATMENT

GREEN HOUSE
AGRICULTURE
&
HYDROPONICS

)
DISTRICT
HEATING
AIR CONDITIONING

X-RAYS,
GAMMA-RAYS,
ULTRAV I OLET
RADIATION

INDUSTRIAL

&+

Fig. lF2.
Potential
applications
of fusion
power.
("Magnetic
Swnrnq Docwnent",
Report HCP/T3168-01,
prepared
by TRW, Inc.
Department
of Energy, 1979.)

Fusion Program
for the U. S.

14

lG, Sumnary

lG, Summwy
The world power demand will
rise to tens of TeraWatts in the 21st century.
Most of the rise will
be in developing
nations,
so efforts
by industrialized
Fossil
countries
to conserve energy will
not prevent the power demand increase.
fuels will
be nearly exhausted
by 2030, except for coal. Environmental
problems,
such as CO2 accumulation
in the atmosphere,
may limit
the allowable
coal
Tidal,
wave, wind, hydroelectric,
geothermal,
biomass, and organic
consumption.
;;+,Q;E power together
will be inadequate
to meet-the
earth's
long-term
energy
solar,
and fusion power will
be adequate.
. Only fission,
Fission
breeder reactors
are already
and energy storage systems required
by
difficult
to bring costs down.
Fusion
continuous
operation
and cheap, abundant
problems to solve, and it will
be many
fusion power is complete.

successful.
The huge collector
areas
solar electric
power plants make it
power plants offer
the prospects
of
fuel.
However, there are still
many
more years before the development
of

Problems
If a person's
body burns 2000 kcal/day
of food energy, what is his average
Altabolism
(Watts) ? How many TW food energy would be needed to feed eight
billion
people at this rate ?
If each Joule of food energy required
8 J input
to agriculture,
how many TW would be required
for agriculture
?
2.

Calculate

the energy

yields

of the DDn and DDp reactions.

3.

Estimate
the energy costs of the
a. 1 liter
of gasoline
at $ 0.50
705 kg/m3 ).
b. 1 slice of apple pie (300 kcal)
c. electricity
at 50 mills/kWh.
d. energy storage
in a lead-acid
costing
$ 50 .
e. work by a draft
horse laboring
costing
$ 15/day for care.

following
forms of energy ($/MJ) :
(heat of combustion
47 MJ/kg, and density
at $ 0.90
battery

storing

8 hours/day

80 Amp-hr

at 12 V and

at a power of 1 kW, and

4. A 3 GWth (Gigawatts
thermal
power) fusion
reactor
operates
at full
power
70 % of the time for a year, burning catalyzed
DD fuel.
How many kg of
deuterium
will
be consumed ? How many cubic metres of water are needed to
extract
this much deuterium
?
5. How many litres
of gasoline
are required
to produce the same energy as the
energy of deuterium
from 1 liter
of water burned in a catalyzed
DD reactor
(Data on gasoline
is given in Problem 3a.)
6. A fusion reactor
has a cylindrical
coil with 8 = 5 T inside and 8 = 0 outside.
The coil current
is 10 kA, and the internal
volume is 500 ma. Estimate the
approximate
stored energy of the magnetic
field
(Table JAJ) and the coil
inductance.
7. Assuming that the world power consumption
grows at 6 %/year from PO= 8 TW in
1980, and that 80 % of the power comes from fossil
fuels,
in what year
would the fossil
fuels be exhausted
? [ W = / dt P(t)
1.

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