Chapter 2

Sensors, Signal Processing & Data

Presentation
(I)- Transducer / Sensor Classification :
The transducer or sensor is a sensing element used in the
measurement system to take the input information about the physical
variable (change in temperature, pressure, flow of liquid, level of liquid, and
displacement) to be measured and convert it into a more suitable form.
(Change in electrical voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance)
Active & Passive Transducers:
Active transducers generate electric current or voltage directly in
response to environmental stimulation. Examples of active transducers are
thermocouples and piezoelectric accelerometers. Passive transducers produce a
change in some passive electrical quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or
inductance, as a result of stimulation. These usually require additional
electrical energy for excitation. Examples of passive transducers are strain
gauges, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.
Classification of transducers based on application.

Displacement sensor
Speed sensor
Fluid Flow sensor
Liquid Level sensor
Temperature sensor

A - Displacement sensor
Measure a Linear displacement. e. g. Change in linear position of
thickness of metal sheet/slab.
Measure an Angular displacement. e. g. Change in angular
displacement of a drive shaft.
Measure the Position. e. g. linear or angular position of some object.
Detect motion or the presence of some objects. e. g. An alarm is
sounded or light is switched on when there is some movement of an
object within the view of sensor / transducer.

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Displacement sensors examples:

Potentiometer
Straingauge
Linear variable differential transformer
Linear variable differential transformer(LVDT):
LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the
displacement which is a non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical
energy. It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The
central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils.

##
Working principle:
Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating
electro-magnetic forces (emfs) [E1 and E2 ]are generated in secondary coils.
The middle-coil is the primary coil and the other two identical (upper & lower)
secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their output EMFs
oppose each other . , the NET OUTPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1E2) volts.
(1) When core is in middle position,E1 = E2 ,so net voltage is E1-E2 =0V.
(2) When core is in up position,E1>E2, so net voltage is E1-E2 = - V.
(3) When core is in down position,E2>E1, so net voltage is E1-E2 = +V.
## http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/lvdt/lvdt_theory.cfm
B- SPEED SENSORS
The following are examples of speed sensors that can be used to
monitor linear and angular speeds.
1- Tachogenerator (for rotary speed)
2-Optical Method (for linear speed)

Speed measurement by Tachogenerator:

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The basic tacho generator is consists of rotating coil mounted in a

magnetic field. When the coil rotates an alternating E. M. F. induce in
the coil. This E. M. F. is proportional to speed. The faster the coil rotates
the greater the size of alternating E. M. F.

The size of the alternating E.M. F. Measure of the angular

speed.
By measuring the voltage measure the speed.
## http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105063/pdf/L-05(SS)(IA&C)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf

C- FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS

Fluid pressure sensor devices used in industrial processes involve the
monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragm, bellows, and tubes. The
following are some common examples of fluid pressure sensors.
1-Diaphragm Sensors:
2- Bellows Sensor:
3- Bourdon Tube:
Bellow sensor:
When the pressure inside bellows increases, relative to the pressure
outside the bellows, then the bellows increase in length. A displacement sensor
can be used to monitor the movement of bellows and hence give a measure of
the pressure. Figure below shows how a bellows can be combined with a
(LVDT) to give a pressure sensor with an electrical output.

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##
Bellows sensors are used to sense the pressure differences up to few hundred
KPa with accuracy = +/- 1%.
D- FLUID FLOW SENSORS
1- Rotameter
2-Turbine Meter:
Turbine Meter
Turbine meter consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported centrally
in the pipe along which the flow occurs.

##
## http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105063/pdf/L-05(SS)(IA&C)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf

The rotor rotates as a result of the fluid flow, the angular velocity being
approximately proportional to the flow rate. The rate of revolution of the
rotor can be determined by attaching a small permanent magnet to one of the
blades and using a pick-up coil.An induced e. m .f. pulse is produced in the
coil every time the magnet passes through it.
The pulses are counted and so the numbers of revolutions of the rotor are
determined. The meter is expensive, with an accuracy= 0.1%.

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E-LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS

1.Load cell
2-Potentiometer Float Gauge:
Potentiometer Float Gauge:
A simple float system is shown in the figure below.
The float is at one end of a pivoted rod with the other end
connected to the slider of a potentiometer. Changes in level cause the
float to move up and down. Hence move the slider over the
potentiometer resistance track and so give a output voltage related to the
liquid level.

CHANGE IN LIQUID LEVEL

**
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE

** http://www.cse.dmu.ac.uk/~eg/tele/background.html
F-TEMPERATURE SENSORS
The following are some of the most commonly used temperature
sensors.
1-Glass Thermometer
2- Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
3- Thermistor
4-Thermocouples:
Thermocouples:
A thermocouple consists of two different metal wires joined
together. When two different metals are joined together, a potential
difference occurs across the junction.

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The potential difference across the junction depends on the two metals
used and the temperature of the junction. The Thermocouple involves two such
junctions. If both junctions have same temperature, then there is NO NET
E.M.F.
An EMF is produced between two junctions when there is a temperature
difference between the two junctions.
Usually one junction (Cold Junction) is kept at 0 (C) so then value of
EMF depends on the temperature (C) of other junction (Hot Junction).
TYPE

MATERIAL

RANGE ( C)

SENSITIVITY
V/ C

to 980 0

63

CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN

IRON-CONSTANTAN

to 760 180-

53

CHEOMEL-ALUMEL

to 1260 180-

41

PLATINUM-PLATINUM/ RHODIUM 13%

to 1750 0

COPPER-CONSTANTAN

180to 370-

43

Signal Processing and Data Presentation

Signal Processor / Conditioner Classification:
A signal processor takes signal from the sensor and converts it into a form
suitable for display or transmission to other places.
Examples:
1-Small signal amplified Bigger signal.
2-Resistance change Current or Voltage change.
3-Analogue signal to Digital signal.

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1-Resistance to Voltage Converter:

a) Voltage divider Circuit / Potential Divider Circuit
A potential Divider can be used to convert the resistance change into
voltage change.Thermister is used to measure temperature.
A constant source voltage (6V) is applied across the Thermister and
another resistor (10K) in series. The output voltage (V 0) is taken across the
resistor (R). When the resistance of the Thermister (R T) changes the output
voltage of Potential divider changes.
The potential divider (shown in figure below) is a simple resistance to
voltage converter. Hence it is a signal processor.

*
Source Voltage = VS (volts)
Output voltage (V0) = [R/(R + RT) X VS] (volts)
b) BRIDGE CIRCUITS
DC bridge Circuits
1. Wheatstone bridge
2. Kelvin bridge

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Wheatstone Bridge (R to V) Converter:

The basic form of Wheatstone bridge is shown in figure below.

*
Four resistances

R1 , R2 , R3 , R 4

are the arms of Wheatstone bridge.

R1 Thermister according to temperature.

Output voltage = V0 = ZERO Bridge is balanced.
Potential difference between points B and D = ZERO.
Potential at B = potential at D.
V AB=V Ad . Thus

I 1 R1=I 2 R3 .

V BC =V CD .Thus I 1 R 2=I 2 R4

.
R1

R3

Now dividing the two equations: R 2 = R4 .

{The BRIDGE IS BALANCED IN THIS CASE}.
If one resistance (R1) changes, the bridge will become unbalanced and there
will be voltage across BD.
V AB=V Ad . Thus

I 1 R1=I 2 R3 .

V BC =V CD .Thus I 1 R 2=I 2 R4

Now dividing the two equations:

R 1 R3
=
R 2 R4

{The BRIDGE IS BALANCED IN THIS CASE}.

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If one resistance (R1) changes, the bridge will become unbalanced and there
will be voltage across BD.
The voltage drop in

R1

across AB =

V AB=

V S R1
R1 + R 2

*
The voltage drop in

R3

across AD =

V AD=

V S R3
R3 + R4

*
The potential difference between B & D = output voltage = VO is:
V o=V AB V AD=

V out R1 V out R3
R1
R3

=V S (

)
R1 + R 2 R 3+ R 4
R 1+ R 2 R 3 + R4

The above equation gives the balanced condition V0 =0.

* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton
A.C Bridges
1. Capacitance comparison bridge
2. Inductance comparison bridge
3. Maxwells bridge
4. Anderson bridge
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5. Wein bridge
6. hays bridge
7. Schering bridge
Maxwell Wein Bridge circuit
It is used for measuring unknown inductance and resistance.

At balance,
Z1 Z2= Z3 Z4
Unknown Inductance L and resistance (r)

Anderson Bridge :
It is a very important and useful modification of the Maxwell-Wien
bridge . In this method, the unknown inductance is measured in terms of a
known capacitance and resistance.

**
The unknown inductance is measured by using the formula

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**Text book of electrical technology by B.L.Theraja

2-Analogue To Digital Converters (A/D )

: Introduction
The electrical output from the sensors, are in the analogue form.
(Thermocouples, Pressure Gauges, Strain Gauges, etc.)
.An analogue Signal: is continuously varying as a function of time
A digital Signal: In contrast to an analogue, a digital signal exist only at
.specific levels or states and changes its level in discrete steps
The process of converting the analogue signals to digital form is called
.Analogue to Digital Conversion (ADC)
Most digital signals have only two states, the high logic state (1) and the low
.logic state (0)
?What is the need of ADC & DAC in a measurement & control system
Microprocessors and computers need digital signals. To process the output
from analogue sensors using computers, ADC is required (to convert analogue
.output from sensor to digital form)
The output from computers and microprocessors are in digital form. The
conversion of digital signals into analogue form is required for operating the
control system like to operate some analogue valve to control some liquid flow
.or to operate any other type of analogue output devices
ADC stages:
Stage 1:The sample of the analogue signal is taken at regular intervals. This
gives a series of narrow pulses with heights that vary as the analogue signal.
Stage 2: These samples are then converted into digital signals using analogue
to digital conversion.

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*
* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

*
The minimum change in input that can be detected (The Resolution),is thus
V FS /2n

.
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* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

Digital to Analogue Converters(DAC):

The input to D/A converter is a binary word and the output its equivalent
analogue value.
For example, if we have a full scale output of 7V then a digital input of 000
will give 0 V, and 111 the full scale of 7 V, like in figure below:

*
The basic form of D/A converter involves the digital input being used to
activate the electronic switches.
1 activates switch and 0 does not activate the switch.
The position 1 in the word determines which switch is activated.
ADC Techniques
Single slope ADC, Dual slope ADC, Successive approximation ADC, Flash
ADC.
DAC Techniques
Binary Weighted DAC, R/2R Ladder DAC.

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* A text book on INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL by W.Bolton

Data Presentation Elements/ Classification:

Display devices
Display devices are used for the visual presentation of information.
Analog display devices
Analogue displays use a needle and calibrated scale to indicate values.
Example :moving coil meters and moving iron meters.
Digital display devices
Digital displays show the measured value as digits and they are more
accurate than analogue.
Examples :
LED (including OLED) displays
VF (vacuum fluorescent ) displays
LCD (liquid crystal) displays
Nixie tube displays and PDPs (plasma display panels)
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 Electroluminescent displays (ELDs)

Others:
Alphanumeric Printers.
Chart Recorders.
Magnetic Recording

Computer Disks (Hard Disk, Floppy, CD, DVD).

Problems
1 . A Maxwell bridge circuit ABCD has the following arm impedances: AB,
250 resistance; BC, 15F capacitor in parallel with a 10k resistor: CD,
400 resistor; DA, unknown inductor having inductance L and resistance R
Determine the values of L and R assuming the bridge is balanced.
2.

With an A/D converter having a word length of 10 bits and the maximum
analogue signal input range 10V, what will be the resolution?

3.

A thermocouple gives an output of 0.4mv for each degree change in

temperature. What will be the word length required when its output passes
through an A/D if temperatures from 0 to 200C are to be measured with a
resolution of 0.5C?

4.

A microprocessor gives an output of an 8-bit word. This is fed through an 8bit D/A converter to a control valve, which requires 6.0 V to be fully open.
If the fully open state is to be indicated by the output of the digital word
(11111111) what will be the change in output to the valve when there is a
change of 1 bit?

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