Ecotourism and Sustainability in

Mediterranean Islands
Dimitrios Diamantis

Executive Summary
Sustainable and ecotourism practices in the Mediterranean islands are still at their
infancy stage. Over recent years, there has been an increased awareness about these types
of practices, mainly expressed in the form of agreements and declarations. Although
ecotourism practices have been applied in some islands, there are no instances where it
has enjoyed popular demand among consumers. Most of the ecotourists who visit the
Mediterranean islands tend to be of an occasional nature in that they are engaged in
other forms of tourism in addition to ecotourism. The purpose of this paper is to review
the current sustainable and ecotourism practices in selected islands in the
Mediterranean (Balearic Islands, Crete, and Vis), as well as the environmental trends
that are occurring within tourism in this region. 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

INTRODUCTION

he Mediterranean coastal strip accommodates 140 million permanent inhabitants, a figure that increases by almost 200 million as a result of tourists, mainly
from Central and Northern Europe, who visit this region each year (Eurostat,
1993). This situation has a number of profound negative implications for the sustainable and ecotourism practices of this region, which are attributable directly
to mass-tourism practices. These include:

Land speculation, especially along the seafront;

Urban concentration in areas of unparalleled natural beauty;
Wetlands turned into sports ports; and
Dunes that are leveled for construction.

Dimitrios Diamantis is a lecturer in tourism at Les Roches Management School in Switzerland.

Prior to this, he worked in the International Center for Tourism and Hospitality Research in
Bournemouth University, UK, as a researcher for the Millennium Vision Policy for the World
Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). Alongside his research activities he teaches graduate and
postgraduate students as well as coordinating a discussion group for the development of tourism
in UNESCOs biosphere reserves. He has a degree in Hotel Management from South-Bank
University, a Masters in Tourism Marketing from Surrey University, a Diploma in Marketing from
the Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM), and a Ph.D. from Bournemouth University.
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2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Dimitrios Diamantis

These kinds of environmental impacts are only an example of the vast

array of impacts found in the Mediterranean, and have created a situation where the current state of ecotourism practices in this region
is subject to a number of constraints and challenges (Buhalis, 1999,
in press). From a theoretical perspective, tourism in the
Mediterranean represents a classical case where its environmental pitfalls were created by a bewildering array of mass-tourism practices.
Given such a state, the challenge lies in converting these mass tourism
destinations to more eco-friendly regions, embodied with sustainable
and ecotourism principles (Buhalis, 1999, in press; Chiotis &
Coccossis, 1992; Godfrey, 1996; Ioannidis, 1995; Richards, 1996).
Against this background, this article initially will assess the sustainable
agreements tailored for the Mediterranean region. Then it will examine a number of cases where ecotourism-related practices can be
found. It will conclude with the future challenges in the sustainable
and ecotourism sector in the Mediterranean.

SUSTAINABILITY IN THE MEDITTERRANEAN: DECLARATIONS AND INITIATIVES

Apart from the sustainable legislative frameworks instigated by individual governments, the European Community, as well as non-government organizations, is primarily responsible for the development
and articulation of the sustainability initiatives and declarations within this region.
Firstly, at the European Community level, the Fifth Action Program,
Towards Sustainability, targets five main sectors, one of which is
tourism (Bromley, 1997; McGregor, 1996). Very briefly, the underlying concept of the Communitys program is that of shared responsibility based on three strategies (European Commission, 1995):
a) the reporting of the pressures and effects on the environment
from tourism practices;
b) an emphasis on environmental-awareness-led campaigns; and
c) the promotion of the implementation of innovative good practices in the field of sustainable tourism development.
The latter principles also have been recognized in the Green Paper
on Tourism (European Commission, 1995). This paper focused
explicitly on the creation of a positive relationship between economy
and ecology through: tourism well-being; protection of resources;
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Ecotourism and Sustainability in Mediterranean Islands

higher growth and more competitive organizations; and assessment

of the costs surrounding the use of tourism resources.
The European Community also initiated a number of other programs
tailored for the Mediterranean islands, examples of which can be seen
in Table 1.
Secondly, several non-government institutions articulated a number
of declarations for the Mediterranean region (see Table 2)
(Colombo, Marin, & Ballesteros, 1997). Based on specific objectives,
the declarations aimed to enhance the concept of sustainability, as
well as underline the regional cooperation of practitioners towards
sustainability.
For instance, a network of Mediterranean Non-Government
Organizations (NGOs) for Ecology and Sustainable Development
was created in 1994. This forum was made up of national and local
NGOs from various Mediterranean countries, and they developed the
Program of the Mediterranean NGOs for Sustainable Development, the
so-called MED Forums Agenda 2000. Although there is a high

Table 1. European Community Programs

Programs and Subprograms

Areas

Integrated Mediterranean Programs

Related to the improvement of infrastructure

Construction of biological waste plants
Restoration of monuments

Regional Operational Programs

Improvement of the quality of life

Development of research and technology
Establishment of data bank on tourism
economic performance

ENVIREG

Protection of the environment

Construction of biological waste plants
Coastal areas studies

LEADER I

Enhancement of cultural heritage

Seminars on agrotourism
Promotion of agrotourism

Natura 2000

Protection of the turtle population

Protection of the wildlife
Enhancement of the biodiversity and biotopes

Integrated Program for

Tourism and Culture

Promotion of new forms of tourism

Interregional cooperation between islands on
tourism and cultural projects
Studies on management of small islands

Source: Anagnostopoulou et al., (1996).

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Dimitrios Diamantis

Table 2. Sustainable Conventions in the Mediterranean

Sustainable
development in
the Mediterranean Basin is
linked inextricably to the adoption and performance of the
measures necessary to confront
existing tourism
problems

Declarations

Place

Charter for Sustainable Development

Lanzarote, 1995

Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and

Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean

Barcelona, 1996

European Island Agenda

Minorca, 1997

Calvia Declaration of Tourism Development in the

Mediterranean

Majorca, 1997

degree of awareness amongst the NGOs to formulate policies on sustainability, there also is a growing rate of criticism that these calls for
sustainability have come too late. Ironically, the practitioners who
developed the mass-tourism industry in the Basin raised these criticisms. Sustainable development in the Mediterranean Basin is linked
inextricably to the adoption and performance of the measures necessary to confront existing tourism problems, as well as problems that
may arise from agreements concerning other economic areas such as
trade integration. In particular, the most urgent of the current economic priorities in the examined region are the elimination of poverty and reducing the profound economic and commercial differences
between the regions north of the Mediterranean and in the south and
southeast.
From this perspective, the sustainable policies should take into account
the imbalances between the two coasts. This imbalance is not limited
to the large and frequently paralyzing difference in per-capita income
and living standards, but extends to the unequal capacities of the different countries of the Mediterranean Basin. For example, the EuroMediterranean Conference of November 1995 adopted the following
resolutions with the aim of increasing cooperation in the region:
Establish a free trade zone in services and other economic sectors by the year 2010;
Increase EU financial assistance to Mediterranean countries;
and
Reinforce and expand cooperation in the economic, social, and
environmental sectors.
Next, the creation of a large Mediterranean free-trade zone forms
part of a strategy for sustainable development in the Mediterranean
that sees cooperation (in the strict sense detailed above) as a strategic element.

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Ecotourism and Sustainability in Mediterranean Islands

For instance, the Barcelona Declaration calls for the creation of a

free-trade area and recognizes that the nations of the Mediterranean
Basin share a geographic space, which is highly interrelated and interactive (Colombo et al., 1997). It then suggests that the proper management of environmental problems in the Mediterranean must be
undertaken on a regional scale. Nevertheless, the Barcelona
Declaration makes no mention of the effects, both positive and negative, that the creation of this free-trade zone may have.
Given that tourism is a major economic sector for these societies,
the situation becomes more complex. This initially affects the economic structure that the tourism industry operates in, and subsequently the type of tourism products that are trade related and
offered to visitors. Looking at the structure of the tourism industry
from the sustainability and ecotourism perspective, the next sections will examine certain cases where destinations have taken
advantage of these types of products. The first case is that of the
Balearic Islands of Spain, followed by the island of Vis in Yugoslavia
and the island of Crete in Greece. For every case examined, there
will be a review of the tourism-demand-and-supply structures of the
islands, followed by their current sustainable and ecotourism practices. All the islands have different tourism priorities and sustainable
practices, but they share a common notion in their intention to
channel their environmental consciousness and awareness into the
development of tourism.

THE BALEARIC ISLANDS: SPAIN

There are four islands (Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza, and Formentera)
that make up the Balearic complex, situated in the western part of the
Mediterranean Basin. The islands had a surface area of 5.014 km2 and
a population of 760,000 inhabitants in 1991 (Balearic Government,
1997, 1998). The first island to develop its tourism industry was
Majorca (in the 1950s), followed by Ibiza (in the 1970s), Minorca
(in the 1980s), and Formentera (in the 1990s).
The tourism demand of the four islands experienced a dramatic
growth from 100,000 tourist arrivals in the 1950s, to 9.2 million
arrivals in 1997. Around 88% of the arrivals came from Europe, with
the remaining 12% from mainland Spain, and their length of stay was
11.2 days. In 1997, the majority of the arrivals went to Majorca
(75%), followed by Ibiza and Formentera (15%), and Minorca (10%)
(Balearic Government, 1998).
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Dimitrios Diamantis

The tourism supply in the islands includes 470,000 registered and

non-registered beds. Due to the high summer-seasonal nature of the
accommodation, the average occupancy rate is less than 55%.
Approximately two-thirds of the total employed population are
engaged in tourism-related activities (220,000 people), contributing
to the generation of 60% of Balearic Gross Domestic Product
(Balearic Government, 1998).
Since 1983, the Balearic Islands have had full autonomy from the
Spanish government to devise and manage their own tourism policy
(Bardolet, 1998). In this respect, the regional government of the
Balearics, together with its private sector, have developed and practiced a number of policies that have enhanced the environmental
protection and sustainability on these islands. In practicing sustainability, as well as limiting the impact of mass tourism, the Balearic
government engaged in a three-tier strategy: the protection of the
environment; the quality aspects of tourism; and territorial planning.
Several legislations were formulated to promote overall environmental protection of these islands (Bardolet, 1998; Balearic
Government, 1997, 1998):
Law on protecting natural areas of special interests (1984);
Law on territorial planning (1987); and
Law on conservation of natural areas and landscape (1991).
Since the most recent legislation was passed, the Balearic government initiated the protection of 33% of its territory, which served
as the natural-based component of ecotourism-related practices
(Bardolet, 1998; Balearic Government, 1997, 1998). However,
although favored by tourism practitioners, ecotourism as a primary tourism product of the Balearic Islands has not had a high
demand from the clientele. The only exception is the SAlbufera
National Park, which stretches across the coast of the island of
Majorca. The park, with a capacity of 2,500 hectares, accommodates 1,250 species of animals and plants, of which eight bird
species are considered threatened by the loss of habitat. In addition, it is a home for around 75 vagrant species, as well as the
Moustached Warbler (Acrocephalus melanopogon) densities
(Balearic Government, 1998).
It accommodates around 100,000 visitors per year, half of which are
primary-purpose or frequent ecotourists, mainly birdwatchers. Apart
from this national park, ecotourism is practiced on an occasional basis
in the following areas (Balearic Government, 1998):
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Ecotourism and Sustainability in Mediterranean Islands

Cala Mondrago Beach in Majorca;

Albufera del Grau in Minorca;
the island of Dragonera; and
the archipelago of Cabrera; and
the island of Formentera.

Whereas these initiatives can create the products of ecotourism and

sustainable practices, the Balearic practitioners have initiated a number of other measures. For instance, in 1997, the regional government created a program for the eco-management and eco-auditing of
tourism enterprises (ECOTUR). This program, which is of a voluntary nature, is aimed to stimulate environmental awareness by allowing tourism enterprises to undertake an environmental audit and set
up an environmental management system based on the requirements
of ISO 14000. In turn, an eco-label is awarded to participating enterprises, enabling them to exhibit their environmentally orientated
nature (Balearic Government, 1998). Regarding the quality aspects
and planning agendas, the regional government initiated a number of
different programs (see Table 3).
An innovative project concerning the planning agenda was carried
out in 1994 by the International Federation of Tour Operators, that

Table 3. Programs to Improve the Planning and the Quality Aspects of

Tourism in Balearic Islands
Programs

Description

I Cladera Decree, 1984

Planning Initiative: allowing 30 sqm of land per bed

II Cladera Decree, 1987

Planning Initiative: allowing 60 sqm of land per bed

Global Sanitation Plan, 1989

Quality Initiative: to build sewage plants and

monitor the water quality

Plan to Embellish Tourism

Resorts, 1990

Quality Initiative: to build the tourism

infrastructure along the coastal zone

Hotel Accommodation
Modernization Plan, 1990

Quality Initiative: the modernization plan of

around 1,200 hotel units

Modernization of the
Complementary Tourism
Supply, 1996

Quality Initiative: the modernization plan of the

catering establishments

Off-Peak Tourism Plan,

1997

Planning Initiative: the assessment of minimizing

seasonality

Plan Mirall, 1997

Quality Initiative: restore the historic monuments

and cultural attractions

Source: Balearic Government, (1997, 1998).

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Dimitrios Diamantis

of the European Community Models of Sustainable Tourism (ECOMOST) (International Federation of Tour Operators, 1995). This
initiative compared two islands of the Mediterranean, the islands of
Majorca (Balearics) and Rhodes (Greece), in order to set certain limits on the growth of mass tourism, as well as to integrate aspects of
regional planning in these areas. The ECOMOST study investigated
certain indicators in four different areas (population, tourism, ecology, and politics) in an attempt to identify their critical values with the
end motive of restraining the pattern of mass-tourism development in
these destinations. The report identified critical limits of carrying
capacities for all the four indicators, recommending that Majorca
should focus on improving the quality and environmental aspects of
its tourism industry. In turn, practitioners seemed to respond to these
demands by initiating a number of projects to enhance the quality
aspects of the destination (see Table 2).
Clearly, there is a heightened awareness amongst the tourism practitioners to enhance the quality, environment, and the regional-planning agendas of the islands. Although at this stage it is difficult to
foretell if these islands will become well-established ecotourism destinations, it can be seen that the tourism industry in the Balearics is
showing commendable preparedness to stimulate sustainability awareness and to apply environmental and quality-management principles.

ISLAND OF VIS: CROATIA

The island of Vis in Croatia has a small surface area of 90.3 km2. The
popluation in 1991 was 5,338. It is the eleventh largest island in the
Adriatic Sea. Tourism activities on the island are not the primary economic source of income for its inhabitants, as the majority of them are
involved in agriculture and fishing (Priority Actions Programme, 1997).
The demand structure of the island indicated that there are about
5,500 tourists per year, with a trip duration of approximately seven
days. The supply structure of its industry shows that around 1,000
people are employed in tourism, of which the majority of them are
employed during the summer season. Most of the tourism activities
in the island take place in the following five zones (Priority Actions
Programme, 1997):
a) Urban area:
b) Rural area:
c) Fishing-maritime areas:
434

towns of Vis and Komiza;

agricultural plain with 6 villages;
2 villages;

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Ecotourism and Sustainability in Mediterranean Islands

d) Mountainous areas:
e) Ecological reserves:

300700 m above sea level;

areas by the sea.

Here, ecotourism activities occur infrequently and usually take place

in the last two zone areas. It had been estimated that ecotourism
accommodates around 100 visitors per year, most of which are indeIt had been
pendent travelers. There are no nature guides or specific conservation
estimated that
objectives, and there is no training for nature guides or interpretation
ecotourism
programs. The majority of the ecotourism clientele are occasional in accommodates
nature, in that they likely are to be involved in a number of other around 100 visitourist activities, and the tourism plan for the island reflects this pertors per year,
spective. For instance a carrying capacity study indicated three differmost of which
ent scenarios (Priority Actions Programme, 1997):
are independent
Intensive development scenario
Alternative tourism scenario
Sustainable development scenario

(16,00020,000
tourists per year);
(2,500 tourists per year);
(4,900 tourists per year).

travelers.

The specific features of the island of Vis, with its wealth of natural
resources, indicated that the alternative tourism scenario would be
appropriate in this locality. As a result, the development plan concentrated on the following (Priority Actions Programme, 1997):
a) No future building construction for accommodation and
tourism purposes;
b) a number of abandoned houses and apartments will be re-used
for tourism purposes;
c) nautical facilities will be built in the port of Vis;
d) rural and ecotourism areas will be assessed;
e) the seasonal labor force will be reduced to a minimum; and
f) agricultural production will remain the primary economic sector.
However, the current turmoil in the region, centering around the
situation in Kosovo, means that growth in tourism along the
Adriatic coast will be limited. This also will affect the demand for
ecotourism holidays, as well as the efforts of the local community to
revitalize its resources.

THE ISLAND OF CRETE: GREECE

Crete is the largest island of Greece and the fifth largest island in the
Mediterranean Basin. It has a surface area of 8,335 km2 and a popuThunderbird International Business Review JulyAugust 2000

435

Dimitrios Diamantis

lation of over 540,000 people (in 1991). The island has four prefectures, named Lassithi, Heraklio, Rethymno, and Chania.
The tourism demand on the island experienced a dramatic growth
from around 8,500 visitors in the 1950s, to 1.9 million arrivals in
1997 (Greek National Tourism Organisation, 1998). Around 95%
of the arrivals come from Europe, with the remaining 5% from
Greece and other parts of the world. Their overall length of stay is
9.1 days. In 1997, the majority of the arrivals went to Heraklio
(50.3%), followed by Rethymno and Chania (16.9% each), and
Lassithi (15.9%).
The tourism supply of Crete indicated a dramatic growth in hotel
enterprises (Greek National Tourism Organisation, 1998). In 1986,
Crete had 736 hotel units with 50,544 beds, whereas in 1997 it had
1,229 units with 108,000 beds. In 1997, the prefecture of Heraklio
had the largest share of hotel units (36%), followed by Chania (26%),
Lassithi (20%), and Rethymno (18%). Between 1994 and 1997,
Crete generated occupancy rates between 64.682.5%, contributing
to 21.5% of the total bed nights of Greece in 1997, an increase of 8%
since 1981 (see Table 4). Approximately 50% of the total employed
population are engaged in tourism-related activities (100,000 people), contributing to the generation of 59% of Cretes Gross
Domestic Product (Andriotis, 1999; Greek National Tourism
Organisation, 1998).
From an institutional perspective, most of the sustainable practices in
Crete come under the Greek national policies, as well as from certain
European Community projects (see Table 1). Here, ecotourism and
natural-based tourism are central to the Greek national and regional
tourism policy and are addressed through (Region of Crete, 1995):
conservation, regeneration and expansion of mountain areas
and forests;
enhancement of biotopes;
tourism and culture programs;
extension of the tourism season and tourism infrastructure
programs; and
sustainable education and improvement of the quality.
Most of the development budget in Crete, however, is tailored to
infrastructural development and human-resources development
(Ypexode, 1997). Environmental projects absorbed only 17.8% of the
total budget, and tourism programs absorbed only 2% of the devel436

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Thunderbird International Business Review JulyAugust 2000

5,166,944
1,863,911
1,558,099
1,120,983
9,709,937
9,106,763
603,174
48,887,583
19.9%

3,140,762
1,319,968
647,816
395,239
5,453,785
4,952,960
500,825
40,354,154
13.5%

Source: Greek National Tourism Organisation (1998).

Heraklio
Lassithi
Rethymno
Chania
Total Crete
Total Foreign
Total Domestic
Total Greece
Crete/Greece

1990

1980

4,690,857
1,668,544
2,033,199
1,856,978
10,249,578
9,508,808
740,770
51,324,196
20.0%

1995

4,782,659
1,646,071
1,850,040
1,791,131
10,069,901
9,241,546
828,355
48,312,404
20.8%

1996

5,775,962
1,839,531
1,941,273
1,939,102
11,495,868
10,618,662
877,206
53,369,507
21.5%

1997

Table 4. Total Bed-Nights in Crete from Foreign and Domestic Tourists (19801997)

64
41
140
184
78
84
20
21
6.4

Change
80/90
(%)

84
39
200
391
111
114
75
32
8

Change
80/97
(%)
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437

Dimitrios Diamantis

opment budget (see Table 5). Although infrastructural and humanresources programs will benefit from the development of tourism on
the island, there is a considerable degree of negligence to the generation of more funds for the protection of the environment
(Anagnostopoulou, Arapis, & Micha, 1996; Andriotis, 1999).
From an executable perspective, sustainable and ecotourism practices
take place in certain locations and from certain tourism enterprises
(Anagnostopoulou et al., 1996). Ecotourism practices in Crete mainly occur in four main areas (OANAK, 1995). The first area is the east
coast of the prefecture of Rethymno, which is an important breeding
site for the protected Loggerhead turtle (known as Caretta caretta),
as it hosts 15.5% of the Loggerhead nests out of the total known
nesting sites in Greece. The second area is on the island of Spinaloga,
which is not significant from a wildlife perspective but rather for its
cultural attractions. The third area is the natural attraction of the
Samaria Gorge, which is visited by around a quarter of the tourists
visiting Greece. The fourth area is the mountainous region of Crete
(i.e., Lefka Ori and the forest of Vai), where tourists trek over these
mountains using a number of mountain paths, especially the so-called
marked paths known as E4 routes. In addition, several womens agricultural tourist co-operatives were established, which aim to provide
authentic agricultural accommodation, contributing to the preservation of the cultural and natural lifestyles and to the enhancement of
the employment of many rural regions of Crete (Andriotis, 1999;
Castelberg-Koulma, 1991).

Table 5. Development Plans and Programs as a Percentage of the Total

Budget in Crete, 19862000
Areas
Local development
Infrastructure
Agriculture
Environment
Human resources
Tourism
Industrial infrastructure
Urban development
Productive investments
Small- and medium-sized
enterprises
Technical support
Total

Heraklion Lasssithi Rethymno

Chania

Total

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

63.37
37.55
21.94
22.55
50.36
14.13

31.57
44.52

10.25
12.70
39.53
15.14
7.20
37.62

10.06
13.18

4.08
15.74
13.1
28.74
5.55
33.84

23.03
19.02

22.30
34
24.44
33.57
36.88
14.41
100
35.34
23.29

3.01
31.56
11.53
17.85
20.32
2.08
1.73
3.81
7.27

35.27

15.16

15.82

32.89

0.70
0.14
100

Source: Ypexode (1997).

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Ecotourism and Sustainability in Mediterranean Islands

Furthermore, an increasing number of tourist enterprises now use

environmental-management techniques such as environmental
audits. Perhaps the most notable example is that of the hotel group
of Grecotel. In 1992, Grecotel was the first Mediterranean hotel
group to create an environmental and cultural department, partakCrete has a
ing in environmental audits and programs that enhanced communilong way to go
ty involvement and the preservation of local species (turtle
to practice and
breeding). Grecotel contracts Greek suppliers who produce ecofulfill sustainable
friendly and organic products. In addition, other hotels on the island
and ecotourism
regularly participate in a number of environmental programs, such
practices.
as the biological treatment of water and the Reduce/Reuse/Recycle
practices (Hellenic Travelling, 1996). Although these initiatives contribute to the enhancement of the green image of Cretes larger
enterprises, there are a number of pitfalls with respect to the
enhancement of the environmental protection on the island of Crete
(Papaioannou, 1987). In particular, Anagnostopoulou et al. (1996)
claim the following:
inadequate coordination between regional and national
tourism programs;
inadequate safeguards so that conservation programs on
Crete are not threatened by tourism development, i.e.,
European programs of Life and Natura 2000;
insufficient funds from the Crete Regional Operational
Program dedicated to the management of sites for ecotourism practices; and
confusion about the meaning of ecotourism and the implementation of ecotourism initiatives.
According to these views, Crete has a long way to go to practice and
fulfill sustainable and ecotourism practices. However, although these
challenges still remain intact, there has been an increased awareness
to implement certain sustainable policies on the island. The question
of quality versus quantity of tourism should remain at the forefront
of their regional tourism strategies. The question of ecotourism versus mass tourism products in Crete should remain in their research
and planning agendas.

AN ASSESSMENT OF ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE

PRACTICES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS
The sustainable and ecotourism practices on the examined
Mediterranean islands have been demonstrated by a plethora of
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439

Dimitrios Diamantis

actions. As such, these initiatives are different from island to island,

all reflecting a variety of perspectives and paradigms. Theoretically
speaking, ecotourism has been claimed to be practiced in a continuum ranging from an active pole (actions of protecting the environment) to a passive pole (ecotourism-development actions that do not
create negative impacts) (Orams, 1995). In addition, it has been
claimed that ecotourism contains three common components
(Diamantis, 1998a): the natural-based component; the sustainability
component; and the educational component. By using the latter
three elements as indicators to assess ecotourism practices on the
examined islands, the Balearic Islands are in a prominent position,
taking an active stance towards ecotourism. In turn, the Balearics
product portfolio of ecotourism contains all three elements (see
Table 6). As for the other two islands, they appear to be only practicing the natural-based element of ecotourism holidays, and, in addition, they have different stances towards ecotourism.
In a similar vein, and in adopting some other indicators to assess the
performance of the islands, the Balearic complex demonstrated a
more effective performance, thereby embracing ecotourism and sustainable practices in their territorial activities.

Table 6. Sustainable and Ecotourism Performance Matrix of Selected

Islands in the Mediterranean
Indicators

440

Balleric Islands,
Spain

Vis,
Yugoslavia

Crete,
Greece

Active/Passive Application
of Ecotourism

Active

Active

Passive

Natural-Based Element
of Ecotourism

Yes

Yes

Yes

Sustainability Element
of Ecotourism

Yes

No

No

Educational Element
of Ecotourism

Yes

No

No

Regional Environmental Policy

Yes

No

No

Green Assessment Study

Yes

Yes

No

Reduce/Reuse/Recycle
Program

Yes

No

Yes

Ecolabelling Program

Yes

No

No

Indicator Program

Yes

No

No

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Ecotourism and Sustainability in Mediterranean Islands

Although Vis initiated an ecotourism-assessment study and put into

place the foundations of ecotourism practices, it is difficult to foresee
how these ecotourism practices will manifest, bearing in mind the
current adversity in the Adriatic region. An absence of these external
events probably would have enabled Vis to develop its ecotourism
practices. For Crete, the development of ecotourism and sustainable
practices are of a sporadic nature, and its performance in most of the
indicators is quite negative (see Table 6). Therefore, the challenge for
Crete still lies ahead in that their understanding of the nature of ecotourism and sustainable practices should be re-addressed.
In all the three cases, however, the practitioners in the examined
islands have illustrated attempts to redefine aspects of their product
portfolio by incorporating more sustainable and ecotourism practices. This has resulted in the formulation of certain green practices, a situation that was unimaginable during the dominion of the
mass-tourism era.

CONCLUSION
Implicit in the evolution of sustainability in the Mediterranean Basin
are the efforts made to transform its mass-tourism practices to policies embodied with sustainable principles through declarations of cooperation and the development of ecotourism products. Although
sustainable tourism and ecotourism are emerging as important products, there still remain a number of key challenges for the islands in
the region. It is evident from the case studies that the islands have different priorities in terms of their individual sustainability and ecotourism agendas. A similarity shared by all the islands is that they
approach sustainability from a solid tourism perspective. It follows
that the sustainable and ecotourism practices are applied to enhance
the tourism industrys needs and wants, creating the so-called
tourism-centric situation. As a result, the challenge of achieving
sustainability could be enhanced in the absence of the tourism-centric syndrome, and by utilizing methods where trade-off scenarios of
different types of sustainability and environmental-management techniques are developed and implemented (Diamantis, 1998a, 1998b, in
press; Westlake & Diamantis, 1998). In addition, the entire
Mediterranean region needs to change its image from a mass-tourism
destination to a more green or sustainable region. In doing so, cooperative efforts amongst Mediterranean countries need to be advanced
in conjunction with the practice of cooperative marketing efforts in
attracting ecotourists to this region. Recently, a protected marine
Thunderbird International Business Review JulyAugust 2000

A similarity
shared by all
the islands is
that they
approach sustainability from
a solid tourism
perspective.

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Dimitrios Diamantis

park was created between Italy and France that aims to conserve the
dolphins and other marine species. These kinds of cross-border
efforts not only contribute to the sustainability efforts of these countries, but also stress that conservation and awareness can be achieved
only when countries are willing to collaborate between themselves.
Even then, the economic inequalities that exist in the Mediterranean
basin require the adoption of a very carefully planned strategy and an
overall policy for sustainable development. The process of harmonization of environmental regulations and agendas is a priority task.
In addition, it must be accompanied by mechanisms that guarantee
openness, adequate information and public participation, anticipatory planning, community and administrative support, and control procedures for its enforcement and application.

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