Centrioles - Organizing Chromosomes

Every animal-like cell has two small organelles called centrioles. They are
there to help the cell when it comes time to divide. They are put to work in
both the process of mitosis and the process of meiosis. You will usually find
them near the nucleus but they cannot be seen when the cell is not dividing.
And what are centrioles made of? Microtubules.
Centriole Structure
A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a specific way. There
are nine groups of microtubules. When two centrioles are found next to
each other, they are usually at right angles. The centrioles are found in pairs
and move towards the poles (opposite ends) of the nucleus when it is time
for cell division. During division, you may also see groups of threads
attached to the centrioles. Those threads are called the mitotic spindle.
Relaxing When There's no Work
We already mentioned that you would find centrioles near the nucleus. You
will not see well-defined centrioles when the cell is not dividing. You will
see a condensed and darker area of the cytoplasm called the centrosome.
When the time comes for cell division, the centrioles will appear and move
to opposite ends of the nucleus. During division you will see four centrioles.
One pair moves in each direction.
Interphase is the time when the cell is at rest. When it comes time for a cell
to divide, the centrioles duplicate. During prophase, the centrioles move to
opposite ends of the nucleus and a mitotic spindle of threads begins to
appear. Those threads then connect to the now apparent chromosomes.
During anaphase, the chromosomes are split and pulled towards each
centriole. Once the entire cell begins to split in telophase, the chromosomes
begin to unravel and new nuclear envelopes begin to appear. The centrioles
have done their job. Ribosomes - Protein Construction Teams
Cells need to make proteins. Enzymes made of proteins are used to help
speed up biological processes. Other proteins support cell functions and are
found embedded in membranes. Proteins even make up most of your hair.
When a cell needs to make proteins, it looks for ribosomes. Ribosomes are
the protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell. They are like
construction guys who connect one amino acid at a time and build long
chains.
Ribosomes are special because they are found in both prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. While a structure such as a nucleus is only found in

eukaryotes, every cell needs ribosomes to manufacture proteins. Since there

are no membrane-bound organelles in prokaryotes, the ribosomes float free
in the cytosol.
Ribosomes are found in many places around a eukaryotic cell. You might
find them floating in the cytosol. Those floating ribosomes make proteins
that will be used inside of the cell. Other ribosomes
are found on the endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum with attached ribosomes is
called rough ER. It looks bumpy under a
microscope. The attached ribosomes make proteins
that will be used inside the cell and proteins made
for export out of the cell. There are also ribosomes
attached to the nuclear envelope. Those ribosomes
synthesize proteins that are released into the
perinuclear space.
Two Pieces Make the Whole
There are two pieces or subunits to every ribosome. In eukaryotes, scientists
have identified the 60-S (large) and 40-S (small) subunits. Even though
ribosomes have slightly different structures in different species, their
functional areas are all very similar.
For example, prokaryotes have ribosomes that are slightly smaller than
eukaryotes. The 60-S/ 40-S model works fine for eukaryotic cells while
prokaryotic cells have ribosomes made of 50-S and 30-S subunits. It's a
small difference, but one of many you will find in the two different types of
cells. Scientists have used this difference in ribosome structure to develop
drugs that can kill prokaryotic microorganisms which cause disease. There
are even structural differences between ribosomes found in the
mitochondria and free ribosomes.
Mixing and Matching Amino Acids
When are ribosomes used in the process of protein
synthesis? When the cell needs to make a protein,
mRNA is created in the nucleus. The mRNA is then
sent out of the nucleus and to the ribosomes. When it is time to make the
protein, the two subunits come together and combine with the mRNA. The
subunits lock onto the mRNA and start the protein synthesis.

The process of making proteins is quite simple. First, you need an amino
acid. Another nucleic acid that lives in the cell is transfer RNA. tRNA is
bonded to the amino acids floating around the cell. With the mRNA offering
instructions, the ribosome connects to a tRNA and pulls off one amino acid.
The tRNA is then released back into the cell and attaches to another amino
acid. The ribosome builds a long amino acid (polypeptide) chain that will
eventually be part of a larger protein.Chromosomes - Pull up Those Genes
Chromosomes are the things that make organisms what they are. They
carry all of the information used to help a cell grow, thrive, and reproduce.
Chromosomes are made up of DNA. Segments of DNA in specific patterns
are called genes. Your genes make you who you are. You will find the
chromosomes and genetic material in the nucleus of a cell. Inprokaryotes,
DNA floats in the cytoplasm in an area called the nucleoid.
Loose and Tight
Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit around uncoiled and
as loose strands called chromatin. When it is time for the cell toreproduce,
they condense and wrap up very tightly. The tightly wound DNA is the
chromosome. Chromosomes look kind of like long, limp, white hot dogs.
They are usually found in pairs.
Completing the Sets
Scientists count individual strands of chromosomes. They count individuals
not every organism has pairs. You probably have 46 chromosomes (23
pairs). Peas only have 12. A dog has 78. The number of chromosomes is
NOT related to the intelligence or complexity of the creature. There is a
crayfish with 200 chromosomes. Does that make a crayfish five times
smarter or more complex than you are? No. There are even organisms of the
same species with different numbers of chromosomes. You will often find
plants of the same species with multiple sets of chromosomes.
Chromosomes work with other nucleic acids in the cell to build proteins
and help in cell division. You will most likely find mRNA in the nucleus
with the DNA. tRNA is found outside of the nucleus in the cytosol. When
the chromosomes are visible, cells with two complete sets of chromosomes
are called diploids (46 in a human). Most cells are diploid. Cells with only
one set (23 in a human) are called haploid cells. Haploids are most often
found in cells involved in sexual reproduction such as a sperm or an egg.
Haploid cells are created in cell division termed meiosis.
Microfilaments - Stringy Proteins

You will find microfilaments in most cells. They are the partner
ofmicrotubules. They are long, thin, and stringy proteins (mainly actin)
compared to the rounder, tube-shaped microtubules. We'd like to say you
can find them here or there, but they are everywhere in a cell. They work
with microtubules to form the structure that allows a cell to hold its shape,
move itself, and move its organelles.
Making the Cytoskeleton
All of the microfilaments and microtubules combine to form
thecytoskeleton of the cell. The cytoskeleton is different from cytoplasm
(cytosol). The cytoskeleton provides structure. Cytoplasm is just a fluid.
The cytoskeleton connects to every organelle and every part of the cell
membrane. Think about an amoeba. All of the pieces work together so that
the foot might reach out towards the food.
Then lysosomes andperoxisomes are sent to begin digestion. The
movement of the cell membrane, organelles, and cytoplasm is all related to
the tubules and filaments.

You will also find many microfilaments in muscle tissue. They are
calledmyofibrils when you find them in muscles. The two
proteins myosin andactin work together to help the muscle cells relax and
contract. The two proteins need each other and together they are
called actomyosin. Combine those protein threads with some ions in the
muscle cell and you get a huge contraction. The groups of actomyosin
contracting are calledsarcomeres. All of the muscle cells work together to
make a muscle contract.
A Role in Cell Movement
Cells move in a variety of ways. We just talked about the contraction of a
muscle cell. That is an extreme example. When you learn about singlecelled organisms, you will understand that they need to move. They may
need to glide from one area to another. The microfilaments are often found

anchored to proteins in the cell membrane. Sometimes microfilaments are

found floating free and connected to other filaments and tubules.
Thosebinding proteins allow the microfilaments to push and pull on the
cell membrane to help the cell move.
Microtubules - Thick Protein Tubes
Microtubules are usually discussed with microfilaments. Although they
are both proteins that help define cell structure and movement, they are very
different molecules. While microfilaments are thin, microtubules are thick,
strong spirals of thousands of subunits. Those subunits are made of the
protein called tubulin. And yes, they got their name because they look like
a tube.
Elements of the Cytoskeleton
All of the microfilaments and microtubules combine to form
thecytoskeleton of the cell. The cytoskeleton is different from cytoplasm
(cytosol). The cytoskeleton provides structure. Cytoplasm is just a fluid.
The cytoskeleton connects to every organelle and every part of the cell
membrane. Think about an amoeba. All of the pieces work together so that
the foot might reach out towards the food.
Then lysosomes andperoxisomes are sent to begin digestion. The
movement of the cell membrane, organelles, and cytoplasm is all related to
the tubules and filaments.
Moving Chromosomes
Microtubules have many more uses than just cell structure. They are also
very important in cell division. They connect to chromosomes, help them
with their first split, and then move to each new daughter cell. They are a
part of a small pair of organelles called centrioles that have the specific
purpose to help a cell divide. Once the cell has finished dividing, the
microtubules are put to work in other places.
Moving Organisms
Beyond the role they play in internal cell movement, microtubules also
work together to form larger structures that work on the outside of the cells.
They can combine in very specific arrangements to form cilia and flagella.
Cilia are little hairs you might see on the outside of a paramecium or
otherprotists. They flap back and forth to help the cell move. Flagella are
long, thick tails. They whip around and sometimes twirl, pushing the cell
along.
Lysosomes - Little Enzyme Packages

You will find organelles called lysosomes in nearly

every animal-like eukaryotic cell. Lysosomes
hold enzymes that were created by the cell. The
purpose of the lysosome is todigest things. They might
be used to digest food or break down the cell when it
dies. What creates a lysosome? You'll have to visit
the Golgi complex for that answer.
A lysosome is basically a specialized vesicle that holds
a variety of enzymes. The enzyme proteins are first
created in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Those proteins are packaged
in a vesicle and sent to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi then does its final
work to create the digestive enzymes and pinches off a small, very specific
vesicle. That vesicle is a lysosome. From there the lysosomes float in the
cytoplasm until they are needed. Lysosomes are single-membrane
organelles.
Lysosome Action

Since lysosomes are little digestion machines, they go to work when the cell
absorbs or eats some food. Once the material is inside the cell, the
lysosomes attach and release their enzymes. The enzymes break down
complex molecules that can include complex sugars and proteins. But what
if food is scarce and the cell is starving? The lysosomes go to work even if
there is no food for the cell. When the signal is sent out, lysosomes will
actually digest the cell organelles for nutrients.
Why Don't They Digest the Cell?
Here's something scientists are still trying to figure out. If the lysosome
holds many types of enzymes, how can the lysosome survive? Lysosomes
are designed to break down complex molecules and pieces of the cell. Why
don't the enzymes break down the membrane that surrounds the lysosome?

Peroxisomes - Another Enzyme Package

There are many ways that peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes. They are
small vesicles found around the cell. They have a single membrane that
contains digestive enzymes for breaking down toxic materials in the cell.
They differ from lysosomes in the type of enzyme they hold. Peroxisomes
hold on to enzymes that require oxygen (oxidative enzymes). Lysosomes
have enzymes that work in oxygen-poor areas and lower pH.

Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is

the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate,
CH3COCOO + H+.

Peroxisomes absorb nutrients that the cell has acquired. They are very well
known for digesting fatty acids. They also play a part in the way organisms
digest alcohol (ethanol). Because they do that job, you would expect liver
cells to have more peroxisomes than most other cells in a human body. They
also play a role in cholesterol synthesis and the digestion of amino acids.
Creating Hydrogen Peroxide
Peroxisomes work in a very specific way. Their enzymes attack complex
molecules and break them down into smaller molecules. One of the
byproducts of the digestion is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Peroxisomes have
developed to a point where they are able to contain that hydrogen peroxide
and break it down into water (H2O) and oxygen (O2). The water is harmless
to the cell and the oxygen can be used in the next digestive reaction.
Mysteries of the Peroxisome
Peroxisomes have a single membrane that surrounds the digestive enzymes
and dangerous byproducts of their work (hydrogen peroxide). The protein
enzymes are usually created by lysosomes floating in the cell. They then
insert the proteins into the peroxisome bubble. Peroxisomes continue to
grow until they split in two. Where does the membrane come from?
Scientists are still researching that answer. It may come from
theendoplasmic reticulum, but it may be created in a way different from
lysosomes.
A flagellum is a whip-like structure that allows a cell to move. They are
found in all three domains of the living world: bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryota, also known as protists, plants, animals, and fungi. While all three
types offlagella are used for locomotion, they are structurally very different.
The primary role of the flagellum is locomotion but it also often has
function as a sensory organelle, being sensitive to chemicals and
temperatures outside the cell. Flagella are organelles defined by function
rather than structure.

Lactobacillus acidophilus
Lactobacillus, also called "Dderlein's bacillus", is a genus of Grampositive facultative anaerobic or microaerophilic rod-shaped bacteria. They
are a major part of the lactic acid bacteria group. In humans they are part of
the vaginal microbiota
Streptococcus
Streptococcus is a genus of coccus Gram-positive bacteria belonging to the
phylum Firmicutes and the Lactobacillales order.

Plant Cell Walls - a multilayered structure unique to plants

Functions of cell walls:

Difference between 70S and 80S Ribosomes

70S Ribosomes
Occurrence
They are found in
prokaryotic
cells(Bacteria,&
Cyanobacteria)
Subunits
Larger 50S and smaller
30S

80S Ribosomes
They are found in eukaryotic
cells(Algae,Fungi,higher
plants and animals)
Larger 60S and smaller 40S

What is Fimbriae?
In bacteriology, a fimbria [(plural fimbriae); also referred to as
"attachment pili" by some scientists] is an appendage
composed of curlin proteins that can be found on
many Gram-negative and some Grampositive bacteria that is thinner and shorter than a
flagellum.Fimbriae are shorter hair-like structures
that help bacterial cells adhere to other cells or to a
substrate.
.
The middle lamella is a pectin layer which cements
the cell walls of two adjoining cells
together. Plants need this to give them
stability and so that they can form
plasmodesmata between the cells. It is the
first formed layer which is deposited at
the time of cytokinesis.

Provide tensile strength and limited plasticity which are important

for:
o

keeping cells from rupturing from turgor pressure

turgor pressure provides support for non-woody tissues

Thick walled cells provide mechanical support

Tubes for long-distance transport

Cutinized walls prevent water loss

Provide mechanical protection from insects & pathogens

Physiological & biochemical activities in the wall contribute to

cell-cell communication

During growth and development

Cell division involves synthesis of new cell wall

Cell enlargement involves changes in cell wall composition

Cell differentiation involves changes in cell wall composition

Cell walls consist of 3 types of layers

Middle lamella: This is the first layer formed during cell division.
It makes up the outer wall of the cell and is shared by adjacent
cells. It is composed of pectic compounds and protein.
Primary wall: This is formed after the middle lamella and consists
of a rigid skeleton of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a gel-like
matrix composed of pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and
glycoproteins.

Secondary wall: formed after cell enlargement is completed. The

secondary wall is extremely rigid and provides compression
strength. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The
secondary wall is often layered.

- another major component of middle lamella but also found in primary

walls

Composition of cell wall

Pectic acid
- polymer of around 100 galacturonic acid molecules
- very hydrophilic and soluble - become very hydrated
- forms salts and salt bridges with Ca++ and Mg++ that are insoluble gels
- major component of middle lamella but also found in primary walls

Cellulose: polymer of glucose - typically consisting of 1,000 to 10,000

beta-D-glucose residues - major component of primary and secondary wall
layers.
Cellulose polymers associate through H-bonds. The H-bonding of
many cellulose molecules to each other results in the formation
of micro fibers and the micro fibers can interact to form fibers.
Certain cells, like those in cotton ovules, can grow cellulose fibers
of enormous lengths.

galacturonic acid
Pectic acid with salt bridges
Because the carboxyl groups on the galacturonic acid molecules are weak
acids, they can exist in negatively charged and uncharged states depending
on protonation (see fig below). The extent to which the molecules are
protonated is pH dependant and related to the pKa (the pH at which the two
forms are in equilibrium).

Pectin
- polymer of around 200 galacturonic acid molecules
- many of the carboxyl groups are methylated (COOCH3)
- less hydrated then pectic acid but soluble in hot water

Cellulose fibers usually consist of over 500,000 cellulose molecules. If a

fiber consists of 500,000 cellulose molecules with 5,000 glucose
resides/cellulose molecule, the fiber would contain about 2.5 billion Hbonds. Even if an H-bond is about 1/10 the strength of a covalent bond, the
cumulative bonding energy of 2.5 billion of them is awesome. It is the Hbonding that is the basis of the high tensile strength of cellulose.

Starch is also a polymer of glucose. However, instead of a beta-1,4 linkage

between glucose molecules, starch uses an alpha-1,4 linkage. The difference
is due to the conformation of the ring structure. The alpha-1,4 linkage
causes the polymer to take on a twisted configuration instead of the linear
shape of cellulose. Thus, starch forms globular structures. Starch molecules
are often branched, which also prevents linear arrays from forming. In
plants, starch is only found in plastids (not in walls or cytoplasm).

Structural proteins: In addition to carbohydrates, cell walls contain a

variety of proteins. One type of cell wall proteins,
called glycoproteins contains carbohydrate side chains on certain amino
acids. One common group of cell wall proteins are characterized by having
an abundance of the amino acid hydroxyproline. Strucural proteins are
found in all layers of the plant cell wall but they are more abundant in the
primary wall layer.

Like the cell wall carbohydrates, glycoproteins are hydrophilic and can
form H-bonds and salt bridges with cell wall polysaccharides.
Hemicellulose is a polysaccharide composed of a variety of sugars
including xylose, arabinose, mannose. Hemicellulose that is primarily
xylose or arabinose are referred to as xyloglucans or arabinoglucans,
respectively.
Hemicellulose molecules are often branched. Like the pectic compounds,
hemicellulose molecules are very hydrophilic. They become highly
hydrated and form gels. Hemicellulose is abundant in primary walls but is
also found in secondary walls.

In addition to hydroxyproline, cell wall proteins are often high in the amino
acids proline and lysine. The NH3+ on lysine provides positive charges
along the peptide backbone. The positive charges residues can associate
with negatively charged groups on pectic acids, etc. In addition to
electrostatic interactions, H-bonds also form between amino acid side
chains and cell wall carbohydrates.
Another type of structural cell wall protein, called extensin, can form
covalent bonds with other extensin proteins through the amino acid
tyrosine. In extensin, the tyrosines are evenly spaced and when they bond
with tyrosine on another extensin molecule, the can wrap around other cell
wall constituents "knitting" the wall together.

In addition, the enzyme "expansin" is activated and causes

cellulose micro fibers to slip (mechanism of expansin action is
unknown). This results in cell wall "creep".

The amount of extensin changes with development. Cells that have thick,
hard walls are often rich in extensin (i.e., sclerids and fibers). the amount of
extensin produced is dependent on mechanical wounding, infection and
these responses are mediated by plant hormones.
Cell walls also contain functional proteins. Enzymatic activities in cell walls
include:

Oxidative enzymes - peroxidases

Hydrolytic enzymes - pectinases, cellulases

"Expansins" - enzymes that catalyze cell wall "creep" activity

General functions of cell wall enzymes include protection against

pathogens, cell expansion, cell wall maturation.
Cell expansion involves loosening of existing wall materials and
production of new material. Cell wall loosening can occur by at least 3
mechanisms:
1) Wall acidification - H+ATPase in plasma membrane 'pumps" H+
from cytoplasm into cell wall. The pH of the
wall drops and carboxylic acids become
protonated and 'salt bridges" are broken.

Hydrolytic enzymes like

cellulase and pectinase,
"degrade" cell walls by
breaking polymers into
smaller subunits or by
breaking crosslinks.
Neutrophils are white blood cells
that play some very important
roles in our innate immune
system. They circulate around our
body in the bloodstream, and
when they sense signals that an
infection is present, they are the
first cells to migrate to the site of the infection to begin killing the invading
microbes.
A zymogen (or proenzyme) is an inactive enzyme precursor.
Azymogen requires a biochemical change (such as a hydrolysis reaction
revealing the active site, or changing the configuration to reveal the active
site) for it to become an active enzyme.
Mucins are a family of high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated
proteins (glycoconjugates) produced by epithelial tissues in most organisms
of Kingdom Animalia.