Report: Leicester University Centre for Loess

Research & Documentation 1986-2016

This is a brief survey of the activities of the Centre for

Loess Research and Documentation for the years 1986 to
2016. The Centre is based in the Geography Department
at Leicester University and pursues a range of cooperative
projects with other universities and institutions. The best
indicators of the activities of the Centre are the various
publications and some of the more significant items are
listed here.
Major collaborators: University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad,
Serbia; University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland;
Loughborough University, Nottingham Trent University;
British Geological Survey, Keyworth.
Major funding: European Union, Natural Environment
Research Council, Royal Society, NATO.
Topics:
China
Slope Stability in the loess near Lanzhou China was the
first and most ambitious of the Centre projects. A large EU
grant financed work in China and Britain and allowed
Chinese and British students to be supported. A
substantial monograph was published and
Prof.E.Derbyshire, the lead investigator, received several
honours for this work.
Derbyshire, E., Meng Xingmin, Dijkstra, T.A.(eds) 1999.
Landslides in the thick loess terrain of north-west China.
Wiley Chichester 288p.

Dijkstra, T.A. 2000. Loess slope instability in the Lanzhou

region, China. Netherlands Geographical Studies 269,
300p.
Dijkstra, T.A., Rogers, C.D.F., Smalley, I.J., Derbyshire, E.,
Li Yong Jin, Meng Xing Min 1994. The loess of northcentral China: Geotechnical properties and their relation
to slope stabiliyu. Engineering Geology 36, 153-171.
Particle packing & hydrocollapse; collapsible soils
The most widespread and costly problem related to
construction on and in loess ground is that of
hydroconsolidation and subsidence. Loess ground
collapses when loaded and wetted. A NERC award allowed
a research project to be developed which examined
hydroconsolidation at Ospringe in Kent and eventually led
to the solution of this long-standing problem. The BGS at
Keyworth played a large role in looking at the micromechanics of loess failure.
Milodowski, A.E., Northmore, K.J., Entwisle, D.C., Gunn,
D.A., Nelder, L.M., Jackson, P.D., Boardman, D.I.,
Zoumpakis, A., Rogers, C.D.F., Dixon, N., Jefferson, I.F.,
Smalley, I.J., Clarke, M. 2015. The mineralogy and fabric
of brickearths and their relationship to engineering
properties. Bulletin of Engineering Geology & the
Environment. Doi 10.1007/S10064-014-0694-5
Rogers, C.D.F., Dijkstra, T.A., Smalley, I.J. 1994. Particle
packing from an Earth Science viewpoint. Earth Science
Reviews 36, 59-82.
Rogers, C.D.F., Dijkstra, T.A., Smalley, I.J. 1994.
Hydroconsolidation and subsidence of loess: Studies from
China, Russia, North America and Europe. Engineering
Geology 37, 83-113.
Derbyshire, E., Dijkstra, T.A., Smalley, I.J.(eds) 1995.
Genesis and Properties of Collapsible Soils. (NATO ASI
series C 468) Kluwer 320p.

The Danube basin; rivers & loess

The Danube is one of the great loess rivers. It transports
material from particle source areas in the Alps and
Carpathians and provides a series of loess deposits across
Central and Eastern Europe. Near to Novi Sad in Serbia
the Danube and the Tisza come together and great loess
deposits are formed, and loess stratigraphy flourishes.
Smalley, I.J., OHara-Dhand, K., Wint, J., Machalett, B.,
Jary, Z., Jefferson, I.F. 2009. Rivers and loess: the
significance of long-river transportation in the complex
event-sequence approach to loess deposit formation.
Quaternary International 198, 7-18.
Markovic, S.B., Hambach, U., Stevens, T., Jovanovic, M.,
OHara-Dhand, K., Basarin, B., Lu, H., Smalley, I.J.,
Buggle, B., Zech, M., Svircev, Z., Sumegi, P., Milojkovic,
N., Zoeller, L. 2012. Loess in the Vojvodina region
(northern Serbia): an essential link between European and
Asian Pleistocene environments. Netherlands Journal of
Geosciences- Geologie en Mijnbouw 91, 125-140.
Markovic, S.B., Stevens, T., Kukla, G.J., Hamback, U.,
Fitzsimmons, K.E., Gibbard, P., Buggle, B., Zech,M., Guo,
Z., Hao, Q., Wu, H., OHara-Dhand. K., Smalley, I.J.,
Ujvari, G., Sumegi, P., Timar-Gabor, A., Veres, D., Sirocko,
F., Vasiljevic, D.A., Jary,, Z., Svensson, A., Jovic, V.,
Lehmkuhl, F., Kovacs, J., Svircev, Z. 2015. Danube loess
stratigraphy- towards a pan-European loess stratigraphic
model. Earth Science Reviews doi:
10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.06.005.
Central Asia; Deserts
Loess has been associated with deserts for a long time but
there is little evidence for large deposits of desert loess.
The theory was developed that deserts represent holding
areas and the loess material is produced elsewhere.
Smalley, I.J., OHara-Dhand, K., Kwong, J. 2014. China:
Materials for a loess landscape. Catena 117, 100-107.

Smalley, I.J., Mavlyanova, N.G., Rakhmatullaev, Kh.L.,

Shermatov, M.Sh., Machalett, B., OHara-Dhand, K.,
Jefferson, I.F. 2006. The formation of loess deposits in
the Tashkent region and parts of Central Asia; and
problems with irrigation, hydrocollapse and soil erosion.
Quaternary International 152/153, 59-69.
Smalley, I.J. 2008. A call for Australian loess: discussion
and commentary. Area 40, 131-134.
Bibliography
The Loess Biobibliographical Project was an attempt to list
the hundred most significant loess investigators- obviously
a very subjective operation much influenced by language
and nationality. The Anglo-Polish bias has given initial
studies a leaning towards Europe.
Smalley, I.J., Smalley, G.J., OHara-Dhand, K., Jary, Z.
2013. The Loess Biobibliographical Project, with some
emphasis on Polish investigators (in memory of Jerzy
Cegla 1935-1984). Quaternary International 296, 7-14.
Smalley, I.J. 1991. The first great loess bibliography:
Stuntz and Free republished 1911-1991. Leicester
University Geography Department Occasional Paper 19.
Brickearth; UK loess
There is a very small amount of loess in the UK. It is
concentrated in the south-east, and often known as
brickearth. The concentration of ancient brick houses in
south-east England is related to the occurrences of
accessible brickearth.
Jefferson, I.F., Smalley, I.J., Northmore, K. 2003.
Consequences of a modest loess-fall over southern and
midland England. Mercian Geologist 15, 199-208.

Smalley, I.J. 1987. The nature of brickearth and the

location of early brick buildings in Britain. British Brick
Society Information no.41, 4-11.
Fragipans & loessification
Studies on post-depositional activities. Aeolian deposition
is the chief determinant of loess nature and properties but
events do occur after deposition. Collapsibility develops,
and this is related to hard-layer(fragipan) formation.
Assallay, A.M., Jefferson, I.F., Rogers, C.D.F., Smalley, I.J.
1998. Fragipan formation in loess soils; development of
the Bryant hydroconsolidation hypothesis. Geoderma 83,
1-16.
Smalley, I.J., Jefferson, I.F., OHara-Dhand, K., Evans,
R.D. 2006. An approach to the problem of loess deposit
formation: Some comments on the in-sity or soil-alluvial
hypothesis. Quaternary International 152/153, 120-128.
Smalley, I.J., Markovic, S.B., Svircev, Z. 2011. Loess is
[almost totally formed by] the accumulation of dust.
Quaternary International 240, 4-11.

History of loess investigation; the Lyell project

Loess was defined and described in 1824 so there has
been nearly 200 years of loess investigation. The
invention of the internet facilitated the study of loess
history. Studies at the Centre have concentrated on the
contribution made by Charles Lyell.
Smalley, I.J., Jefferson, I.F., Dijkstra,T.A., Derbyshire, E.
2001. Some major events in the development of the
scientific study of loess. Earth Science Reviews 54, 5-18.
Smalley, I.J., Markovic, S.M., OHara-Dhand, K. 2010.
Charles Lyell from 1832 to 1835: marriage, Principles, 2

trips to Heidelberg, snails and loess. Central European

Journal of Geosciences 2, 15-18.
Jovanovic, M., Gaudenyi, T., OHara-Dhand, K., Smalley,
I.J. 2013. Karl Caesar von Leonhard (1779-1862) and
the beginnings of loess research in the Rhine valley.
Quaternary International 334/5, 4-9.
Smalley, I.J., Gaudenyi, T., Jovanovic, M. 2014. Charles
Lyell and the loess deposits of the Rhine valley.
Quaternary International 372, 45-50.
Loess material & soil structure
Loess is essentially silt, and a large part of this silt is
quartz. The formation of quartz silt has been a key topic
of study.
Assallay, A.M., Rogers, C.D.F., Smalley, I.J., Jefferson, I.F.
1998. Silt: 2-62 um, 9-4 phi. Earth Science Reviews 45,
61-88.
Kumar, R., Jefferson, I.F., OHara-Dhand, K., Smalley, I.J.
2006. Controls on quartz silt formation by crystalline
defects. Naturwissenschaften 93, 185-188.
Rogers, C.D.F., Smalley, I.J. 1993. The shape of loess
particles. Naturwissenschaften 80, 461-462
Birds in loess; the bee-eater project
Observations of sand martins in loess deposits in Ukraine
led to the idea that ground nesting birds might give
insights into ground properties. This produced a series of
studies on bee-eaters, in particular in places where loess
deposits are not well defined such as Africa and Australia.
Smalley, I.J., Smalley, G.J., OHara-Dhand, K., Jary, Z.
2013. Sand martins favour loess: how the properties of
loess ground facilitate the nesting of Sand Martins/Bank
Swallows/Uferschwalben (Riparia riparia Linnaeus 1758)
Quaternary International 296, 216-219.

Smalley, I.J., OHara-Dhand, K., McLaren, S., Svircev, Z.,

Nugent, H. 2013. Loess and bee-eaters I: Ground
properties affecting the nesting of European bee-eaters
(Merops apiaster L1758) in loess deposits. Quaternary
International 296, 220-226.
McLaren, S., Svircev, Z., OHara-Dhand, K., Heneberg, P.,
Smalley, I.J. 2014. Loess and bee-eaters II: The loess
of North Africa and the nesting behaviour of the Northern
Carmine Bee-eater (Merops rubicus Gmelin 1788).
Quaternary International 334/5, 112-118.
Smalley, I.J., McLaren, S., OHara-Dhand, K., Bentley, S.P.
2015. Loess and bee-eaters III: Birds and ground in the
Punjab and the Indus region. Quaternary International
doi.10.1016/j.quaint.2014.12.056.
Smalley, I.J., McLaren, S., OHara-Dhand, K. 2015. Loess
and bee-eaters IV: Distribution of the Rainbow bird
(Merops ornatus Latham 1801) in Australia. Quaternary
International doi.10.1016/j.quaint.2015.02.017.
Loess and bee-eaters V: Long rivers, silty banks, material
from High Asia: a South-East Asian perspective.. upload
to Loess Ground blog. The Bee-eater series continues in
the Loess Ground blog (parts VI & VII available).
Glacial loess; Russia & Canada
Much loess material is produced by glacial grinding.
Material is contributed by the great continental ice-sheets,
and by the mountain glaciers. In North America and
western Russia ice-sheet loess is found- the Chinese loess
is mountain loess.
Jefferson, I.F., Evstatiev, D., Karastenev, D., Mavlyanova,
N.G., Smalley, I.J. 2003. The engineering geology of
loess and loess-like deposits: a commentary on the
Russian literature. Engineering Geology 68, 333-351.

Sweeney, S.J., Smalley, I.J. 1988. Occurrence and

geotechnical properties of loess in Canada. Engineering
Geology 25, 123-134.
Smalley, I.J., Derbyshire, E. 1990. The definition of icesheet and mountain loess. Area 22, 300-301; East Asian
Tertiary-Quaternary Newsletter no.12, 18-20.
Maps & mapping
The Centre published a variety of simple maps, usually
related to the Loess Letter operation. LLM1 was a
republication of the world map of loess distribution by
N.I.Kriger- a neglected Russian map.
Smalley, I.J., Jary, Z. 2005. Maps of worldwide loess
distribution: from Keilhack to Kriger and beyond. New
Zealand Soil News 53, 45-49.
Dust; the finer fraction
Loess might be considered coarse dust (with a mode size
of around 30m); fine aerosolic dust might have a mode
at around 3m. There is some overlap of interest; but
these should be considered as two distinct particle
populations.
Stuut, J-B., Smalley, I.J., OHara-Dhand, K. 2009. Aeolian
dust in Europe: African sources and European deposits.
Quaternary International 198, 234-245.
Evans, R.D., Jefferson, I.F., Kumar, R., OHara-Dhand, K.,
Smalley, I.J. 2004. The nature and early history of
airborne dust from North Africa: in particular the Lake
Chad basin. Journal of African Earth Sciences 39, 81-87.
Communication
The Centre has been committed to developing all aspects
of communication on loess research. The Centre carried
the responsibility of producing Loess Letter the twice

yearly newsletter of the INQUA Loess Commission. With

initial Royal Society assistance the Centre produced
numbers 18-70 of Loess Letter and oversaw its
appearance online- which was carried out by Michigan
State University.(see now at www.loessletter.msu.edu)
Afterword
Regional studies have been carried out in China, Central
Europe, Central Asia and North Africa, usually with a
geotechnical orientation. Studies on loess material have
concentrated on particle production and on the simple
idea that loess material is an important topic for study; it
is important to know more about the actual material which
composes the loess deposits; and also to understand all
the critical stages which go into the making of a loess
deposit.

Ian Smalley (ijs4@le.ac.uk)

Geography Department, Leicester University
11 February 2016
Cc INQUA Loess Focus Group
Geography Dept., Leicester Univ.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2737.8965