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Ankarloo & Clark - Witchraft and Magic in Europe The Middle Ages
Ankarloo & Clark - Witchraft and Magic in Europe The Middle Ages
l'lrt'rrrots oI
F,uropean
Vol.
Vol.
I
f
Vrl..]
Vrl. -l
Vol. 5
Wrtr lrt r.rl( ,rrrtl M.rsrt rn l:uropt': lli[rlit':rl lttcl l)aqan Societies
Wrtt ltt r',rli rrrttl Mrrgit irr lirrrol.rc: Arrcicrrt (lreece and Ilonre
Witr Irt r':rli .rrrtl Mrrgic irr lirrrol.rc: The Miclclle Ages
Witclrt'r:rtt urrd M:rgic in Etrnrpc: Thc Period of theWitchTrials
Witchcraft
rrucl
Magic
in
Er-rrc>pe:
(lerrturies
Vol. (r Witchcraft and Magic in Er-rrope: The Tkentieth Oentury
l()Nl)()N
Continuum intprint
11
Contents
Ir
rlrorluction
Iilrr.qt Ankailoo and Sntdrt Clark
l'n l(
DEFINITIONS, BELIEFS,
PRACTICES
ISI]N
485 89003 B HB
0 485 89103 4 PB
\l()r('(l il)
lr.rlrtt'r
of the Evidence
13
(.ntrtrics
23
lr.rlrtt'r.
,\
rrrr r
I'\I{ I '.
'I'ROLLDOA,IR
(,tIIt,tt itttt
I)rintctl
30
42
53
5B
IN EARLY MEDIEVAL
/.5
Irrtr,rrltrt titltt
2l
66
S(]ANI)INAVIA
Irr r.rr,,t's of
l4
20
75
'tlrc I)lst
75
It0
r-i.l
8(r
vi
Speaking Out
Fate and l)estirry
I)rosperity and Enr,1.
The Hunran Soul
10l
Sirapeshifting
103
L)()
96
97
Chapter
2:
iuld Thirteenth
sl
109
110
115
117
liiliio.qraphy
120
/r
t49
151
t52
Bibliographical Note
162
Notes
163
lleformation
rrf the
154
155
157
5: Politicat Sorcery
112
111
142
116
lTii
1100
194
207
( ll)lpter
151
Centuries
107
121
127
131
136
137
139
187
WorldView
v1l
Contents
r/r'.r
at
on the Eve
238
246
273
Introduction
Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark
'|he aim of this volunre is to demonstrate how a common European concept of n-ragic enrerged during the Middle Ages; how the classical and
(lhristian heritage frorrr the late Ror.nan empire was fusc-d with local and
rcsional creeds in the r.rrissionarv areas of central and northern Europe;
i,r,hat such a regional, non-Christian belief-systern could look like, using as
:rn exanrple the rich n.raterial fiom the magic lore of pagan Scandinavia;
lrow the Chr-rrch modified its attitude rowards magic in conract with other
trrditions, sometimes by absorbing thern, sollletintes by trying to suppress
tlrerrr; and how Church and State, centralized po\vers in a decentrahzed
llurope, in which er-npire gevc way to nation statcs and tire political nrultiplicity of late nredieval Europe, gradually sharpened their attitude to nragic
in seneral, and to sorcery and witchcraft in particular, paving the way for
the violent outbreaks of rvitch persec-utions in early rnodern Europe.
While doing all this we should nevertheless renrember that by narrowly
fircusing on magic we run the risk of overst:rting its place in nredieval consciousness, and in the source nraterial it has left behind for us to explore. In
lris essay on the place of nragic in legislation and poiitics Edward Peters
rightly points out that'superstition, rragic and witchcraft [were] not always
nratters of gre:rt concern to ar-rthorities. Even in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the laws and theoretical literature concernirrg sorcery and
r.r,itchcraft ren'rained a very srnall part of an immense literature that was
chiefly devoted to the social and spiritual life of Christian Europeans.'
Another caveat is called for as r.l,ell. The rerrn Middle Ages Qnedium
rtt'uum) canre into use in the seventeenth century to designate an enlptiucss, the long parenthcsis frorn the fall of theWestern Enrpire to the revival
classical culture in the l\enaissance. To this ernptiness, this perceived
.rbsence of artistic refinenrent, werL. L'ventually added other deficiencies
,rf
asainst too easv generalizations about n'redieval rnentalities and ideas i1 the
of such a cornplex ancl ntr-rltiflrrior-rs history as that of rlagic ancl
witchcraft frorn St Augustine to rhe xt[alleus Maleficaruru.ln the words of
face
rrr llrt'ir vir'rv u,.rs;rssocirrtcrl rvitlr errrly n1alr as he childishly tried to niake
\('n\( ()l tlrt tl.rrrqr'r's:rrrtl r'xigt.ncics around hint. Lr so far as nragic is still
l.rrrrtl rrr nr()r(' .r(l\'.rr( t'tl sot'it'tir's, it is, thercfore, according to this vicw, to
l',' r,'t',,rt,lt',1,r\.rtr.rt.r\"rsrrr. tlrc l:rst rcll)nllrts of a superannuated mentalitl,.
I lr, , r rlr( r\rrt ol tltt' positir,'ist tlcvcloprrrerrtll paradigrn has resr-rltecl in a
l('n(l('n( \, itr lt't t'rrt st'lr6l:trslrip t6 jispensc altitgether u,ith the ternr
"ltotlr,
'lll,lt',1( ,ts ,ttt .tlrsolrt(t' st it'rrtilic (:ltcg()ry. It is rio longer regarded
as a r-rseful
I..l rrr tlt'sr r.rtrirrq t t'r-trrirr lrclrcfi rrrrd prectices in the past. But the concept
r(s<'ll lr,rs.r lrist.rv. lt lrls lrccn usctl in thc past in a polenrical anc] deroeal()r\' \vily to ctttpltusizc ccrtnirr rlspects of those beliefs that rvere consiclerc-d
to lrt'otrrsidc thc rrcceptecl w,ay of thinking abor-rt the rvoricl.The history of
rnrrr-lic has, thcrefbre, increasingly beconre conceptr-ral history (,r.
llL'.qrillsptsdiclttc to use the terrn coined by the the Gernran historrar.r
l{cinhard Koselleck, rvho defined the gcnre).The purposc is no longcr to
give an account of lvhat rnagic was, br-rt of'r.vhat it -uvas perceived to be at
any eiven tirne.
Introdrrction
xi
In both cases truth finds its identiry with reference ro its perversion, i.c.
to the untrue. There were ditTerent ways of handling this dichotorty, the
extreme alternatives being inclusion and violent rejection. Missionary
Christendorn transformed and incorporated bits and pieces of pagan iore
ar-rd practices; and medieval magic used elenrents from the Christian Mass.
This syrnbiosis of opposing but closely related doctrines gives rise to ambiguities and doubts. The borderland between orthodox and heretical positions is sometiures so narrow that it takes a real expert, a demonologist
inquisitor like Bernhard Gui for exanrple, to tell which side anyone rs on.
But the representation of this opposition between true religion and false
nragic is altogether the work of a learned elite of church nren and universiry
scholars,'the cierical elite whose literate voices dominate the surviving evi.lcnce'. It is doubtfirl rvhethcr this durlisnr pitting saint ageinst rrrlgician
sives a true picture of popular attitudes and practices. Furthermore, this
learned and clearly visible opposition between magic and religion is blurred
by the revival in the twelfth century of the classical concept of natural magic
rs a particular cognitive skill, the ability of philosophers to rnanipulate the
natural world to create effects that appeared as miracles to ordinary people.
This 'white'magic eventually gained a certain position by being entertair-red both at the new universities and at the royal and noble courts. A
doctrinal precondition for this was the emerging distinction between the
strpernatural and the occult, between the divine, and by extension saintly,
rcalnr of true r-r'riracles and the immanent secrets still to be found and used
xil
orglnizcd royal judiciaries throughout their territories. Magic became ultinrrrtcly both a spiritual and physical crinre, especially, of course, in its
tlcrrrorrized forr.r'rs of sorcery and witchcraft.
'l'hc account of medieval rnagic given in this volunre is indeed a complt'x onc. It is certainly not the grand and simple story of a journey from
,l:rrkrrcss towarcls light, but a survey of multiple tendencies, of contrasts and
oppositiorrs bctwccn learned and folk traditions, between a
. lrrssi.'ll--(llrristirrr treclition and di{ferent substrata of Celtic, Cermanic and
Slrrr,'ic 'p:rg:rrrisrrrs'.'lhese shifting paradignrs of n'ragic are developed in a
rrrrrltiplit'ity ol- sorrrr'es-sernrons, laws, learned treatises, and, towards the
t'ntl ol tlrt'pr'r'iotl, cvcn in court records produced by the inquisition and
(ltt' st't ttlltt' (-()ults.
It',rvirrs,rsirlc (lrc rrotiorr of-prclgress there is still the problerr-r of devel()l)nr('n(.rl strrgt's :rrrtl lristoric;rl periodization. Are there tiures of crucial
(r'rrrrslor-rrrrrtiorrs? ls tlrc tirrrirrq of- these transformations the sanle over the
wlrolt' lirrrrrpc;rrr rrrc;r?'l'lrcsc r'orrrplexities notwithstanding it is possible to
rlist'r'rrr Ilrc rrruin r'lrrrrrt'tcristic's ol clifferent periods within the medieval
rrrillcrrrriurrr. -)olly rccogrrizcs tlrrce: first, the early missionary campaign
witlr lccultr.rmtiorr, iln rcc()l)ulr(:ldrrtion betlveen Chistian and pagan farth,
as its pervacling strrrtcgli then the twelfth century renaissance, when
scholasticisnr uncler thc infltrurcc of cl:rssic:rl, Arabic and Jewish thinking,
reflecting on the nature of knou,ledge, cleveloped a nlore complex model
of nragic including the natural or 'white' varietyi and finally the cultural
dislocation associated with the denrographic and econonric crisis of the
mid-fourteenth century, wl-ren magic was gradually being interpreted as a
coherent and organized demonic cult, pointing the way to the early modern consciousness with its'heightened discourse over r,vitchcraft and the
increase in accusatior.rs of witchcraft and heresy'.
This tirnetable is, of course, valicl only for ',vest-central Europe. In the
trans-Elbian and Baltic north the impact of Christian acculturation wes
first felt in the high Middle Aees. The case of the Scandianvian north is
particularly interesting as an exanrple of this later incorporation into the
European nrainstrearn. At least in the eleventh and probably long into the
twelfth centLlry, pagan and Clhristian culture lived side by side in the north.
The literate Christian elite was. therefore. as in the case of Sr.rorri
Sturluson, closely farniliar rvith the heritage of the olcler pagan culture
with its cosrnological and heroic poerns and the i'aruily sagls produced for
and centred around the chieftain clans, the ruling strata o1 Viking socicty.
This happy overlappir-re of pagan rrncl nrissionrrry Christiarr culturc has lelt
behind a rich source nraterirrl ftrr thc stucly oIrr rrrlgrc tmr]itiorrnvhiclr was
still unafhctccl by chssii:ul lrrrl (lhristiln irrHrrt'rrt't's, rrrrd wlrich, possibly,
corrld tcll us s()nlctl)ir)g:t[rorrt tlrt'rrngic plcvrrilirrg irr tlre (;('nlriulir'.ll'c.ls
olccrrtr,rl IirrroPr'Irctirrc tlrt'v lvt'n'( ]lrr-rsti.rrrizt'rl. It rrrir.r,lrt Irt' n'u,rrrtlirrg t<r
Introduclion
, r,nrl):lrc the r,vorld of magic in the scattered legal and ecclesiasticai sources
,,1 rlrt' carly Middle Ages with the trolld(imr of pagan Scandinavia, where
',r,ilr'( ('s are abundant. In fact, the list of knowr] practices in the early
,,,ntirrcntll Germanic law codes is long. The practices and beliefs con,l, rrrrrt'tl there include a large number of charn'rs, and the practices of ritual
l'l, rsrrrg arld cursing, healing, divining, lot casting, fortune telling, stornr
ru\rlg, herb lore, and the use of anrulets and talisrnans. But Catharina
lr rrrtlvcre in her essay on the Old Norse trolldtimr concept is carefui to
xlv
t('nti()l) to all those tendencies and sensibilities that did not survive, that
[)('l'isl I c(l rrncler the inrpact of reckless acculturation perpetrated by colorrizr'rs ot' vurit'rus creeds and persuasions: conquistadors, explorers, mission-
irt
sc lr
r> I
lrrs.
PAIIT
|,
u,, t t-.
llrrrs, vanous authors, both nredieval and rnoclern, Llse the constrllct
rll Mlrgic
o1' krrorvirrg firr t'r:rrrrPle , rcvclrlcd, reliicrrtillt l.:rrou'lt'rli1t','l'lrrrs r,u'lr1t Iroltls tlrc
[rr':rt tir't.s (oq1'111,., r]t.lrr.rrtl* rrIon tlrc tlrt'or-t'ti.-
ol t'rr'ltrtlt'tl, rl.rrqir',rl
,,rl li.rrtrt'rvorl. ol llrt'l)( r'\()ns
r,,totlP
st
t'rrrPlol'1111.,,
ovcr
u:rr-Iir'.
111lryt't
Pydctict:s
,,lrtiorrs of rnagic, each giving a 1t1ere taste of ectual practices and beliefs
(lr.rt .rr'(' no longer available to us directly.
CHAPTER
Definitions of Magic
'l'lrc (ircck prule(ct ancl Latin magia contain within them the seeds of the
lr:rrrrrlisrrr firr rrr:rsic :rs cieveloped in succeedins ages, primarily the sense of
'otlrcrrrcss' (t-trck 191t5: 3-9, 25-16, Mathiesen 1995:757:Tavenner 1966:
I li). Mluic is rrrost olten a label used to identify ideas or persons rvho faIl
orrtsiclc tlre rrornrs of society anci are thereby r-narked as special or nonrrorrrr;rtive, eithcr for the purpose of exclusion or to heighten a sense of
nrvsterious power inherer-rt in their status. This alien quality of nragic
rrppcirrs rlso in the Clhristian tradition.The three Magi at Christ's birth are
ccltrcatecl l)ersi:rrrs, foreigners in the l\on-ran u,orld, who enter the story as
keepers of the arcane knowledge of astrononry/astrologv, creatinq a tension
magi as both sorcerer and rvisenrcn
(Jacobus cleVoragine I-1, 1993: 1:7t)). Christian resistance to the krnd of
lvith heathenism
Irr
essence,
.rr(' constantly adapted to changing circunrstances, inciudins the ecclesiasti, ,rl lnd intellectual winds of change. In tr-rrn, the intellectual changes in the
rrr.ruic-religion paradier.n, evolving out of new assulr)ptions about knor.vl,,lqe and nature, tl'ren seek to recategorizc cristing pr.rctices tos-ards one
, ntl of the spectrunr or the other.Thr,rs, the degree to rvhich Er.rropean folk
Ir'rttcclies adapted to a Clhristian worlci viclv creates a colttestccl zone in the
,lr;rrrging clefin'itions of ntagic over thL- corrrirrg ccntur-ies.
Iodcls
Witdrrali trntl
Ma.qic
Mc
in Europc:Tlte MiddleA,qes
Recause
cleeply
rrs rrrctiir'vll
,r'
it'rrtilir', itt.tltott.tl
ot
trtt, tviltzr.'tl.
:ts
cu al
Nlqg
ic
: D c fi n i t i o r s, Bc
r
Ii
fs, Pra
ct i
tt's
Middle Ages.
Modernity l-ras two nrain attitudes to$.arcls the rrredieval past tirat have
,rrr inrpact on the str-rcly of masic, one erlrphasizing continuitv rvith the
Midclle Ages b1, identilying nrodern roots in the period, the other ernphasizinq discontinurty with the past Lry highlighting the otherness of the
Middle Ages (Freedrrian and Spiegel 1998). In the r:ontinuity vier.v, r,r,ith its
( ()ncrern lor establishing the roots of rnodernity in the nredieval past, ntlgic
lr.rs either been nrarginalized as peripheral to progress or as an earl1,, ancl
lre nce disposable, stage of prouress in rationalitv. In particular, the cournron
trrrciition of magic beconres in this vier.v a renrnant or leltover of supcrstitroLrs thinkins superceded by nrore in.rportant intellectr:al developnrents.
With the rise of social;rnd cultural history ancl tire studv of rtrentalities,the
,,tltcrttc:s' vierv oi rrrerliev;rl culture l)ls .',,nrc nrto grelter pr()r)lir)e r)c(..
, rrrphasizine its dissonance rvith ltlodernity bl,brineing into the centre of
tlrt' stage elerucnts of popular cllltlrre such as nragic and other fornrs of
,lrssiclence in the Middle Ages, evident in tire rvork of Enrlnanuel Le l{oi
I .rtltrrie, Carlo Ginzbltrg, and Michel Foucault (Muir and Ruggiero 199'l ;
llrrrrt 'l 9tt9). In this vieu,', rnagic as r,vell as religious lllvsticisur and other
,lrstinctively tron-nroclern phenorrrcna beconre alternativc rationaiities
lr()nl u world now lclst to us, the path not taken by the rise i>f scientific
r,rt ionalisrn (Murray 1978 104).
I he implications of these ditli:ring viervs on the relation betrveen
nr,rtler-nirv and the nrec-lic-val can be tracecl in twentieth-century historiogr.r1rl1y ef pxsic, fi'ont the evolutionary model of r.nagic-religiou sciencc irr
rrrtlrropology to the post-lnodern dcconstruction of that urodei.
l he evolutionary nrodel of progress itr rationality lronr r.nagic through
r,lrqion to science enrerged in iate nirleteerlth and earlv twentieth-centurv
rrrtlrrcpoiogical str:dies (Tylor ltl89; Frazer 1911; Malinor,vski l9,11t). In
1,.ut, this maeic-religiorr-science r-icrv is a product of early nroclern
I ur()peall intellectual historl,end the constrllction of a prouressive rationrlrtv fl-ottr tl-re l{enaissance ancl llelbrmation through the Enlightennrcnt
r,' 111.' Scientific l\evoh.rtion, and influenced in the nrodern period by
l,,, rrtlo-l)arwinian notions of social evolution. Ilut the vierv of nuqic as
l,r rnritivc thought'is llso tlre procir-rct of Etrropean contact rvith othcr cu1trrr's tlrttrLtgh colonizatiort rtrtcl (lhristiarr nrissions.Tlre ccllonial and nris.rr rrr ctlirlts t() lssess tlcvckrpnrcntrrl phascs irr hunr:rrr societics basccl on a
I ur()l)('.ln rrrode l lcd tlrcrrr to cutcgorizc non-rrrbrrn. rrorr-litcmte socictics
,, , lriltlr-crr', or'prirrritivu', t() sc(' rlrcir rrorr-( llrristirtrr [rclicti rtnd pr'.rcticcs
,', nr,rgir', rrol rt'liqion. rrrrtl to rrssor'irrtt' tlrt'ir lifi'style ivitlr 'l)lrk Aqe '
I tu,rPt'. Wlrilc t':rrlv .ttttlttrrIologis(s n' jt'r'tt'tl tlrt' Politit rrl rrrrtl n'ligiotrs cle trrcttl\ ol tltt'sr't'.tt'l\'('n(()unl('r's ttt.rtt t'llirrI lo t'sl,rlrllslr,t rrt'trtr';tl,rllrjt'r'tivt'
10
M e di eyal Ma{
vicw oi huuran societies, they clid not escape the prclgressive developmental bi:rs inrplicit in the nragic-religiou-scietrce model thev produced.
Fr.rrther, this iclentification of sonre llon-western cttltures with pre-modern
Etrropc also reversed itself, as n'redieval Europe becalne the site of the
'prirtritive' in the European past and therefore subject to arlthropological
L:
: D e.fi ni
ti
on
s, Bc I i e-li, Prd
cti
ce s
1'l
rrrrsystenratic and its clecline under the pressure of ruore coherent religious
scientific rationalities, linking the decreasc'ir-r clerical claims to superrr.rtural power with a decreasc-'ir-r ruagical arts. Flint'.s equally erudite and
,rrrcl
,lctrriled stucly
sttr cly'.
,lt'f
It was in the context of this dortrinant paradigm of rllagic-religron-scicncc rhrt Lynn Thorndike wrote 'I-he Place of l[agic in the ln.ttllectual History
ol l:uropc (1905) and produc-ed his rnagisterial niultivolume -Fli-sfory ttf Magic
arrt! l:xpt,rinrcrrtal Sdencc (.11)23). Thornclike prcsetlts rllagic prinrarily as a
it is hard to escape the pervasive influetrce o{'this trt.tivcrsaiizing paradigtn evetr iu lllorc recellt attellrpts to alter it. The rvtlrk of
Keith'Ihonras, Rc/iqiorr tiltd tltc l)rclinc ttf l,Lo.qic (1971), anc'lValerie Flint,
'1-lrc Ri-sc of' L,la,qit in I:arly Mt'dicuttl Itrntpc (1991), significantly rrrotlifies the
relati6nslrip bet'nvccrr rrragic, religion rnd scicttcc in [itrrttpcltr lristory by
sullgcstilrg r'risc lrr(l f:rll'prrr:rdiurrt.-l-ltotttls'.s book is rt ttt:tstt'r.lirl sttrtly tll'
tlrc c;rrlv ttt,ltlt'rtt t'volrttiolt tlf-tltt' ('()ll(('pt ot'tttltgit 'ts itttoltt'rt'ttt :ttltl
12
thcir irrherent
cornnronalities.
II
l.
deep
CHA]'TER
llrr ( ilr('rg('r)t t' ol tlrt' l(r'tt,riss.u)( (' ,,,//(/r\. ll, tlrt.rr. rrr.rriir. ,rs ,l (-()r)stl.p(.t
rr',,.,'tltilitrrl tl)(.Ml(l(llt'Argr.s. tl rlot.r \() lt lltr.torrlt,rt ol stlr.rrtrlrt.
14
dcvclopurent and reaches its peak at the brink of the early modern period,
in a 'uvay sin-rilar, and parallel, to the heightened discourse over rvitchcraft
Irr this first phase, the late antique synthesis of biblical arrd classical conwith Celtic, Germanic, Scandinavian and Slavic
pcoples t}rrough conversion. The Ceitic inhabitants of the llritish Isles
converted in the fifth century and produced an influential bilingual writtcn (lhristian culture; chartns and other formulas appear in the later texts
of the invading Anglo-Saxons, and Irish penitential literature, inch-rding
prohibitions against nragic, spread to the continent.Various Goths, Franks,
Angles, Saxons and other Gertnanic Jroups gradually converted to Roman
Christianiry sometimes lrom Arianisltt, over the course of the fifth and
sixth centuries, producing the bulk of the synthesized RonranClhrrstian-Gerrnanic literature in England, France, Clermany, Iberia and
Italy (Behringer, Muchernbled, Sharpe, and Bethencourt in Muchembled
1994 65-7 , 10()-2, 133-4, 159-61). The later Scandinavian conversions, in
Sweden, l)enrnark, Norr'va1', and Iceland, left a larger body of evidence of
pre-C)hristian practice enrbedded in the written traditions of the Christian
era - rllnes, sagas of the gods and heroes, chartns and an.rulets (Attkarloo in
Muchernbled 1994 195-7 }\audvere in this volurne). ln eastern Er-rrope,
Slavic groups in Poland and lJohernia and the invading Magryars in
Hr.rngary converted to llornan Christianity in the ninth and tenth centuries, r,r.hile the Scanclinavian-Slavic kingdom of Rus under Prince
Vladimir chose Eastern Orthodorry (Klaniczay in Muchenrbled 199'l:
215-1 8). Even iater, in the thirteenth centtlry, the conversion of pagan
Baltrc peoples like the Lithuanians introdr.rced new elernents, or hitherto
lost cor-nponetits, of pre-Christian practice that survive better in the rnore
highly literate cnvironment of the high Middle Ages. In rnost of these
cases, the converting rulers purposely aligned thernselves with an international church body, either thc Ronran or the Byzantine, that then entered
the region as an authority figure r,vith pernrission to introduce their own
ideas ir-rto the indigenous culture, creatins a tensicln between local/pagan
and outsider,/Cll'rristian in the ot'tgoir.rg process of cotrversion alld necotiation.
Oouserlrrcntlv, trvo kirrrls of clrly rrrctlicv:rl cvidcnce srtrvivc fiortt thesc
convcrsiorr syrrtlrcscs ot' ll.onrrrrr ( llrlistiurr :rrrtl irrdigcrr()tls pr:lcti('es, fl-ortt
r,vlrit'lr tlrr"' lrt'girrninq\ ()l .r ( ()nulr()n tllrtlitiott ol- ttt:tgit irr littropc
cepts of rrraqic intersected
Practices
15
;,r, Ohristian religions ancl nragic.The essential divide for these Church
\\ rt('l's is bet.nveen Christian/religion/divine miracle and pagan/rnagic/
,l( nr()r)ic illusion. For exarnple, in Bedei account of the rnission to
I
rrr,,l,rncl,
16
l9<)1:87 9). Earl1, nredieval Clhristian historiar.rs likc Grceory ofTor.rrs and
lJcclc trsccl the 1abel nragic :is a r,vay of condenrnins paganisrn as false by
icL:ntifyinu it rvith magic :rs r pcJor.ltivc concept.
Whel we turn to the 'positive' eviclence of Clhristianized practices that
rrriuht ll.rpear niagical to soll1e, the problerrr of this binary thinking is cxecerbrrtccl by rncldern scholars, lvho reacl into the early rnedieval rejection of
rnugic as 'not religion' a rnodern rejection of rnagic as 'not science'.
l)r'rrctices found in the second type of-sources (hagiography, liturgical rned-
41
-2,
63-,+)
An
Practiccs
17
Iu
Thor'.s l)ay), dressinll as a calf or stag on thc Kalertcls ofJanuary or beginnirrq r,velving that day for luck, wonlen rut.tning water under a dead n-ran''s
bier, or anointir-rg a dead ntan's lvotlnds to heal them in the next life. One
curior-rs practicc indicating anitnistic belief in nature spirits is that of puttirrs chilcl-sized bo'nvs arrd arror'vs arrd shoes in the barr.r for satyrs and goblins tt> play with, in order to bribe thetn to incrcase one's store, with the
sugsestion that they rvoulci do so by stealing fror.n one'.s neighbours. Other
strperstitions include behef in sllpernatural beings, such as werewolves,
rlllrorous forest nynrphs, and the three Fates, sisters for whorn wonlen set
e xtni places at the table. A disturbing nuttrber of Burcharclt iterns concern
rittrals perfornred by wollren in death rituals and love nragic, as well as
bclicf in wolltcn being:rble to ride with cletlons at ltight with the Ronran
l)ilna or the (lennanic witch Hulcla. I)riving a stake through an unbaptizccl infint or a ntother ancl infant dead irr childbirth to prevent harrnful
revcllauts is condenrned, as is burying a baptized child rvith a rvax host in
the left hancl and a 'uvax chalice in the other. The nrost ctlrious ritual he
clescribes, for getting rid of alt ttn\\rallted husband, involves the wotlran
stripping naked and coated .,r,ith horiey, rolline in grain, and then nl:rking a
deadiy bread fror.n the flour, rnilled backrvards.These penitentials and laws
are intent otr condeiruting belief itt these practices as nluch as tl-re actual
practitioners. ln some cases, thc laws go so far as to condenln accusrrtiotrs
against rtragiciar-rs as clenronstrably false. For exanrple, Burchard condenrns
belief in wo11len dedicated to Saten being able to go otlt of the body, slay
baptized people and cook ancl eat their flesh, leaving straw or r'vood in
place of their hearts. Nor, according tc-r ]Jurcharcl, c:111 wolnen actually
harnt people bv cr-rtting turf fronr their footprirtts and tlsing it in magical
rituals, although, ironically, there are instances of Christian saints whose
holy footprints procluce miracles.
Thus rnuch of this criticlue in early nreclieval Christian literaturc identifiecl nt:tgic practices with paganisnr attcl assertecl that they are dernonic
ilh-rsions. This created a battlegrotrnd, then, bettveen the clelusory, evil,
denronic, pagan ntaeic ancl the very real, sood. Christian religion and its
rrriracles. For exltnple, in Gregory the Great's Ltfr'rll-St l3urcdkt, the saint
sees tlrrough the clcrtronic illtrsion of a kitchert fire that befuddles his
rrrorrks, a firc causecl by a heathen iclol br.rricd utlderneath (Dialogucs lI,
1959:75-6). M:rcarius likcu'ise has the s:rir.rtlv ability to pcrceive truly the
fbrnr of a girl believecl by everyone else to have beetl turned by rrr.rgic irrttl
a horse; ntaking the sign of the cross renloves tl-re deitrsiorl (.Alfric 19(r(r: I:
47()*1). C)onsecluentlv. the con.rrrron Christiarr view of '"vitches encl rrtagicians as esL-nts oIthe clevil is th:rt thcy do hrtrnr prirrtrtr-ily throtrglt clcccp-
Me
eudl
M agic : D efin
itio n
ce s
19
I lrt' sclflconsc--iousness with which early medieval Christian writers distr,,,,,rrrslrcd between magic and religion is instructive. One clear result of
20
Pyactices
21
rlr,'high Middle Ages, creating a gap berween itself and the comrnon
tr.r,litions.
r.r.redieval
socir--ty,
22
condemnations of magic as
groups as diabolical
minoriry
heresy and the popular outbursts attacking
and thirteenth
the
twelfth
in
magicians, the cornmon tradition of magic
in the danBoth
belief
religion.
centuries becomes inseparable from popular
for
potential
the
and
gers of diabolical magic in one'.s neighbourhood
of
the
landscape
mental
part
of
the
i..orrr. to Christian antidotes are
rnedieval populace, both urban and rurai.What increases the tension, though,
over these practices and beliefi, is the increasing lega1 and theological distinctions that marginalize or demonize popular practices as heresy or as ignorant
superstition. Sorr.re practices accepted for centuries now coluc under censr1re, as various folk remedies, herbal preparations and rituals nrildly condemned as ignorant superstition are now identified with denronic heresy. It
is also possible, though, that attention paid to popular practices by church
authorities concerned with heresy actually increased popular belief in diabolical practices. This phenomenon is particularly evident ir-r the way that
many of the popr-riar stories mirror not so rnrrch earlier ancient, preChristian rituals but appear to be perversions of Christian doctrine and ritual generated in these centLtries by a predorrrinantly Christian society
increasingly obsessed with establishing and maintaining that identity. For
exarlple, the accusation of misuse of the Eucharistic host in Satanic rituals or
in popular practice parallels the increased er-r-rphasis on the power of the Mass
by the Church and in popuiar devotion evident in Eucharistic miracles.
Within the courtly environment, a distinctive set of traditions about
magic evolved, connected to the earlier popular trends but altered by the
dynarnics of court life. On the negative side are accusatiolls of rnagic and
witchcraft nrade against persons in power, against a backdrop of court
intrigue that purportedly includes astrologers and sorcerers among court
advisors, as well as the ubiquitous love lnagic. Astrologers and diviners in
particular became comnlon in the collrts of tweifth-century rlllers
(Kieckhefbr 1990:97).In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, however,
accusations of magic renained localized and conlparatively innocuotts,
compared to the development of an international inquisitorial process in
later periods. On the positive side, fascination with l1lagic is evident irr
courtly literature and entertainment. The ronlances of Alexar-rder tlrc
Great, Virgil and the Arthurian lltaterial, fanciful as they are, do reflcct
courtly interest in the power of objects sttch lls gelllst()lles, the potential f<rr
trickeiy ancl intrigue lbr.rrrrl irr illusory rtugir', rtrrcl rhc syrrrbolic: value of'
prophctic ;rrrrl visiorr;trv e x[rr'rit'n. t', surlgt'rtittg tltt' t'tttotivt' rtrrtl syrrrllolic
})()wcr ol'tlrt' ot t'ttlt.
Practiccs
23
When the literary and courtly evidence is correlated with the legal con,L'rrrnations, inteliectual distinctions, and popular practices, magic enrerges
r', ,rn ever nrore complex construct. It remains thoroughly occult, in both
rlr('scnse of illicit, potentially heretical activities and in the sense of tapping
lrr,lrlcn power to change the human condition,whether as a corlrmon per-
|n
or a courtier
',,
r,,l11'.1 ptzzle.
rrrrrl', ol rts pcrst't utors, [rtrt .rrr org;rrrizctl rlt'rrrorrir' st't't <tf'sorccry, witch, r rll, .rrrtl n('( r()nliln( y plosc't utt'rl llrlouglrorrt lrtrnlpt' :rs lrorlt herctical
rrrrl r rnurt.rl. M.rgit .l( (.us,ttr()r)s ntovt'tl oul ol lo..rl ,rll,rrr-s ()l)t() ll lilrqcr
24
in Europc:'l-he Middle
Agcs
stage and were punished more severely - not as ignorant stlperstition, but
as evidence of rner.nbership in a diabolical conspiracy rvorthv of the death
of Bernard Clui to
the
Malleus Malcficarum.
In both the positive and negative sources, nragic in the late Midclle Ages
became ntore real than illusory; the realiry of ritual pacts r.vitl.r the l)evil
and the like becarne a donrinant lbature of late medieval and early tnoclern
obsessions r,vith r,vitchcraft. In the'clerical underworld'of necronrancy. rituals coercing angels, saints, ancl demons llranted occult knowledge and
power to those who possessed the ulanuscript or nlastered its texts
(Kieckhefer, 1990:151-75). In the Munich Handbook, a fiftcenth century
necrorrantic ntanual, the reader learns of techniqLles and fornrulas to prodr.rce illusior1s, in sonte cases akin to rather elaborate partv jokes, to colllnla1td spirits through conjurations, and how to clivine hidden knowledge,
including the future (Kieckhefer, 1997).The reality of this kind of nraqic is
rooted in a set of assumptions about the power of words and texts and the
existence of invisible spiritual powers and virtues which the nrasician can
cornnrand.
Although late fbr-rrteenth cet-rtury condernnatiolls continLled to etnphasize the worthlessness of r-nagical practices rvhile linkin5l thenl to heresy, in
the filteenth centllry legislation against rlagic confirtns its reality rather
than denouncing it as illusory. In a 13U5 lllanual tor priests, copying lroln a
long traditic)I1 of such lltanuals, the priest rs told to warn his parishior-rers
not to practice incantations and sorcery since these arts arLr wortilless aS
cures and unlawful (Shinners, 191)7: 19). Hor,vever, a gelreration later,
Bernard of Siena's popular 1427 serrnon condettrning divination and
charms as heretical worship of the devil strikes a clifferent note (Shinners,
191)7:212_5). He asserts that those who clairn to have the por'ver to break
a charnr are obviously the kind of people who know how' ttl nlake one,
lurnping together maleficent ancl beneficent practitioners.'There is nothing better to do,' he trutnpets, than to cry out'Tb the fire' r,vith them, condemning thenr as heretics. Those who knorv of such practitioners and do
not accuse thenr are equally guilty of the crime, resLtlting in a lnultitude o[
accused, primarily wontel1, whose coufessions of horrible activities werc
accepted as proven when natnes of victims were verified. Accusations ol
witches kiiling chiidren for their blood, nraking sacrifices to the clevil, or
concocting unguents to nlake thernselves appear as animal illusioris led ttl
the stake. Bernardls call to accuse'everv witch, every rvizard, every sorcerer
or sorceress, or worker of ch:rrtt.ts and spells' :ls lln act of laith appeals to
both his aucliencc's charity, indttcing syll)pathy fi>r the heplcss victints tlf'
sorcery in their c()tt)ltrtlr)ity, rttttl ttt thcir picty', by :rct'trsirrg tllosc rvhosc
spclls tlcrry (iotl.'l'lris ir('('cl)t:ll)('c of-gtrilt rrrtr.l,'.rttst't1ttt'rrtly ol'tlre rc:rlity ot'
sstlr rrr:rqir-:rl po'uvcrs is tlLritc tlilii'rtrrt lirrtrl llr,'t'.rrlt'tttt',1t,'r'.tl rv.tt'ltittgs
Practices
25
,rsainst belief in the reality of such false accr-rsations rnade against persons
rrrspected of sr-rccessfullv performing such magic.A corner has been turned
Ircre, sonrewhere around 1400: the illusory nature of demonic nragic is no
Ionser a possibie defence.
At the salr1e time, late medievai r"nagic and nragicians were irredeernably
( llrristian in mentality, even if their practices were perversions of Clhristian
26
in
magic and its potential to both enlpower and to disrupt Christian societyl
Anyone can now perforrn rnagic, lvith a littie traininll or access to a text,
CHAPTER
Alicr sifting tl.rrough the ,rodern layers of interpretation and medieval parthlt c.rnstruct rrr:rgic JS a catcgory. wc co,rc ro rhe rctull prr.ii..,
1.1111{ i11 r'nedical retitedies r-rsing hcrbs, scones. aninial
parts, incarptations
'rrrtl ritual actions, in protective anruiets and talisnrans, in divinatorv tech.r(lr..s, and in nranuals of sorcery and necromancy. whetl-rer all of these
l,r,r('ticcs belong in a singie category calleci magic is cluestionable (Murray
l't')2). fhe nature of popular pracrice is such that ir.io.r r-rut articulate its
,rrr,icrlf ing premises.Any shared asslllllptions rnust be derived either
from
, .rtt'gories created by medieval elites seekine
to define these practices in
,.rilc wr) or those creatcd by rnodern conl,,lentators extractirrg fiom the
,(,ur-('(js solDc unstated internal logic irovernine nragic
practices. As is evi*
,l, rrt Fronr the survey in Part II, the first path of looking at
literate elite
lr(.rtnrcrlts of rnagic is problenratic because these views &arrged radically
, ,r.r' [he course of the Middle
Ages, moving fronr a 1oose list oipractices i,
rlr, c:rr1y and high nredieval to a harde,ed vier,v of magic
the late
N'l r(l(lle Ages. Medieval labels such as sorcery,
witchciaft "r..,liin
:rncl ilcaltations
"r,lv qradually ca*re to be defined in clear ways, beginning as a series of
"r, rl,rppi,e desig.ario,s r-rsed ar different cinres in diir.re,,ri*"ys, ofte. in
rlr( ('(),text of rhetorical or legal condemnatio's of snch practrces.
l'r.rt tir'cs condenrned in the penitentiais find their comrnonality
in their
r"',,rr ntion rvith each othe-r throuqh conrnron thernes
of the dernonic and
tlr, rrrrrr:rtural,,rore than by specific definins feat.res. Usi,g these sources
r', r. \\1:ry o-i defi.ing p.pular pracices is best ai,oided, sinc"e they tend
to
r, ,r,l lrrtcr-definitions backrvard, as noted belor,v in Edward peters,essay.The
'r r.r)tl peth, lookinq for conlrron elenrents that define rnagical practices,
r' tlrt'r.t'firre tltot'e protrrisirts, even if it is difflcult to classifyfhese practices
.r,liqrrrs
ll rl( )
llris tlrirtl scctior) thcrctorc rrrlkcs certain choices regrrrdi,g wl.rat con(rrill('s tl)e c()Irn()ll:rrrd r'ourtly trrrditions of nra5lic
rnJhu*io subdivide
t1t"1 1.1[1'q1lrics. lror tltc lrtrrposcs ot-tlris essliy, rrmuic c:onsists of practiccs
l"rrrrtl u'itltilr tttc'tlic'v;rl sor'icty llr.rt.rrt'irr sorrrc tlslriorr t'llssifl,-'cl as rri.rgic
,,r ,,lr.rlt. t'lr:rlrrt'tt.r'rstit.s :rssot.i:rtt'tl rvitlr rrr,rLlir. rrs tlcfirrctl by orre of tl-re
,l,,rtrttt,ttt( rrr<'tlit'vrrl
Ir.ll,rtlir]rrrs t.rIl1;11.,1,,,t1,,.1r,.,."i,,,,r r,...ti,',,,.-ilhi,.l fir.,,:;
Me dicual Magic :
28
reveal
ces
29
30
""i
Stonesandanir.rraiparts,aswellassinrilarwordsandritualstoenlpower
irlvisii..t. "U:..rs.Whi1e both use verbal and writlen formulas to countcr
ibleattacks,healingritualspro<lucemediciriestakeneitlrerinternallyas
to cure' rvhereas protectlve pracporior], or applied Ixtetnally as unguents
"u!i.
th" Same tools to rrrake atrrulets and
tices to ward off clisease ,,]d h",,-,.
with occult knowledge
talismans. Likewise, clivinatory prectices overlap
however' is nrore
.-.q.,i..a through sorcery or necromancy' I)ivination'
tneans for
;i;.ly ailied #th n"riiig and. protection in that it provides
cycles' the
lr'rnar
in the nan'ra1-world' whether
reading signs as ,r.rniffi
on the
based
is
or rhe ent;ils of an animal. Some clivination
..y
to the
simil:rr
knowledge of the skilled practitioner' a seer or srbyl'
;::J"rati.ir,
SuCh
efreCtS,
to produce particLllar
Sorcerer whose o...,]t'k,,o*ledge is used
ends
similar
Necrornancy achieves
as theft detection, curses or lov! magic'
croSSeS
through calling up spirits such as cletnons or angels..Entertairrment,
courtly
for
perforuri,g
over these ..,.gori.r,-b.J i" ter,rs of magicians
AstrologersJ sorcerers
nragicians.
of
stories
telling
audiences and iiteratrr.e
to astound or illusions to
and necronrancers at court *i-ght p.odrce tricks
rnagical practices
a.."*" willing audiences Liierary accounts of these also
contribute to
.J.., popular"and courtly perceptions of r-nagic anddangerous'
notions oinragic as mystcrious, illusory' porverftrl and
tltt.ttl.ltttlllt'ttt...r.'.1tttr.t'tltltt'tl\('()|l.ittl.ll.|(.tl()|)'.lt.t.ivt'.llirlltt.tttt.it'ttt
(,irristi:rrr littrrgy. lrr (,lrrlstl.lll l)t,tt(ttt" ().tl rvrrs tltt'
1r'rt.tit.r. .r li.rrr
Practices
31
32
er
ia Mt
dic a
The classical nedical traclition contribr-rted two nrein conceptual franreworks to nredieval nredicine: the idea of the four hurnours which medicine seeks to rebalancc, :rnd the nredicinal properties of natural objects
found in scientifrc compendiurns. Herbals, the anirnal books and the laprclaries are organized bv item and thus firnction nlore as refcrence works
than ecttral practical rnanuals. Altl-rough thc' rnedieval nrannscrifts ilrr'
copies of Latin, Greek ancl Arabic treatises, they sornetir-ues shorv enotrglt
innor':rtions and alteratit)ns tr) su{[ICst a cr)]rscious lpplicltiolr of sottre of
thc rorrcclies irr rnedicr':rl Europear) practi('c. Sorttt' oi thr' itenrr {rtitt
p()tcl)cy tlrr<lrrglr ritrr:rl:rcriorrs or vcrbul firrrrrrrl;rs, rrr:trltlitiorr t() pr()l)('r
pt't'P:u':t(iort o(- tlrt' substlttr'r'. ()(lrcrs litrrt (irrrt tlurrtrglr ,rssor i.t(iott, iilc'lrti.
lit'tl irr tlt,r,lt't'tt tltotrgltt lts'sytttP,ttltcl l( tll,u'.1(
BeLicfs,
pyattices
33
;;
l)ioscorides, Apuleitrs Praro,icus a,d priny.
These herbal .or,rp.r.tiur.
.ccur in both an iiltrstratc-d tracrition an.r iri
,rr.,,r,.,r..ipt, *iirr.",
ilustra_
tirrrrs (Collirs 'l999). The first herb i, the psetrcJo-Aiureius
L
rhariurrt is
lrctolrY or bctottica,bishopwort in E.glish,
a,c-l its uses are inclicative of the
rf
these texts (revrie,cl 1gg1). Iletory is
goocr r". r"rr or body
'irrurc
l'ccausc ir prote-s fro,r riocr,r,ar visitors
ancr frigiitenir;l;;rr* as welr
'rs heali,g head i,jr-rries, \o.e cyes Jncl c.lrs, noseblcecls,
roi.,th^.h., fatigue.
It'r'er, g.rt ancl irrternar airnre,ts of
trre loins ancr stonrach. It can arso ber
rrsccl as a purgativc against ingested
poisons ancl for
r'rri., varies dependi,g on the use, bur most involvesnake bite.The prepa_
drying .,ra porrrrairg
tlr. r..r to a powdcr and then conrbi,ing rt with
i,r.gi.,trJrts,.,srrany
lrtltriil ('"vine, beer, honey. water); s,ch iii.xtr-rr.r "rrr..
r..
p..r'i.ir-.,.a
ro. u,rtt,
, rtcrttal and internal use. Retol.r1,
also occurs in a ri,ide.rrrg. olre,reclies
rrr ,re'c'lical trearis.s orga,izecr by
conrpraint.
exal,ple, in the Argro_
\'rr., l-ccrfibooa, be'tonv figures pronriientry For
in
ctrres ru.'irrurrit,t. .fitr._
rr()r)s' sLrch as r,adness, ,ight.rares,
and clerir.r,ic oppressiolt
[ory 1996:
I ]5).
Irr s,.re cases, the.c.ilection, preparation
or appricati., of herbal re,re_
'lr' s is acc.rrrpa,iecr by ritual ..,iori, and verbarlb.,,,r,-,r"..
1st.rr".a u77).
'\itlr.ugh llurchard of wor,s
co,denrnecr the use of i,cantations in cor_
l" rirrs ,redici,al herbs, he rrr:rnted that christiarl prayers
tha,king clod
l'r1 llig herbs were appropriaie, ancl
nuch of the nredical literlt.re follorvs
rlr,rr
prcscriptior.r,
,or to ,re,tio,
blessi,gs
'lt't'tt,iltiunt, according
rrrr
rlrit'ul
rvo,,likc
of
the
,r-r.k"bit.
34
35
lr,'r-bs and aninral parts, stones for medici.al use could be grouncl a,d put
rrr .r clrink to take internally, or could be placecl on rhe bocl1,, ofien as protr'r tive anlulets, as discussed below.
lt itrr,rl Pcfiitrtnancc:lMtrds dnd Siqns
.\s t'viclent in the discussion of nredical nrateri;rls above, the labe] 'masic'as
r;,|l;g,'l to the nredicinal r-rse of herbs, aninr:rl parts and stones is largclv
,lr'rrvr'd from the employnrent of ritual li>rrnulas or actions in the gatherrr1',, l)repar:rtion and applicatiorr of sonre of these natllral products. Lr r1:rnv
'r,rvs, this is an anachronistic nrcasLrre, in that it isolates otrt of contcxt
rr.ilrV rerlledies that only a later age r,vould consider nragic, u,.hcrcas in
tlr, rr..wrr tirne they r,vere considered part of healing nrethods.The por,ver
,,1 rror-cJs to effect changes in the rrraterial ,,r.orld, rrorv discreclited in rnocJ, r r \('iollcre, is the chief rerson r.vhv niuch of nredieval rnedicine is classirr,.,l :rs nragic irrstead of science. Nonetheless, the bulk of nredical renreclies
rrr tlrt'rttedieval traditior.r do not contain ritrral fornl-rlas, but use entirely
r,,rur'.11, if not scientifically reliabie, rnethods.Those remedies that do have
rr, lr l1.,1-111.,1,,s teud to Llse thern for aiLrrents tl-rat have an invisible cause
36
l,1r' i t c I
n'afi
at
d X'l tt::i t
en ollgoinq
altd Latill liturgical blessi.ngs of helts dentc-rtlstrrte
'pr.tre'pagan
in.tl're colltext
renledies
nrocess flollv 1992).The reterrtir)n of
relrrtionrtrout
:i;l;.;."griirri","l"a rerreclies ,aise, ,,a,^i.luestio.s e1-d the
t1.
practice
foik
.c1nve111on
rf.rlp't-.rt*.n pre-Ohristian Clerm:rnic
'Lay
ot
and
N,t":.Herbs'
of
Christi.rnitl,. For exartrple. the fanror.rs'Lav
'h:
text'
tuedic:rl
Anglo-Saxon
a,
i11
,t . Nin. Tto'igs ,,,fWo.i.t.,' ott'-'t togerher
cl, G.cl using
thc Larrir,igd, rhat is ot6erwis(' niit "f ftrrt,ulas calli.g The (lermatr
197 1: 15{)-7)'
col)\:erslon
.pp...,"tlatcbacktotl.rctilr.citllecotlversiotr<litlreSlrxorrsby
a product t>f'
Oharlernagrte
script context.
'paglll)',
so-cll1et1
Whllt is tuore sttrprising thlin the sttrr,ir,al oi these
of the bulk ilf'
character
renreclics is to recogllize t1.re tl'roror-rghlv Clhristian
in tlre elrly
evelr.
pr.rYt'rs,
char,r tirrr,ulas :,rcl their ck>scness'to litr.rrgical
partl1' tlrc
is
This
1991).
(Mur.ioch
Micldle Aqes soon afrer co,ve.sior-r
etlvrronrneltts:
clericll
()f
arrd
trlotrltstic
function ctf the texts :ls prortlcts
(lhristianizetioll of lblk pr:icticc
rviclespre:lcl
a
reflcction'of
a
also
is
it
but
The ter,ii.ology is .lso
r.rrher rl-ran li c.urplete rejectio. oi its r.et6tlc1s.
spcll (an Anglo-Saxott
Letiu)'
.f...pri".. hrcantation ('lerivecl frorn the
English
(old
.qrl1dor,'sone') intply
u,ord llso usetl o{. rhe (iospel), rncl chrrrnr
Holvevt't"
irl're[g,itln''
prayer
to the trtoclcrn rl,ir'r.l 'trr"gic; t" t'p1-""tt1 to
littrrgy'
in
the
tound
ptrytt'
,r.,ry ,,,,-..11ec1 charrlrs "'iiplt'n' Stripture ttt'J
wrly 'lr
the
irl
.rtrit. tir.r.gical pravers oien' tirnction l'hr:toricllly
-sttrle
distinctiott
l
usefui
tnrrkes
charnrs, as etie,cti'e',-,,.r,r, of cure. Kieckl-rcter
to the'.pllticrtt' ;tttrt
betrvecn pL:tvers, adclressed tO floc1. blessirlgs, atlclrcsscd
1990: 6()). All
(Kie.khefcr
rrcljuratio'rs, ldciresser-l t. t1-rc i,festirg ag.:,rt
th:rt c()rrt'rlll
rtltrtttscr-i1,ts
tl.,'r"a ar,., be tt>urrtl i, Lroth nrctlicll arirl littrrgicrrl
(lor-l
bcltrlll ol'
orr
to
p.,,y..,
.,,,1
cx<trcisilts oi the d.'ril.i-rlcrri,tqs oi hcrbs
tltc
1-rltttcrtt.
'I ltt' c'tttttttlt)ll :lsstlll)l)tiott ttt tltr"st' l)l'ilv('rs ;lll(l t lr.rlrtts, (.lrristirrrr ()r l)lr'
(
(llrlirtt.rrl ilr or-iqirl. is tlt'r( rvolils 'rrt' t'lii't ttvt' ltt P.rr ( it ttl.rr-. .lrl'rstr.rrr litct'-
.rtur(',tllill('r
lrl tltc
tlr.r( (.ltrrtti'rrr \\'()l(l\' l)l()ll()tlll(( ,l lr,' rlrr' ,lt'l-qv
-)/
l:trcharist or by saints in miraculous cures, are cft-ective, either il ct>ujnnctron r'vith n.reciicinal herbs or alone. St Monegr-rnclis healed blisters by
l,r'cprlring a pxste of leal'es ancl irer o'nvn srrliv:r, rnakinq the sign of thc cross
,rvcr the sore; she also blessecl water that healed sore thro:rts and fevers
1( ir-cgory of Tours, Colfi,ssor-s 24, 1c)88: 39-.+0). The relics of such s:rints
,,rrrtinued to otlcr the power for heafing after their rleath, as for cxaruple
rlrr' nredicir.re people obtaine'd fronr the nloss on St Tranquillus'tolltb
(( ;r'cgory of Tours, Corfcs-sor:r ,13, 19u8: 55). Ernpou.ered r:bject-orientecl
lrt,rlinq is thus foster:ed by C)hristiarl teachins. On the other hancl, St Foy
,,,ntmsts her painless r,erbal ibrnrulas to the tnlurlra olnrecJical treatlnents
,rr,l rvitches'cr-rres.'She doesn't scrape arvay diseases s.ith :rn iron hook, or
l\\rtter old witch's sonqs ovcr rottin- s-oLrncls, but rvieids all hcr power
rr rtlr r potent contnrand' (Sheingorn 1995:215).ln nranv ways, thc ac'lvcnt
,'l (.lrristirniry increased the use oi verbal forrrruies trecunsc of the prerlrrn)r)uilCe of the spoken and rvritten r,vord in Christian litr-rrp1,'ancl a the,,1,rr,.v that enrphasized C-hrist es Incarnate Worcl.Tlrus rhe opening rvords
,'t St -f ohrr'.s gospel, h princiltio erat wrbum,was a conul)on forrnula in renre,lr,'.. lroth spoken lnd u,'ritten. C]hristian rvords c'lorniuated literatc nrocles
,,1 tr.rrrsnrission, hence they firrrr the bulk of the nrartr-rscript evidence tbr
'
lristiarr stories also take over irr rvhat are clilecl'narrative charnrs'.:r
1lf svnlpathetic ruagic in lvhich the recitation of a story channels
lr, rltrrq power to the patient. A ferv Gcruranic sanrples sr,rrvive th.rt rcfcr,
l,,r r'1,,,rrr1.. toWodan, as noted above. I}-rt the vast nrajority in both thc
', r rr.rt rrlrrr lnd Lltin relv on Christian narl'ative and arc incrcdiblv populrrr
r,rr, rr tlre nunrber of versions and copies fioru throughout Euritpe that
,rrr rvt' fionl medier.al :rnd later periods. incltrding Ciernrany (Miillenhotf
rrr,l St.lrcrer'l u92; Stcinlneyer 19'l 6; Spamer 1958; Hartrpp 196 l),
',, rr,lr)irvirr (Ohrt 1921;Ilans 199(); Grartrbo 1990), the Netherlancls (v:rn
I I rr, r l()(r-l), and Errgl.rnd (Cockrvnc 196 l; Hr.rnt 1990). I{enredies
rr\,,l\ Ir)1{ the spertr of Lor-rginurs, lor exarrrple, are -uviclespread; irr one case :i
Irt, r'11 1'..'1,11,-celltrlry (lerntan version is close enougir to x contcnlporary
lrr,'lr',lr ()l)e to sLlggest clirect contact bet\vcelt the trvo traditions (Selrrrc'r
l't,') Most of these rerneclies t>ccrrr in rneciical collections, but others in
rlr, rrr.rrqirrs of religiotrs tcxts. For exlnrple, the Three Angels l)irrr.rtivc
,lr rr rrr tn Llttin occurs. :)r)l()l)g t>thcr- pllccs, in lr nvelfth-cclltrtr), (lerntlrn
ril rrrr',( t tl)t ()f St Ilcrlrlrrtlls scrltl()l)s (li:rrtsch 11i73: :15-6).
lr , Itls1'115,11ivc cx:tnrltlcs ot- tutrt'lrrir,'e firrrttrrlu inclrr.lc thc stolt' ofJcstrs
lr, 1111,,, St l)ctt'rls tootlt.tt'ltt', tltc storl' ot- l.ongirrtrs sl)c:lr firr strrtrnclring
1,1,,,,,1, tlrt''l'lrrct' Arrgt'ls rrrrrr':r(rvt' .rtljru'rrrq tlrt' st'r,t'rr rlt'nrorrs of illrrcss. the
l,'r,l.rrr l{tvt't'firrrrttrlrr lirt st:rrlrrtlrirrr-', lrl.r,,,l jrrst ,rs tlrt'r-ivt'r-stoorl srill ltl
l, rr, lr,tPtlsrtt,.rrr,l tlr,' \l()r\' ()l tlrt"'l lur't' ( iootl llrotlrt'rs'. 1'lr,' slor'\' of-tlrt'
I lrr,, ( Jootl llrollrt'r's',l,rtt's lo ( itr'r'1. .rrrrl lr1i1|1t.ut l( \t\ ,rl tlrt' lililr trtrrl
1,,r111
38
by the archancel Ilaphael.This hagiographic tale conflrtns the ttse oFttrtt'rative chrnns lound in thc niedical nranuscripts, as r'vcll :rs lteirtu alt clrly
cxanrplc olthe hcrrling usr.s ()f thc'Tirbit nurntivc.-I'hc :rpocryplrll book ol'
-[irtrit t'6rrtrrir)s lll] cngilging lrrrd rrrt'rttrlr:ttrl,.' stoly ol'tlrc riqlrte'orrs'lirllitlr
blirrtlrrcss .'rrrrst'tl Irv lriltl tlrrlrPirrqs. lris sott lirtri,rs'.iotrrrrt'y rvitlr, rtttktto'uvtl
to lrirl. llrt. .tn lt:rttqr'l I{:r1rlt:rt'l. .rrrtl lris 511lrst'tlttt'ttt ttt.tt t i,ttlt' to tlrt' ill- lrltt'tl
practircs
3L)
,rlter realiry.This vier,v held su,ay frorn the early Middle Ages ancl renrained
rrrrchallenged in religious practice and popular culture into the early modt rrr rlild modertr per:iod, despite the advent of noniinalism w.ith its disjr-rnc-
l.rrrguage
to
of nrultiple languages,
ancl
,'( rr'(' or using semiotics (Halpern and Foley 1978; Ncith 1977), while
rrr()r'(' l-ccent allthropolosical approaches note tlre sharnanistic fr.rnction of
,,,
,+0
Mcdieyal
Agcs
:,
;.'il;.iif
i'
cir.ir,i.,ized
Gre
ek'
Hebrew' Latin'
it
learned
of
reduplicating sounds,
thescribeandtheprestrmcdliterac.yoftl-repractitione-r-usirrgthenlanu_
Hebrcw script does
,..ipr. O, the other hand, the appcarance of ireek and
script itself
not lrecessarily i,rplv-l'tt;;; ii" thosc languages'-The.physical
as an amnlet. Mark
nuy lencl authentici-ry ;; ;;.'renreclv ^r.,.1 b. enrployed
and tl.rc
Zicr has rr.tc6, fi*'exe,rplc, tl.rc c-uri.r-rs ,se of a ,rarruscript
(1(D2)'
it.l.,r.ru ,srr;ris ti>r hcrrlirrg irr l.tc tlrirtcerth-cer)tLrry E,gland
by 'rttribtrtg:titl
rl.tltllority
rtlso
t'll:trttts
irilirrgrr,rl
Sorrrr, ol- tl.|"r" lri, ,,,,,1
t lt;trttt sltys
Arrgltl-S;txolt
Arr
lreirrgs.
,r,,q.li..
,rr
irrg tlrt.ir. s()al-(.(, t. lrt'r.it.
llqqk:
Dc,fitritions, Bclicf:,
Practices
41
that an ansel brought the writing fronr heaven ancJ laid it on the altar of St
Peteri ir.r Ilome (Cockayne 19(r1: III: 232-5).The prayer, a combination c:lf
Latin aircl Greek, is ecluivalent to 'al1 thc psalrrrs in the psalter' :rncl to attendance at E,ucharist on the day of death. It is also good against airborne poisons and epiclernics, ilhre-sses and bad drean'rs. Tl.re angelic sourcc grvcs
essurance that the words are exact and pure heavenly ones, rather than corrupt hunran ones, despite the lhct they appear gibberish to r,rs today. A
fifieenth-ccrttr-rr1, English fbrntula was brougl-rt by the arclrangcl Ciabriel ttt
Susanna (Hunt 1990: 90-1). Others conre frorr.r fanrous ancient rulers and
exotic sources associ;rted with nrasic in leeend, such as Alexander the
Clrcat.
Middlc
Witchcrali and Magic irt Ew<tpc:'flrc
12
A'qcs
(see
saints
Utt"i"g'
invisiblc asents of harrn on T
sorcery. Invertecl
t'".'Y
82)
lKieckhefer-, ^'-"t''
nragic i'-' tht next section
i:i-ltd
Consecl.rently, niuch of the protcctive
reiying-9" lht sanle" prlnclto coLlllteract these ..,rr., ,rd sorceries, often
knorvledge of herbs' animal parts'
ples discussed here i" f"'fi"g' classical
folklore ward off
and srones
if-r. ,t
r.r,
enernies'
of invisible harm from hunran or spiritual
,Deliverus.frtlntEvil,:Protectivt:Fc.rntt,ilas,Ritual.s'Antuletsand.falismans
rls healing' protectlvc nragic
Operating on sonle of the saure principlcs
of illncss or harnr.tetore it relches the
seeks tct warcl off i'."'i'iblt tttt"'
.t.rri..l l,cl firlk prcscriptit>rls attcl
tltlistrt:rtls
pr:rcticcs rrrclirtlc lltrtttlcts :ltlcl otllcr
ltt'ti.rrs' Atrrtrlcts
*,"11 ,, vcrtrltl tirrlttrtl.s ltrtcl 'ittt:rl
tltilizc
;lttitrr:tl p:rrts' ()l st()ll('s' rvllilt' t'rlisrrrill)s
1lts. T',hcsc
.,
liolrl ltcrlls'
Practices
43
r'vritten 'nvords. These itenrs colrld be worll around the neck, wrapped
around the body, or contained in a ring.The concentrilted virtues of gernstones, often engravecl r,vith incantatior.rs, were popular anrulets and talisnrans anrons the nobility, while their less potent counterparts, herbs, rvere
lrore accessible to conlrnoir fo1k. Oral fornrulas recited for protcction
inclucle blessings, adjurations and exorcisrls, often conrbined with ritual
actions such as the sien of the cross. These preventive r]rca\ures ir.roculate
against disease, keep dernonic lbrces at bay, provide an antidote for curses
and sorceries and protect animals, fields and travelers fronr natural and
unnatural disasters. Sorue forrnulas, however, are all-purpose or serve several functions; thcse rcveal the basic principles underlying protectivc rtreqic
and are thus addressed first, lollowed by an exanrination of-specific protective rituals lbr disease and other natural disasters, and then counter-ntagic
for nralevolent forces such as dernons and sorcerl-.
,1ll-purprtsc Deuices
tlrt l)l()l('(tlr)n\
iD.llr lil(.illl.rl()t\
t('lr(ttlt()t).tq.ultst
it Itst
lVittlrtrali
+1
of
il1s,
rrrrr/
lfrtqii
in Grlttrrn
Latin prayers follou'a sinrilar pattern ot
o-f ci/das' for'rnd iD six
shielcting through repetition.The c)lci EnglishLorira
ranks of arrgels' prophets,
nranuscripts, calls o. heave,'s :rrrtry,, the ,.,a,.,led
danqers' enulllerat.p.rrf.. arrd saints, tbr clefencc against a.w1de rangc oi (lrattan
and Singer
in
(Lacnwtga
intertral
and
ine all body parts external
fbrilulas, a Latin exorcisrn of
1L)71: 6g-7 1. 1 30-17). Two sinrilar prorecrir.,e
aSailsl all invisible evils,
t na" f..,..' ancl an Oicl English .,,r-,.-r",r,l forr,r,ila
rlratlttscript, a copv of Beclet
occur in the ,rarqins of ari',the. A,glo-Saxtt.
of bocly perts also
Erclesidstiul Hist()ry (Grant 1g7g).1h. .,].,r,r.ration
(ol1v 1996:
,t ot", .rp in Lrtiri in the l-eeclilt'''t''k ancl ir.r thc Leo'fi'ic 'Vfi-s-sa/
a vernacular traclition
1(r3-,{).This tppeers to t.re a case of tmnslation frorl
fi-om pauan to
to a Latin o,re , trrt it 'vor-lld be ,.rvise to essllule it trro'eci
Christianized clcltic tradichr.istian practice, since the source is tl-re-earlicr
resonates with
tion. The oral-perfbrmencc rsPects of these fornruhs
else'
f,hristia,, liturgic-al practice lnore th:rl) illtythil)s
p6i1os.phy, gra'itated
n.,,pl.tori.
christiar_r tr.,o.rgrri,-'1-,r.ticularly
pri,ciples,urrd r.rlathedivire
by
go,r.,,rr..i
r..r.
towrrds the noti.r-r of . ,.lr,ri
n:luled or described in
nratical proportlolls that have great power r'vhen
'tnagic'r.1.,"..' talisrDan ct>nstrttcted oi ttre letters
r,vords. For exarnple, the
the ilrst cerrtury
sATOR_Al\ElrO_.t,ENEr:ilprnn-ROTAS dares to
(Kieckhc.fer-191)o:1f
-8:
Europe
tl'rrotrghout
in rneclieval texts
;,;;P...,
Noster
Pater
.l ()19..
rvords
the
for
allagrallr
19-22). An applrent
cirant
A and O (for Alpha end
r,r,hen written out i,, ...,iifc"".' shtpe with
tl]athetrratical por,ver irr tireir
cr,,-..g.), it sl-rows ho* *.,.d, llsstl1l1e l logical,
in texts
p.r+i,ion. Liker,r.ise, :tnother coltlrllon protective device, fcrurrdbodv thc
of C]hrist\
fr.onr Iceland to the l]alkatrs, trsc.s thc ,....:i..,",,,.,t
(Riihler 1964)'The
lnrulet
]1l
itr
Longirrtrs
of
nails of'the cross or the spe.rr
since nrultiplied
essenti.rl'
is
prge
.n-'the
precise ,)eAsurenrelrf of in. cross
Sorlc of thesc
Christ'
of
hcight
the
(by frftccn, fbr exlmple) it equals
but the.v rvere qerterally
scrolls u,ere ,v.app.d'.,r,ru,c1 libcruri,-,g ,.,o-rrr.,r,
L.,enetlcialbothforprotectionandprosperitl(Shirrnerstg')7:289-99)' in lrll.
.Ieplovecl
Thc sigri of tlre cross is the llrost ..,],,,,.,,, rittral actioll
t>t'
corlseqtlettce
a
as
certainiy
retlledies,
p-1..,i"J, as lvell ", ir."ii"g,
whiclr
hagiouraphy to
christian liturgical fr".ri.., i.,rro,, literarure :rnd
Legcnrl ttJittl-ll:
the.Goldcn
exarrrple'
For
the general public n1.,.tpu"d'
the protecttvc
silorv
to
designed
stories
.1. Vo..glr. cclntains ltulllerorls
tlf sillnirtg'
act
thc
inor
object
pllysical
a
po\,ver of the cross. either as
bclicvt't'
(lrcrter
rlcw
.
fl-ccd
the:
Si
Jarrres
aqrllnst sorccrers :r,cl thc devil.
to
wortls
porvcrtirl
kert'llict-':trrtl
[ris
tt'ortt tttltqic:rl fcttcrsbv scntlilrq " 'i'1"''
Ire st'ts tllc prisolr
lrre,rk tlr..tr.rrrls."l'lr. l.6rtl rrp'lroltls:rll ',vlro:rrt'lirllirrg'
( ir,rrtt,.t. ttt.tkt's (ltt'siqrr <lf tltc
St
l).
lI:
l()().}:
r.rs lir't', (|.r..tr[rtrr.l..'V,...gi,,.
and Singer
as rvell (Lartttrtrg,t
arrcl
Ellicli,
Practircs
-+5
cross over his u,ine thus neutralizing the poison a nragiciarr placed in it
(frcobus deVoragine 191)3: I:241)).The hideotrs clragon tl'rat appears in St
Margaret's visious clisapl-,ears 'nvhen she nrakes thc sign of the cross; the
tlragon btilsts open tt> release her rvhen shc docs it again - althoueh
Ages
Wir.&craft drul Masic in EurLtpc:-l-he Middlc
46
the tnan
bees' recognizing God rn their
bees'productirity goiif 1997:435-6)'The
attention and
built an alrar ;;:";;i the reiic. The ,riracle attiacted
The morai of the story
'ridst,
the neu' reliquary *ts t""'o"tcl to a church'
rr-ran rvas chastised for stealing the
renrains somewhat artrbiguous. The
the other hand' Etienne' as a
Eucharist and his g"ttli plan fails' On
heresy, is reasserting the
l)ominican preacher intent on stanrping out
b"td tnd wine into the body and blood
power of the priest ,o
"t'l'fot"l
many of these practices and
of Chnst. Since the Church is tire source for
icleasthatslipfiornauthorizedusasetounauthorizedsuperstitio'itishard
and religion in these
to know where to draw the line between magic
CASCS.
spiritualforceswasaCollltllollresponsetothelrardshipofanoftennlar.
or illness could wipe out a familv or
;I;;i;.;l]tru, *r,.L-""t
"tia"'it
reductionist to suggest that medieval peoplc
vr11age. Holvever, tt would be
of adequate science to explairr
believed in r.nagic o...iigion in the absence
devised a new explanatory
,fr" ,rryr,..i"r'rirl fft' afihor-rgh nroderns have
experientially works in a very rcrtl,
system, a science tt .t our".urtly .rd
;i ii'o"ght ttTt" t.'o better explanation firr
rnaterial sense, this;;;;;
ltt*
of God' than any other' Mediev:rl prxctices ti)r
chance or so-called
thar.reflected a larger bclicl'
protection o{fered, *.f"igwing with..rli,y
:rncl the huulatl corrclitiori' Likc
svstel11 about the ,rr,ui. of the coslltos
expcri
llx#;;;,,r*..ri..*r., si>ughr,rearir.gftrl cxple,ari.,s f.r. life
l)rotcctivc tlcviccs otli'rccl rt rcfi'r
crrr:cs, bcyorrtl .iust .,., i,,,l,.,.,".ii.tc curc.
llt'liclt systcrlr' wlrctllt'r
prlitrt to, urrd ,,'r",r.li,.|.1", tlf , thrlt l:lrgcr costtlic
crrr-e
t ritt'ri;t lirr
*"r.1'"i't,,l,iu" ()r ll()t is tirt'r't'li'*' tt.t tltt' s.lt'
s()( l('(\'
tttt'rtstlt'itt11 tltt'it lvorllr to tttt'tlit'v'tl
tlrt,st. tlcvit't.r
11
lrr , rr't
tt'c.
disaste rs
,,',rrrri ltoly olr.jct'ts, srrt.lr rrs wirx ()r'r'irrgirrLl <'lrurtlr hclls (l(icckhcfi'r 1990:
'i'i) l)r,rye ls rrrrtl t'xorr'isrrrs irr littrlrlir':rl rn.urtrst lilrts tlr-ivt' out of tlre ficlr-ls
\(r
lrtllt
sttt
rtt.rr:ir', ttltlrotrqlt
48
19
lllll,:'[,:]';:t1,",r,
'u,.
havc
'I trtr'trt,'tl
,rtr
rt(y(i'
cuil pe.rp..itr,rtt,tl bv.lerrrorrs,,,.l,i fr" irrrrrnns
,\lrlr,,rrslr
co,r.ritutc
trvo clif_
li r( r)t sorlrces of har,, tlrey
are often connected i, trre protecti'e
renredies
r'tr 11.,11111". the'r. Thr- clcvii
arcl his ,ri,i.rs n".r" h.r.l respo.sible
ror
'lrr('('t ilss:tLllts that dcltrclc pe.plels,ri,r.1s-.r, cause illness,
but increasi,g.ly
rrr rlrt'lrrediev.l pcriotr it ri.es
Lciiev..t ilrri'hr,,,Ar1 sorcerers crerivecr
thcir
l,',\\( t' ltr 1'1;p5.. lirrtn tlt,rst, \.il1t(,
(l(,li)()niL n
Hor,vcr,er, t'e
,,rrlrrrtrt'tl tt'.rr lrirrq ol'tlr,. (,
lrrrr, Ir r.t,q.rnlrrrg tlrt. r1r1;.1111.11 tlrri..rt
of.tlcrrrtlt,
l,,l r,' ,r ({)lr\(.t.il(.1(.(. ol llrt. ,1,,,,t,,,,1
.,,,J ;r1,rr,,.,1 tlui..rtr. llr tlt,. l,rte
Alr,l, llt'Agt.s,sor.t.t.t.t.r.s, u.rttlrt.s,ut,l
,,t1,,.,_, ,r,l',,,
l)t.llirr ,,, ,,',,f,,i,i,,t rrr:rr{rr.
\1'| r(
'l\\()( r,rtr'tl r'itrr .r \\'r(r(.\l)r(',r(r , trrr ,rr lrrr. ,r,.r,rr.
A ,,r r,,rrr rrrrrtitilr, .1.
,
50
Wirilcrali antl
Nla.qic
in EttrLtpt':'thc Nliddlc
Agcs
ofprotection
coll11llol)
ces
51
l l.r
53
ivliddle Ages
l'VitctrcraJt and Magic in Europe:The
52
". ts;;;;;
of the verbal formula kto*"
-.:-^-
^r1
Li-rc nf
Sonreofthesefornrur]asareall_purpose.againstal]kindsofetlerlues,
hat"l ru's'
the
conjuratiotr 1n a toLl;tee';;-t"'ltt"y
conquer hy lord
Amen. I conlure yor.r, herb, that I nrav
and stars '.. and "';;;;;""qttet
a1l laymen and all *,,""" t'-'d '11
., by mootr
f:.ttt
and
a'd'priests
pontiff
t""'i.:''
'.''y who are against me' (Thorndike
'li
lawyers
1923:|:598-9n'1)'othersthatapperrgenericbecotrrespecializedagainst
talisman against
f.ri.'a. o.,Jfift..,-rth-ceutttry Patris By the
witches in the late ,;i;.;j
"'
charin:'In notnine
a witch sounds likt ;;;;;;ff'ottt'i"
'
Christ * be a nredicine
of
passion
*
and
;i"ss
J;-;;t
oower of the Lord,
*o''-'d' of the Lord be mv medicine '*' Mav the
il"'-;.. t;;;;;;;t
Virgin Mary arcl and defend me from *t'v "ll1ql.i:"':no]|l:T"i"::l
+ Alpna
,rr"lig, spirit, a,rren' +A+G+L+A* Tetragran.Imatoll
thesc
dtltl:1.::':t::how
(Kieckhefer r990: Sa-ii Both of these t*'t"'plt'
reiigion'
pt"yt''
"og1: '"-d
:'."g;;i;t-.lmeclicine-and liturgy' charnr ^"j the protective
magic disoi
Much
were interwov.,, "' '.t-'tditu^l 'Jtitty'
dispractices
iealing
in the context of the
cussecl here only nrakes sense
below'
discussed
.;;; earlier ,,d tl" necromatltic traditions
of the devil't
asents
the
be
itll]::l:.1.::
The beiief th" h;;;;;;';;t""
eventually to witchcraft trials' inqulstttotts
a socially air..rpti,," o'i, leading
gypsigs'.heretics and other marand urob persecutions tt'p"gotii"gJews'
tftJ'ir,tiaat. Ages, the accused s.rqi.alized groLlps. H;;;;1i;""gir"*
with ihe Church initirlly
1..., o. r'vitch held an anrbiguous position'
and rrccusatious of w-itchcratt therc'
teaching that such power *" ill''t'oty
tltcy
these activities were harnrful becar-rse
{bre talse, bur larer il;r;;;;
rrr,rgic
heresy,
of
The association
chan,elled a.rrrori."ror..-ir-rro society.
as early as the twelfth century' ltt
began
devil
the
and demonic pacts r'vith
a conclemned wonran about tr> be
an incident at Rheims circa 1L76*8ti'
r-r.. accusers by throu'irg a brrll .f
rakel1 to ,h" R.rr., J.h.J ""a .r.rp.,l
;rwrty,
sayi*g '.rt.h' and the, megicallv flying
thread our of ,rr. *i"J.r" 'uttt"t"'
hclpcd
who
s-pirits
by tl''t sanre evil
assisted, according ;r> ;ht
()91:211)-511 t:ltttt"l:l]:lt
Evans l
and.
Sinron Magus to tty-1W'tttfleld
by ctlr-rrrl ()r gre:lter ;tssc'rtiotts of sptrt'
heretical sorcerY it'tftt" cotrlb'rted
(Kic..klrcf-'r 1990: tl2-5) . ['t:r cxrtrrrplc, ill
tu:rl authc>rity .,ri,rg".uilil.,. i.r.,l,
tttv,,l'ittg tltt' l):tt:tt'itrt' llt'rcsv' rttt ot'tlttl'
rr,othe r t*"lttl,-..'1t,,,'r'i,r.li..r.tt,
tlris Irt.rcsyi
tltlx krriglrt cltt'l.tetl..r,ttst.t.r.tt.'.1 s:tlt,ts.t llttltt.ttitltt.lq:ttttst
ll
1\l
ilil
ii
Li
illlr
riiiil
ltitiil
riiir
li
o.f
Diuinatiott
i
lvith healing and protection, divinatory practices helped connect everywith the cosnric structure.They provided rueaningful \\/ays to cope
rvith seemingly chance-driven events in a supposedly divinely ordered
rvorid. I)ivination does not necessarily mean predicting the future or layrr)g out sonreone',s destiny; rather it is most often a way to interpret signs
,rrrtl to make decisions as to a right course of action. Next to healing, divrn;rtit-rn is one of the nlost conulron realnrs of'ruagical practices',yet one of
llrr' llrost enrphaticaily reJected by Christran authorities, with or without
rlrc (lhristian conrponents that in healing could shift a renrecly from con,lt'rnned rnagic into acceptable Christian practice.
l)ivination operates on the principle th:rt the nricrocosnr and rnacroAs
,l;ry liG
' r)sl)) are interlinked, that hunran experience and natural phenonrenon are
nrtcrconnected, one retlecting the other. This holistic vier,v is compatible
rvrtlr animistic ar-rd polytheistic r,vorld views as w'ell as a lrlollotheistic belief
rrr :r c'livine crreator u,ho orders a1l things. Nonetheless,Judaeo-Christirrn
tllli
uul
,lt
I
iliilii
ilirlir
rllrii
llllil
lLilll
iliili
l,r'p,rssed
lutl
ltt Isti:rtt t'ltlt'rttl.tt's < otrt1111(i11g li.rstt'r', r lr,rlttrrri lrrrr,rr , \', l,'s, ,rl listirrg slrfi'
,lr1's lirr'lrlotrtl lt'ttirrg t'.rsilv ,,rrrrt'irrlo rrsr',rs,lrvrrr,tl()t\.'(l('\'t(('s, Irrrrrgrrrg
liiill
liui
tillli
iriril
t,
rl
$t
lr
i
54
-".'e'liio"t1
ffi;;;'U.ii.ri"
ItJ aturc
frtw
it is
created lr'orld is orderly and that
Based on the proposition that the
t<r
looks
high proporiion.of divination
connected ,o t-rrrrrr.rr^.'#;;.., a
in
celestial
rnessages
nature fbr answers t"J la"itt' An adepico'''ld'"'d'
ancl the behaviour irnd
life
plant
parterns, rveather, gt;bgital $enonSe'-'1'
oi natu're a.d correlations of cause and
anatonty of aninrals. Ob-servaiions
and scienrific inquiry. Uniquc
effect are comnlon irlii},""r." speculation
tides or colnets could bc
disrtrptive events "tf' t' earthquakes'.unusual
on the context' Patrick Geary explorcs
read irr di{Ierent *;;t, ;"P;'ding
the eleventh-century rnonk Arnoltl
the variolts .*pl""inty
r'o* n" sarv a dragon in the sky whilc
tried out *'t].. r'"" "'i'"'i;';
"y'tt"''th't points out'Artlolil is writing naturnl
Divindt
ion
historywhenherecollntsthisexperience,notmillennillspecrrlati<ltts
he is r.nore intent t>n clentonstrrtittl4
rrbout signs ,"d p";;;;,'."rr..r.r""rry,
ta Uy' th"Yl'1t thrt l literrrl' solitl
t"f
that the .ryrt.tti'-'" ipht*'' ^*'""t
the,r ((ic'rry' i''t'''+' l("1)' Sigrrs irr rtretlievrtl
ciragorr.,r,,ld p." tli;il
p.,tt'rrti;rIlv rrrlrrrV rrrc.rlrirrgs. l)ivi
tlrtltrglrt r,vcrc trtttltivltlcttt, c<ltttltirrilrg
tllc trrrly t'xPl:trt:tti.tt'
()r(. .rf',i,"'fr.,rrifriti,,.r, t,,,i 1,, ,,,,
r,.rti.rr wrls
cottinued to be
Christian texts and concepts' Divination
accusatiotls of magic in
atq"tntfy
therl
first
the
of
one
",,a ''o"
rtoti"'sermorr,
laws,
along rvith
',,,',,,,s
I
#
I
I
iit
il.
Practices
55
lil
l
,l
rilrlr
llr
l
llr
lr
til
iilri
iilll
lrlll
Itil
iriiiiir
T,1
l;t
;t
5(r
firrtunes in the entrails of anilnals. Augury dates back to the Greeks and
Romans, and was heavily condenrned by Christian conrnlentators; it is
unclear how r.videspread it was among Gern-ranic peoples. Less wellknown fbrms of divination fronr animals include scapulimancy, or divination b1, sheep shoulder blades, an Arabic tradition irnported into Europe irr
tl-re trzr,elfth century. althouqh Gerald of Waies claims the Flemings introduced it into England (Burnett 1996: XII-XVI). The logic behincl this
form of divination. as explained in Arabic treatises translated into Latin, is
that the drvinelv placed secrets of the upper world are brought down to
earth in rain and transferred throuql.r grass to herbivorous arrir-nals like
sheep (Bunrett 1996: XIII:35). Likewise,Williarr ofAuvergne posited that
aninrals and hunrans have a type of extra-sensorv perception that allows
thenr some premonition of future events (Kieckhefer 1990: 90). These
atterllpts to provide scientific theory behind divinatory practices are part of
the post-trvellth-cerltury intellectual world. In popular practice the belief
in the interconnectedness of things may have been nrore intuitive and
based on experience.
DiuinationJrorn Ifuman Experience and fuIan-made Dcuices
As noted above, natural phenornenon can be read as olrrens of good or
,i
,{
;i
i:
!
$
I
I
.t
,&
t
$.
57
po
v Ea,wine
ttirrit*, and the
trr
58
Burchard-of Worms
lots, such as dice and geurstones (Braekman 1980)'
qf
-sor/i_ the early Middle Ages the oft-condem.ed practice and5pvr('5
it to
uses
""i.a
the Scriptures
lcglmt, whereby one ranclorrll'-poir.rts to 1 !"-lrt "
It is
1938:331)'
a,d Ganrer
decide an issue o, a.t.,''i""'a ftte (McNeill
the
and
practice
."rv ,. see how this practice could enrerge trom nlollastic
is
God
that
a'ssume
.ori,"-ptrrion of the'scriptures. v"herebf a reader might
relied
teaching
,p..f.l"g Jirectly ro him oi her in the daily reacling. Christia.
but also trans,ritted
o. revealed ,r.r,t-r, to.=iJ prinrarily ir-, ti,. Scriplures.
middle coLlrse ar'vay liom
through saintly visiotrs. Ho*tvtt' in charting a
chiruing speciai k,owlextremes, the church rvas ofren suspiciotrs oi-rhos"
authority but also to
;;;,,r;; o,-,ly to quell heretical challeDges to Church
the Christiarr clergy^
recourse to ,,,,gi.i^.,, ancl tlivin.ers as rivals to
supPress
i.rrot"
seers or sibyls;
the world
i*f-ff-r..y.Tire
(incluld-i
..rrr. i,rro
ig
b-.-i-,ig
th.org|, t6e
Attribution of
the ancient Near East, aud surdivinatory powcr ,o *orr,..'-r, aiso clerives fror.n
vivedforexatrrpleinthelegenclofsibylandtheclreatrrofonehutldr.edsuns
Sibylline littbund in c)ld Slavonic and"Ron-ranian (Gaster L971:l:21,1-25)'
with oracles describing
erature in the Midcll; A;tt was general\ apocalyptic'
1979)'
th.
- Rnti.t-,.irt arrd the LastJudgenrent (McGinnofren
derived their insights
hor.r,ever.
di.ri.,lition,
in
lr,t.gi.i.r-r, skilled
tronlconjurirrgspirits,especiellyclerrrot-ts'Thisarthasconretobeknowrr in
,, ,..ro',r,rcil ";u-tt,.,lt"tt t t"holt sphere of knowledge acquisition
aclditiort to loreknowleclge of events'
()rcult
Kntttulctl,qe
Sorccry
turd Nccrontnrtty
S<lrt:crvistlttctlftlrcgetrcrit.tcrtttsttst.tlttltlt.st.rillettllrgictlt:rtrclicsrllt
tlris krrtrrvlt'tlLIC pr.vitlc
.t.t.trlt l)()wcr.s. rrl.,g,.i,i,, ()l- s()r.( r,l.t.l.s r'1r,, l)()\\(.s\
Practices
59
their erpert services to othcrs, lor such trrsks as fintling a thief, recovering
lost propertr', or l.,erdrrnring'love rlagic'. Necromancy is a slightly rlrore spccialized ternt lor nrasic thet qains its power or knowledqe fronr con;urinq
spirits, u,iretlrer arrgels, denrons or ghosts; tire necronrancer forces thesc spirits to perfirrui atlrrzing fe;rts of tr-ansl)ot't;rtion or iilusion or to provide
knorvled{re of the secrets of the universe. Stories of necromancy and sorcer\,,
nranuals containing spells and colrjurations and persecution of known necrorrl:rrlccrs were on the rise frortr the thirteenth centLtrv reaching a pelk in the
fitteerrtl-r centrlr)'. For tl're lrrost pert, nredieval necronrancy is the product of
\()rccrcr to cltcl-r I thicf rvho ]rad stolen nroney trorn the abbey. They
lruried l bl.ick c.rt ur)Llergrotrrrl in a chest rlt a crossro:rds, including an rrir
pipc, rveter, arrrl lirocl irr thc torrrr of brcarl so:rkc.l irr chrisnr, consecrated
oil lrrtl holy rvrttcr. (Jlrfirrttrrtrttcly firr rhc conspirators, solnc slrcpl.rercls ar.rd
tlrcir rlrgs rlrscovct'ct'l tltr' t'lt [rt'firrc tlrc rt'tltrirr'tl tlrrcc d:rvs r,r,crc up; but
tlrt'l'lrlttl pl:tttrtcrl to flrrv (ltt't.rt,tttrl ttst'tlrc Iritlt'to lirrttr rr cir','lt',tltcrt clt
tltr'r'utls firorl rrtttl r'rrll tr1, tlrt'tlt'r'rl, ulro rr,'r,rrltl n'r,t'.rl tlrt'(lrit'l'to tlrcnr.
llilri,r
tiil
irlllirl
1.1.1.\.
iiil,
ll
60
objects
6I
arts_to break up the marriage so that one of her nieces might seduce
him.
Guibert compares this bewitchrnent ro conjuring illusions,"and claims
practices
both
i
i
that
people.
62
Agcs
WitchuaJi dnti ltlagic in Euroltc:Tlte Nliddle
sosheusedalovepotiontokeephiminlovewithirer(1929:II:316-17)'
lnsomeweysthis,,.ry'p.""iat'""'tidotetolnlpotence-car-rsingadullove in lllarrlaqe'
teresses rvho try to prevetlt co1-Isunlmated
Mostofther.rr,,,i.,i"'f"gi"gt'phicandhornileticstoriesaredesigned
arnbigtlous'
sorle
,o poirr, out the ."'t' oi' 'i'tttty' althoughrecurs
^are
in stofrequently
informatiou,
on denlons for
Necrornancy, calling
tht tlf:t^:Tt::t-:l::*
ries by Christian ,.,*o", 'o''""tirnt' clenying
to supPort tne rcellry oI
sectrtitrg
p.r.,i.., as illtrst;ry' but in otllcr 'ases
whose own father was
dernonic-derived knolvledge' Guibert of Nogent'
was intent on showing
;;.;; ;i ir',rpotence ;; ;;' kincl of magic ctlre'ldrlrit
no olle to instructhat'tlrey
,lr. d.,rro,,,;. evil of ,o'......r. asserting
of ell their
o-fth-e-honour
rob
tion in their magic.*..pt those whoiir they
examtwo
gives
He
XXVI)'
I:
(1996:
Chrlstia,riry by i l-,orribie sacrilege'
these
of
source
the
about
belieii
and
pies th:rt show sotlle oi tt" biases
a
involved
that
aJerv
from
sorcery
practices. Itl one,, ,ro,'L-f itstlearned
he drink$' a,d an
,act with the devil (libation of his ow'n seed' which
her visits bv
conceats
he
poinr.
one
Ar
a .un.
::;",;;';r.i'.n,ir'rvith
be a large dog' Irr the second
creating an illusion so that she appears to
show hin-r how to get rich'
will
who
story, a clerk takes up rvith :r 'ottt"t
way o.n a.specific day
special
a
in
cock
ihJprr..ar.. ir,-oiu., f,"ft'i"g a
the instructions,
disobevs
clerL
the
in order ro atrract tl-,. i.rii; ho.i.u..
the pact'
conlplete
cannot
clevil
calling on the saints in his fright,and-the
how
illustrate
srories
these
saints,
the
Aside tronNt or"irg ih. pi*.. oi
trnfortunately
and
devil'
the
of
cult
beliefs about uragic ,i'oti"ita with a
in Eu.rope rronr the
;;i;r;-s lewilh ;;;;1;, ""'' to be widespreadt.trrrot-,
literature. Even
r,endicirrt
twelfth centLlrv th.J,,gh ,ro.^rrr. ancl
foster-s these
Heisterbach
of
Caesaritts
rrlore so than Guiberi of Nogent'
Caesarius
demons'
on
bookV
pJf'a'cs'
in
particularly
associations i, fri,
seerns
and
heres-v'
and
pacts
deinonic
.i.rtfy associated ^..t"it"t1' with
story'
one
In
it
in
up
caught
are
i;;;;r; ." showing how easily Christians
revealed'
magic'
their
for
stake
the
at
two heretics ,.. .",gn' t"i f*t"'a
These two
i..ri.rffy, through ,i.t'or"""ty (V: XVIIl' 1929: l:338-41)'
a pact
made
had
they
because
;;J;;;;. r. p.".ro.- t v"itty of illusions
withthedevil,w'hoseinclentures\1'ereser'vnundertheskinintheir
arrnpits.ThebishopdiscoverstlreirsecretthroughreCoulsetoaclerklvlrt>
ii' used the irrt to help thc
knew sorcery, ,rra ,t'ut'gh he had renounced
powers rs cl;ar' but irr
such
of
ffi;p t; hi, ho\; cau'se. The reality
63
Bertradis, saying that not everyone has the gift of discerning spirits and
the devil is wily, appearir.re in many forms, both beautifui and ugly, or as
ani,nrals (V:
XLVIll,
1929 :
l:
38
-2).
64
If this kind of sermon literature were our only source for a cult of
necromancy, we might have good reason to doubt the actual practice of
the art. F{owever, trials of accused necromancers and manuals of necromancy corroborate the existence of at least a belief in the ability to conjure spirits and gain occult knowledge, not only in western Europe but in
related traditions
in
Practices
65
such banquets indicates not so much a direct connection with heresy but a
set of colnmon themes and motifs associated with magic. The Munich
Handbook and related late medieval manuals seem to be a culmination of
all of the suspected sorceries involving divination through enchanted mirrors and fingernaiis and the use of magic circles and spheres to conjure
spirits.
Thus the Munich Handbo.k seems to confirm the worst nightnrares of
writers like caesarius of Heisterbach, as well as later inquisitors, about
de,ronic rnagic produced by a clerical underworid of scholar-necrothe Munich Handbook seems equally to be a prodr-rct of the
very environment and mentality that condemned it. It is, to state the obvirnancers. Yet
which the cJctrron does, placing rr r:ontliti<rrr trn tlre .rrchbisholr that he
tcll uny()nc tlrc story. l.:rtcr, thc urch[rislrol', rclrrtes thc evcnts
irr tl're tlrird pcrsorr, wltitlr tltt'tlt'ntorr trrkcs rrs;r violutiorr of tlrc r:orrji-
sl'rotrlcl n()t
66
nr e1rt.
l,[dpit
col)lcs
ill"rsory nragic in the trecrot'n:rntic nranuals and nrany of the stories ()llnagic in Christian literature irotecJ above seenl to have entertuir.rrrrent as rr
set'ondlry tltotivc. ln,rtltlitiorr. rrr.rgi,'rvirlr etrtcrt:rirrnrt'llt it\.1 pt'irrr.rry
function occltrrecl in two venlres, the court and literatr.rre. In troth cuscs,
illttsions were the fircal poirrt, involving cleceivinq or firolirrs thc rrrirrtl :rs ;r
w,rry olexplr:lrirrg idcls rrrrrl lrrrnr:rrr rclrrtiorrships.
IIr tltc scrtsc thrrt rn;rgir'rvus illtrsrlrl,, u tlct'cptiorr ot-tlrr'lnirrrl, rrr,rgit .rt tr
t'otlltl [lc t'ottsitlt't-t'tl .trt .rt't lrclfilrrrtctl lirr:rrr :rtrrlicrrt t'. Mosl ol'tlrr' t'r'itlt.rrL t.
67
o[hand, optical
illusiorrs. secrer -"vririrg rurcl r.aki,g objects lllove
,rysteriously appear in
late llredicval ntattttals, alone rvith tth.]. ,rr,,,.. rnischievous
tricks sr.rch as
sonre of thc ilh-rsions fbtrnd irr necronrantic rnanuals
.r-,d 1r..ftrr,ed in
coLrrts (Kic-ckhefcr l()90: 91
-2).
In particr-rlar, the rristocrrrcy scL'nleLi fascinatecl rvith arrtor.rlators,
positiorr.
br-rt
pyattict:s
ur:ts r.lsccj
lv I c d i e ual
Middlc Ages
Witchcra-ft anrl lvlagk in Europe:The
(ril
between belief
not' indicates the fragile balance
alive.The anecclote, trlre or
court intrigue lent
in the
ancl dottbt
p"iiiiJ
.t[T,'"'1]J'll,'i-?;
,ght side
natLlre
their
by
in illusorv maqic
entertai.ment. Tri"i[-rr'p.rforrr.<l
the part
belief'orr
of
a willing
'n
adnrit to deceptiorr "J '"ggt"
"'o"'lot
literature'
with- ,-,rrji. as portrayed in
rue
of rhe :rudierrce. Th"";;.'i;
its operand
magic
i'-""tdieval notions of
Literarv magicians p;y; ; 'olt
the clasin
both
roots
rtrlJjit agt' h"t theit
rtions. ,Sto.i., p"p'f-"]'i"
and
Scandinavian
f"tiogt and in iht Celtic'
atso has its
thus had its dangerous side, it
sical Judaeo-Christian
late
"'ff::ffi"ffir,r,
(Townsend
Alexander
technique in his
fort,,e-tel1i,rs *'itli"j:;t&;;;';;''onif "o'-aivinatorv
shape-shi[ting' hoth practiccs
list is .onjuri"*' 'fttintatiy irrvisibility,ind
tu trick others. Si,rilar*'. Virsil rs trattsrrrvolvirrg a...prio,.,'or',rl,.1ril.
knowl-'
necronlancer whose extensive
forutecl irl meclieval legencl lnto-a
comparcttt
1934;
from der,ons (Spargo
eclge a,d abilities'r*i.riu.a
vct'lines' lppearing in,t:tin' E-trropean
,l'
1997).These t"g""a' t'o" cuitr'rral
versiotrs
Hebrew
ct""i ;"' loJ"ttd
,aculars ,,',d Htb'J'"'-no' t*"'-'ptt'
Aristotlc
to
attributed
sccrcr uui-srl(ren,rulrr
tire Alexander roll1ance, of the
delrrres
ancltheArthtt'ian'-"otifofthedestructi"""ftheror'urdtable(1971:ll'
ttragiciltrs
these ,ncient and foreigD
u14_7g, 712--g13,rii:Lol.ft. -r.
witlt
j'-t"'at"t
frequeDcy
the
in
of magic
playe<1 in the ttt"l',p"ttice
lr)cr)
these
to
'ls
spells
attribute theii rertredies or
u,'hich ,-rrrgt.
soLlrces
'
"ttti'ei
(lcltic
Iegcrrtlr
M agi c : D e.fi n i t i o n s, B e
:,
i e-f
Pra c t i c e s
69
motifi carried through fi'om Celtic, Scandinavian and Gerrrranic lore intcr
high medieval rornance literature and the Arthurian tradition. Often set in
another world, or involving interaction between two rvorlds, rnetlieval
romances expiored hurnaD character through tests and quests or.ltside the
realm of ordinary human experience. In the Breton lai retelling o[ the
Orpheus legend, the hero Sir C)rfeo recovers his queen fronr the iairy lan.l
after she was bewitched arvay (Sands 1.966:1.85-200).ln Sir Cawain and thc
Green Knighl, the hero accepts the traditional Christrnas ch:rllenge at Kins
r
70
Me dicual
Magit: Dc.finitions,
Beliefs,
practices
71
il
.rJ;t;;i;;Jf.
rr..il.i,"..rrur...
trlil
;i