RAJASTHAN ELECTRONICS & INSTRUMENTS LIMITED, JAIPUR

Introduction
REIL is Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Ltd. It is a public sector unit and it
has a prominent place amongst the electronics industry of Rajasthan. It was
established in 1981. It is situated at the Kanakpura industrial area about 12 Kms
from Jaipur city. REIL has a joint venture between the Government of India & the
Government of Rajasthan, through their respective institutions. Government of
India & Government of Rajasthan holds 51% & 49 % share in this company
respectively. REIL has completed twenty-five years in service of the nation,
especially the rural India, rendering services and products in the technology areas of
electronics, renewable energy, information technology and industrial electronics.
The products address needs of the dairy sector, rural lighting energy, energy
metering and e-governance. REIL subscribes to the belief that the path to social and
economic progress of the country lies through the villages and is committed to the
upliftment of the rural economy by taking technology to the villages. REIL is an ISO
9001 public sector undertaking started as a joint venture between RIICO (Rajasthan
State Industrial Development & Investment Corporation) and Instrumentation
Limited, Kota. During my training period I have taken my training in four
department of this organization. These are - Agro dairy division, Renewable energy
division, Industrial electronics division and Quality assurance department.
2. REIL aims at retaining its primacy in the area of Rural Electronics, Non-
conventional Energy Systems and Information Technology by developing,
manufacturing and marketing quality products and by offering quality services. The
company was conferred the status of a "MINI RATNA" by the Department of Public
Enterprises, Ministry of Industry, Government of India in 1997 on account of it's
good all round performance and excellent products. The company has added another
feather in it is cap by establishing a Quality Management system for its operations
and has been certified as an ISO 9001 firm w.e.f. 31st July, 1998. The area of
business extends to manufacturing and marketing of electronic products are Agro-
Dairy division, Renewable energy division or Industrial Electronics division
Information Technology. Recognition of REIL’s achievements in the field of rural
electronics has come in a variety of ways- in customer satisfaction, in its prestigious
establishment of the Rural Electronics Technology Center in 1990 and in an award of
the Department of Electronics for excellence in Electronic- now named as department
of Information Technology under Ministry of communication and Information
Technology, for the year 1991 and 2001. REIL‘s remarkable performance in India
and abroad has encouraged the company to its sights on international markets with a
renewed thrust. In more then two decades of its existence REIL has played a vital
role in the field of rural development in India- bringing appropriate rural electronics
technology to thousands of villages all over the country. A highly successful
 2

company with an excellent track record, REIL combines a commitment to quality

with professional excellence. REIL’s products range from Electronic Milk Testers
and allied dairy equipment to Solar Photovoltaic modules systems, and Gist Add-
OnCard and related software’s. The company has also taken up the manufacture of
ambient Air Pollution Monitoring Instruments.
3. The Company, through its market driven in-house Research & Development
(R&D), (recognized by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of
India), has developed and introduced a number of new products such as Data
Processor Electronic Milk Tester (DPEMT), Electronic Milk Weighed System,
Automatic Milk Collection Station, Data Processor Milk Collection Unit (DP-MCU),
Raw Milk Reception Dock (RMRD) Automation System, PC based Society
Accounting & Management System, Animal Database Management System, Smart
Automatic Milk Collection Station (SAMCS), Auto Zero EMT, Solar EMT in the
diary sector. REIL is also in the business of Renewable Energy through Solar Photo
Voltaic (SPV) Technology where It started its operations, in 1986, with manufacture
of SPV Modules and Systems. Since then it has supplied and installed numerous SPV
Stand alone Street Lighting System, SPV de-centralized Domestic Lighting Systems,
SPV Water drinking Systems, SPV Dusk Dawn Switching Systems, SPV Lanterns,
SPV powered Railway Signaling Systems, Microwave Repeater Stations, Satellite
Ground Terminals and Grid Interactive Power Plants etc. In this area Company has
produced SPV Modules of about 8 MW generating capacity.
REIL entered the business segment of voter identity card, in 1994, with state-of-art
technology i.e. digital imaging and data processing technology, for large scale
production of EPIC cards. It also produced over 60 Lac cards for the state of Gujarat.
It is also into development and manufacture of Electronic Energy Meters, for
domestic user connection, with diversified range of futuristic products like keypad
based pre-paid energy meters and smart card based pre-paid meters. It already
supplied about 100000 Electronic Energy Meters to State Electricity Boards
4. The company has a strong in-house Govt. recognized Research & Development
Division which has enabled the company to effect considerable improvements in the
initial adopted technologies. Indigenisation of the Milk Testing equipment and
incorporating the latest State-of-the-Art microprocessor designs over the initial and
older LSI designs has enabled more features and new add-on equipment has been
developed to provide integrated system solutions. A prestigious collaboration with
the Department of Electronics (DoE) in 1990 for the establishment of Rural
Electronics Technology Centre and an award from DoE for Excellence in Electronics
in 1991, testify REIL's achievements in the field of Rural Electronics. The
Consistency in Excellence is recognized with repeated award for Excellence in
 3

Electronics for the year 2001, given by the Ministry of Communication and
Information Technology.
ORGANISATION PROFILE

5. Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Limited (REIL), as a commercial

organization, has been in operation for the past 27 years with a proven track record of
profitable performance, professional management and service to the rural masses
through electronic products for the dairy/milk cooperatives and renewable energy
sectors. REIL commenced its foray in the Dairy sector with the manufacture of
Electronic Milk Testers under the technology license from National Dairy
Development Board (NDDB), by using the technology developed overseas by Foss,
Denmark. The Company entered the area of Renewable Energy through Solar Photo
Voltaic (SPV) technology, in the year 1985. The Company started its operations with
manufacture of SPV Modules and control electronics for SPV powered village Street
Lights.
Product in Which REIL is Involved
(a) Electronic Milk Tester
(b) Automatic Milk Collection Station (AMCS)
(c) Data Processor- Electronic Milk Tester
(d) Electronic SNF Tester
(e) Solar Photo Voltaic Modules (SPV)
(f) Radio Frequency Identification(RFID)
(g) Spot Billing Machine
(h) 3- Phase Static Energy Meter
During my training period I have gone through the four department of REIL these
are renewable energy division, agro dairy division, industrial electronics division and
 4

quality assurance department. I also visit the research & development department of
REIL.
RENEWABLE ENERGY DIVISION
5. The REIL entered into the Solar Photovoltaic industry in 1985. It started its
operations by setting up a manufacturing facility for SPV modules and has expanded
its area of operations through manufacture of Balance of Systems for a large number
of applications, utilizing its electronics product manufacturing facility. The Company
products are a result of its own in-house development efforts. The Company has a
capacity of 2 MW per year on single shift basis.
Solar Photovoltaic based application products, sub-systems and integrated systems
most of which were developed in-house. In the SPV segment, the Company
manufactures SPV modules and application systems including Domestic Lighting
System, Street Lighting System, Chargeable Power Packs for the rural, telecom,
Railway and Defence sectors.
Solar Photovoltaic Module
6. The word Photovoltaic is combination of the Greek word for light and the name
of the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into
energy by means of solar cells. The conversion process is based on the photoelectric
effect. The photoelectric effect describes the release of positive and negative charge
carriers in a solid state when light strikes its surface.
7. In renewable energy division REIL offers a wide range of state of the art Solar
Photovoltaic module suitable for a variety of applications. These modules are ideal
power generation at remote areas, where conventional power is not available or
power supply is erratic. It is noiseless, non-polluting and maintenance free source of
energy. Photovoltaic are solid-state semiconductor devices that convert light directly
into electricity. They are usually made of silicon with traces of other elements and are
similar to transistors, light emitting diodes (LEDs), and other electronic devices. The
photovoltaic device (usually called a solar cell) consists of layers of semiconductor
materials with different electronic properties. Most of the material is silicon. A thin
layer on the front of the cell is treated with phosphorous to give it a negative
character. The interface between two layers contains an electric field and is called a
junction.
8. Light consists of particles called photons. As shown in fig 1: we can easily
understand when light hits the solar cell, some of the photons are absorbed in the
region of the junction, freeing electrons in the silicon. If the photons have enough
energy, the electrons will be able to overcome the electric field at the junction and are
free to move through the silicon and into an external circuit. Some of the more
commonly available units generate 5W to 10W per square foot of collector surface.
 5

The direct current (DC) from the solar panel is converted to alternating current (AC)
through an inverter.
SILICON
9. Silicon is important past of solar cell. Solar cell is made up of silicon. It has some
special chemical properties, especially in its crystalline form. An atom of silicon has
14 electrons, arranged in three different shells. The first two shells, those closest to
the center, are completely full. The outer shell is only hall full, having only four
electrons. A silicon atom will always look for ways to fill up its last shell (which)
would like to have eight electrons). To do this it will share electrons with four of its
neighbor silicon atoms. It’s like every atom holds hands with its neighbors, except
that in this case, each atoms has four hands joined to four neighbors. Pure silicon is
poor conductor of electricity because none of its electrons are free to move about, as
electrons are in good conductors such as copper. Instead, the electrons are all locked
in the crystalline structure. The silicon in a solar cell is modified slightly so that it
will work as a solar cell.
Silicon in Solar Cells
10. A solar cell has silicon with impurities other atoms mixed in with the silicon
atoms. Changing the way things work a bit. We usually thin of impurities are actually
put there on purposes. Consider silicon with an atom of phosphorous here and there,
may be one for every million silicon atoms. Phosphorous has five electrons in its
outer shell, not four. It still bonds with its silicon neighbor atoms, but in a sense, the
phosphorous has one electron that doesn’t have anyone to hold hands with. It doesn’t
form part of bond, but there is a positive proton in the phosphorous nucleus holding it
in place.
11. When energy is added to pure silicon, as in the form of heat, it can cause a few
electrons to break free of their bonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in
each case. These electrons then wander randomly around the crystalline lattice
looking for another hole to fall into. These electrons are called free carriers, and can
carry electrical current. There are so few of them in pure silicon, however, that they
aren’t very useful. It turns out that it takes a lot less energy to knock loose one of our
“extra” phosphorous electrons because they aren’t tied up in a bond—their neighbors
aren’t holding them back. As a result, most of these electrons do break free, and we
have a lot more free carriers than we would have in pure silicon. The process of
adding impurities on purpose is called doping and when doped with phosphorous, the
resulting silicon is called N- type because of the prevalence of free electrons. N-type
doped silicon is a much better conductor than pure silicon. That is only one part of
solar cell is N-type the other part is doped with Boron; which has only three electrons
in its outer shell instead of four, to become P-type silicon. Instead of having free
 6

electrons, P-type silicon has free holes. Holes really are just the absence of electrons,
so they carry the opposite (positive) charge, they move around just like electrons do.
N-type plus P-type Silicon
12. In photovoltaic module both N-type silicon and P- type silicon. Photovoltaic cell
always has at least one electric field. Without an electric field, the cell wouldn’t work
and this electric field is forms when the N- type and P-type silicon are in contact. The
mechanism of producing electric field is explain by fig 1 the free electrons in the N
side looks all holes to fall into, the free holes on P side, and there’s a mad rush to fill
them in. Silicon was all electrically neutral. The extra electrons were balanced out by
the extra protons in the phosphorous and the missing electrons (holes) were balanced
out by the missing protons in the Boron. When the and electrons mix at the junction
between N- type and P- type silicon, however, that neutrality is disrupted. At the
junction electrons and protons are mix and form a barrier, making it harder and
harder for electrons on the N side to cross to the P side. Eventually, equilibrium is
reached, and we have and electric field separating the two sides.

A
N type Si

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

_____ ______________________________

PB
type Si

Fig 1: Effect of electric field in a Photovoltaic cell

Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

n-type
semiconduc tor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + De pletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconduc tor

Fig 2: Mechanism of photovoltaic generation

 7

Types of Photovoltaic System

13. PV systems are categorized into three types: autonomous, hybrid and grid-
connected.
(a) Autonomous system Autonomous systems are completely independent of
other power sources. Autonomous PV system are shown in fig 3, these type of
systems are generally used to power remote homes, cottages or lodges as well
as in applications such as remote monitoring and water pumping. In most
cases, an autonomous system will require batteries for storage. Such systems
are particularly useful and cost- effective for summer applications, when
access to a site is difficult or costly, or when maintenance needs to be
minimized.

Fig 3:

(b) Hybrid system Hybrid systems receive a portion of their power from one
or more additional sources. In practice, PV modules are often paired with a
wind generator or a fuel-fired generator. Such systems usually require batteries
for storage. They are most appropriate when energy demand is high (in the
winter or year-round), when power must be available on demand, or if your
budget is limited.

(c) Grid-connected system Grid-connected systems allow you to reduce your

consumption from the electricity grid and, in some instances, to feed the
surplus energy back into the grid. In some cases, your utility may give you
credit for the energy returned to the grid. Since power is normally stored in the
grid itself, batteries are not necessary unless you want some form of
autonomous power during outages. These systems are used in buildings, homes
or cottages already hooked up to electrical grid.
 8

Fig 6: Grid connected PV system

Solar photo voltaic cell

14. Solar cells, also called photovoltaic’s (PV) by solar cell scientists, convert sunlight
directly into electricity. Solar cells are often used to power calculators and watches.
They are made of semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer chips.
When sunlight is absorbed by these materials, the solar energy knocks electrons
loose from their atoms, allowing the electrons to flow through the material to
produce electricity. This process of converting light (photons) to electricity
(voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.

FIG 7: SOLAR CELL

15. REIL are using the conventional resources of energy from many years. But now,
they are scarce and may not be available in forgoing decades. Hence company has
to switch over to other source of energy. One of these is Solar Energy, which is
unlimited. Hence this alternate is the need of future. To utilize this resource of
energy, Reil use solar cells, which convert Solar Energy into Electrical Energy. A
solar generates approximately 0.5 volts. Higher voltage and current are obtained by
connecting these cells in series or in parallel; according to the requirement. This
energy is stored in batteries and can be used in night hours.
Types of cells, depending upon the crystal structure of Silicon
16. Solar cells can be categorized into five classes, depending upon their crystal
structure. These are as follows.
(a) Crystalline Silicon Cell
It has high mechanical strength and these are less degraded with time. This is
made using crystallization of Si around one Si crystal; hence it is called Single
Crystalline Si Cell. It is best suited for general purpose application.
Float zone - efficiency is 23%
CZ (commercial) – efficiency is 13%
(b) Multi-Crystalline Silicon Cell
It is made by crystallization of Si around many crystals of silicon. It has less
mechanical strength than single Crystalline Silicon material, efficiency of this
cell is 12 %.
(c) Amorphous Silicon Cell
 9

This cell doesn’t have any Si crystal. Simply spreading a layer of p-type Si
powder, and then N-type Si powder over it. Its mechanical strength is very low.
Efficiency is 20%.
(d) Thin Film Silicon Cell It is made by very thin film of Si p-type and n-type
materials and is used for special purpose. Efficiency is 25 %.
(e) High Efficiency Silicon Cell The purification of Si in this type of cell is
very high. Hence its efficiency is high. It is used for laboratory devices having
efficiency up to 30%. Example cadmium telluride efficiency is 28%.
TYPES OF DIFFERENT MODULES USED
17. There is different type of solar module which I saw in REIL during my summer
Vocational training period. A group of cells connected in series or in parallel and
then properly laminated over a glass after curing is known as module. These
modules are then fitted onto the areas receiving sunlight. More often these are
placed so that upper part of the module is in the South Direction. Solar modules of
different wattage and made as per orders and requirements. These are all designed
to charge a 12-V battery. The approximation o/p voltage of a module is 16V-18V.
Modules are made of following powers
(a) 18 WATT Module For making this, 36 cut cells are used. They are
connected in series. The o/p voltage is approximately 0.45Vto0.5V and the o/p
current is approx. 2.2A. To get required power 36 cut cells are connected in
series. This 36 cell series is called a string. The o/p of this string, when
illuminated by the sunlight is found to be approx. 38watts. It has 4 rows, each
containing 9 cells.
(b) 75 WATT Module Here also, a total of 36 cells are connected in series,
which is called string. But the cells used are Suido-Square having o/p voltage
0.45V-0.5V &o/p current 4.5A. The o/p power of the string is found to be
approx. 75 watts. It also has 4 rows, each containing 9 cells.
(c) 150 Watt Module These are also designed by Suido-Square cells. A total
number of 72 cells are connected in series. The module has 6 rows and each
row contain 12 cells. Thus a total of 12*6=72 cells are used. The o/p voltage,
current and power of each cell is the same as that of 75-watt module. The total
power obtained is approx. 150 watts.
CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF SOLAR CELL
18. In training period of I learned construction method of solar cell. Solar cell is a
simple p-n junction. It is made up of silicon, since in Si, the minority carrier
concentration is low, hence they do not disturb the flow of electrons and holes,
generated by the solar energy. Less charge carriers can get recombined due to low
minority carrier concentration and we get higher value of current and power. For
 10

making p-n junction it is doped with gaseous Boron (p-type) from one side and
solid phosphorous (n-type) from other side. The doping concentration is taken same
for both the impurities. Due to different doping state difference of impurities (i.e.
gaseous and solid), a one side shifted p-n junction is formed. This junction is shifted
towards the n-side. Hence, the light is always made to incident at the n-side, so that
the photons can reach the junction. When the high-energy photons reach the
depletion region, they impart sufficient energy to an electron to break its covalent
bond. This electron comes in conduction band and begins to behave free electron.
At the same instant, a hole is also generated due to broken covalent bond.
19. Hence, we can say that two charge carriers are generated by one high-energy
photon. These carriers move to opposite direction due to potential barrier at the
junction and constitute a current. One must condition of generation of mobile
charge carrier is that the incident photon must have higher energy than the band gap
of the semiconductor. The induced current is directly proportional to the surface
area of the cell, at which the light is incident. A bare solar cell has some conducting
lines made up of Silver oxide for collection of charge carriers from all the portions
of the surface. These carriers are supplied to the bus bar. This is the place, from
where the external terminals are connected by using copper strips. These cells are
made up in different shapes and sizes, like circular, square, suedo-square, cut
shaped etc. In these, Suedo-Square is optimized size between circular and square to
utilize most of the surface area & for less wastage in the process of shaping. The
maximum conversion efficiency for laboratory devices is up to 20%, but for
commercial cells, it lies between 10% to 15%.
Process for Production of Solar Photo Voltaic Module
20. In duration period of training technical supporter of REIL is get familiar with the
manufacturing of solar module. The manufacturing process for Solar cell module is
not much typical but requires a careful handling since the sub-assemblies are
costlier. A bare cell is expensive and hence requires a careful handling. The
manufacturing process of a solar power module contains the following steps as.
(a). Surface Texturing- Forming pyramid like structure on Si wafer does it.
This helps in decreasing the top surface reflection of solar radiation from the
cell surface.
(b). P-n junction formation- To a p type base of Si wafer, an n type usually
phosphorus is diffused on it.
(c). Back p+ junction formation- this is done by depositing an Aluminum
layer and alloying it to the wafer at about 8000C.
(d). Front and back metal contacts- That are formed by screen-printing
techniques. The typical width of finger lies between 150 to 300 micrometers.
 11

(e). Antireflection Layer deposition- It can be deposited before or after the

formation of metal contacts. Usually any dielectric material having refractive
index between Silicon & glass is used with an optimum thickness of 70nm.
Materials used are Titanium Oxide, Tantalum oxide, Silicon Nitride and
Aluminum oxide.
(f). TABBING This is the process of making terminals of a bare cell by
soldering copper strips to the bus bar.
(g). ROW MAKING A row of nine cells is made by connecting positive surface
of one cell to the negative surface of another cell.
(h). STRINGING Four rows are connected in series to give a total of 36 cells in
series connection. This assembly is called a string and the process is called
Stringing.
(i). STRING CHECKING This String is checked visually for any kind of
faults, which are as follows-
(i) Reverse String
(ii) Dry Point
(iii) Dry Soldering
(iv) Loose Connection
(v) Chip(Micro Broken)
(j). LAY UP Lay Up is a process of placing laminating material to the either
side of the string. The laminating materials are as listed
(i) Top Glass (Toughened Glass)
(ii) E.V.A. (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate) sheet
(iii) Crane Glass
(iv) Polyester Taddler
(k). LAMINATION The above laminating materials are attached to the string
on both sides by the process of lamination. This process takes place at 110 oC in
laminating press. The module after Lay Up is placed in the press for 11
minutes, which is equivalent to one cycle of the press. First five minutes,
soaking takes place. This is the process to generate true vacuum in the module.
Each air particle is stored from the inner part of the module. After these five
minutes, heating takes place for three minutes. And for last three minutes, the
heated module is pressed to attain a one-piece assembly.
(l).CURING This process comes after the lamination to attain the full strength
of laminating materials. For this, the module is placed into 120 oC temperature
for 20 minutes.
 12

(m). TRIMMING The resultant module from curing process has some extra
laminating materials. These materials are then cut and the final module is then
obtained.
(n). ELECTRICAL INSPECTION This inspection is done to check the output
performance of the module
(o). CHANNELING Now to provide structural support to the module, channels
are fixed around it. These channels prevent any damage to the module. A
terminal box is also fitted for external connections and for mounting safety
diodes and then the final product is cleaned and sent to and sent to he finished
goods store.
Function of Safety Diodes
21. The output voltage of the solar module in the day is approximately 16V-18V and it
is used to charge a 12V battery. But in the night hours, the output voltage of a solar
module will be lower than that of battery. Hence a reverse current will flow in this
condition from battery to the solar module. Thus to prevent it, we use safety diodes
which allows the flow of current in one direction only.
Features of SPV cells
(a) High efficiency monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells connected in series.
(b) Lamination using TEDLAR, Crane glass and EVA provides environmental
protection.
(c) Solar cells laminated between UV resistant polymer (EVA) and high
transmitivity toughened glass surface.
(d) Rugged weather proof nylon terminal box for output connections.
(e) Anodized aluminum frame provides structural support for mounting and shock
resistance.
(f) Manufactured to stringent quality standards and tested to withstand adverse
environmental conditions.
Commisioning of Work
23. As shown in fig 9 the procedure for making SPV modules with the help of flow
chart, the first step is preparation of copper strips used for tabbing, which are
dipped in flux. These strips are tinned and are tabbed on solar cells for connecting
them in series. After tabbing the process of row formation takes place, basically
connecting p side of one to n type of next and so on does this. Then these rows are
taken and according to power requirement we connect the end cells of these in
series and get two terminals out making them to act as single source. Next we do
the quality analysis of these strings to check if some cells are left dry soldered or
have crack or even for some wrong connections. After going through the QA
portion the lay up is done. For this sheet of crane glass, Tedlar and EVA (ethylene
 13

vinyl acetate) are cut and then a low iron tempered glass is taken and on it different
whets and string are placed. Next the lamination of this lay up is done for 8 minutes
and then for 20 minutes curing of this module is done. After curing the module is
analyzed in Sun Simulator for Quality assurance. During this we get the VI
characteristics for the module, which can also be provided to the customer. Lastly
the channeling of module is done and terminals for connection are taken out.
SPV MODULE
24. Photovoltaic’s (or PV) is the field of technology and research related to the
application of solar cells for energy by converting solar energy (sunlight, including
ultra violet radiation) directly into electricity. Due to the growing demand for clean
sources of energy, the manufacture of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has
expanded dramatically in recent years. Photovoltaic’s is the direct conversion of
light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as
the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release
electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current result that can
be used as electricity.
25. Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to
produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of
PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the
fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or
more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic
array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV
modules and panels.

Fig 8: process of production solar module

 14

PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR “SPV” PRODUCTION

PRODUCTION PROCESS INSPECTION STAGE

Fig 9: Process flow chart for SPV production

 15

Sun Simulator ( PV Module QA

Testers)
26. The Sun simulator tests the electrical performance of
photovoltaic cells under simulated sunlight. A xenon arc
lamp with an optical filter provides a close match to the Air
Mass 1.5 Global (AM1.5G) solar spectrum. A filtered
pulsed xenon light source closely matches the solar
spectrum while avoiding device heating. Sun simulator
measures current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of cells with
dimensions up to 156 mm x 156 mm at 1 sun intensity. Its
high resolution also permits testing of very small area
devices. Separate current and voltage probes on the top and
bottom of the cell permit four-point (Kelvin) I-V
measurements. A calibrated monitor cell is located on the
test plane to monitor the light intensity. A computer with
user friendly software adjusts the lamp intensity, controls
the measurement process, and acquires cell performance
data. A programmable electronic load varies the resistance
across the cell to measure its I-V characteristics. The
computer plots the I-V curve and displays a variety of cell
characteristics. Curves and data can be printed and stored
on disk.
27. It feature light sources that closely match the solar
spectrum while avoiding the excessive solar cell heating
caused by continuous sources. Spire's simulators can test
either crystalline or thin film modules and can be integrated
into your fully automated module production line, or
operated in manual mode. In automatic mode, a
programmed process sequence provides consistent module
testing and offers optional automated loading and
unloading of modules. In manual mode, the controls can be
operated as desired.
Features and Benefits
(a) Large 2m x 2m test area.
(b) Illumination uniformity within ±2% at 1 sun
(c) Xenon light source filtered to Class A spectrum
(AM1.5G) for intensities from 70 to 110 mW/cm²
(d) Measures the following module parameters
 16

(i) Complete I-V curve

(ii) Open circuit voltage, Voc
(iii) Short-circuit current, Isc
(iv) Cell temperature, °C
(v) Peak power, Pmax
(vi) Cell efficiency, η
(vii) Fill factor, FF
(viii) Series resistance, Rs
(ix) Shunt resistance, Rsh
(x) Voltage at peak power, Vmp
(xi) Current at peak power, Imp
(xii) Cell efficiency, Oc
(xiii) Module efficiency, Om
(xiv) Current at load voltage, It
(xv) Power at load voltage, Pl
Performance of solar cell
28. The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of
its efficiency at turning sunlight into electricity. Only
sunlight of certain energies will work efficiently to create
electricity, and much of it is reflected or absorbed by the
material that makes up the cell. A typical commercial solar
cell has an efficiency of 15%, about one-sixth of the
sunlight striking the cell generates electricity. Low
efficiencies mean that larger arrays are needed, and that
means higher cost. Improving solar cell efficiencies while
holding down the cost per cell is an important goal of the
PV industry, the first solar cells, built in the 1950s, and had
efficiencies of less than 4%.
Effect of temperature on the characteristics
of a solar cell
29. Temperature affects the characteristic equation in two
ways: directly, via T in the exponential term, and indirectly
via its effect on I0 (strictly speaking, temperature affects all
of the terms, but these two far more significantly than the
others). While increasing T reduces the magnitude of the
exponent in the characteristic equation, the value of I0
increases exponentially with T. The net effect is to reduce
VOC (the open-circuit voltage) linearly with increasing
temperature. The magnitude of this reduction is inversely
 17

proportional to VOC; that is, cells with higher values of VOC

suffer smaller reductions in voltage with increasing
temperature. For most crystalline silicon solar cells the
reduction is about 0.50%/°C, though the rate for the
highest-efficiency crystalline silicon cells is around
0.35%/°C. By way of comparison, the rate for amorphous
silicon solar cells is 0.20-0.30%/°C, depending on how the
cell is made. The amount of photo generated current IL
increases slightly with increasing temperature because of an
increase in the number of thermally generated carriers in
the cell. This effect is slight, however about 0.065%/°C for
crystalline silicon cells and 0.09% for amorphous silicon
cells. The overall effect of temperature on cell efficiency
can be computed using these factors in combination with
the characteristic equation. However, since the change in
voltage is much stronger than the change in current, the
overall effect on efficiency tends to be similar to that on
voltage. Most crystalline silicon solar cells decline in
efficiency by 0.50%/°C and most amorphous cells decline
by 0.15-0.25%/°C.
Effect of series resistance on the
characteristics of a solar cell
30. As series resistance increases, the voltage drop between
the junction voltage and the terminal voltage becomes
greater for the same flow of current. The result is that the
current-controlled portion of the I-V curve begins to sag
toward the origin, producing a significant decrease in the
terminal voltage V and a slight reduction in ISC, the short-
circuit current. Very high values of RS will also produce a
significant reduction in ISC; in these regimes, series
resistance dominates and the behavior of the solar cell
resembles that of a resistor.
Effect of shunt resistance on the
characteristics of a solar cell
31. As shunt resistance decreases, the current diverted
through the shunt resistor increases for a given level of
junction voltage. The result is that the voltage-controlled
portion of the I-V curve begins to sag toward the origin,
 18

producing a significant decrease in the terminal current I

and a slight reduction in VOC. Very low values of RSH will
produce a significant reduction in VOC. Much as in the case
of a high series resistance, a badly shunted solar cell will
take on operating characteristics similar to those of a
resistor.
Effect of reverse saturation current of a
solar cell
32. If one assumes infinite shunt resistance, the characteristic
equation can be solved for VOC. Thus, an increase in I0
produces a reduction in VOC proportional to the inverse of
the logarithm of the increase. This explains mathematically
the reason for the reduction in VOC that accompanies
increases in temperature described above. Physically,
reverse saturation current is a measure of the "leakage" of
carriers across the p-n junction in reverse bias. This leakage
is a result of carrier recombination in the neutral regions on
either side of the junction.
Effect of ideality factor on the
characteristics of a solar cell
33. The ideality factor (also called the emissivity factor) is a
fitting parameter that describes how closely the diode's
behavior matches that predicted by theory, which assumes
the p-n junction of the diode is an infinite plane and no
recombination occurs within the space-charge region. A
perfect match to theory is indicated when n=1.When
recombination in the space-charge region dominate other
recombination, however, n = 2. Most solar cells, which are
quite large compared to conventional diodes, well
approximate an infinite plane and will usually exhibit near-
ideal behavior under Standard Test Condition (n ≈ 1).
Under certain operating conditions, however, device
operation may be dominated by recombination in the space-
charge region. This is characterized by a significant
increase in I0 as well as an increase in ideality factor to n ≈
2. The latter tends to increase solar cell output voltage
while the former acts to erode it. The net effect, therefore, is
a combination of the increase in voltage shown for
 19

increasing n in the figure to the right and the decrease in

voltage shown for increasing I0 in the figure above.
Typically, I0 is the more significant factor and the result is a
reduction in voltage.
Applications of SPV Modules
(a) The photovoltaic cells were developed at Bell
Labs in 1950 primarily initially for space
applications. The Hubbell telescope utilizes solar
panels for its energy requirements.

(b) Solar panels can power a 17" b/w TV, a radio or

a fan.

(c) Some electric lighting systems provide sufficient

current for up to 10 hours of lightning each evening.

(d) Locally produced car batteries can provide up to

5 nights of energy for a 8 watt DC fluorescent light.

(e) The new Mazda 929 uses solar cells to activate a

fan to ventilate the car when the car is idle and
parked during a sunny hot day.

(f) SPACE AGE TECHNOLOGY - Solar cells, also

known as Photo Voltaic Cells, were rapidly
developed to provide electrical energy for space
missions.  The beauty of solar cells is that provided
the Sun shines, they keep on producing free
electricity.

(g) SOLAR PANELS IN SPACE- A photovoltaic

(PV) or solar cell is the basic building block of a PV
(or solar electric) system. To boost the power output
of PV cells, we connect them together to form larger
units called modules. Modules, in turn, can be
connected to form even larger units called arrays,
which can be interconnected to produce more power,
and so on. In this way, we can build PV systems able
to meet almost any electric power need, whether
small or large.
 20

Agro Dairy Division

34. The Electronics Division kicked off its operations in
1982, --the year of formation of the Company and has
notched up many credits in the last one and a half-decade.
The operations started with the Electronic Milk Tester,
under technical collaboration with A/S Foss Electric of
Denmark, and assembly of Electronic Milk Tester (EMT)
in SKD form, from kits supplied by the collaborator,
initially. The Company has rapidly absorbed and
assimilated the technology, successfully indigenised the
product, and in response to customer requirements,
designed it on micro-controller technology to suit the needs
of the Indian customers. Thus, the auto-zero EMT was
introduced in the market in the year 1990. The Company
has also successfully integrated the products into a more
versatile system, developed in-house through it own
development efforts, called the Milk Collection Station.
ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER
35. During my training period the second division of is
agro dairy division, the main product of agro division is
electronic milk tester, so in this section section of REIL, I
learned about Electronic Milk Tester (EMT). & it’s
different sub assemblies and its working principal &
testing. E.M.T is a simple, economical but accurate milk
fat testing instrument. It measures the fat content
instantaneously on a digital read out. It does not involve
the use corrosive chemicals. It works on light scattering
principle with manual homogenization. It operates on AC-
mains as well as on battery with inbuilt battery charger &
automatic switch over to battery in case of power failure.
Several thousand small/large dairies and village Milk
Collection Centres are being benefited with its use.
36. Basic objective in the dairy development program is to
increase the production of milk. Milk collection depends
on prompt payment of fair and correct price to encourage
producers to increase milk production. The system of
payment based on quality (i.e. fat content) discourages
adulteration and encourages producers to increase
 21

production of high quality milk. It is further very

necessary that each sample of milk

Fig 10: Electronic Milk Tester

Should be tested of its quality and testing should be
completed within 2 to 3 hours time in order to make
correct payment. Milk sample would also get spoiled if
not tested immediately in the absence of facility to
preserve them, especially at village level.
37. Age – old traditional ‘GERBER’ method of testing milk
by chemicals has many inherent drawbacks, such as human
error, multistep method, handing of corrosive chemical and
different types of glassware. All these add to the cost and
time of milk testing. A quicker reliable and economical
method of milk fat testing has therefore become inevitable
and an immediate problem to solve. In the light of some
problems faced by ‘GERBER’ method of testing, it was felt
prudent, to evolve a system which should solve these
problems.
38. The process of fat measuring by EMT has involved
basic principle, diluents preparation, homonization, auto
zero setting etc.
Features of EMT
(a) Auto zero facility
(b)Performs 110-130 samples per hour
(c) Instant measurement and display of milk fat
(d)Instant calculation of amount payable
(e) Facility to feed milk weight directly through keypad
 22

in absence of weighing machine

(f) Operation with 4*4matrix hexadecimal
keypad
(g) Printing facility
(h)Instant transmission of data’s on remote display
(i) 7 segment LED
(j) Suitable for interface with electronic weighing
machine through serial port
(k)Data storage up to 800 members for 30 days
(l) Data transmission speed 2400 baud
(m) Data storage on E2PROM
(n)Built in battery charger
(o) Runs on mains and battery both
(p)Slip printout by 80 columns serial dot matrix
printer
Technical Specifications of EMT
Installation
Performance Data Requirements 
Measuring 0-13% fat  Power AC: 220-24OV 
range  Supply 
(Max + 10%, Min
- 15%) 

DC: 12V, 6A 

(Max 16 V; Min
10.5V) 

A fully-charged
120 AH 

battery will last

for at least 

10 hours of
operation. 
Ambient
Capacity  120-150 samples/hour  5-45 0C 
temperature 
 23

Accuracy 0.06% for 0-5% fat  Dimensions 23x31x53 cm

(Sd)  (HxWxD) 
0.10% for 5-8% fat 

0.20% for 8-13% fat 

Repeatability 0.03% for 0-5% fat  Space 60x80 cm
(Sd)  requirement 
0.04% for 5-8% fat 

0.08% for 8-13% fat 

Sample 0.5 ml/test  Weight 16 kg. 
volume  (without
diluent) 
Diluent
6.5 ml/test 
volume 

Basic principle of EMT

39. Electronic Milk Tester works on the photometric
measurement of light scattered by the fat globules present
in the milk sample. The measuring procedure follows the
conventional system of dilution, mixing, homogenization
and photometric measurement.

Fig 11: Front View Of Electronic Milk

Tester
 24

Working Principle of Measurement

40. EMT is based on the photometric measurement of high
scattered by the milk sample. The light is scattered by the
milk sample. The light is scattered by the fat globules
acting as small prisms. Not only fat globules in milk
contribute to the light scattering, but also the proteins may
affect the measurement, to eliminate their influence, it is
necessary to dissolve them. EDTA solution is used for the
purpose.
(a) Constant fat globule size is required by the
system. This is done by homogenizer.
(b) Light rays from a photo lamp are passed through
the layer of fluid in the cuvette and are scattered
according to the sample of fat globules in sample.
Photocell detects and current is fed to digital readout.
(c) Light rays from a photo lamp passed through the
layer of fluid in the cuvette and are scattered
according to the sample of fat globules in the sample.
More the fat is present in the cuvette more is the light
scattered and less light passes through the cuvette.
The rays that do pass through the cuvette strike a
photocell, producing a current proportional to the
light intensity. The current is fed to a digital readout
unit which gives direct fat percentage read out.
Different subassembly of EMT are as follows
(a) Photometer The photometer consists of a lamp,
lamp housing and detector assembly. The detector
assembly includes the cuvette and photo cell.
(b) Cuvette It is made of two hardened glass discs.
One has a ground depression of 0.4 mm the other has
two small holes to provide inlet and outlet to the
cuvette.
(c) Photocell It is a selenium barriers / silicon
detector photocell. Care should be taken not to
expose this photocell to light when not in operation.
(d) Lamp 12 Volts tungsten Lamp.
Diluent preparation
(a) Diluent is used to dilute milk samples and
 25

dissolve the proteins

(b) Chemicals required to prepare 10 liters of diluent
are as follows
(i). EDTA sachet-52.6gmscontaining
EDTAPowder-45.0gms, disodium
Hydroxide- 7.6gms.
(ii). Triton-x-100 -- 0.5ml (10 drops)
(iii). Antifoam --0.5ml(10 drops)
(c) Take a clean 10lt plastic container and add one
liters clean water. Add contents EDTA sachet,
containing diluent powder for 10lt sol. Add .5ml of
titron-X-100 & .5ml antifoam. Put the lid on
container and shake it until all chemicals re dissolved
then add 1 liter clean water to prepare 10lt of sol. and
shake again to mix the sol. The pH of the solution
should be between 9.5 to 10.1diluent will remain
good for two weeks before antifoam becomes
inactive. Diluent can be kept longer if antifoam
antifoam is added to solution from time to time.
Sub Assemblies
(a) Cable assembly.
(b)Charging regulator It has two functions When
battery has been discharged it limits charging current
to 5 amps, and other is When battery has been fully
charged and reaches 14.1D charging regulator turns
off charging current entirely.
(c) Switch unit
(d)Control panel Output of power is given to
measure pcb where current from photocell is led to 3
position switch to IC where current is converted to
voltage.
(e) Power supply (power PCB) this is a serial
regulator with no current limit. Base current goes to
ground via resistor.
(f) Thermo block It is used for temperature
control it consists of Heater resistance, thermo fuse
(70 deg. blow), NTC, steel coil. An NTC resistor
sensor is located in a hole at rear of thermo block.
Temperature control of power supply PCB contains a
 26

bridge circuit which is adjusted to balance when

NTC is 500C bridge output is amplified and controls
transistor power amplifier of heat control circuit .the
output transistor and heat resistor are mounted at rear
of thermo block.
(g) Dispenser unit It consists of EDTA powder
(dissolves proteins except fat) +distill water +
titrounax (lubricant) +antifoam (reduce foam).
(h) Homogenizer It uniforms fat globules solution
enters and a film is made of sample. If the fat is of
high amount film is thick so light is more saturated
thus voltage decreases. If fat is less film is thin thus
voltage increases.

Fig 12 : Homogenizer Assembly

 27

accessories
Components for
Acc. cable

Output lever
Accessories

Components
Valve unit 3

Valve unit 2

Valve unit 1

Rear panel

Dispenser unit
unit
Basic unit

Bottom plate

Thermo block Photometer Block c.p.

Homogenizer Intake valve

Power supply Power pcb

Control panel Measure pcb

Switch unit

Charging regulator

Cable assy.2
basic unit
Component for

Cable assy. 1

Fig 13. Block diagram of EMT

 28

(i) Photometer and its associated parts

(i).Lamp, lamp housing
(ii). Detector assembly induces the cuvette
and photocell
(iii). Cuvette: it is made of 2 hardened glass
discs one has 0.4mm ground discs; another has
0.4mm ground depression.

Fig 14: Assembly of PHOTOMETER

(iv). Photocell selenium barrier/ silicon

detector photocell. It should not be exposed to
light when the device is not in operation.
(v). Lamp 12 volt tungsten.
(j) Rear panel It consists of 12v battery and a
heat sink- for cooling purpose.

Fig 15: Rear View Of EMT

 29

Technical Fault Finding in EMT

(a) Rear panel checking All components of the rear
panel are checked using a millimeter. It is a part of
final quality control. Continuities of the circuit are
checked.
(b)PCB calibration
(i).Measure PCB
PCBs are programmed as per need and
requirements and fat content.
REPEAT and ZERO buttons are checked
for functionality.
(ii). Power Supply PCB
It has two operations, Temperature control
and Voltage level supply. (Low 5.9 V to
9.9V) both are tested.
(iii). Charger PCB
It is checked for charging at 14.1 V for a 5
ampere battery.
(c) Valve testing There are three types of valve
which are classified on the basis of the pressure
at which they work. These are
(i).Red valve takes diluents to dispenser unit
from inlet.
(ii). Green valve dispenser to dispenser again.
(iii). Blue valve outlet of checked sample
(waste).
(d)PCB cleaning PCBs are cleaned with the
chemicals meant for the same. All the dust gets
removed and PCB is ready for installation after
this.
(e)Temperature testing (thermo block)
Temperature of the thermo block is set with the help
of Power PCB. Maximum temperature: 50.1 to 50.2
degrees Celsius Minimum temperature: 49.0 to 49.1
degrees Celsius. All measurements are done with the
help of electronic thermometer. We insert the sensor
in a hole of thermo block.
 30

Fig 16: Calibration Of E.M.T

(f) Mechanical testing Mechanical

connections and joints are checked. Attachments are
tightened to provide strength to the machine.
(g) Life test It is done to check mechanical faults
and leakage after overall testing to see how the
device is working in practical situations.
(h) Dispenser test Leakage of the milk and diluents
chambers is checked. If found, dispensers are sent
back for repairing.
Installation of EMT
(a) Place of installation should be such that there
should be sufficient space for diluents container and
battery also. Handle of EMT must be easy to reach.
(b) Check 1 Ampere fuse in the mains fuse holder and
10 Ampere fuse in the battery holder.
(c) Connect power cables to mains.
(d) Use only 12V motor car battery connect red lead
of battery to’+’ pole of battery and back lead to
‘-‘pole. Connect other end of the cable of electronic
milk tester.
(e) Set selector switch at line 1 battery will now be
supplied to EMT from battery. As long as main
switch is at on operation, current from mains will
keep the battery charged. If the power fails battery
will still be able to supply enough current for several
hours of operation. Set the selector switch at line, if
for any reason the EMT is to be operated on mains
 31

current without a battery.

(f) Prepare the diluent as described earlier.
(g) Connect one end of plastic thick pipe to INLET
stub at back of EMT and attach the filter unit to other
end which is placed in the diluent container.
(h) Connect one end of plastic thin pipe to outlet stub
and place the other end in wastecontainer.

Fig 17: Installation Of Electronic Milk Tester

(i) Place empty beaker under milk intake tube and

push ‘milk in’ &’milk out’ buttons alternatively until
no bubbles are seen in syringes, end by pushing ‘milk
out’ button.
Process of Measurement
(a). Set power switch at ON.
(b). Set battery switch at LINE/BATTERY.
(c). Fill bottle with diluents.
(d). Empty bucket for waste.
(e). Do not start procedure three until EMT has
been switched ON at least half an hour.
 32

(f). Setting display at 0.00.

(g).Place milk beaker under milk intake.
(h).Push milk in, milk out.
(i). Move mix beaker to mix intake.
(j). Raise and lower handle 6 times.

Fig 18: Fat Measurement by Electronic Milk Tester

(k).Push repeat button so display blinks.

(l). Push zero buttons so display reads 0.00.
(m). Push repeat so display doesn’t blink (one
decimal).
41. After drying and zero setting measurement can begin.
First result after zero check / zero setting should not be
 33

recorded as it will be little low. Therefore measure the first

sample after zero check twice and record only second
result. Turn the milk sample gently upside down a few
times. Place the sample under milk intake and fully press
“MILK IN” button. Slowly remove the sample without
touching the milk intake tube. Place clean milk under milk
intake so that it fills into notch on the side of EMT Press
‘MIXOUT’ button in all way and diluent into mix beaker.
Move mix beaker to mix intake tube and position it so that
it rest in notch operator homogenizer handle up and down
3 times in a steady measurement when the handle is
pressed down and the third time let it test in bottom
position and result will soon appear on the display empty
the mix beaker completely and in ready for the next
sample.
End of Measurement
42. Place a clean, empty mix beaker under milk intake tube
and press ‘MILK IN’ and ‘MIXOUT’ buttons twice
alternately to fill mix beaker with diluent. Place the mix
beaker under mix take and operate the handle up and
down six times to flush the cuvette. Switch off the EMT.
De-airing the homogenizer
43. Air will enter the homogenizer if the handle is raised
when there is no liquid present at the mix intake tube.
Place the mix beaker under milk intake tube and press
‘MILK IN’ & ‘MILK OUT’ buttons twice to fill the
beaker with diluents. Now place the filled mix beaker
under the MIX INTAKE tube and raise the handle. Loosen
the bleeder screw on the top of mix intake valve. Let the
handle drop by its own weight and tighten the bleeder
screw again. Operate the handle three more times up and
down to be sure that all air is out of the system.
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
44. Every company has a cell for checking the quality of
its goods, so that the consumers can use the product
without any difficulty for a long time. REIL has a
department for quality assurance and control. In my
 34

training period I also gone through this department where I

saw the various functions of this department include.
In REIL, Q.A department has two major operations
(a) Solar Module Checking.
(b) EMT Checking.
Inward Goods Checking
45. The raw material bought by REIL for the production of
EMT and Solar Module are firstly checked, if they are
faulty or not. If they are faulty, they returned otherwise
forwarded to manufacturing cell. This checking is called
inward goods checking. In this type of checking, out of a
group of 60 pieces, 5 pieces are checked randomly. If they
all are found to be good, then all are passed to production
department, and if not then, all pieces are checked one by
one. The faulty pieces are forwarded for replacement.
Subassembly Quality Control This department also
checks the quality of subassemblies, made by the raw
goods by REIL.
Final Goods Inspection After the final product is obtained;
it is again checked for quality control.

SPV Checking It has three major phases –

(a) Inward Goods Checking First of all, the bare
cells are checked for required quality.
(b) String Checking after making string, it is
checked visually, if there are any faults or not. The
main faults in a string are
(i). Reverse String
(ii). Dry point
(iii). Dry Soldering
(iv). Loose Connection
(v). Chip(Micro Broken)
(c) Electrical Inspection this is used to check the
performance o/p of the module under normal
working condition. This is checked using a device
called sun simulator. A sun simulator generates the
light at of same intensity and frequencies, as that of
SUN and check the module under following
parameters
 35

(i). Open Circuit Voltage

(ii). Short Circuit Current
(iii). Maximum Power
(iv). Peak Voltage
(v). Peak Current
(vi). Load Power
(vii). Load Voltage
(viii). Load Current
(ix). Fill Factor = Pm/Voc. Isc
(x). Efficiency
(xi). Panel Temperature
(xii). V-I Curve
Industrial Electronics Division
46. The company has extended its expertise and experience
gained in the development of electronic products to design
& development of Single Phase and Three Phase
Electronic Energy Meters under its newly formed
Industrial Electronics Division. The Industrial Electronics
Division kicked off its operations in 1996. Initially, the
development of Static 3 phase and later 1 phase Energy
meters was taken up. The operations started with the
requirements of the state electricity boards to incorporate
latest advances in electronics for their energy monitoring
needs and for introducing a more reliable and tamper-
proof meter to curtail pilferage and misuse of the electric
power supplied to the customers. The Company has
rapidly absorbed and assimilated the technology,
successfully developed the product in response to
customer requirements to suit the needs in Indian
conditions.  The IE Division is also working on the various
models of the meter like; Analog Electronics based, ASIC
based and microcontroller based to integrate more features
and improve the reliability of the product through its own
development efforts.
Energy Meter
An electric meter or energy meter is a device that
measures the amount of electrical energy supplied to or
produced by a residence, business or machine.
 36

(a) Static energy meter single phase 5-30 A- it is watt

hour meter for measuring energy consumed in a load of
single phase up to 30 Amps. It is static type i.e.no moving
parts inside it like disc as in case of conventional type.
(b) It measures as low as 10 ma AC current as drawn
by Neon lamp/ led’s etc. it is anti tampering i.e. measures
energy through current of both the lines phase and neutral
and take the reading of maximum of the two, thus no
tampering can be done.
(c) It is made strictly as per New IS 13799: 1999 and
tested for rigorous evaluation tests well approved by BIS
(Beauro of Indian standards).
Working principal of Static Energy Meter (SEM)
47. Input current is being measured by two CTs and is
fed to IC 9607 and voltage is fed via PT to the IC. IC out
put is in the form of pulses is fed to pulse counter. One
Led indicates for power is “ON” another for pulse
indication, third is for anti tampering (earthing load) and
fourth for reverse current. Thus all different conditions
are indicated on the front of meter. Meter is tested for
calibration on Min. load (10 mA) to 30A 600% of rated
current on power factor from unity to 0.5 (lag) and 0.8
(lead). It should be within the limits of class 1 (1%). The
calibration LED indicates on each pulse and can bee
calibrated for a meter constant of 6400 IMP per KWh
while counter has one increment on 640 IMPs for i/10 th
JWH (unit).
(a) It is tested for no load that is it should not
indicate increment of reading while on NO load
( Creap test).
(b) It is tested for actual reading on counter (Dial
test).
(c) It is tested for repeatability of error with repect
to time. It sould be within limit of 0.5 %.
48. Electricity is a clean, convenient way to deliver energy.
The electricity meter is how electricity providers measure
billable services. The most common type of meter
measures kilowatt hours. When used in electricity
retailing, the utilities record the values measured by these
 37

meters to generate an invoice for the electricity. They

may also record other variables including the time when
the electricity was used. Since it is expensive to store
large amounts of electricity, it must usually be generated
as it is needed. More electricity requires more generators,
and so providers want consumers to avoid causing peaks
in consumption. Electricity meters have therefore been
devised that encourage users to shift their consumption of
power away from peak times, such as mid afternoon,
when many buildings turn on air-conditioning. For these
applications, meters measure demand, the maximum use
of power in some interval. In some areas, the meters
charge more money at certain times of day, to reduce use.
Also, in some areas meters have relays to turn off
nonessential equipment. Providers are also concerned
about efficient use of their distribution network. So, they
try to maximize the delivery of billable power. This
includes methods to reduce tampering with the meters.
49. The network has to be upgraded with thicker wires,
larger transformers, or more generators if parts of it
become too hot from excessive currents. The currents can
be caused by either real power, in which the waves of
voltage and current coincide, or apparent power, in which
the waves of current and voltage do not overlap, and so
cannot deliver power. Since providers can only collect
money for real power, they try to maximize the amount of
real power delivered by their networks. Therefore,
distribution networks always incorporate electricity
meters that measure apparent power, usually by
displaying or recording power factors or volt-amp-
reactive-hours. Many industrial power meters can
measure volt-amp-reactive hours.
Features
(a) Static Energy Meter is based on state-of-the-art
hybrid electronics technology.
(b)Reverse current & tampering protection.
(c) Accurate energy measurement even in case of
phase reversal.
 38

(d)LED indication for meter functioning.

(e) Intelligent electronic circuit to ensure no
creepage of meter.
(f) True R.M.S. meter to ensure good performance
even for distorted waveforms.
(g) Sealed electromagnetic impulse counter for
additional security.
(h)Sudden switching of heavy loads and/or
transient voltage does not affect the meter reading.
(i) Accurate reading even at rapidly fluctuating
load current.
(j) No effect of high voltage fluctuations.
(k)Resistant to heat, fire and dust.
(l) Provides direct interface to mechanical
counters.
(m) Monitors live and neutral for tamper detection.
(n) Performs bi-directional energy measurement.
(o) Various setup modes selectable.
(p) Total power consumption rating below 25 mW.
(q) Adaptable to different types of sensors.
(r) Operates over a wide temperature range.
(s) Precision voltage reference on chip.
Unit of measurement
50. The most common unit of measurement on the
electricity meter is the kilowatt hour, which is equal to the
amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a
period of one hour, or 3,600,000 joules. Some electricity
companies use the SI mega joule. Demand is normally
measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often
a quarter or half hour. Reactive power is measured in
"Volt-amperes reactive", (watt) in kilowatt-hours. A
"lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have
negative reactive power. A "leading", or capacitive load,
will have positive reactive power.Volt-amperes measures
all power passed through a distribution network,
including reactive and actual. This is equal to the product
of root-mean-square volts and amperes.
51. Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured
in several ways. Power factor is the ratio of resistive (or
 39

real power) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a

leading power factor, and an inductive load has a lagging
power factor. A purely resistive load (such as a filament
lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a power factor of Current
harmonics are a measure of distortion of the wave form.
For example, electronic loads such as computer power
supplies draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their
internal storage elements. This can lead to a significant
voltage drop near the supply voltage peak which shows as
a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening
causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they
exceed specific limits, as they are not only wasteful, but
may interfere with the operation of other equipment.
Harmonic emissions are mandated by law in EU and other
countries to fall within specified limits.
Other units of measurement
52. Meters which measured the amount of charge
(coulombs) used, known as ampere-hour meters, were
used in the early days of electrification. These were
dependent upon the supply voltage remaining constant for
accurate measurement of energy usage, which was not a
likely circumstance with most supplies. Some meters
measured only the length of time for which current
flowed, with no measurement of the magnitude of voltage
or current is made. These were only suited for constant
load applications.
53. Types of meters There is different types of meters,
depends upon the demand of time.
(a)Electromechanical meters
This mechanical electricity meter has every other
dial rotating counter-clockwise. The
electromechanical induction meter operates by
counting the revolutions of an aluminum disc which
is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the
power. The number of revolutions is thus
proportional to the energy usage. It consumes a small
amount of power, typically around 2 watts. The
metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is
connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic
 40

flux in proportion to the voltage and the other

produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current.
The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees
using a lag coil.[4] This produces eddy currents in the
disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on
the disc in proportion to the product of the
instantaneous current and voltage. A permanent
magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the
speed of rotation of the disc. The equilibrium
between these two opposing forces results in the disc
rotating at a speed proportional to the power being
used. The disc drives a register mechanism which
integrates the speed of the disc over time by counting
revolutions, much like the odometer in a car, in order
to render a measurement of the total energy used
over a period of time. The type of meter described
above is used on a single-phase AC supply. Different
phase configurations use additional voltage and
current coils.
(b) Solid state meters
Some newer electricity meters are solid state and
display the power used on an LCD, while newer
electronic meters can be read automatically. In
addition to measuring electricity used, solid state
meters can also record other parameters of the load
and supply such as maximum demand, power factor
and reactive power used etc. They can also include
electronic clock mechanisms to compute a value,
rather than an amount of electricity consumed, with
the pricing varying by the time of day, day of week,
and seasonally. Most solid-state meters use a current
transformer to measure the current. This means that
the main current-carrying conductors need not pass
through the meter itself and so the meter can be
located remotely from the main current-carrying
conductors, which is a particular advantage in large-
power installations. It is also possible to use remote
current transformers with electromechanical meters
 41

though this is less common.

(c) Smart meters
Smart meters go a step further than simple AMR
(automatic meter reading). They offer additional
functionality including a real-time or near real-time
reads, power outage notification, and power quality
monitoring. They allow price setting agencies to
introduce different prices for consumption based on
the time of day and the season. These price
differences can be used to reduce peaks in demand
(load shifting or peak lopping), reducing the need for
additional power plants and in particular the higher
polluting and costly to operate natural gas powered
peaker plants. The feedback they provide to
consumers has also been shown to cut overall energy
consumption. Another type of smart meter uses
nonintrusive load monitoring to automatically
determine the number and type of appliances in a
residence, how much energy each uses and when.
This meter is used by electric utilities to do surveys
of energy use. It eliminates the need to put timers on
all of the appliances in a house to determine how
much energy each uses.
(d) Prepaid energy meters
Prepayment meter and magnetic stripe tokens,
from a rented accommodation in the UK. The button
labeled A displays information and statistics such as
current tariff and remaining credit. The button
labeled B activates a small amount of emergency
credit should the customer run out. The standard
business model of electricity retailing involves the
electricity company billing the customer for the
amount of energy used in the previous month or
quarter. In some countries, if the retailer believes that
the customer may not pay the bill, a prepayment
meter may be installed. This requires the customer to
make advance payment before electricity can be used
Other product Manufactured or tested at
 42

REIL
AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER
54. Automatic Electronic Milk Tester (Auto EMT)
manufactured by REIL is simple, economical and
accurate milk fat testing instrument. Manual operation has
been automated by using high torque AC synchronous
motor to make more reliable, rugged and to ensure proper
homogenization for higher fat sample. Percentage of fat
content is displayed quickly and accurately on a digital
read out.
Working principle
55. Automatic Electronic Milk Tester works on the
photometric measurement of light scattered by the fat
globules present in the milk sample. The measuring
procedure follows the automated system of dilution,
mixing, homogenization and photometric measurement.
Technical specifications
(a) Measuring Range : 0-13% fat
(b) Capacity : 150-180
samples /hour
(c) Sample Volume : 0.5 ml/test
(d) Diluent Volume : 6.5 ml/test
Features of Auto EMT
(a) Auto intake of milk sample
(b) Auto homogenization
(c) Auto zeroing
(d) Process indication
(e) Quick and instant read-out
(f)Runs on mains
(g) Measures up to 13% fat
(h) Requires small quantity of milk
(i) Performs 150Min.-180Max. test per hour
(j) Inexpensive method of testing
(k) Dedicated Milk Fat Analyzer
(l) RS 232 communication facility
(m) Close correlation to accepted standard methods
or measurement of milk parameters.
 43

OPTICAL MILK ANALYZER

56. The Optical Milk Analyzer, developed by REIL, works
on the principle of photometric measurement of light
allowed to pass through the measurement device in
accordance with the milk density. The milk density is
measured accurately and result displayed quickly on a
display after temperature correction according to the
actual sample temperature for the convenient read-out by
the user and the milk producer. The instrument allows
capturing of milk FAT from an Electronic Milk Tester
(EMT) and displays FAT and SNF% on Optical Milk
Analyzer LCD. Option for display of CLR is also
available. The instrument is simple, economical, reliable
and rugged for milk analysis. The instrument can be
integrated with Automatic Milk Collection Unit for quick
measurement of milk parameters, processing and storing
them for records. The instrument is ideally suited for the
village milk collection centers, milk chilling centers etc.

Fig 19: Optical milk analyzer

FEATURES
(a) Displays % solid-non-fat
(b) Results independent of sample temperature
(c) Suitable for Raw, Fresh and homogenized milk
(d) Effect of air bubbles on accuracy eliminated
 44

(e) Small reusable after test

(f) Performs 150 tests per hour
(g) Quick measurement and instant digital read out on
LCD
(h) Low power consumption
(i) Simple and inexpensive method of milk analysis
(j) Operator friendly-easy to maintain and simple to
use

DATA PROCESSOR ELECTRONIC MILK

TESTER (DPEMT)
57. Data Processor Electronic Milk Tester (DPEMT)
comprises of four main units, an Electronic Milk Tester,
Milk weighing System, Remote Display and Dot Matrix
Printer. EMT measures the fat content of the milk. The
membership codes of individual members are entered
manually by keyboard. The weight can be entered either
manually or captured automatically. The equipment gives
the printout of the transaction of milk brought in by each
producer. The member no., weight, fat, amount are
displayed on DPEMT and Remote Display
simultaneously. A shift-end summary can be printed at
the end of the shift.

Fig 20: external diagram of DPEMT

58. Data Processor Electronic Milk Tester works on the
principle of photometric measurement of light scattered
by the fat globules present in the milk sample. The
 45

measuring procedure follows the conventional system of

dilution, mixing, homogenization and photometric
measurement.
TECHINICAL SPECIFICATION
(a) Measuring Range : 0-13% fat
(b) Capacity : 110-130
Samples per hour
(c) Sample Volume : 0.5 ml/test
(d) Diluent Volume : 6.5 ml/test
FEATURES
(a) Auto zero facility.
(b) Performs 110-130 samples per hour.
(c) Instant measurement and display of milk fat.
(d) Instant calculation of amount payable.
(e) Facility to feed milk weight directly through
keypad in absence of weighing machine.
(f) Operation with 4*4matrix hexadecimal keypad.
(g) Printing facility.
(h) Instant transmission of data’s on remote display.
(i) 7 segment LED.
(j) Suitable for interface with electronic weighing
machine through serial port.
(k) Data storage up to 800 members for 30 days.
(l) Data transmission speed 2400 baud.
(m) Data storage on E2PROM.
(n) Built in battery charger.
(o) Runs on mains and battery both.
(p) Slip printout by 80 columns serial dot matrix
printer.

The BactoScan FC
59. The Bactoscan™ Fc Is The Ideal Solution For
Laboratories Requiring Reliable, Instant And Accurate
Bacteria Count In Raw Milk With Minimum Sample
Handling. The Unique Combination Of Technology And
Biochemistry Combined With Optimum Data Processing
And A Software Platform Second To None, Make
Bactoscan Fc A Winner. The Bactoscan Fc Is A True
 46

Member Of The Foss Integrator Family. The Great

Advantage From A Laboratory Point Of View Is That The
Same Software, The Same Conveyors, Bar Code Readers
Etc. Can Be Used Throughout The Laboratory. This
Eases Training of Laboratory Staff and Facilitates Data
transfer and –handling The very simple reagent concept
allows much more flexibility when purchasing reagents.
all reagents can be supplied in packages for approx.
20,000 samples (150 samples/hour) in addition, The
enzyme stock solution is supplied in smaller volumes to
comply with varying needs all reagents are ordered
separately. The BactoScan FC consists of the analyzer,
the PC and the basic Foss Integrator software package. A
number Of options are available. The 100% automated
BactoScan FC employs flow cell cytometry to provide a
system that counts Individual Bacteria Cells - IBC (only
viable bacteria). This gives a high accuracy compared to
methods that are strongly influenced by bacterial growth
requirements and by the number of single bacteria in a
bacteria cluster. Analytical quality assurance A complete
range of control samples and quality assurance
application software offers a system for monitoring and
documenting correct analyzer performance, and helps
trouble shooting if need.

Fig 21: BactoScan FC

Installation requirements
 47

(a) Dimensions : 85 x 260 cm

(b) Space requirements : Approx. 2 x 4.5
meters
(c) Weight : 197 kg (without
conveyor)
(d) 205 kg (with Basic Conveyor)
(e) 250 kg (with Conveyor 4000)
(f) Power supply : 110 - 240 V AC
(g) Power consumption : 50VA stop, max
2000 VA
(h) Water supply for preparation: Purified water (<5
μS/cm3)
(i) Air (for Conveyor 4000) : 0.2 N litres/min at
4.0 – 7.2 bar
(j) Waste : Approx. 8 litres
per hour
(k) Ambient temperature : 15 – 33°C
Data output
(a) Real-time display/print-out, storage on hard disk
or diskette.
(b) Host transmission (RS232) and PC network
transmission (TCP/IP).
(c) Data export using CSV files, CS83 protocol or
XML.
Equipment
Basic analyzer incl. table and reagent containers, PC,
software, Basic Conveyor, Printer, extra reagent
containers, ID bar code laser scanner, ID bottle rotation,
Conveyor 4000, Conveyor extensions, Output buffer,
Sample racks.
Standards and approvals
BactoScan FC is CE-labeled and complies with the
following standards:
(a) EMC directive 89/336/EEC
(b) Machinery safety directive 98/37/EEC
(c) Low voltage directive 73/23/EEC
(d) Reagents labeling directive 99/45/EEC

Application data
 48

BactoScan FC Semiautomatic is only available with high

sensitivity at 50 samples per hour (50H). This version
does not include Conveyor and Stirrer system
(a) Analysis time : 8.5 minutes
(b) Sample intake : approx. 4.5 ml
(c) Sample temperature : 2 – 42°C
(d) Sample quality : Raw milk of normal
composition and good
quality from cows Un-
preserved or preserved
with azidiol
Performance data
Repeatability
Range (IBC/μl) Sr (log-units)
Typical Sr (log units)
10 – 50 0.07
0.06
51-200 0.05
0.04
>200 0.04
0.02
Benefits and features
(a) Correct and fair milk grading
(b) Superior documented reproducibility,
repeatability and carry-over
(c) Facilities for QC and validation of results
(i.) All reagents certified.
(ii.) Software traceability tools.
(iii.) Control samples help you monitor and
document.
(iv.) Analyser performance.
(v.) Control sample charts - log performance
over time.
(vi.) Documented performance on
accuracy, reproducibility and
 49

repeatability.
(d) Software conversion tools for calculation of
Individual Bacteria Eminent tool for improving
milk quality.
(i.) Fast results - in less than 9 minutes.
(ii.) Recording of Individual Bacteria
Count rather than Colony Forming Units
which might hide poor quality milk.
(e) High up-time
(i.) Few moving parts – a robust analyser.
(ii.) No daily adjustments, short warm up
period.
(iii.) Little time spent on reagent
preparation.
(iv.) Remote support via modem or
internet.
(v.) Supported by local FOSS Service
organization, trained BactoScan engineers are
always close.
(vi.) Low operator costs per sample.
(vii.) High sample throughput – 50 -100 or
150 samples/hour.
(viii.) Simplified reagent concept.
(ix.)Low service costs per sample.
(x.) High sample throughput – 50 -100 or 150
samples/hour.
(xi.)2 year warranty on instrument.
(xii.) Software troubleshooting tools and
remote support.
(xiii.) Quality control concept.
(xiv.) Preventive maintenance contracts.
MilkoScan Minor
60. Today, chemical methods such as Gerber, Babcock,
Kjeldahl and other traditional methods are no longer the
only practical low-cost solution for e.g. Fat and Protein
testing needs. The MilkoScan Minor is a very attractive
alternative because of its lower cost and less time used
per sample. It is easy to use, rapid and has a fine
performance. The results are presented to you in
approximately 90 seconds and enable you to standardize
milk or perform milk payment analysis on Fat and other
parameters. With MilkoScan Minor you get a simple
 50

analysis of whole range of parameters - all from one

sample in only one operation. It is possible to prepare a
sample set on the PC before collecting results and
prepare a manual sample. MilkoScan Minor is based on
well known IR technology used in other FOSS
MilkoScans, and complies with IDF standards and
AOAC official methods. FPD only in cow’s milk
calibrations. MilkoScan Minor is simple and user
friendly all the way from installation to operation,
calibration and maintenance. This makes it easy for non-
skilled users to operate the instrument. Analysis of your
milk and cream can take place instantly. There is no need
for special sample treatment and no use of hazardous
chemicals, making MilkoScan Minor very safe and
inexpensive to use. Analysis of milk and cream can take
place instantly. There is no need for special sample
treatment and no use of hazardous chemicals, making
MilkoScan Minor very safe and inexpensive to use. . we
just have to place the sample in the instrument and press
Start. MilkoScan Minor has an easy legible display with
few keys.

Fig 22: MilkoScan Minor

MilkoScan Minor PC software

(a) Save time- With FOSS MilkoScan Minor PC
 51

software, manyof the time-consuming tasks related

to milk analysis can be carried out by means of an
external PC. The simplified procedures for data
collection, calibration adjustment and data storage
provides for greater efficiency and productivity in
your daily work.
(b)Data collection-All results can automatically
be collected, displayed and stored for calculation
and adjustment of the basic calibrations. All results
can be saved, printed and exported to other software
programs. This ensures greater data security and
reduces manual data entry.
(c) Export and import of data- The results can
be exported for use in other software programs.
Measured results can be imported and used in
various sample sets. Results can be exported and
printed on any printer via the PC
(d)Emulator- Emulator software is included in
order to provide training and demonstrations and
for fast and easy learning of the software.
(e) Compatibility-The MilkoScan Minor PC
software is approved to run under Windows 2000
and Windows XP with service pack 2.
(f) Local language option- German as well as
English language is integrated in the PC software.
(g) Sample ID-Sample ID can be entered before or
after data collection.
(h)Product program names-Customized product
program names can be typed in.
(i) Calibration adjustment-The password-
protected adjustment section provides editing of
reference data, calculation of the basic calibration
using Slope & Intercept and statistics plots helping
to evaluate the adjustment of the calibration.
Safe and easy to use - requires no specific
operator skills
61. MilkoScan Minor is simple and user friendly – all the
way - from installation to operation, calibration and
 52

maintenance. This makes it easy for non-skilled users to

operate the instrument. Analysis of milk and cream can
take place instantly. There is no need for special sample
treatment and no use of hazardous chemicals, making
MilkoScan Minor very safe and inexpensive to use. We
just have to place the sample in the instrument and press
Start. MilkoScan Minor has an easy legible display with
few keys. You get all data in a single display, user
defined programs with easy navigation and logical
Screens.
Analyser features
(a) Pre-calibrated for milk and cream.
(b) Automatic cleaning and zero-setting.
(c) Unique FOSS Standard sample.
(d) No hazardous chemicals.
(e) Easy and cost-effective.
(f) Analysis of cold samples.
PC software features
(a) Automatic data collection
(b) Calibration adjustment
(c) Import/export of results
(d) Print-out via PC
Applications
(a) Cow’s milk
(b) Skim milk
(c) Buffalo milk
(d) Goat’s milk
(e) Sheep milk
(f) Cream
Parameters to be measure
(a) Fat
(b) Protein
(c) Lactose
(d) Total Solids
(e) Solids-non-Fat
(f) Freezing Point Depression
(g) Simple analysis of milk composition with
MilkoScan™ Minor
Technical specifications
(a) MilkoScan Minor 4 -4 selectable
parameters. Accuracy F, P, L, TS, SnF < 2.0% CV in
cow’s milk samples.
 53

Calibration principle
62. Either instrument integrated bias-adjustment only,
or automatic bias adjustment for maximum performance
on all parameters.Automatic bias adjustment uses an
external PC with easy-to-use software and data storage.
Option: Upgrade to 6 parameters possible.
(b) MilkoScan Minor 6 -6 parameters.
Accuracy F, P, L, TS, SnF < 1.5% CV in cow’s milk
samples.
Calibration principle
Either instrument integrated slope/intercept-
adjustment, or automatic slope/intercept adjustment for
maximum performance on all parameters. Automatic
S/I adjustment uses an external PC with easy-to-use
software and data storage.
Installation requirements
Dimensions (HxWxD) :
285x500x360mm
Power supply : 100-
240VAC, 50-60 Hz
Performance data Measuring speed :
Approx. 40 samples per hour
Measuring range : Fat:
0 - 40%
Protein : 0 -
8%
Lactose : 0 -
7%
Solids-non-Fat : 0 -
15%
Total Solids : 0 -
50%
FPD : 0.45
– 0.55°C
Repeatability : F, P,
L, TS, SnF < 0.5% rel.
Purging efficiency : >
99%
Sample volume : < 8
ml
Sample temperature : 5 -
40°C
 54

Environ. Temp. : 5 -
38°C
Humidity : 0 -
95% RH

Spot Billing Machine

63. The Spot Billing Machine (SBM) is a Hand Held
Computer, in which the program is stored along with all
the relevant data, for issue of electricity bills, right at the
customer premises, immediately after the meter reading
is read and input to SBM. The storage of program and
data is done through a Personal Computer (Host PC),
and is called pre-journey configuration for the specific
meter-reader route, user-connection record including
type of connection, applicable tariff, previous reading,
past payments etc. The master data pertaining to the
tariff tables, type of connection, consumer profile are
stored on the Host PC, and made available for uploading
on to the SBM at the time of configuration. Once the
pre-configuration is over the SBM is ready for field
operations. The meter-reader reports at the consumer
site, accesses the customers account on SBM and record
the current reading. On the basis of the last reading and
tariff structure, a bill would be generated instantly.
Payment in non-cash mode can also be collected then
and there. In such case, the receipt would also be
generated.
64. The payment could be collected through non-cash
modes. A collection report can be prepared at the end of
trip. After a journey is over the transaction data files are
transferred from SBM to the Host PC, over a
communication cable connected to serial communication
port. The SBM requires about three hours for full
charging after which it can be used continuously for 7-8
hours. A pre-implementation study is a pre-requisite for
such projects, to identify the system requirements and
user requirements. The customization can be done as per
the user requirements.
Specifications
 55

(a) High Speed CPU

(b) 256 KB program memory
(c) 4 MB data memory
(d) Real Time Clock
(e) LCD display unit (4 rows x 20 character) with
backlight
(f) 30 Keys soft silicon rubber Keypad
(g) High speed serial port / program port (115
Kbps)
(h) Built-in 24 column Impact printer
(i) Built in 2.2 AH Lithium-Ion or 1.7 AH Ni MH
battery
(j) ABS plastic case housing
(k) Programmable as per user requirement
(l) Light weight, versatile and affordable

Fig 23: spot billing machine

Accessories & Application Software
(a) Intelligent Battery Charger
(b) carrying case
(c) Spot Billing Machine software
(d) PC-end data transfer (to and from SBM)
software
Features
(a) The bill is immediately generated.
(b) The collection of dues, through non-cash
instruments, is performed in the field.
(c) Variety of reports can be prepared.
(d) Utility Bill with all relevant details.
(e) Receipt against the Bill.
(f) Day end Collection report.
(g) Duplicate receipt.
 56

SPV Dusk-Dawn system

65. Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) Dusk Dawn System is an
energy saving device used for automatic switching of
street lighting systems, making proper use of grid power
and increasing the life of the lamps by switching the
street lights for a optimum period. The system is highly
reliable and efficient for years of continuous flaw-less
operation. The system's operation is based on sensing
the ambient light level which actuates the electronic
controller to switch ON the street lights in the evening
and switch OFF in the morning. The sensor is totally
maintenance free and encapsulated in an environment
proof housing making it more reliable even in adverse
atmospheric conditions. The system has the advantage of
automatic setting of switching timings irrespective of
whether it is winter or summer, thus making it a totally
unmanned operation. Once a setting for a particular
darkness level is done, it remains unchanged throughout
the year.
Features
(a) Automatic switching and hence unmanned
(b) Optimal use of grid power.
(c) Energy saving up to 30%.
(d) Enhancement of pole-lamp life.
(e) Highly efficient, reliable and economical.
(f) System design can take care of any grid load /
safety precautions.
(g) No seasonal time setting required.
(h) Highly weather proof and totally maintenance
free sensor.
(i) Protection against line to line, line to neutral &
line to earth fault.
(j) Manual by-pass in case of system failure.
(k) On Line service facility.
Specifications
(a) Housing: Kiosk type, weather proof pole
mounting panel of required size.
(b) Sensor: SPV Solar Photo Voltaic sensor of
suitable capacity encapsulated in an
environment-proof housing.
 57

(c) Electronic Controller: Electronic controller of

rugged design for automatic switching of public
street lights.
(d) Protection: Against line to line, line to neutral
and line to earth fault.
(e) Electrical switch gear unit of rated power
capacity.
(f) Special Features:
(i). Manual by-pass in case of exigency.
(ii). Pole mounting facility
(g) Rated load model 1 - 100 A / ph.
(h) Model 2 - 60 A / ph.
(i) Model 3 – 30A / ph.

SPV Railway Signaling System

66. SPV system provides reliable and economical power
for energizing the signal motor and lamps at isolated
railway signals that are far from grid power. REIL has
supplied and installed over 340 SPV Signaling Systems
on various sections of Western Railways. These systems
are working satisfactorily under adverse climatic
conditions of very high temperature, dust-storms, etc.
REIL's SPV Modules are approved by R.D.S.O.,
Ministry of Railways vide their approval No. STS/E/Cell
Solar.
Specifications
Each system consists of the following:
(a) SPV Module - 35Wp
(b) Battery - 12V, 80AH
(c) Signaling PCB to energies front & back bulb
with automatic dusk to dawn switching
(d) Charge control unit
(e) Wire-set
(f) Frame for Module
Key Features
(a) Highly Modular in nature
(b) Little or no maintenance required
(c) Non-polluting in nature
(d) Depends on inexhaustible source of energy
 58

(e) Easy to operate

(f) No recurring cost
(g) Automatic operation - No man power required

VOTER HELPLINE SERVICES

67. REIL has introduced help-line services to empower
the citizens of our democracy to confirm their names in
the voter list by using their EPIC ID number. The
citizens can now access the information through the
Internet; through a PSTN help-line; and through SMS
based query system. The application system has been
installed in Rajasthan and the Election Department has
empowered the citizens to obtain information while
sitting in the safety of their homes and offices, and even
while they are on the move. All the three applications
have been built around an efficient search-engine to
search the database of all the voters of the state; with
suitable interfaces for interaction with the end-user. The
Internet help-line is a web-application which can be
hosted on the official web-site of the Election
department. The application provides a simple use-
friendly interface to input the voter EPIC ID number, in
the prevailing format. The captions, prompts and
messages are all displayed in Hindi.
After keying-in the EPIC ID number, the user is
required to click on the Submit button on the screen. The
value of the ID number is passed to the application which
searches the database, for the relevant record. On a
successful search the relevant data is displayed on the
screen, for the user. An unsuccessful search leads to the
message being displayed on the screen to contact the
officials of the area. The application is developed on
the .NET platform, and Oracle is the database platform.
The application supports Unicode, for Hindi, which
eliminates the need to download fonts and allows easy
viewing (of the standard layouts and prompt strings)
across browsers, however the data-content viewing could
be constrained by the font used by the respective state
 59

election departments.

VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM (VTS)

68. REIL provides an innovative web-enabled “On-line
Vehicle Tracking System” to manage vehicle fleet
comprising of trucks, dumper, car, trailers, tankers,
containers or any four-wheel vehicles.
The Vehicle Tracking System offered by REIL,
comprises of the Vehicle mount unit, which determines
its positional data by communicating with the
Geographical Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and
communicating the data with real time stamp – using the
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) / Global System
of Mobile (GSM) Communication network to the web
servers. The web servers comprise of the Communication
server, Database / GIS map server and Backup Web
server. The authorized user can access this web server
through Internet for which a computer system and
broadband connection would be the only requirement at
the user site.The vehicle mount unit is a microprocessor-
controlled device, which employs the extended features
of the Global Positioning System (GPS) to determine the
position of the vehicle in terms of Longitude and Latitude
with the date and timestamp, GPRS and GSM
technologies to periodically send the captured positional
data to the web servers. Wherever the GPRS / GSM
network coverage is not there; the data logger of the
vehicle mount unit is made capable of storing up to
200positional transactions. Most of the cities of India are
well covered in the GPRS communication by various
service providers. However the vehicle mount unit can
send the positional data through GSM communication
also. This feature is useful while deploying vehicles in
the areas where GPRS coverage is not there. However,
the usages and roaming charges would be applicable as
per the effective plan of the GSM service provider.
69. The positional data is forwarded to the web servers,
which comprises of Communication, database server and
map servers. The data is authenticated, validated, stored,
 60

interpreted and superimposed on digital maps of the

location. The remotely placed Backup server backs up
the data. The user can see various graphical and textual
details pertaining to movement of the vehicle, over the
Computer system using broadband Internet connectivity.
Keeping in view that the PSTN or ISDN internet
connectivity provides lesser bandwidth, which is in
sufficient to handle the graphical images; it is
recommended to use the broadband internet connection
only. The digital maps of the area concerned shall be
arranged from the agencies concerned.
Features
(a) Intrinsically safe design
(b) Built-in GSM Antenna
(c) SMS backup for GPRS
(d) Auto messaging mode
(e) Vehicle information on 24 X 7 basis
(f) “Black box” design – No manual intervention is
required
(g) Remotely configurable
(h) Fire retardant cable
(i) Configurable buttons for emergency / panic
buttons
(j) Position accuracy: of +/- 10 meters
(k) IP67 compliant (Ingress protection)
(l) Certified by Chief Controller of Explosives for
Vehicles carrying petroleum fuels, and SAMEER for
Electro magnetic interface
(m) Optional : Two way communication system
(n) Produces variety of reports
Conclusion
70. The Summer Training of an engineering student plays
an important role to develop him as a well-groomed
professional. It is a golden opportunity for him to give
theoretical concepts a practical shape in the field of
application. Finally I conclude that this training of thirty
days has given me a good knowledge about the
production and quality aspects of solar photovoltaic
 61

modules, E.M.T, energy meter and other products. As the

organization follows the ISO 9001 standards, everything
is done in a particular way following the documents,
learning all of this was good experience. I addition I
gained knowledge about the working principle of solar
cells and the various applications in which they are used.
This training has been for small period but was valuable
enough giving us insight about solar photovoltaics,
E.M.T. It will be helpful in enhancing the existing
technology and to market the range of product.
In these 30 days of exposure in “Rajasthan Electronics &
Instruments Limited” I learned a lot on various aspects of
organizational structure, departments, latest technologies
and their impact. Now after 30 days I can say one thing
for sure that ‘the best way to learn is at work.’ It was a
really interesting experience and I enjoyed every part of
it and hope that it would be helpful in my future.
The main object of the training makes an interaction
between students and Company in which student gets
aware from the techniques, process, which should be
used in the company and it also improves the personality
and skills of the students. Industrial visit plays a vital
factor for the students. All faculties help us to understand
the system and the technology which are used in the
visited company and the engineers and employs of the
companies cooperate with us and take interest to our
question related to the companies and about its products
their services.
71. In the field of SPV technology the company further
diversified into the manufacture of Solar Photovoltaic
based application products, sub-systems and integrated
systems most of which were developed in-house. In the
SPV segment, the Company manufactures SPV modules
and application systems including Domestic Lighting
System, Street Lighting System, Charge able Power
Packs for the rural, telecom, Railway and Defence
sectors. It started its operations by setting up a
manufacturing facility for SPV modules and has
expanded its area of operations through manufacture of
 62

Balance of Systems for a large number of applications,

utilizing its electronics product manufacturing facility.
REIL has played a vital role in the field of rural
development in India - bringing appropriate rural
electronics technology to thousands of villages all over
the country. The Company products are a result of its
own in-house development efforts. The company is self-
reliant as far as development activity is concerned, to
enable modification and improvement in existing
products and also introduce new products, in tune with
customer requirement. REIL are committed to total
customer satisfaction by identifying their specific needs,
translating them into quality products, providing
dependable after sales services and to work for continual
improvement of Quality Management System.
REIL has extended its expertise and experience gained in
the development of electronic products to design &
development of Single Phase and Three Phase Electronic
Energy Meters under its newly formed Industrial
Electronics Division. The Company has also
successfully integrated the products into a more versatile
system, developed in-house through it own development
efforts, called the Milk Collection Station. Industry has
also pioneered the integrated use of Smart card
technology in Rural Electronics applications. The project
of Smart card based Driving License and Registration
Certificates for the state of Rajasthan is also under
progress. The company has added another feather in it's
cap by establishing a Quality Management system for its
operations.
Thus I learnt many more useful things, it has improved
my theoretical concept of electronics equipments like
PCB’s etc. protection and auto zero of various apparatus
was a great thing. I had a chance to see operation of
electronic milk tester (EMT), and milk processing unit.
Therefore the training was more than hope to me and
helped me to know about the technology used for
different electronics equipment. In REIL I have learned
many things there which will be very useful in my
 63

technical line. I have experienced to operate electronic

milk tester and how its internal processing is going on. I
knew how the auto zero is done for electronic milk tester.
Every department Head supported me very well. I also
know about solar project. They modified the working of
electronic milk tester beyond it as electronic milk
processing unit . In this all data for number of customer,
milk quantity and fat measurement is stored in computer
by connected to processing unit. It is advantageous
feature for high level and precious measurement.
Ifound here that there is place for all type of engineers
and there is good future for engineers. Here we can
improve our skills. Procedure of selection in this
company is that company time to time they open the
vacancies as per their requirement. Their HR department
takes most important role as a placement cell. We need to
take more efforts to grab all this opportunities. Thus in
this practical training I concluded that it is one of the
interesting period in an engineer’s life and helps him to
attain knowledge and learn about the latest technologies.
Bibliography
Company booklet, & manual
Wekipedia
Journals news related to solar energy, energy meter.
Renewable Energy Sources
Energy security and renewable technology
Renewable global status report:2009
www. Reiljp.com
64