IEEE Guide for Selection of Valve- Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries for

Stationary Applications
1. Scope
This guide describes methods for selecting the appropriate type of valveregulated, immobilizedelectrolyte,
recombinant leadacid battery for any of a variety of potential stationary float applications. Installation,
maintenance,sizing,andconsiderationofbatterytypesotherthanvalveregulatedleadacidbatteries,arebeyondthe
scopeofthisguide.Designofthedcsystemandsizingofthedcbatterycharger(s)arealsobeyondthescopeofthis
guide.

2. References
Thisguideshallbeusedinconjunctionwiththefollowingpublications:
IEEEStd1001992,TheNewIEEEStandardDictionaryofElectricalandElectronicsTerms(ANSI). 1
IEEEStd4851997,IEEERecommendedPracticeforSizingLargeLeadStorageBatteriesforGeneratingStations
andSubstations(ANSI).
IEEEStd11871996,IEEERecommendedPracticeforInstallationDesignandInstallationofValveRegulated
LeadAcidBatteriesforStationaryApplications.
IEEE Std 11881996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Valve
RegulatedLeadAcid(VRLA)BatteriesforStationaryApplications.

3. Definitions
Thefollowingdefinitionsapplyspecificallytothisguide.Forotherdefinitions,seeIEEEStd1001992.

5.1

absorbed electrolyte: Electrolyte in a VRLA cell that has been immobilized in absorbent

separators.

5.2

gelledelectrolyte: ElectrolyteinaVRLAcellthathasbeenimmobilizedbytheadditionofa
gellingagent.

5.3

immobilizedelectrolyte: ElectrolyteinaVRLAcellthatisretainedbyusingeithergelledor
absorbedelectrolytetechnology.

5.4

oxygenrecombination: Theprocessbywhichoxygenisgenerated atthepositiveplatesand

ultimatelyrecombinedwithhydrogenionsatthenegativeplatesandconvertedbacktowater.Inthisprocess,
hydrogengasformationandevolutionaresuppressed.(SeeannexAformoredetails.)

5.5

oxygenrecombinationefficiency: Theamountofoxygenultimatelyconvertedtowateratthe
negativeplatesexpressedasapercentageofthetotalamountofoxygenproducedatthepositiveplates:

1IEEEpublicationsareavailablefromtheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,445HoesLane,P.O.Box1331,Piscataway,NJ
088551331,USA.

O2 eff

O2 converted to water at the negative plates

100
total O2 produced at the positive plates

5.6

valveregulatedleadacid(VRLA)cell:Acellthatissealedwiththeexceptionofavalvethat
opens to the atmosphere when the internal gas pressure in the cell exceeds atmospheric pressure by a
preselectedamount.VRLAcellsprovideameansforrecombinationofinternallygeneratedoxygenandthe
suppressionofhydrogengasevolutiontolimitwaterconsumption.

5.7

ventedcell:Acellinwhichtheproductsofelectrolysisandevaporationareallowedtoescapeto
theatmosphereastheyaregenerated.Thesecellsarecommonlyreferredtoasflooded.

5.8

VRLAcell:See:valveregulatedleadacid(VRLA)cell.

4. Technology overview
5.1

Water loss

Waterinaventedleadacidcellislostduringoverchargebyaprocessknownaselectrolysis.Inthisprocess,water
isconvertedtooxygenatthepositiveplatesandtohydrogenatthenegativeplates.Theoxygenandhydrogengases
areallowedtoventoutofthecellintotheatmosphere,resultinginthelossofwater.InVRLAcells,theoxygen
recombinationcyclelimitsthewaterloss.

5.2

Oxygen recombination

Inaperfectwatertooxygentowatercycle,alltheoxygenproducedatthepositiveplatesonfloatorover charge
wouldbetransportedtothenegativeplatesandconvertedbacktowater,withnowaterbeinglostfromthecell.This
isthebasisforVRLAcelltechnology(seeannexAformoredetails).

5.3

Oxygen transport between positive and negative plates

Theefficiencyoftheoxygenrecombinationcycledependsprimarilyontheabilitytotransporttheoxygengenerated
atthepositiveplatestothenegativeplates.Inventedleadacidcells,thetransportprocessisimpededbythebulk
liquidelectrolyte,andoxygenisliberatedtotheatmosphere.Themigrationofoxygenthroughliquidsulfuricacid
electrolyteisapproximately10000timesslowerthanitisthroughair[B1],[B2],[B3] 2.VRLAtechnologyprovides
voids(gaspassages)betweenpositiveandnegativeplatesthroughwhichoxygentransportisgreatlyenhanced.

5.4

Gelled electrolyte technology

Gelledelectrolytecellsaredesignedsuchthatvoidsdevelopinthegel.Thesevoidsserveaspassagesthroughwhich
oxygentransporttothenegativeplatesisenhanced.

5.5

Absorbed electrolyte technology

Absorbedelectrolytecellsaredesignedwithanabsorbentseparatorthatisapproximately95%filledwithliquid
electrolyte.Theremainingvoidsprovideforoptimizedoxygentransportfrompositivetonegativeplates.

5.6

Hydrogen evolution

ItispossibletodesignVRLAcellsinwhich,undernormalfloatconditions,theoxygenrecombinationwilloperate
atvirtually100%efficiency.However,evenundernormalfloatconditions,somewaterwillbelostbyelectrolysis.
Therearereactionsthatoccuratthepositiveplateswhoseonlypossiblecorrespondingreactionatthenegativeplate
istheformationofhydrogengas.Themostfamiliarofthesereactionsiscorrosionoftheleadorleadalloypositive
gridtoleaddioxide,whichresultsinhydrogenevolutionatthenegativeplates.Thesereactionscannotbeprevented.
(SeeannexAformoredetails.)

5.7

Pressure regulation valve

The internal cell pressure caused by the evolved gases is regulated by a valve that allows them to escape
periodically.Thisistheoriginoftheterm valveregulated.VRLAvalvesoperateoverarelativelynarrowrange,
typicallywithinthelimitsof0.550psig,dependingupondesign,allowingtheescapeofunrecombinedgasesand
preventingthebackflowofairintothecell.

5.8

Catalysts

2ThenumbersinbracketsprecededbytheletterBcorrespondtothoseofthebibliographyinannexB.

ThefollowingtextwasadaptedfromaJimMcDowallpresentation:
Somebatterymanufacturersusecatalystsintheheadspacemainlytoreducewaterlossandcorrosion. Thisisa
relativelynewtechnology,andtimewillshowhowmuchvalueithas.Catalystsprobablyhelpovercomeproblems
withnegativeselfdischarge(iftheyexist),bringthepositivestoamorefavorablepolarizationlevel,andreduce
gridcorrosioninnormaloperation(whichwillreducewaterlossfromgridcorrosion.Catalystscannotcompletely
eliminatewaterloss(althoughtheymayhelpreduceit),norcantheyeliminatehydrogenevolution(althoughthey
mayreducetheamountofhydrogenlosttotheairundernormaloperationofthecell).Forthosechoosingtopaya
smallpremiumforthepotentialpromisesofthistechnology,theyneedtobeawarethatcatalystswillaffectthestart
andstoppointsandslopeoftemperaturecompensation(contactthebatterymanufacturerforrecommendedvalues).
Theeffect ofcellagingonpolarization,andthepotentialforpoisoningthecellareamongthepotentialissues
surroundingthecatalysttechnologywhichhavenotbeenfullyexplored.

4. Comparisons of vented (flooded) and valve-regulated technologies

5.1

Reactions

Bothtechnologiesundergothesamechemicalandelectrochemicalreactions.Theratesofsomeofthesereactions
aredifferent(see4.3).

5.2

Construction materials

MostofthematerialsusedinventedandVRLAcellsarethesame.Notableexceptionsareabsorbentseparatorsused
inabsorbedelectrolyteVRLAcellsandgellingagentsusedingelledelectrolyteVRLAcells.Also,floodedcelljars
(containers)aretypicallytransparentwhereasjarsforVRLAcellsareusuallyopaque.

5.3
Aging and failure mechanisms (Eddie Davis to provide additional subsections
on additionsal failure and aging modes [only those which are valid on newer models of
VRLA]. Some of these mechanisms that will be expanded include: seal/container/valve
failure, negative dishcarge/depolarization, soft shorts, loss of compression/bulging,
stratification, ripple current, etc. Eddie will also do some rewriting of this section)
Thefamiliarfailuremechanismsofpositiveplatecorrosionandgrowth,activematerialfailure,postsealleakage,
andjar/coversealleakageassociatedwithventedcellsarealsopresentinVRLAcells.However,inVRLAcells,the
effectsofleakageatthepostand/orjarcoversealsaremoresignificantthaninventedcells.First,suchleakagecan
contributetodryout(see5.3.1)andsecond,suchleakscanallowatmosphericoxygentoenterthecell,whichcauses
dischargeofthenegativeplates.
CAUTION

Electrolyteleakagemayleadtogroundpathsandpotentialfire/explosionhazards.

VRLAcellsaresusceptibletotwofailuremodesthatarenormallynotassociatedwithventedcells.Thesearedryout
andthermalrunaway.

Dryout

VRLA cells operate on a precise balance of electrolyte and active material to optimize capacity and oxygen
recombination.Ifthecellsarerelativelyfreeofoxidizableimpuritiesandthepositivegridcorrosionrateisnot
unreasonablyhigh(see4.6),verylittlewaterwillbelostthroughelectrolysis.Ifwaterislost,internalresistance
increasesandperformanceondischargedegrades.Positivegridcorrosionandwaterlossincreasewithincreasing
temperatures. Operation at voltages above the recommended float voltage will also accelerate water loss via
electrolysis.Anotherdryoutmechanismthatcanbesignificantatelevatedtemperaturesiswaterlossviadiffusion
through the jar and cover walls. Dryout bydiffusion ishighly dependent upon the selection ofjar and cover
materials.,thethicknessthereof,operatingtemperature,andrelativehumidityoftheexternalenvironment.
1

Thermal runaway

WhenaVRLAcellisoperatingonfloatoroverchargeinafullyrecombinantmode,almostalloftheovercharge
energyresultsinheatgeneration.Ifthedesignofthesystemandsitsenvironmentaresuchthattheheatproduced
canbedissipatedandthermalequilibriumcanbereached,thenthereisnothermalrunawayproblem.However,if
therecombinationreactiongivesrisetoarateofheatevolutionthatexceedstherateofheatdissipation,thebattery
temperaturewillriseandmorecurrentwillberequiredtomaintainthefloatvoltage.Theadditionalcurrentresultsin
stillmorerecombinationandheatgenerationthatfurtherraisesbatterytemperature,andsoon.Theneteffectcanbe
accelerateddryoutand/ormeltingofthebattery.Thispotentialproblemisfurtheraggravatedbyelevatedambient
temperaturesorbycellorchargingsystemmalfunctions.Thepossibilityofthermalrunawaycanbeminimizedby
useofappropriateventilationbetweenandaroundthecellsandbylimitingthechargeroutputcurrentandvoltage
suchasbyusingtemperaturecompensatedchargers.Inthegelledelectrolytesystem,thegelhasintimatecontact
with the plates and the container walls and provides better heat dissipation characteristics than the absorbed
electrolytesystem,butnotasgoodasthevented(flooded)system[B4].

7.2

Electrolyte concentration

Bydesign,absorbedelectrolyteVRLAcellshavelesservolumesofelectrolytethanventedcellsofequivalent
dimensions. This would normally result in lower longduration capacities for the absorbed electrolyte cells of
equivalentdimensions.Gelledelectrolytecellswillusuallyhavethesamevolumeofelectrolyteasventedcells.
However,thepresenceofthegelinterfereswithelectrolytediffusionandconvection,whichresultsinreducedhigh
ratecapacities.Inbothcases,theexpectedreductionsincapacitymaybepartiallycompensatedforbyincreasingthe
electrolyteconcentration(specificgravities).(Notethathigherspecificgravitiesincreasetherateofcorrosion;i.e.,
speedsupaging.)

7.3

Charging voltage

TheelectrolytespecificgravitythatistypicalofVRLAcellsmayrequirehigherfloatvoltages.Theactualfloat
voltagedependsuponthespecificgravityoftheelectrolytebeingused.Recommendedfloatvoltagesareprovided
bythebatterymanufacturers.
GarthCoreywillrewritethissectiontoincludeotherchargingregimesbesidesfloat.

7.4

Absence of free electrolyte

DesignsofVRLAcellsare suchthattheelectrolyte shouldbefullyimmobilizedandthuslittle,ifany,liquid

electrolyteshouldleakfromthecellintheeventofajarand/orcoverbreakorcrack.Theabsenceoffreeelectrolyte
simplifiesthehandlingofVRLAcells. Italsomeansthatspillcontainmentisunnecessary(seeIEEE1187for
furtherinformationonthistopic).

7.5

Maintenance and testing

BytheverynatureofthedesignsofVRLAcells,specificgravityreadingsandwateradditionsarenotpractical.
Consequently,thebatteriesareoftenreferredtoasmaintenancefree.However,thisistrueonlywithrespecttothe
electrolyte.Otherwise,VRLAbatterymaintenanceissimilartothatrequiredforventedbatteries,andwillrequire
specialprocedurestocompensatefortheinabilitytodeterminetheamountandconcentrationofelectrolyte.(See
IEEEStd11881996.)Duetotheirdesignandhistoricalreliability(seeSection5.10)VRLAbatteriesmayrequire
increasedmonitoringandtesting(seeIEEEstandards1188and1491).

7.6

Orientation in use

Unlikeventedleadacidcellswheretheonlypossibleorientationrequiresthatthecellcoverbefacingupward,
certain VRLA cell designs allow for operation in other orientations. Contact the manufacturer for specific
instructions.

7.7

Vented gas

InaVRLAcelloperatinginafullyrecombinantmode,therewillbeaslowbuildupofgases.Eventually,the
compositionofthisgaswillbeessentiallypurehydrogen.Whenthecellinternalpressureexceedsthevalverelease
pressure,thegaseswillbeventedintotheatmosphere.Adequateventilationmustbeprovidedinordertoprevent
buildupofhydrogengasinthearea.
CAUTION
WhenaVRLAcellischargedatvoltagesaboveitsrecombinantlimits,potentiallyexplosivemixturesofhydrogen
and oxygen are generated within the cell and released at rates similar to those of vented cells. Contact the
manufacturerforinformationongassingratesandrecombinationefficiencies.

7.8

Historical Reliability

ThissectiontobeprovidedbyEddieDavis

7.9

VRLA advantages and disadvantages

MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthedrawbacksofVRLAbatteries. Howevertheydohaveadvantagesoverother
batterytypes(mostspecifically,ventedleadacidcells).Someoftheadvantagesarelistedbelow:

LowInitialCost Comparedtomanyothertechnologies(thisrefersnotonlytootherbatterytechnologies,
butalsoincludesothertypesofbackup,suchasflywheels,fuelcells,etc.),VRLAbatteriestypicallycostthe
least for equivalent energy supply levels. However, the total life cycle cost of ownership (including
maintenance,replacement,operatingcosts,etc.)mustbeconsidered. Manyapplications(especiallythosein
adverseoperatingconditions,likehightemperatureenvironments)shouldhavealifecoststudyperformedto
determinetheappropriatebatterytypebasedonlifecycleeconomics.

Compact Comparedtofloodedleadacidbatteries,VRLAsarerelativelycompact.Theycanbeplacedin
smaller"confined"(butventilated)spaces.Becauseofthewaytheyaremanufacturedandpackaged,VRLAs
canbemadeinsizesmuchsmallerthanthosetypicallyfoundforfloodedVLAcells.

NoWatering Becausetheydonotnormallyrequirewatering,VRLAscan"survive"withlessmaintenance
thanfloodedleadacidcells. However,thisdoesnotexcusetheuserfrommaintenanceasdefinedinIEEE
1188.Thosewhodon'tdomaintenanceopenthemselvesuptoasignificantlyincreasedriskoffailure.

Easier Installation VRLA batteries are typically less costly to install than flooded batteries, and can
typicallybeinstalledinlesstimethanequivalentlysizedfloodedbatteries.

"NonSpillable" (Transport and Placement) VRLA batteries that have passed the appropriate
qualificationtestscanbeclassifiedbytheU.S.Dept.ofTransportation(DOT)asUN2800Batteries,Non
Spillable. Althoughtheycanleakverysmallamountsofelectrolyte,theseVRLAsqualifiedasUN2800are
allowedtobetransportedbyplane.Theyarealsoallowedtobetransportedforrelativelyshortdistancesbyjust
aboutanyone(aspecialtransportcontractordoesn'thavetobehiredtovisit100cabinets[with48batteries
each]inan18wheelerandthentaketheusedbatteriestoarecyclingfaciltity;thesesmallbatteriescanbe
centralize them first). Because they are essentially "nonspillable", most of them can be placed in more
convenient spacesaving configurations (such as front terminal, or "horizontal"). By most interpretations,
VRLAsareexemptfromcostlyspillcontainmentmandatedbyFireCodes.

Asdefinedelsewhereinthisdocument(andothers),themajordisadvantagesofVRLAsareshownbelow.Notethat
thepoorenvironmentsVRLAsareplacedincontributegreatlytomanyofthese"disadvantages".

ThermalIssues VRLAbatteriesaresusceptibletopotentiallydestructiveanddangerousthermalrunaway.
Similartofloodedleadacidbatteries(butperhapsexacerbatedbythethermalrunawayphenomenon),VRLAs
have short lifetimesinhightemperature environments. Thereareothertechnologies(e.g.,NiCad)which
performmuchbetterinhightemperatureevironments.

ShortLife VRLAbatteries(evenwhenkeptinsimilarenvironments)havemuchshorteraveragelifetimes
thanfloodedleadacidbatteries,NiCads,andothercompetingtechnologies. (Failuremodesarediscussed
elsewhereinthisdocument.)

LowerReliability Duetothefactorsjustmentioned,useofVRLAbatteriestypicallylowersthereliability
ofanapplication(incomparisontofloodedleadacidbatteries,forexample).

6. Selecting VRLA batteries

ThefollowingfactorsshouldbeconsideredinselectingVRLAbatteries.

7.1

Temperature

Elevated temperature operation will shorten VRLA battery life. As a general rule, prolonged use at elevated
temperatureswillreducethebatterylifebyapproximately50%forevery8 C(15 F)above25 C(77F).For
VRLAbatteries,optimalgasrecombinationisafunctionofoperatingtemperature. Therefore, batterycharging
voltagemusttaketemperatureintoconsiderationinordertomaximizebatterylife.Theadditionalissuesofpossible
dryoutandthermalrunawaywithVRLAbatteriesshouldbecarefullyassessedforelevatedtemperatureoperation.
Considerationshouldalsobegiventofailsafecurrentlimitsonchargersforelevatedtemperatureapplications.In
addition,someVRLAbatterymanufacturersrecommendtheuseoftemperaturecompensatedchargersforthose
applicationswheresignificanttemperaturevariationscanbeexpected. Monitoringoftemperature(bothambient
andbattery)canhelpwarnofpossibleproblems(seeIEEEStd.1491).

7.2

Charging limitations

Ingeneral,VRLAbatteries,becauseoftheirhigherelectrolytespecificgravities,willrequireahigherfloatvoltage
per cell. Therefore, charger capability and system voltage limitations must be considered. Some systems that
normallywouldhavebeenengineeredwith24ventedcellsmaybeengineeredwith23largerVRLAcells,thus
maintaining capacity while solving the float voltage issue. As mentioned in section 5.3.2, temperature
compensationofcharging,orothermethodsoflimitingrecharge current,shouldbestronglyconsidered forall
VRLAapplications.
GarthGreyandSamNormanhavevolunteeredtoaddtoandmodifythissectiontoallowforothercharging
regimesbesidesfloat.

7.3

Space limitations

Theabilitytoorient someVRLAcellsinnonconventional orientationspermitsmaximizingbatterycapacityin

certain spacerestrictive applications. Also, because of increased electrolyte specific gravity and other factors,
VRLAbatteriesmayhavegreatervolumetricenergydensitythantheirfloodedcounterparts,whichcouldprovide
spacesavings.NotethatVRLAmanufacturerscanmaketheirbatteriesevensmallerandlessexpensivebymaking
thinnerplates.However,thiscostsapriceinbatterylifetime.
AnotherfactorthatsomewhatlimitsthespacesavingsofVRLAsistheneedforspacingofVRLAsforventilation,
maintenance,andreplacement(seesections6.7and6.8).

7.4

Environment

ProperlydesignedandoperatedVRLAbatteriesemitlessgasthanventedbatteriesundernormalconditions.This
featureshouldbeconsideredinconjunctionwiththeenvironmentinwhichtheiruseisintended.Asalways,the
effectsofcellorequipmentmalfunctionmustalsobeconsidered.(SeeIEEEStd11871996andIEEEStd1188
1996.)
Humidity is another consideration for VRLAs. As mentioned in section 5.3.1, dryout is an issue with these
batteries.Humiditycanplayaminorroleinthisprocess.Someplasticsaremoreporousthanotherstodiffusionof
hydrogen(thesmallestmolecule).Withthemoreporousplastics,lowhumiditiescanspeedupthisverysmallrate
of diffusion. However, thisisgenerally aminorissue,and highhumiditiesare often not goodforelectronic
equipmentthatmaybeinthesamearea.
Otherenvironmentalconsiderationsincludeactiveorpassiveventialtionforgasmanagement(seeIEEEStd.1187
forhydrogenevolutionrates,plussection6.6below),thermalmanagement(seesection6.7),andtemperature(see
section6.1).

7.5

Life considerations

Batterylifeversussystemdesignlifeshouldalwaysbeconsideredintheselectionprocess.Ingeneral, VRLA
batteries are more sensitive to abusive conditions of temperature, voltage, and current than vented (flooded)
batteries. Also,historicalreliability,eveningoodenvironmentsshowsashorteraveragelifetimeforVRLAcells
(seeSection5.10).

7.6

Safety

Aswithallleadacidbatteries,adequateventilationmustbeprovidedforVRLAbatteries(neverinstallaVRLAina
sealedenvironment).Inaddition,itisstronglyrecommendedthatVRLAcellsbeequippedwithflamearrestor
devices.Electrically,VRLAbatteriesposethesamehazardsasventedbatteries.
VRLAplasticscanbeflameretardantornot(typicalflameretardancystandardsincludeUL94V0andLOI28).
Therearedrawbackstoflameretardantplastics(theyaretypicallysofter,etc.).Manyofthesedrawbackscanbe
overcomebycasedesignorcontainmentofthecase.
FormoreinformationonsafetyconsiderationsforinstallingandmaintainingVRLAbatteries,seeSection4ofIEEE
Stds.1187and1188,respectively.

7.7

Thermal management considerations

Asnotedinsection6.1,VRLAbatteriesareparticularlysensitivetohightemperaturesandoverheating(whichcan
leadtothermalrunaway).Afewsimplemeasuresorselectionconsiderationscanreducetheriskofoverheatingand
thermalrunaway.

Chargingtechniquesandvoltagescanaffectbatterytemperature(seesection6.2)

Forced air cooling is the best thermal management vehicle. In installations without cooling, forced air
ventilationwillhelp.Asaminimum,cellsormonoblocksshouldbespacedatleast10mmaparttoallowfor
naturalconvection(theyshouldalsobespacedaparttoallowforforcedaircoolingorventilationairflow).
Choosebatterystandsortraysthatallowand/orforcethisspacing.Becausethebatteryalsolosesheatthrough
theposts,airspaceontopofthecellsisalsohelpful.

GelcellshavebetterthermaltransfertotheoutsidewallsofthebatterythanAGMcells(althoughAGMcells
haveotheradvantages,asnotedinsection6.9).

Formonoblocks,designsthatexposemoresurfaceareaofmorecellstotheouterwallsofthebatteryhave
betterheattransfer.Forexample,a2x3cellconfigurationina12Vmonoblockistypicallybetterthana1x6
configuration.

Homogeneityoftemperaturesacrossastring(typically,nomorethana3Cdifferenceshouldbeseenfromthe
hottesttocoolestcell/monoblockinastring)areaconsiderationwhendesigningventilation.

7.8

Maintenance considerations

Maintainability and replaceability of the battery must be considered when selecting the battery and it's
stands/cabinets/trays/racks.(SeealsoIEEEStd.1188.)
MostVRLAmaintenanceisdoneonorneartheterminalposts.Frontterminalbatteriesaretheeasiesttomaintain
inrelayracksorcabinets.Fortopterminalbatteriesintheseapplications,slideouttrays(ratedfortheseismiczone
inwhichtheyareinstalled)canhelp.(Withslideouttraysthereneedstobetopspacetoensurethatthereisno
inadvertentshortingofpostsorintercellcableswhenthetrayispulledout.)Ifslideouttraysarenotanoption,at
least100mm(ormoreifpossible)ofspaceshouldbeleftontoptoaccesstheterminalposts. Theactualtop
spacingwillagreewiththenumberinIEEEStd.1187

VRLAsareoftenchosenbecausetheywillfitinspacesthatfloodedbatterieswillnot.Spacingformaintenanceand
thermalmanagementwillhelptheissue,butbesurenottobuycells/monoblocksthatareveryuniqueinsize(sizeas
inheight,length,andwidth).Ifthatbatteryiseverdiscontinuedorfoundtohavemajorproblems,theusermaybe
introubleifitistheonlybatterysizethatwillphysicallyfit.

7.9

Choosing AGM or gel cells

AGMandgelcelltechnologiesarebothused.Whichoneispickedhashistoricallydependedonwhattheindustry
typicallyusedhistorically.Thereshouldbemoreconcretecriteriafordecidingwhichtechnologyisbetterforthe
application(theybothhaveadvantagesanddisadvantages).SinceAGMsarethemostcommonandmostfamiliarto
mostusers,thefollowinglcommentswillfocusonwhatmakesgelcellsdifferent(andbetterorworse)thanAGMs
fromaperformanceperspective.

Gelcellswillnotsufferfromdecompression.AGMcellsdependoncontactofthemattewiththeplates.Ifthe
plasticcaseofaVRLAbattery"relaxes"or"bulges"toomuchduetogassing,heat,etc.,theAGMcellrunsthe
riskoflosingcompression(thiscontactbetweenthematteandtheplate),whichleadstoreducedperformance
and/orfailure.

Asmentionedintheprevioussectiononthermalmanagement,gelcellstendtoconductheatawayfromthe
platestotheoutsideofthebatteriesbetterthandoAGMcells,partlybecausetheyhavemoreelectrolyte.This
reduces(butdefinitelydoesn'teliminate)theriskofthermalrunaway.

Inthefirstyearormoreoflife,gelcellswilltendtorecombinelessefficientlythanAGMs,untiltheyhave
developedtheinternalfissures/cracksinthegelnecessaryforrecombinantgastransport.(Infact,gelcellswill
neverrecombineasefficientlyasaproperlydesignedAGMcell,allthewaythroughthelife.)Thismeansthat
they will gas more. That doesn't necessarily mean they will dry out sooner, since they start with more
electrolytethantheAGMcells.Thebuildingoftheinternalfissuresmaycauseinconsistentohmicreadingsin
thefirstyearorsooflifeofagelcell.ThismeansthatbaselineohmicreadingsrecommendedbyIEEEStd
1188maynotbeasvaluableforgelcellsastheyareforAGMcells.

GelcellshavehigherinternalresistancethanAGMs,simplyduetothefactthattheirelectrolyteisinamore
immobilizedform.Thismeansthatforsuperhighratedischargeapplications,theymaynotbethebestchoice.

Notallgelcellsaredesignedtobelaidinhorizontalorfrontterminalpositions.Consultthemanufacturer.

Thegelledelectrolytesystemmayprovidebetterdeepdischargerechargeability.

7.10

Applications and plate design

Plategridalloys(e.g.,leadcalcium,purelead,leadantimony,etc.)affect howthatbatterywillperform under

certaintypesofconditions. Otherplatedesignparameters(suchasthickness),alsoaffect howthebatterywill
perform(forexample,thinnerplatestendtogivebetterhighratedischargeperformanceforthesamephysicalsize
andcost,buthaveshorterlife).Theuserneedstotakethesefactorsintoconsiderationwhenchoosingabattery.
Someconsiderationsarelistedbelow.

Ifthebatterywillcyclealot(inaphotovoltaicapplicationforexample),theuserwouldwanttosteerclearof
pureleadplategrids.Chooseabatteryspecifiedbythemanufacturerasacyclingtypebattery(forexample,
batterieswithleadantimonyplategridstendtocyclewell).Themanufacturerspublishdataontypicalcycles
expectedoutofbatteries.(Notethatmanyhighantimonycontentplatedesigns,whicharecommonlyknownas
leadantimony plates, may not work well in float applications. Lowantimony plate designs, which are
commonlyknownasleadselenium plates,maynot suffer from thisproblem,andmayworkwell inboth
applications. Consultthebatterymanufacturersforthebestplatedesigniftheapplicationrequiresfrequent
cycling.)

Pure lead grids function better in lower specific gravity designs than in higher specific gravity designs.
Althoughpureleadgridshavesuperiorlifeonfloat,asmentioned,theygenerallyarenotgoodforfrequent
cyclingordeepdischargecycling.

UPSapplicationsareoneexampleofapplicationsthattypicallyhaveahighdischargerate.Gridalloysandgrid
thicknessesareimportantfactorsforhighdischargerateapplications. Unlessyouwanttopaysignificantly
more,youmightwanttochooseabatterythatisratedinWatts(orkW)percell.Thistypicallysignifiesthatthe
manufacturerhasdesignedthatbatteryforhighdischargerateapplications.

BruceColehasofferedtoputthissection6.10inmoreofamatrixformat.

7. Sizing VRLA batteries

ThereisnothinguniqueaboutsizingVRLAbatteriesforstationaryapplicationsascomparedtosizingpractices
appliedforventedbatteries. The"DeterminingBatterySize"clauseofIEEEStd.485applies equallytoVRLA
batteriesforstationaryapplications.

7.1

Parallel Strings

Usingparallelstringscangreatlyincreasethereliabilityofasystembymitigatingagainstthefailureofindividual
cellsorstrings. Forlongdurationdisharges,simplysplittingtherequiredamperehourreserveover2ormore
stringsisusuallysufficient.However,forhighratedischargeapplications,redundancyofstringsmaybeabetter
option.
Inaddition,parallelstringsimprovesmaintainability.Ifthestringsareinstalledwithdisconnects,oneoftheparallel
stringscanbeeasilydisconnectedforgreatersafetyinmaintenancewithoutseriouslycompromisingthebackup
abilityofthewholebatterysystem.

7.2

Mixing vented and VRLA

Typically, vented and VRLA batteries have different specific gravities and internal resistances (thus different
chargingcharacteristics). ThismeansthatVRLAsandventedcellsshouldneverbemixedinthesamestring.
Theoretically,VRLAbatterystringscanbeparalleledwithventedleadacidstrings.However,thisisnotusually
done,asthereisnotalotofexperiencewithit;plusdifferingnumbersofcells(typicallyfewer)mustusuallybe
usedintheVRLAstring,andit'sdifficulttomatchtheoptimumchargingvoltages/regimens.

7.3

Oversizing

IEEEStd.485hasbuiltinfactorsinthesizingcalculationstoallowforaging. Inaddition,510%additional
oversizingcanallowaveryquickrecharge(sincethefirst9095%ofchargecapacityisusuallyquicklyreturnedto
thebatterywithinadayorless,dependingonthechargersize;whilethefinal510%maytakedaystoweeksto
returntothebattery).