Hodgson - Essays On The Language

*Ti
PL145"!
1874
ESSAYS
LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, AND RELIGION
OF NEPAL AND TIBET:
TOGETHER WITH FURTHER PAPERS ON THE
GEOGRAPHY, ETHNOLOGY, AND COMMERCE

OF THOSE COUNTRIES.
B.
H.ÔDGSON,
Esq.
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE GERMAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY;

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE FRENCH INSTITUTE CHEVALIER OF THE LEGION OF HONOUR
MEMBER OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF CALCUTTA, LONDON, AND PARIS OF THE
ETHNOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF LONDON AND
\
LATE BRITISH MINISTER AT THE COURT OF NEpXl.
Reprinted, with Corrections
and Additions, from "Illustrations of the Literature and Religion

; and " Selections from the Records of the
of the Buddhists," Seramfiore, 1841
Government of Bengal, No.
XXVII."
Calcutta, 1857.
LONDON:
TRUBNER
& CO., 57 & 59
LUDGATE
1874.
[All rights reserved.]
HILL.
NOTICE.
When
Professor J.
Summers was about
zine for China, Japan,
July 1870, he
in
it
solicited
to start the Phoenix, a
and Eastern Asia, the
number
first
and obtained permission
of
Mr
B.
of
monthly maga-
which appeared, in
H. Hodgson
to reprint
those contributions of his to the " Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society,"
which bear on the ethnology, languages, and religion of Tibet and Nepal. The
plan Professor Summers had in view is sketched out in the following editorial
note with which the series of reprints
"
is
prefaced
The present and following papers
(to be given in successive numbers of the Phoenix)

pen of Mr Brian H. Hodgson, and originally appeared in the Bengal
Asiatic Society's Journal, between the years 1828 and 1838.
Upon the subject of
ethnology, Mr Hodgson's views have since that time been improved and extended, and
are from the
we
purpose, when we have completed the present series of papers, chiefly devoted to
Buddhism, to reproduce in the Phoenix those improved and extended views of Tibetan
and Nepaulese races and languages, from No. 27 of Selections from the Records of the
Government of Bengal,' wherein they were published in the year 1857.
But those
Selections
form a work even more inaccessible to men of letters in Europe than the
'
'
'
and we believe, therefore, that we shall be doing a serEurope by making Mr Hodgson's researches into northern Buddhism and ethnology more generally and easily accessible." Phoenix, vol. i. p. 43.
'Journal of the Bengal Society;
'
vice to the learned of
Mr
Hodgson's "improved and extended views," so far as Buddhism
cerned, were found embodied in
numerous marginal notes
in his
is
own copy
con-
of the
" Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of the Buddhists " (Serampore,
1841).
In the same way many manuscript additions were made by him in his
own copy
of the " Selections."
All these corrections and additions have been
introduced into the text of the present reprint, though they represent, as
just to
Mr Hodgson
to state, various
is
only
phases of his views, ranging over a period
of nearly thirty years.
Professor
Summers
further proposed to
Mr Hodgson
a collected form as a separate publication, to
to issue these reprints in
which proposition the
latter
gave his
ready consent.
At p. 96 of vol. ii. of the Phoenix the reprints from the " Selections " commence, and proceed pari passu with those from the " Illustrations " to p. 26. of
NOTICE.
VI
vol.
iii.,
last article of the latter
where the
In consequence
of this
(on the Pravrajya Vrata) terminates.
arrangement, the Editor of the present work found
sary to begin a fresh pagination with the Second Part.

have, therefore, in. the index been
marked by a
II.
it
neces-
References to this part
prefixed to the Arabic figure,
showing the page.

Eight pages of the papers on the Commerce of Nepal were remaining to be set
up when Professor Summers' acceptance of an appointment in Japan put a stop
to the publication of the Phoenix,
and
accordance with his original design.

best to place the materials, as left
Trubner
of Messrs
&
Co.,
to the completion of the separate re-issue in
Under
these circumstances,
by Mr Summers on
it
was thought
his departure, in the
hands
Only the
with a view to their eventual publication.
above-mentioned article has subsequently been completed.
On
comparison with the two former collective publications, the present one
will be found to have excluded three short articles contained in the " Illustrations " (IX.
Remarks on an Inscription in the Rancha and Tibetan
X. Account of a Visit to the Ruins of Simroun
Royal Asiatic Society), which were considered

nature to be omitted, and articles IV., V., and
from Kathmandu
to Darjeeling
count of the systems of
as of a
ephemeral
sufficiently
XL 1. 2. of the " Selections " (Route
Route of Nepalese Mission
Law and
characters
XII. Extract of Proceedings of the
to
Pekin
Some
Police as recognised in the State of Nepal
ac-
and
on the Law and Legal Practice of Nepal, as regards familiar intercourse between
a
Hindu and an
These last-mentioned would in due course have
Outcast).
appeared in the Phoenix, and have been incorporated in the separate reprint, but
for the
sudden discontinuance of that magazine.
This
regretted in the case of the papers on Nepalese Law,
most other papers by
Mr
more
especially to be
still
remain the only
The same may,
trustworthy source of information on that subject.

said of
is
which
in fact, be
Hodgson, especially those on the Tribes and Lan-
guages of the Northern Non-Aryans adjacent to India, which are scattered over
periodicals
now
scarce
in a collected form,
and
little accessible,
inasmuch
as
on
and would be well worth preserving
all these questions,
both those treated of in
the present volume and those bearing on the ethnology and glossology of the
Himalayan
tribes,
he has almost exclusively remained master of a
search in which he had been the
The
first to
foregoing statement will explain the
present publication, without, however,
it is
somewhat ungainly form of the
hoped, detracting from
usefulness, as placing within the reach of scholars matter
means or opportunity
field of re-
break ground.
to consult in the "
its
substantial
which few of them have
Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society,"
or in the " Selections from the Records of the
Government
of Bengal."
Should the present volume be favourably received, the remaining papers of
Hodgson
will probably be given in another
volume
or two.
Mr
"
CONTENTS.
PART
I.
ON THE LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, AND RELIGION OF

NEPAX AND TIBET.
Page
I.
Notices of the Languages, Literature, and Religion of Nepal and Tibet.

["Asiatic
Researches," vol.
xvi.
" Illustrations of the Literature
Serampore, 1841,
II.
p. 1]
(1828), p.
and Religion
of the
Buddhists
in
;
Sketch of Buddhism, derived from the Bauddha Scriptures of Nepal

[" Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol.
and Appendix
III.
Reprinted
409.
Reprinted in "
v., p. lxxvii.
ii.
(1828), p. 222,
Illustrations,'' p. 49]
35
Quotations from Original Sanskrit Authorities in proof and illustration of

the preceding article ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society,"
vol. v. (183(5), p. 29, p. 71.
Reprinted in "Illustrations,"
p.
94]
65
IV. European Speculations on Buddhism ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic

Society," vol.
p.
136]
........
(1834), p.
iii.
382.
96
V. Remarks on M. Remusat's Review of Buddhism ["Journal of the Bengal

Asiatic Society," vol.
iii.
(1834), p. 425
"Illustrations," p. 144 and
p.
152]
and
p. 499.
.
Reprinted in
.
.102
........
VI. Note on the Inscription from Sdrntfth ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic
Society," vol.
p.
158]
VII. Notice of Adi
iv.
(1835), p. 211.
Buddha and
of the
Bengal Asiatic Society,"

"Illustrations," p. 164]
Ill
Seven Mortal Buddhas [" Journal of the
......
......
vol.
iii.
(1834),
p.
215.
Reprinted in
115
VIII. Note on the Primary Language of the Buddhist Writings ["Journal of

the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol.
"Illustrations,"
p.
180]
vi.
(1837), p. 682.
Reprinted in
120
CONTENTS.
Vlll
Page
IX.
Disputation respecting Caste by a Buddhist [" Transactions of the Royal

Asiatic Society," vol.
tions," p. 192]
X.
On
.......
.......
iii.
(1829), p. 160.
Repriuted
"Illustra-
in
126
many of the Symbols

Buddhism and Saivism [" Oriental Quarterly Magazine," vol. vii.
Reprinted in " Illustra(1827), p. 218, and vol. viii. (1828), p. 252.
the Extreme Resemblance that prevails between

of
tions," p. 203]
133
XI. The Pravrajya" Vrata or Initiatory Rites of the Buddhists, according to the
Piija
Khanda
[" Illustrations," p. 212]
PART
I.
On
II.
Asiatic Society," vol. xviii. (1849),
from the Records
p.
Reprinted
761.
Government
of the
Calcutta, 1857, p. 48]
On
.139
the Physical Geography of the Himalaya ["Journal of the Bengal
tions
II.
xxvii.
.
......
Reprinted
29
Origin and Classification of the Military Tribes of Nepal ["Journal of the
Bengal Asiatic Society,"

"Selections," p. 141]
On
the Chepang and

Asiatic
...
vol.
Kusunda Tribes
Society,"
(1833), p.
ii.
of
Repriuted in
217.
.
xvii.,
ii.
(1857),
p.
Reprinted in
650.
V. Cursory Notice of Nayakot and of the Remarkable Tribes inhabiting

['Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol.
printed in " Selections," p. 160]
On the
On
VIII.
On
ix., p.
1114.
it
Re-
Index.
55
Reprinted in "Selec-
the Colonization of the Himalaya by Europeans ["Selections," p. 1]

the
45
Tribes of Northern Tibet and of Sifan ["Journal of the Bengal
Asiatic Society," vol. xxii. (1853), p. 121.

tions," p. 173]
VII.
37
Nepal ["Journal of the Bengal
......
.....
.......
vol.
" Selections," p. 150]
VI.
the Aborigines of the Himalaya ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic

in "Selections," p. 126]
IV.
No.
.
Society," vol. xvi. (1848), p. 1235, and vol. xvii.,p. 73.
III.
in "Selec-
of Bengal,"
Commerce
of
Nepal [" Selections,"
p.
11]
65
83
91
12 2
"
"
LIST OF ADDITIONS
AND CORRECTIONS.
PART
Page
I.
at languages, add foot note, " see on to pp. 29-36."

note " *," misplaced, belongs to the word " Buddha," four lines lower.
3, line 14,
,,
8,
,,
15,
for
"Najra" read " Vajra."

For " see No. 15" read "
,,
see on to the Pravrajya Vrata," p.

Bhotiya books " read " list (that of Bhotiya books.")
20, for " emigration" read " immigration."
22-32, heading of all, for " religion of Bhot" read " religion of Nepal."
33, heading, erase " List of Buddhist works."
34, for the same heading read " List of Jathagatas.
,,
23, note,
,,
24, line 19,
,,
25, 8 lines
,,
26,
,,
30,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
19, note.
21,
,,
39,
49,
,,
52,
,,
60,
,,
60,
,,
89,
,,
93,
for "
139,
et ccet.
list of
for" ought " read " sought.
for " and" read " an."

from bottom, for " meditation " read " mediation."
6 lines from bottom, for " articular" read "particular ."
line 14, for " Dharma" read " Dhyani."
1 line from bottom, for " were sent" read " sent by me to Royal Asiatic Society."
" This is
line 12 from bottom, at the word "them," insert the footnote " "
probably an error. Sakya taught orally; but his immediate disciples (Kasyapa,
Ananda, and Upali) reduced his doctrines to writing."
line 10 from top, for "bhikshari" read " Khikshari."
line 14 from top, for " are " read "is."
line 18, after " reduced" read " them."
line 9 from top, for "mortals" read " morals."
erase the whole of the Dwiamnaya and Triamnaya, and substitute as follows
-
||
Dwiamnaya.
The
first is
Upaya.
Prajna.
Pi-ajna.
Upaya,
theistic
the second, atheistic.
Triamndya.
Dharma.
Buddha.
Buddha.
Dharma.
Sangha.
The
first
and third of
Buddha.
Sangha.
Dharma.
Sangha.
this series are theistic (diverse)
the second
is
atheistic,
Buddha=Upaya, Dharma=Prajna.
,,
,,
note, 4 lines from bottom, for "pp. 137-9 of vol. i." read "for full list of
Sanskrit works, see pp. .36-39 aforegone."
101, note " *."
Add to note, "The identity in question has since been upheld by
98, in
Cunningham, Wilson
(of
Bombay), Chapman
(of
Madras), and Colonel Yule."
"
"
LIST OF ADDITIONS
X
Paê
102, at
word "published"
"
AND CORRECTIONS.
add footnote "+," "These drawings have
in last line,
French Institute.
110, in note, line 10 from bottom, for " above " read " about."
126, at title, add as footnote "J," "From Royal Asiatic Society's Transactions,
vol. ii., dated July 11, 1829."
133, at title, add footnote " +," " From Oriental Quarterly Magazine,' No. III. A.D.
since been presented to the
'
,,
1827."
,,
139, at title,
add footnote "," "From volume on Buddhism, printed
at
Serampore
A.D. 1841."
,,
140, line 5 from bottom, for " Pravra" read " Pravrajya."
141, note, for " Gardhar " read " Gandhar."
,,
142,
,,
to the note, "See enumeration of

worship above given," pp. 93-96.
add
PART
Page
all
the principal objects of Buddhist
II.
for " reach " read " reaches."

19 and 23, complete the brackets after 4000 and after
12, line 9,
,,
13, lines
,,
14, line 1,
,,
14, line 5
,,
15,
,,
17, line 13, for
el cat.
for " Lescha " read "Lepcha;" line 5, for " Kaya " read " Vayu ; " line
16, for " Leschu " read " Lepcha; " line 19, after " craftsmen," add, " of which
the names are as follows
In the mountains. In the valley."
:
from bottom in note, for " Tharuh " read " Tharii," and bracket the words,
" not own name," and also the word "Sallyan." Add to note, " Many of the
Awalias will be found spoken of in the paper on Nayakot, herein given."
at the words " Nepal, J.A.S.B., May 1833," add in note "+," given herein, at
p. 39.
,,
19,
,,
21,
,,
25,
,,
29,
"viverrula" read " viverricula." Last line, for " Galophasis " read
" Gallophasis.
line 11, for "to" read "too."
let the words at bottom of diagram run all through.
line 14, for "plateau" read "plateaux."
line 6 from bottom, at word " omitted," add footnote, "In the Bengal Asiatic
Journal for June 1848, may be seen a sample of the Khas tongue."
line 3 from bottom, at words " broken tribes," add footnote, " See a paper thereon
'
'
,,
29,
,,
30, line 8
expressly, in the sequel of this work.
31,
32,
from top, add footnote " ," "For the tribes East of Bhutan, round
Assam, and thence down the Indo-Chinese frontier, see papers in the sequel."
in note, for " 4500 " read " 4000."
line 9, after " Dravidian," add, " Mundarian or H6-Sontal."
word " dialects," add, " See them, as hereto annexed."

word " weavers," add footnote, " See list of them aforegone,
for " 4500-4700" read " 4000."
,,
32, line 11, at
,,
33, line 3, at
34,
,,
39, line 17, for
,,
40, line 4
,,
,,
at p. 14."
" caste " read " cast."

top, for " some " read " about 100."
46, line 1, for " already " read " always."
46, line 5 from top, at word "Kusunda," add footnote as follows, "+'':" Since
accomplished, and the result given hereinafter in the paper on the broken
from
tribes."
,,
4i".,
line S
from bottom, at word "Ilaiyu," erase note"," and substitute " llaiyu,
For more on this tribe, sec Treatise hereinafter given on the
Eayu, vel Vayu."

Vaj u and Bahing.
"
"
LIST OF ADDITIONS
Page
53,
the
for "Tibetan"
headings,
AND CORRECTIONS.
xi
"Chepang;" and for " Shopa" read
read
"English."
,,
,,
,,
,,
from bottom, at word " Denwar," add in footnote "+," "See paper on
broken tribes, before referred to."
60, line 14 from bottom, for "dialect" read " dialects ;" and add footnote
"See
paper on broken tribes, complete vocabulary of these tongues, and compare
13, 14 supra, Part II."
61, line 14 from top, for " overhang " read " overhanging."
05, line 7 from top, at word "tongues" add footnote "+," "See the former instance
here alluded to, in the paper on the Caucasian affinities of the Tibetans as given
57, line 4
in the sequel."
from bottom, for
65, line 7
'
'
Trochu
"
read
'
'
Thochu, " and
last line, for
" Khor " read
"Hor."
from top, at word "Kuenlun" add footnote, "Is not the Karakorum the
western prolongation of the Nyenchhen, and distinct from the Kuenlun, though
curving up to it on nearing the Pamer?"
,,
60, line 15
,,
67, line 12
from bottom,
at
word "Pekin," add
as footnote,
"See
this itinerary here-
inafter given."
,,
69, line 1, at
word "Indochinese," add
footnote,
"The
paper on the Indo-Chinese
borderers herein.
,,
69, line 20, at
word " Caucasus
"
add
footnote,
"See paper on
these affinities in the
sequel."
,,
for " tribunal " read " tribe.

"They are given as corrected in the sequel."
85, line 9 from bottom, erase the repeated "no end."
Line 7, for "drawback" read
,,
87, for
,,
88,
,,
89, before
,,
72, in note,
,,
76,
add
to second note,
"drawbacks."
" weed" read " weeds." In note, for " 4500
three lines from bottom, for " an" read " any."
"timber"
growth
are
"tea," and add the following footnote "t:" "The

lower region, and its sale in Tibet as well as in the plains,
insert
of tea in the
now
read " 4000."
"
affording great and increasing
means
of profitable
employment
to
settlers."
89,
For "1832" read "1831," and add at the end of this note: "The
and observe that the tea trade
with Tibet is now adding greatly to our means of successful competition with
note "||."
trade papers in question are given in the sequel
Russia."
but one, for " whp " read " why."

from bottom, at the word " rupees," add
,,
90, note, last line
,,
92, 4 lines
next page.
,,
97, line
in footnote:
"See note
't,' in
'
22 from top, for "or Takyeul" read
transit " read
"
"and Takyeul;" and
for "line of
lines of transit."
" Kothees," add "or houses of business firms."

from bottom, for " th " read " the."
line 3 from top, at the word " assertion," add note as follows: "To judge from
the statements lately made (1S72) by a member of the British Embassy in Nepal,
it would seem that the present condition of Nepal's commerce witli us, as well
,,
98, line 13, after
,,
100, line 14
,,
113,
as that of ours with her, calls loudly for the attention of our
Note of 1873.
Government."
PART
I.
ON THE LANGUAGES,* LITERATURE, AND RELIGION OF NEPAUL AND TIBET.
Within
the mountainous parts of the limits of the modern kingdom of Nepaul, there
are thirteen distinct
and strongly-marked
These are the Khas or
dialects spoken.
Parbattia, the Magar, the Gurung, the Sunwar, the Kachari, the Haiyu, the Chepang,
the Kasunda, the Murmi, the Newari, the Kiranti, the Limbuan, and the Lapachan.
With the exception

tongues are
all
of
of the
(which will be presently reverted to) these several
first
Trans-Himalayan
stock,
and are
They
closely affiliated.
are all
extremely rude, owing to the people who speak them having crossed the snows before
learning had
dawned upon
Tibet, and to the physical features of their
mountain barriers on every hand) having tended
to
new home (huge
break up and enfeeble the
common
speech they brought with them.
At
present the several tribes or clans to which these dialects are appropriated, can
hardly speak intelligibly to each other, and not one of the dialects, save the Newari
or language of
Nepaul Proper (and the Lapcha, which with the Limbu belongs now
Sikim), can boast a single book, or even a system of letters, original or borrowed.
Newari has, indeed, three systems

and
it
of letters, of
which more
to
The
the sequel
will be said in
has also a small stock of books in the shape of translations and comments from
and upon the sacred and exotic

has no dictionary or grammar
numerous as they
are,
It
may
to
an exotic medium,
literature of the
;
nor
who devote
is
its
But the Newari tongue
Newars.
thought of by those,
cultivation ever
their lives to the sacred literature of
Buddhism.
be remarked, by the way, that the general and enduring effects of this addiction
in preference to the vernacular,
have been,
to cut off the bridge
leading from speculation to practice, to divorce learning from utility, and to throw a
veil of craftful
mystery over the originally popular and generous practical Institutes of
the religion this people profess.

Before proceeding to a brief comparison of Newari and of the language of Tibet,
with a
view to indicate the Northern stock of the former tongue,
notice the
Khas
or Parbattia Bhasha, since the subject
words, and will not need revertence
The only language

battia
an
it will
may be
be better to
dismissed in a few
to.
of Southern origin spoken in these Hills
is
the
Khas
or Par-
Indian Prakrit, brought into them by colonies from below (twelfth to
* For these languages, see on to the Paper at p. 29 of Part

Himalaya," with its annexed " Comparative Vocabulary."'
II.,
"
On
the Aborigines of the
THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAUL.
fifteenth century of Christ)
of the Kali river,
it
and now
West
so generally diffused, that, in the provinces
has nearly eradicated the vernacular tongues, and, though less
prevalent in the provinces East of that river,
it
even in them, as far as the Trisul
has,
Ganga, divided the empire of speech almost equally with the local mother tongues.
The Parbattia language

what
it is.
At
present
simple, sufficiently copious in words, and very char-
is terse,
acteristic of the unlettered
hut energetic race of soldiers and statesmen who
it is
almost wholly in
vocables, substantially Hindee.
ancient barbarous stock.
speak
(the
it
And
Khas) were
Yet
Few
it
made
and in eight-tenths
several of its radical words
originally
what Menu
calls
them,
it
of its
indicate an
still
persons except
Brahmans and
with ease and correctness
being the nucleus of unity and refinement.
barbarous moun-
viz.,
same with the several other
are regularly taught the Parbattia language
read and write
structure,
have no doubt that the people who more especially
taineers of a race essentially the
Highlanders.
its
races of Nepaulese
Khardars
professional scribes or
but most gentlemen speak, and

the court where
all
many
so often assemble,
This language, however, has no litera-
ture properly so called, and very few and trivial books.
It
Devanagari characters, and, as a language of business,
always written in the
is
is
extremely concise and
clear.
The Gorkhalis speak the Parbattia Bhasha, and

lence, in later times, to be
to their ascendency
its
is
preva-
mainly ascribed.
Considering that Nepaul Proper, or the country of the Newars, has long been the
metropolis of Gorkhali power,
Parbattia has not
made any
it is
of this (not wholly referable to

facility of
and
rather remarkable that the fashionable
modern times)
communication characterising the
facile
The causes
material impression on the Newari language.
are probably, that the fertility
level country of the
and
Newars, soon gave
consistency and body to their speech, whilst their religion (Buddhism)
made them look
with jealousy, as well on the more ancient Hindoo immigrants, as on the more modern
Hindoo conquerors.
different
In the mountainous
districts, strictly so
called, the case
regions from the South set chiefly on the provinces west of the Trisul Ganga.
too, to this day,
Brahmanical Hinduism principally
grants were refugees from

give the impress of their
The
Moslem
bigotry
own speech and
prior establishment of
bigotry.
They came
to
These
and were
latter
so
Those southern immi-
numerous as
religion to the rude
Buddhism
Brahmanical southerns from penetrating

southerns had found a refuge.
in
There
flourishes, its great supporters
being the Khas, and, next to them, the Magars and Gurungs.
landers.
was
and, besides, from whatever reason, the tide of immigration into these
to be 'able to
and scattered high-
Nepaul Proper prevented these
there, where, however, ages before,
some
were Buddhists, fleeing from Brahmanical
Nepaul Proper about two centuries
after Christ.
had previously been established therein, and these immigrants were too few
Buddhism
to
make a
sensible impression on the speech or physiognomy of the prior settlers, already a dense
and cultivated population.
It
is
difficult to
chronologize these events.
But apparently
the Sakavans came into Nepaul when Kapila was destroyed by the King of Kosala.
;:

For the
rest,
the population of the kingdom of Nepaul
is
preferring for the most part the Tibetan model of that faith
Bauddha
the Newars are the
principally
:
and the vast majority of them are Buddhists, but not Lamaitcs.
chief exception,
Between the Buddhism
of Tibet
and that of Nepaul Proper, (or of the Newars)
the differences are,

1st.
That the former
still
adheres
monastic institutes of Buddhism
unperplexed with caste

the Tibetan
to,
whilst the latter has rejected, the old
2nd. that the former
it
Buddhism has no concealments, whilst the Nepaulese
a pr oneness to withhold
many higher matters
as of old,
is still,
the latter, a good deal hampered by
is
and
wholly
that, lastly,
sadly vexed with
of the law from all but chosen vessels.
CONNEXION OF THE LANGUAGE OF NEPAUL PROPER WITH THAT OF TIBET.

I proceed
now
to
indicate that affinity of the language of the
language of the Tibetans which I have already adverted
to.
Newars
to the
had extended
this
vocabulary (in an amplified form) to the whole of the languages above-mentioned
but the results were, for several reasons, liable to question in

prefer holding
them back
for the present,
detail, so that I
though there can be no doubt of the
general facts, that these dialects are of northern origin, and are closely connected.
in
The language
of
common with
that of
Nepaul Proper or the Newari,
of Lassa and Digarchi
Bhot
and
or Tibet.
it
It is
has, as already intimated,
much
however, a poorer dialect than that
has, consequently,
been obliged to borrow more
extensive aid from Sanskrit, whilst the early adoption of Sanskrit as the sole
language of literature has facilitated this infusion.

of a few terms
English.
The following
is
a comparison
THE LANGUAGES OF XEPAUL.

English.
THE LANGUAGES CF NEPAUL.
6
sides of the snows,
and some of the
inferior Tibetan dialects
may, very probably,
come nearer to Newari than the best, or that of Lhassa.

The twelfth word in the Newari column, Water, is given according to the subWater is Lo at Patau, Luk at Katmandu, and Gna at
dialects of the Valley.
Bhatgong these places being the capitals of as many kingdoms before the Gorkha
conquest, though situated in very close vicinity to each other.
;
With
respect to
the numerals of the decimal scale, the resemblance
ingly close.
Numerals.
Bhotiya.
1.
Chi.
is strik-
THE LANGUAGES OF NEPATJL.

Newari.
Ehotiya,
35.
Sum
36.
Swi
Swi
Swi
Swi
elm (thampa.)
37
38.
Gniah.
Khu.
Nha.
Chiah.
40. Zhe-chu (thampa.)
Swi Gun.
Swi Sanho.
41-
Pi Chi.
42.
Pi Nassi.
43.
Pi Swong.
50.
Gna-chu (thampa.)
Gniayu or Pi-Sanho,
on the
also 60, 70, &c. are
60.
Tukh-chu (thampa.)
70.
Tun
Nhaiyu.
Gheali
Chaiye.
90.
Gu
1,000. Tong-tha-che.
Sach6.
10,000. Thea.
Zhi-dot.
Nor
&c.
mere
Lak-chi.
the variation, after passing the ten, of any importance, the principle of
both being
thus, ten
6, 7, &c.
Do-che.
Bum.
is
and thus
or :5
Guye.
(P.)
Gheah
100,000.
Gniah
formed out of
Qui.
80.
100.
or merely by pausing
last letter of
still
the same
that
is,
repetition
and compounding
of the ordinals
and one, ten and two, are the forms of expression in both, and
The Bhotiya word thampa,

expletive,
and often omitted
postfixed to the decimally increasing series,
The Newari names
in speech.
so, twice,
is
of the figures from
one to ten, as given by Kirkpatrick, are not correct, and hence the difference between
the Newari and Bhotiya names has been
it
seems to me, that even the
may
made
little difference
to appear greater than
it
is
in fact,
that remains in the present specimens
be resolved into mere modes of utterance.
Although the following
offer
no
verbal resemblances, the principle on which they are formed presents several analogies.
Bhotiya and Newari names of the twelve months.
Newari,
February.
March.
Chongchola or
April.
Bachola or
Chilla.
Ne'la.
May.
Tuchola Swoln.
June.
Dil'la
July.
Gung'la
August.
September.
October.
November.
December.
January.
February.
Pela.
Sunday,
)
:
is refuted by the fact of their extensive practical application, of which

was not aware when he gave that opinion. By comparing one of them
This notion
Dr. Carey
(the Ranja) with the fourth alphabet of the Bhotiyas,
will be seen, that the
it
And
general forms of the letters have a striking resemblance.
Lanja or
as this
deemed exotic by the Bhotiyas, I have no doubt it will prove the same
with the Newari letters so called for the words Lanja, Lantza, and Ranja are one
Ranja
is
Of
and the same.
appearance, and,
if
the Bhanjin Mola,
it
may
be observed that
it
has a very ornate
the ornamental parts were stripped from the letters, they (as
well as the Ranja) might be traced to a Devanagari origin, from the forms of
which alphabet the Bauddhas might possibly
Now, though
Indian.
nated
it,
purpose above hinted
undergo the
of
toil
letters follow the
its religion,
and
them
in order to use
literature
is,
our supposing that those
as
originally,
who
origi-
alter existing alphabetical forms for the
new
Indeed
it is
well
many
known
these systems of
All
characters.
Devanagari arrangement, nor shoidd
have no doubt that the
them,
not warrant our conjecturing, that they would
at, it will
anciently in the plains of India

extinct
might
inventing entirely
a Devanagari origin.
all
may warrant
probability
together with
alter
The Bauddha
a cover to the mysteries of their faith.
I hesitate to assign
them
to the learned, that there
were
sorts of written characters, since
letters
become
adverted to were part of these.
WRITTEN CHARACTERS OF TIBET.

Of the Bhotiya characters, four kinds are distinguishable but only two of them
known by name to the Newars they are called (in Tibet as well as here
Uchhen and Umen. The first are capitals the second, small letters the third,
;
are
running hand
Ranja.
and the fourth,
There
is
Sokpa, who,
also a character in use in
with the
Ilor
as already observed, equivalent to the
or
Horpa,
and near Tibet which
Nepaulese
ascribed to the
nomad population
the
constitute
is
of
and Mongol etymon respectively.
Tibet, of Turki,
LITERATURE OF BHOT OR TIBET.
The term Bhot
is
the Sanskrit, Tibet the Persian name,
probably only a corruption of the

general
first
name
for themselves
came among them
first
term, and,
if so,
(Bod-pa) or their country
Bod
the native one, but
the Tibetans had not any
when
their Indian teachers
in the 7th centuary, a.d.
The great bulk of the literature of Bhot (as of Nepaul)

In Bhot the principal works are only to be found at
religion.
relates to the
but numerous Bhotiya books of inferior pretensions, are to be obtained at
from the poor

religion
traffickers p.nd
is
Katmandu
Nepaul on account of
of the great part of these latter, or the Bhotiya books procured
in
that of popular tracts, suited to the capacity and wants of the humbler
classes of society,
kind shoidd be so
it
visit
and trade.
The character
Nepaul,
monks who annually
Bauddha
the larger monasteries
among whom
common
in
it is
a subject of surprise, that literature of any
such a region as Bhot, and, more remarkably
shoidd be so widely diffused as to reach persons covered with
filth,
so,
and
that
desti-
IO
tute of every one of those thousand luxuries
which
(at least in
our ideas) precede
the gTeat luxury of books.
Printing is, no doubt, the main cause of this great diffusion of books. Yet the
very circumstance of printing being in such general use, is no less striking than this
supposed effect of it nor can I accoimt for the one or other effect, unless by
;
presuming that the hordes of
have been driven by the tedium
The invention
they make of
it
with which that country [Tibet] swarms,
religionists,
to these admirable uses of their time.
vitce,
is
The poorest
a merit of their own.
valley from the north
exhibits the neatest
but the universal use
individual
who
visits this
seldom without his Pothi [book], and from every part
is
of his dress dangle charms
[ Jantras,]
workmanship
made up
in slight cases, the interior of
which
in print.
allowance, however, should also be
Some
from China
of printing, the Bhotiyas got
made
for the
habit of writing, possessed by the people at large
very familiar power and
another feature in the moral
picture of Bhot, hardly less striking than the prevalence of printing or the diffusion
of books,
and which I should not venture
to point out,
among
opportunities of satisfying myself of its truth
Nepaul who come here

self-existent
had
not had sufficient
the annual sojourners in
pay their devotions at the temple of the
in hundreds to
Supreme Buddha [Swayambhu Adi Buddha].
In the collections forwarded to the Society will be found a vast number of

manuscripts
great
fragments,
and
and small
entire little
[as well as the small printed tracts] from the
were obtained
treatises
all
which
humblest individuals.
Their number and variety will, perhaps, be allowed to furnish sufficient evidence of
what
I have said regarding the appliances of education in Tibet, if
be had,
when
the estimate
is
made
to the scanty
due reference
and entirely casual source whence
the books were obtained in such plenty.
The many
different kinds of writing
which the MSS. exhibit
will, perhaps,
be
admitted yet further to corroborate the general power of writing possessed by almost
Or, at all events, these various kinds and infinite degrees
all classes of the people.
of penmanship, present a curious and
writing, let this proficiency
Something of
this
ample specimen of Bhotiya proficiency in
belong to what class or classes
familiar possession of the
have just noticed as characterising Bhot,

fear, in
the theory of
its
may
it
may.
elements of education, which I
be found also in India; but more, I
institutions than in the practice of its present society,
because of the successive floods of open violence which have, for ages, ravaged
The repose of Bhot, on the other hand, has
that, till lately, devoted land.
allowed
we
its pacific
institutions full
room to produce
Bhot able
see a great part of the people of
their natural effect; and hence
to write
and read.
In whatever I have said regarding the Press, the general power and habit of
writing, or the diffusion of books, in Bhot, I desire to be understood
readers with
most
The
many
different things in the
world
in the
by
my European
These words are names importing the
grains of allowance.
favoured part of Europe, and in Asia.
intelligent resident in Ilindoostan will
have no
difficulty in
apprehending the
exact force which I desire should be attached to such comprehensive phrases,
THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL.

moment
especially if he wiil recollect for a
that the press, writing and hooks,
though most mighty engines, are hut engines

indisputably, they
proves to us
without once
society,
may
I I
and that
the'
example of China
continue in daily use for ages in a vast
man
hands of the strong
falling into the
waking one of those many sublime
consequently, without
of Milton
energies,
the
and
full
developement of which in Europe has shed such a glorious lustre around the path
of
manin
The
which
this world.
felt as
is
performed in the stereotype manner by wooden planks
graved
beautifully
often
are
instrument
is
Bhot
printing of
nor are the limited powers of such
an
an inconvenience by a people, the entire body of whose literature
of an unchanging character.
The Bhotiya
Tibetan writing, again, often exhibits specimens of ready and
or
But then
graceful penmanship.
it
is
never employed on any thing more useful
than a note of business, or more informing than the dreams of blind mythology
and thus,
ment
in
too, the general diffusion of
books (that most potent of spurs to improve-
our ideas) becomes, in Bhot, from the general worthlessness of the books
diffused, at least
but a comparatively innocent and agreeable means of
filling
up
the tedious hours of the twilight of civilization.
SANSKRIT DAUDDHA LITERATURE OF NEPAUL.
With
respect
scriptures,
the
to
authorities
of
sundry notices in their existing works)

scriptures amounted,
siitras
or aphorisms,
The most
when
religion
or their
collectively,
asserts, that
authoritative of the books of the Buddhists

as
now
extant in Nepaul in
subsequently to be enumerated, are known,
and individually, by the names of Sutra and Dharma.
" All that the
Khand
Buddhas have
are also frequently
there
said, as
is
the following passage
gave definite form and systematic force to these words,
The
to
if
in the face of that host of ascetics
whom
tion has exalted to the rank of an inspired teacher.

sect
is
indeed he did
is to
Buddhism
Brahmanism.
old books of these religionists universally assert this

it
Sutra, and
is
not wholly originate them; and, in this important respect Sakya

is
Maha Yana
contained in the
Dharma Ratna," or precious science. Hence the Scriptures

called " Buddha Vachana," the words of Buddha. Sakya Sinha
the rest of the Sutras,
what Vyasa
probably
and not volumes in our sense.
In a work called the Puja
admit
sacred
the original body of their
complete, to eighty-four thousand volumes
the sacred language of India,
first
the Buddhist
the universal tradition of the followers of this creed (supported by
the modern Bauddhas
the easiness of latter supersti-
The sacred chronology
of the
content with assigning Sakya to the Kali Yuga, and profane chronology
a science
which the Buddhists seem never
to have cultivated.
But the
seems to be that Sakya died about four and a half centuries before our
era.
subsequent enumeration of the chief Sanskrit authorities of the Buddhists
be seen that Sakya

to " hearer,"
and
is
the "Speaker" in
refers to the
all
the great works.
form of the works, which
is,
is
best opinion
In the
it
will
This word answers
for the
most
part, that
T2
of a report of a series of lectures or lessons delivered verbally
by Sakya
to his
That
favourite disciples, but sometimes diverging into dialogue between them.
Sakya Sinha was
come
substantially the originator of this creed, such as it has
to our times, is thus I think demonstrable from the uniform tenour of the
language of the great scriptural authorities of the sect, wherein, either before or
down
after the enunciation of every cardinal
Sinha,' or,
'
so
commanded Sakya
text, stand the words, 'thus said
cluded to be the founder of this creed, which took
from the hands of his
Adverting
I
now
earliest disciples, or
Sakya
Sakya Sinha therefore must be con-
Sinha.'
its
existing written form
Kasyapa, Ananda, and Upali.
to the technical arrangement, or classification of these works,
observe that they are primarily divided into Esoteric and Exoteric, and that
may
by the Buddhists
these classes are ordinarily termed Tantras and Puranas
as well
by the Brahmanists, though the former would likewise seem to convey this
Vyakarana is also employed in
distinction by the words Upadesa and Vyakarana.
Gatka, Jataka, Avadana, etc.,
the sense of narration as opposed to speculation.
as
seem to be subdivisions.
The word Sutra
as explained, "
Mula Grantha," " Buddha Vachana,"
words of Buddha,) has been held

as has their Sinriti to the
(chief book,
to be equivalent to the Sruti of the
But, apt as Buddhism
Bauddha Vyakarana.
human
Brahmans,
is
to forget
must be allowed to be
somewhat defective and, in fact, the Sutra of the Buddhists often comprehends
not only their own proper " Buddha Vachana," but also " Bodhisatwa and Bhikshu
the distinction of divine and
nature, this analogy
Vackana," (words of Bodhisatwa and of Bhikshu); which latter the Brahmans

" Bishi Vachana,"
would denominate
and of course, assign
ments by holy men upon the eternal truth of the
The Newars
small portion
to Sankara
assert, that of the original
now
exists.
Acharya
and
A
'
Of the
and
existing
com-
body of their sacred
literature but a
legend, familiar to this people, assigns the destruction
the incomparable Sankara
by the Nepaulese Bauddhas
to the Smriti, or
Sruti.
'
of Sir
W. Jones,
is
execrated
as a blood-stained bigot.*
Bauddha writings
of
Nepaul (originally of Indian growth
foimd unchanged in the Sanskrit language) by far the most important,
still
of the speculative kind, are the five
Khandas
or parts of the Prajna Paramita or
Raksha Bhagavati, each of which contains 2->,000 distiches. Of the riarrative

kind, the chief are eight of the nine works called the Nava Dharma
the ninth
being the Ashta Sahasrika Prajna Paramita. It is a valuable summary of the great
;
'
work
first
mentioned, to which, therefore, rather than to the narrative
Ashta Sahasrika bears

Sanskrit
'
essential affinity.
Bauddha works known
to
In the sequel will be foimd a
list
class,
the
of
the
all
me by name.f
* Sankara is placed in the ninth century of Christ (1,000 years ago), and Sakya, the
founder of Buddhism, (for we have nothing authentic before him) certainly was not
horn sooner than about the middle of the sixtli century, B.C. The interval of fifteen
enturiea may vaguely indicate the period during which Buddhism most flourished
in India.
The decline of this creed in the plains we must date from Sankara's era, but
not its fall, for it is now certain that the expulsion was not complete till the fourteenth or fifteenth century of our era. From the ninth century onwards is comprised
the worst period of the persecution.
t See the next paper for this list.

The
Rakshas or Paramitas
five
* are
enumerated
in order in the
immediately sub-
sequent detail. They are of highly speculative character, belonging rather to phil-
osophy than
The
religion.
cast of thought
the extreme
in
sceptical
is
endless
Sakya appears surrounded
doubts are started, and few solutions of them attempted.
his disciples, by whom the arguments on each topic are chiefly maintained,
Sakya acting generally as moderator, but sometimes as sole speaker. The topics
discussed are the great first principles of Buddhism;! the tenets of the four schools
by
of
Bauddha Philosophy are mentioned, but those of the Swabkavika alone largely
The object of the whole work seems rather to be proof of the pro-
discussed.
position, that
ment of any
this great
doubt
the end as well as beginning of wisdom, than the establish-
is
dogmas of philosophy or religion and from the evidence of

would appear that the old Bauddha philosophers were rather
particular
work
it
sceptics than atheists.
The nine Dharmas

Raja.
8.
are as follows
Ashta Sahasrika.
1.
2.
Lankavatara.
5.
Lalita Vistara.
9.
Divine worship
is
Ganda
6.
Vyiiha.
3.
Dasa Bhiimeswara.
Sad Dharma Pundarika.
4.
Samadhi
Tathagata Guhyaka.
7.
Suvarna Prabhasa.
constantly offered to these nine works, as the
'
Nava Dharma,'
by the Bauddhas of Nepaul. The aggregation of the nine is now subservient to

ritual fancies, but it was originally dictated by a just respect for the pre-eminent
authority and importance of these works, which embrace, in the
of the philosophy of
Buddhism
and in the seven remaining ones, a
full illustration of
an abstract
first,
on the esoteric doctrines
in the seventh, a treatise
doctrine and discipline, taught in the easy and effective
way
of example and anec-
With
dote, interspersed with occasional instances of dogmatic instruction.
exception of the
first,
woven with much

is
these works are therefore of a narrative kind
occasional speculative matter.
the original authority for
have
crept,
all
every point of the ordinary
One of them
those versions of the history of
the
but inter-
(the Lalita Vistara
Sakya Sinha, which
through various channels, into the notice of Europeans.
I esteem myself fortunate in having been first to discover
To meditate and
these important works.
digest
them
is
and procure copies of
not for
me
but I venture
knowledge of genuine Buddhism be acquired.
to hint that
by
Buddhism
not simple, but a vast and complicate structure erected, during ages
is
so doing only can a
of leisure, by a literary
Doctors; nor
the
is
Brahmanism
the
people.
Buddhism
It
has
its
various schools divided
of the Vedas, of the Puranas,
and of the Bhagavat.
prevailed in India sixteen to seventeen centuries, and, as

it
had even before
its
by various
of one age less different from that of another, than
founder's death
many
sects.
And
its
Buddhism
genius was
free, so
soon after his death,
schisms multiplied infinitely despite the three great convocations called to stay
them.
it
These councils took place respectively,
B.C.
4(5.5,
B.C. 365, B.C. 231.
Let
not be supposed, because these works I have cited were procured in Nepaul,
that they are therefore of a local character or mountain origin.

the Prajna Paraniita. see Wassiljew's " Der Buddhismus"
f See the suquel at "Religion of Nepaul and Bhot."
*On
p. 157,
14
Such a notion
in every
is,
absurd; for the works hear intrinsic
-view, utterly
and their language (Sanskrit,) always

most assuredly was never cultivated there with a zeal or
evidence of the contrary in almost every page
wholly exotic
in Nepaul,
such as the composition of these works must have demanded.

These works were composed by the Sages of Magadha,* Kosala,t and Rajagriha,}:
ability
whence they were transferred
to
Nepaul by Bauddha Missionaries soon
they
after
had assumed their existing shape.
The Sambhu Purana

which I have made.
is
the only local work of importance in the large collection
Perhaps
Sankara's wrath consumed
it
surmised, that
now produced must
Buddhists, the ample works
but a legend
place, the legend is
may be
if (as is
stated) the fire of
but some fragments of the sacred writings of the
all
and
But, in the
be spurious.
in the next, exaggeration
may
first
reasonably be
number of books then extant and destroyed

The Bauddhas never had eighty-four thousand principal scriptures; nor could
Sankara destroy more than a few of those which they really possessed when he
came (if he ever came) to Nepaul. The proof of the latter statement is that Budsuspected, both as to
||
dhism was, long
after Sankara's time, the
Xepaulese Princes and subjects; and that

notwithstanding the Gorkhali conquest.
manical controversist)
may have
the others remained Buddhists

of their subjects.
letters
now
am
scarce.
who
its
still
in regard to the people,
converted one of the Princes of the Valley
but
and, no doubt, took care of the faith and property
Nepaul Proper, usually
in
Ranja and Bhanjin Mola, and on
of opinion, after five years of enquiry, that there were but four copies
my
obtaining one copy and a half
pot transcribed from an old one.
understand
so
Copies of the Raksha Bhagavati or Prajna Paramita are very
in the Valley, prior to
if it
it is
Sankara (or some other famous Brah-
All old Bauddha works are written in one of the three sorts of
peculiar to
Palmira leaves.
prevalent and national faith of the
contents
no
No
new copy had been made
possessed one or more khands or sections of
to offer to sealed
volumes the
silent
one copy more I
one had, for some time, been able fully to
homage
for ages
it,
and those few persons,
as heir-looms,
were content
Time and
of their puja (worship).
growing ignorance have been the chief enemies of Sanskrit Bauddha
literature in
Nepaul.
The Bauddha
Scripture's
are
with reference chiefly to their form and
known by the
Gatha 5. Udana
frequently stated to be of twelve kinds,**

1
.
Sutras
2.
Geya
3.
Vyakarana
4.
style,
following twelve names;

;
6.
Nidana
7.
Ityukta
The modern Bihar.

+ Berar.
t Rajgir.
should doubtless read aphorism or text (Sutra or bana), not book, with referin
question.
in e to the 84,000
The universality of the notion proves that this definit(
number has truth, in some sense, attached to it.
The primitive meaning of Sutra [aphorism, or thread of discourse,] implies that Sakya
taught verbally and if this be so, Sutra only took its present sense of principal scripture after his death. These sayings of Sakya may still be found all over the sacred works
The destruction of Bauddha books adverted
of the sect in their original aphoristic form.
to in the text, has, I fancy, reference to the plains of India.
There it was completi
aally
but in the mean while the most valuable works had been saved in Nepaul.
These I sent to the Library of the College of Fort William ad. 1825.
** Twelve kinds of Scriptures,
see AVassiljew, p. 118.
*
We
THE LITERATURE OF XEPAUL.

Jataka;
8.
9.
Vaipulya; 10. Aclbhuta Dliarma
Avadana;
11.
Upadesa.
12.
Sutras are the principal scriptures, (Mula Grantlia) as the Raksha Bhagavati or
The
Prajna Paramita; they are equivalent to the Vedas of the Brahmanists.

aphorisms of Sakya are the basis of them, hence the name.
Get/as are
works of
praise, thanksgiving
The Gita Govinda of the Brahmanists

which belongs to the Geya.
is
and pious fervour, in modulated language.

equivalent to the Buddhist Gita Pustaka,
Vydharana are narrative works, such as those containing

births of
by
Sakya
their lives
and of
praise.
prior to his attaining Nirvana
and opinions have
histories of the several
and sundry actions of others who
illustrated this religion,
Yyakarana, in the sense of narration,
with various forms of prayer
is
opposed generally to works
of philosophy or speculation, such as the Prajna Paramita.
It also characterises
works of an exoteric kind, as opposed to the Upadesa or Tantras.

Gdthds are narrative works, in verse and prose, containing moral and religious
tales,
(Aneka Dharmakatha)
and doctrine of the
relative to the
The
sect.
Buddhas, or elucidative of the discipline
Lalita Vistara
is
a Vyakarana of the sort called
Gatka.
Uddna
and attributes of the Buddhas, in the form of a dialogue
treat of the nature
between a Buddhist adept and novice.
Niddna are
how
which the causes of events are shewn
treatises, in
Buddha
did Sakya become a
the reason or cause
he
as for example,
fulfilled
the Dan,
and other Paramitas.*

Ityukta, whatever
is
spoken with reference
of some prior discourse,
to,
and
in conclusion
the explanation
Ityukta.
is
Jataka treat of the subject of transmigration or metempsychosis, the illustrations

being drawn from the 550 births of Sakya.
Vaipulya treat of several sorts of Dharnia and Artha, that
means of acquiring the goods of
this
is,
of the several
world (Artha) and of the world to come
(Dharnia).
Adbhuta Dhanna, on preternatural events.

Avadana, of the
fruits of actions or
moral law of Mundane existence.
Upadesa treat of the esoteric doctrines, and are equivalent to Tantra, the
and ceremonies being almost
identical
chief objects of worship, different, though very
same.
bara.
rites
with those of the Hindoo Tantras, but the
many
of the inferior ones are the
According to the Upadesa, the Buddhas are styled Yoganibara and DigainTantrika works are very numerous.
obscenity and by
all sorts
redeemed by unsually
They
are in general disgraced
of magic and doenionology.
explicit assertions of a
But they
supreme Godhead.
Buddha is the magnus Apollo of the Tantrikas.

The following is an enumeration of some of the most important
mens of the preceding classes.
by
are frequently
Najra Satwa
individual speci-
Paramita here means virtue, the moral merit by which our escape (passage") from
Dana, or charity, is the first of the ten cardinal virtues of the
is obtained.
"and other" refers to the remaining nine. Appendix A. of paper III.
Bauddhas
Yiram beyond and itd gone.
*
mortality
:;
Raksha Bhagavati
First khand, or section, of the
Maha Yana
became Bhagavan
(deified)
meditate his principles

as long as
Avidya*
or Prajna Paramita.
begins with a relation (by himself) of
It
Siitra Sastra.
how he
and
the world
lasts,
lasts,
khand
of the former part of this
exhorted his disciples to study and
when Avidya
and the
and Maha Siinyata.*
and other Bhikshukas
the style
is
is
Such are the general contents
of the
with explana-
the speaker, the hearers are Subhuti,
prose (Gadya).
Contents the same as above.
Second and third khands of the Raksha Bhagavati.
The fourth khand
is,
(Nirodha) the world
ceases,
latter part of it is occupied
Sakya
is
and how he explained the doctrine of Avidya, that
ceases; aliter, Pravritti ends, and Nirvritti* begins.
tions of Siinyata
It
how Sakya
Raksha Bhagavati
karmajna, or skilled in the knowledge of
all
relates
how any
one becomes Sarva-
things on earth and in heaven
in a
word, omniscient; besides which, the subjects of the former khands are treated
of,
in continuation, in this.
The
four
khand of the Raksha Bhagavati.
fifth
topics of the prior
It is a sort of abstract of the other
Besides Avidya, Siinyata, and
which form one work.
all
the other great
khands, this khand contains the names of the Buddhas, and
Bodhisatwas.
These
five
Paramita
last,
khands or divisions
the three
first
ai*e
each called Pancha, Vinsati, Sahasrika, Prajna
words indicating the extent of each
the nature of the subject or transcendental wisdom.
lective
name
and indeed
of the four
it
first
khands, to which the
ance, are used, indifferently with
khands.
and the two

is
a col-
not necessarily adjunct
one of several abstracts of the Sata Sahasrika, as already stated.
is
Arya Bhagavati and Raksha Bhagavati,

five
fifth is
division,
Sata Sahasrika
The
five
or holy Goddess and Goddess of Deliver-
Prajna Paramita, as
khands are
all in prose,
titles of
each or
all
of these
and comprise the philosophy of
Buddhism.
Ashtasdhasrika Prajna Paramita, a
Maha Yana
Siitra.
Another and smaller
epitome of the transcendental topics discoursed of at large in the Sata Sahasrika.

It
is
prose.
Sakya
is
the speaker;
and Subhuti and other Bhikshukas,t the
hearers.
ASHTA SAHASEIKA VYAKIIYA.

This
is
comment on
Ganda Vyuha,
giving, also
speaker,
how
Sakya
the last
to
in verse
and prose.
Dasa Bhumeswara,
wisdom of Buddhism. Prose

The Ganda Yyuha is a treatise on
obtain Bodhijnana, or the
hearer,
transcendentalism by
Sudhana Kumara.
Arya Sanga the teacher
of the Yogacharya.
a Vyakarana, containing an account of the ten Bhumis.f
Prose: speaker, Sakya; hearer,

*
work by Hara Bhadra,
a Vyakarana Sastra, contains forms of supplication and of thanks-
Ananda Bhikshuka.
See the explanation of these terms in the sequel.

The}' form the basis of the
philosophy of Buddhism.
Bhikshu,
name
of
Buddhist
on
section
a
mendicant.
See
on Religion.
to
f
+ Ten heavens, or ten stages of perfectibility: sometimes thirteen are enumerated and
the thirteen grades of the .spire of the Chaitya are typical of them.
See Laidlay's
Fahian, p. 91, and J.R.A.S. xi. 1, 21.
;;
THE LITERATURE OF NEPAL' L.

Samddhi Raja, a Vyakarana
by which the wisdom of

Prose speaker, Sakya
an account of the actions
Buddhism is acquired, and of the duties of Bodhisatwas.

hearers, Havana and others.
Sad Dharma Pundarika, a Vyakarana, an account of the Maha and other Dipa
:
Danas, or of the lights to he maintained in honour of the Buddhas, and Bodhisatwas

with narrations of the lives of several former Buddhas by Sakya, as well as prophetic
Speakers and hearers,
the future eminence of some of his disciples.
indications of
Sakya, Maitreya, Manjusri,
This
Lalita Vistara.
etc.
It contains a
a Vyakarana of the sort called Gatha.
is
history of the several births of Sakya, and how, in his last birth, he acquired
perfect wisdom,
Verse and prose
and became Buddha.
speaker,
Sakya
hearers,
Maitreya and others.
Guhya Samagha, otherwise

contains numerous mantras,
esoteric rites.
called Tathagata
with
Guhyaka
explanations
an Upadesa or Tantra
manner of performing-
the
of
Frose and verse: speaker, Bhagavan
Sakya)
(i.e.
hearers, Vajra
Pani* Bodhisatwa and others.
Suvarna Prabhdsa, a Vyakarana Sastra; discourses by Sakya for the benefit of

also an account of the Bhagavata Dhatu, or
Lakshmf, Saraswatf and others

mansions of the
Prose and verse
deities.
speaker,
Sakya
Kumara, the above named Goddesses and others.

Swayambhu Purdna, the greater a Vyakarana of the
;
account of the manifestation of

early history of Nepaul.
hearers, Litsavi t
sort called
Adi Buddha \
in
Gatha
an
Nepaul, and the
Verse: speaker, Sakya; hearer, Ananda Bhikshuka.
Sirai/ambhu Parana, the
Swayambhu
Swayambhu
or
less,
a Gatha,
Ohaitya, (or temple).
summary
Verse and prose
of the above
:
an account of
speaker and hearer, as above.
Karanda Vyuha, an account of Lokeswara Padma Pani.
Prose
speaker and
hearer, as above.
Guna Karanda
Vytiha,
an
Gatha;
amplification
of the
above in verse.
Speaker and hearer, as above.
Mahdvastu, an Avadana Sastra; an account of the
Karma Vipaka
of the Brahmans.
Prose
fruits
of actions, like the
speaker and hearer, as before.
Asoha Avadana; an account of the Triad, or Buddha, Dharma, Sangha; also of

Verse speaker, Upagupta
the Chaityas, with the fruits of worshipping them.
:
Bhikshuka; hearer, Asoka Raja.
Bhadra Kaipika, an Avadana Sastra a detailed account of the Buddhas of this

Verse and prose; speaker, Sakya; hearers, Upagupta Bhikshuka, with
;
Kalpa.**
a host of immortals and mortals.

Jdtaka Maid; an account of the meritorius actions of Sakya in his 5Go births,
* Vajra Fani is thereon of Vajra Satwa Buddha, already alluded to as the magnus
Apollo of the Tantrikas. See Fahian, p. 13-3.
+ Litsavis are the so called Scyths. Litsabyis in Tibetan. For Sakas, see J.R.A.S.
{Swayambhu means self-existent. Adi, first, ami Buddha, -wise.

the celebrated friend of Antiochus and builder of the Lata.
** It is styled the Golden because four Buddhas belong to it, viz., Karkut, Kanaka,
Kasyapa, ami Sakya.
xii. 2, 460.
This
is
LITERATURE
THE
NEPAUL.
OF
Verse and prose
Tathdgata.
prior to his 'becoming a
Sakya
speaker,
hearer,
Ananda Bhikshu.
Manichura, an Avadana
an account of Manichur Raja, also of the

Prose
of Sakya, and of the fruits of his actions.
Dwdvinsati Avadana, an Avadana Sastra
fruits of building,
an account of the
birth
first
speaker and hearer as above.
worshipping and circumambulating* Chaityas. Verse and prose
Sakya
speaker,
hearer, Maitreya.
Nandi Mukha Swaghosha, an Avadana; an account of the great fast

speaker, Sakya
Prose
fruit of observing it.
Vasundhara, and of the
called
hearer,
Ananda.
Bodhi-charyd, an Avadana Sastra, of the sort called
Kavya
contains a highly
laudatory account of the virtue of charity and of the Bodhi-Charya, or Buddhist
Verse speaker, Maitreya hearer, Sudhana Kumara.

of Samudra
Karuna Pundarika, an Avadana an account of Arinemi Raja
of Ratna Garbha, Tathagata; and of Avalokiteswara, (i. e.,
Renu, Purohita
duties.
Padma Pani Bodhisatwa)
interspersed with sundry philosophical topics
discussed by Sakya in a broken manner.
gives directions as to the

speaker,
Sakya
mode
in
which
are
Sakya, then, in anticipation of his demise,
which
his system
is
Prose
to be taught.
hearers, Maitreya, &c.
Chandomrita Mala, a treatise of prosody

laudatory of Sakya Sinha.
the measures illustrated by verses
Verse and prose
the author Amrita Bhikshu.
Lokesxoara Satdka, a hundred verses in praise of
Padma
Pani.
Verse
author,
Vajra Datta Bhikshu.
Saraka Dhdrd, with a comment

Sakti. Verse
Kavya
in
Arya Tara, Buddha
praise of
author, Sarvajna Mitrapada Bhikshu.
Apardmita Dhdrani, an Upadesajf contains many Dharams addressed

Buddhas,
who
are immortal
(Aparamitayusha
Tathagata).
Prose
to the
speaker,
Sakya; hearer, Ananda Bhikshu.
Dhdrani Sangraha, a
collection of Dharanis, as
Manjusri's D. and those of
many
Maha, Vairochana's D.
other Buddhas and Bodhisatwas. Verse
Maha
speaker,
Sakya; hearer, Vajra Pani.

1'ancha Rakshd, an Upadesa Dharani
an account of the
Sakya
called Pratisara, &c.$ Prose: speaker,
Pratyangird Dhdrani, an Upadesa Dharani
dha
Sakti.
five
Buddha
Saktis,
hearer, Ananda.
an account of
Pratyangira Bud-
Prose: speaker, Sakya; hearer, Ananda Bhikshu.
* This circumambulation is one of the commonest and most pious actions of Buddhist
Mental prayers are repeated all the while, and a small cylinder fixed upon
devotion.
the upper end of a short star] or Handle, is held in the right hand and kept in perpetual
This cylinder is culled Mani
some Laves of the sacred books are usually
revolution.
enclosed in it. Its use is more common to Tibetans than to Nepaulese.
Both people
use beads to count their repetitions of holy words.
They are short signifif Dilantins, though derived from the Upadesa, arc exoteric.
cant tonus of prayer, similar to the Panchanga of the Brahmans.
Whoever constantly
repeats or wears [made up in little lockets] a dharini, possesses a charmed life.
See
classified enumeration of the principal objects of Buddhist worship.
+
But
Pratisara is not therein named.
These are Tantrika goddesses.
The
now
.lust
ice
to
Pancha
used
swear
Etaksha is
in Courts of
Buddhists upon.
;
THE
LITERATURE
NEPAUL.
OF
19
Tdrd Satndma, an Upadesa Dharani, contains an account of Arya Tara, of her

Verse:
hundred names, her Yija mantras, &c.
Padma Pani;
speaker,
hearer,
Vajra Pani.
contains an account of the feast kept in
Sugatdvaddna, an Avadana Sastra,
speaker, Vasundhara
Verse:
honour of Sanghas or Bodhisatwas.
Bodhisatwa
hearer, Puslipaketu Ilajakumara.
Sukhavati
Verse
Sakya
speaker,
Amitabha Buddha.**
Loka, account of the so called heaven of
Ananda aud
hearers,
others.
Saptavara Dharani, an Upadesa of the sort termed Dharani; an account ot the

seven Devis (Buddha Saktis) called Vasundhara, Vajra Vidarini, Ganapati Hridaya,
Ushnisha Vijaya, Parna Savari, Marfchi, Graha Matrika, together with their Vija
mantras.
Prose
Sakya
speaker,
Sakya
speaker,
hearers,
Ananda and
others.
Upadesa; an account of the Tantrika
Kriyd Sangraha, an
hearers,
&c,
Vajra Pani,
Prose:
ritual.
the Mahodalhi of the
resemhles
Brahmans.
Sumaghdvaddna, an Avadana Sastra
the Bhikshukas
near the close
whence the name
wife,
Chaitya Pungava, an
Sakya
on account of the heaven (Bhuvana) of
a story of the merchant
is
Prose
of the work.
speaker,
Avadana on the worship
Sakya
Sumagha and
his
hearer, Ananda.
of the Chaityas.
Prose
speaker,
hearer, Suchetana Bhikshuka.
Kathindvaddna, an Avadana Sastra
reward of giving the Pindapatra,*
containing an account of the
merit and
Khikshari, Chivara and Nivasa to Bhikshukas.
Prose: speaker, Sakya; hearer, Kasyapa Bhikshu.

Piiidapafrdvaddna,
an account of the begging platter of
of the merit of bestowing
it
to
them.
Prose
Dhwajdgra Keyuri, an Upadesa, or Tantrika Dharani

jagra Keyuri,
Buddha Sakti. Prose
Graha Matrika,
Sakti.
speaker,
Tantrika Dharani;
Speaker, Sakya
Sakya
account
of
Deva
Dhwa-
(the god J.
Graha Matrika,
Buddha
It is extracted
from the
Ananda Bhikshu.
heaver,
It is of the
Bhikshus, and
au account of
hearer, Indra
Ndgapu/d, a manual of worship to the Nagas for rain.
Sadhana Mala.
1lie
speaker and hearer, as above.
same character as the Vrata Paddhati of the
Brahmans.f
Mahdkdla Tantra, an Upadesa

Prose
kala.
his Sakti,
Vajra
Satwa
account of the worship to be paid to Maha-
Bhagavan
(i.
Abhidhdnottaroitara, an Upadesa
Buddha)
account of the esoteric
Vajra Satwa Bhagavan ; hearer, Vajra Pani.

**
for
s1cii.It
Dasabhuvana affords no place

The begging platter, staff, and
speaker and hearer
The
rites.
Prose
rites prescribed
by
speaker,
this
book
Adi Buddha, or the
five Dhyanis.
habiliments of the Bauddha mendicant are
The Chivara is the upper, the Nivasa the lower
by the names in the text.

on to No. 15 for dress and discipline of all the four orders. They require also
dress a pair of wooden sandals, an umbrella, and a gandhas or ewer for holding
called
garb
for
e.
named Vajra Sattwatmakf.
see
water.
t The high honour paid to the Nagas and Indra in Nepaul carries us beyond the
Pauranic era to that older time represented in India by theVedic gods and ritual.
OF -TIBET.
LITERATURE
20
resemble in character the Tantrika ritual of Braknianisni, and
differ
from
it
only
in being- addressed to different objects.
Vinaya
is
Treatise on
Si'ttra,
Author, Chandra Kirti Acharya.
Discipline.
It
equivalent to the Vyasa Sutra of the Brahmans.
KaljHihtdraddna, an Avadana, a highly ornate account of the
Gitd Pustaka, a
Geya a
collection of songs
Stotra Sangrdha, the praises of
first
birth of Sakya,
Verse: author, Kshemendra Bhikshu.
fruits of his actions in that birth.
and of the
on Tantrika
topics,
by various hands.
Buddha, Dharnia, and Sangha.
In verse of
various measures and by various authors.
Divydvaddna, an Avadana Sastra, containing various legends of the

Sakya.
Verse and prose
speaker, Sakya, hearers,
BHOT LITERATURE
The following
list
IN
first
Ananda Bhikshu and
birth of
others.
THE LANGUAGE OF TIBET.
of a more miscellaneous description.
||
BHOTIYA "WORKS.
Suinachik
by Thula Lama, written
ChamaDam; by Aguchu Lama,
Khanam in Bhot,
Nowaj subject
at
on Jurisprudence.
at Tija
similar to the
Sagun
Pothi of the Hindus.

Chariig
by Thiya Lama, at Gejaketha, on the Jnana Pothi of the Hindus, or
divine wisdom.
Churiige Chapah
by Yepah Begreh Maha Lama,
at
Pargreh ah chu, on cure
of all diseases.
Tuchurakh
by Suka Lama,
at Jab-la
Denuk
read by mendicant monks to
prosper their petition for alms.
Maui Pothi
by Ohufil Lama
mani or praying
CM Dam
Gumewan
at
on the use and virtue of the
cylinder.
by Gevighup Lama,
at Yeparkas, on medicine.
Napache Pothi; by Aberak Lama,
at
Jatu Lam, on physical science, or the
winds, rain, weather.
Kichak
by Kihiah Lama,
Tui takh lu
at Botehi, on witchcraft,
by Ttakachandah Lama,
at
Kubakh, on
demonology, &c.
science of war.
Dutakh-a-si; by Bajachik Lama, at Gnama, read by survivors on the death of

a relation, that they
Serua-takh
may
not be haunted by his ghost.
by Takachik Lama,
at
Yipurki.
To be read by
travellers during
their wanderings, for the sake of a safe return.
Sata-tu-mah
by Yisahsekar Lama,
at
Sebhala, read previous to sitting on
a panchaet for a prosperous issue thereof.
Kerikh
by Amadatakh Lama,
at Asi
to be read for increase of temporal goods.
+ Since the above was composed, I have added greatly to my stock of Sanskrit works.
For their names, see the list appended to next paper Note of .1837.
This list represents merely the odds and ends first got a t.
Soon after I procured
the catalogue of the Kahgyur and ascertained that the great Tibetan Cyclopaedia
consisteil (if translations from those Sanskrit originals whereof a part only had been
rved in Xepaul.
I learnt this, and sent the catalogue to Calcutta before Dc Koros*
||
appearance
three.
THE LITERATURE OF
Numbeh
by
Titakli
Lama
TIBET.
at Bere-ga-hakh
to be read at times of gathering
flowers for -worship.
Dekmujak
by Miuitake-tan Lama,
at Miinka
to be read previous to laying the
foundation of a house.
Thaka-pah
by Gagamatakh Lama,
the sacred fishes at the temple
Kusa
at
Ma-chaclekoh
to be read whilst feeding
to be read at the time of bathing.
is
a very holy act.
by Nemachala Lama, at Yeparenesah

by Uma Lama, at Lassa;
serving up, to keep off wicked spirits.
Lahassa-ki-pothi
dinner
be read before eating, while
to
Ckandapu; by Grahah Lama, at Jubu-nasah
to be read previous to
making
purchases.
Sachah
by Urjanh Lama,
no
selves, that
Bachah
forests
evil spirit
by Jahadegh Lama,
and bye-ways,
Kajaw
at Jadiin
may come
be repeated whilst exonerating them-
to
Maharah
at
to be read
by lone
travellers, in
for protection.
by Olachavah Lama,
from purgatory.
up.
Karah
at
to be read
by a dead man's relatives
to free his soul
Yidaram
happy
by Machal Lama, at Saduri
to facilitate interviews,
and make them
in their issues.
Ditakk
by Chopallah Lama,
Urasikh
at
to interpret the
ominous croaking
of crows, and other inauspicious birds.
by Khuchak Lama, at Pheragiah.

by Gidu Lama, at Bidakh to be read at the time
Karachakk
Chala
may
of drinking, that no
ill
come of the draught.
Kegii
Ohabeh
by Tupathwo Lama,
by Akabeh Lama,
at
Kabajeh
for increase of years,
Kalaguh
at Ari
to be read for
and a long
removing the
life.
incle-
mencies of the season.
Kaghatukh
by Sugnah Lama,
seasons of journeys that they

Liichii
by Xowlah Lama,
Kachar
at Bole
may come
to
Chagiira
at
to be read
by horsemen, at
no harm.
Kahah
to
be read for increase of
eloquence and knowledge of languages.
Ghikatenah
by Sujanah Lama,
at
Seakuhah
by archers
for success
Temple of Kasachit
in Nepaul,
to be read
of their craft.
Baudh Pothi
or history of the founding of the
with other matters appertaining

Siri
Pothi
to
by Bistakow Lama
Buddhism
at
in
Nepaul.*
Jauiatakh
a general form of prayer for
and poor, sick and healthy, man and woman.

The latter of these lists of Bhotiya books is a mere thing of shreds and patches,
rich
and, in fact, I have no means of enumerating the

literature.
But
Missionaries,
have no doubt that Tibet
and Refugees from Hindustan.
is
standard
indebted for
its
works of Tibetan
literature to
Bauddha
These individuals carried with them,
of Kasachit and of Swayambmi Natlia though .situated in the Valley of

are almost exclusively in the keeping of the Tibetans, and Lamas are the
permanent ministering functionaries.
*
The temples
Nepaul,
11
THE RELIGION OF BHOT.
and subsequently procured from India, many of the sacred and profane works of
their sect, and, as
Bhot
was
their wont, they immediately
own, that
in their
is,
began to instruct the people of
doubt, some success in this measure in the

but, in the end, the difficulties of
period of their emigration into Bhot
first
Sanskrit,
They had, no
and language.
in the Sanskrit, letters
and the succession of Native teachers
to the chairs of the original Indian emigrants, led to the preference of
language,
and, consequently, to a translation of
all
he Bhotiya
the Sanskrit works they had,
and could obtain from India, into the vernacular tongue of the country.
resort to translation took place very early
a circumstance which, aided
and the further decline of the original
lapse of time,
This
by the
literary ardour, inspired
the Indian Refugees, produced, at no distant period from the decease of the
by
first
Indian teachers, the oblivion of Sanskrit, and the entire supercession of original
Sanskrit versions by translations into Tibetan.
they thus soon
whole
result of the
is,
ideas) Indian.
some respects
To support
much
the Nepaulese,
its
language, native
view of the
this
case, I
clearly of
much more
nearer as they are to India, and
Devanagari
whom
;
origin,
and
that,
and declared by themselves to be
have conversed, assure
me
that their books are translations
exist in Bhot, but that
now no
of the great Bhotiya classics proclaim,
remarks are applied, of course, to the

less
cultivated in
comments, and
although the
a good language of their own, they have no letters, but such as are
ledge from India

still
letters,(like
its
as they are, have resorted extensively to vernacular
Bhotiyas, with
there,
and long has
is,
have to observe, that even
even translations of their books, which also are Sanskrit
Newars have
now
that the body of Bhotiya literature
been, a mass of translations from Sanskrit

its
The Bhotiyas,* however, although

Devanagari letters. The
lost the Sanskrit language, retained the
by
that
Bhot,
for,
which
Lamas, and
in
the
vernacular
that spoken about Lassa and Digarchi,)
is
classics,
the
but
still,
(the
best
like
These
works of
in regard to
tongue,
the
that most
fact.f
esteem there, I believe such to be not translations, but originals
legends of
all
knowhere and
lastly,
very names, the
their
all their
that the originals,
one can read them
classics of
so
that they got
chiefly
dialect of
the translated
written in letters essentially Indian.
THE P.ELIGIOX OF NEPAUL AND OP BHOT.
An
accurate and complete view of the
the severe study of a

*
number
Bauddha system
of belief
would involve
of the voluminous Sanskrit works above specified,
Bhol is the Sanscrit, and Tibet the Persian, name of the country.
The native name
Bod, a mere corruption of the Sanskrit appellation, proving that the Tibetans had
ao1 reached a general designation fur their country when the Indian teachers came among
them.
t Note of 1837. It is needless now to say, how fully these views have been confirmed
by the researches of De Kbrbs.
It is but justice to myself to add that the real nature of
the Kahgyur and Stangyur was expressly stated and proved by me to the Secretary of
tin' Asiatic Society some time before Mr. De Kbrbs' ample revelations were made.
Corncopies of both collections have been presented by me to the Hon. East India
Company, and others procured for the Asiatic Society, Calcutta; upon the latter Mr.
>! &bros worked.
is
23
and would demanl more time than could be bestowed upon the task by any person,
A few
not otherwise wholly unemployed.

this place
observations must, therefore, suffice in
on the religious notions of the Bauddhas of this part of India, and in
making them
view the
I shall keep chiefly in
subject on the part of those
and new mine of Sanskrit
who may
which
literature
facilitation of the
and courage
find time
it
my
has been
study of a
new
to explore the great
fortune to discover in
NepauL
Buddhism embraces four very
Speculative
the origin of the world, the nature of a
distinct systems of opinion respecting
first
cause,
and the nature and destiny
of the soul.
These systems are deuominated,t from the diognostic tenet of each, Swabhavika,
Aiswarika, Yatnika, and Karmika and each of these, again, admits of several
sub-divisions, comprising divers reconciling theories of the later Bauddha teachers,
;
who, living
and instructed by the
in quieter times than those of the first Doctors,
taunts of their adversaries, and by adversity, have attempted to explain
was most
The Swabhavikas deny the

is
away what
objectionable, as Ave 11 as contradictory, in the original system.
existence of immateriality
the sole substance, and they give
action and rest, concretion
and
two modes,
it
abstraction.
Matter
(however iufinitesimaliy attenuated in Nirvritti)
which powers
The proper
they assert that matter
called l'ravritti,
and
Nirvritti, or
they say,
itself,
eternal,
is
and so are the powers of matter
possess not only activity, but intelligence.
state of existence of these
from everything palpable and
visible,
powers
that of rest, and of abstraction
is
(Nirvritti), in
which
state
they are so
attenuated on the one hand, and so invested with infinite attributes of power and
on the other, that they want only consciousness and moral perfections to
skill
become
rest
gods.
When
into their casual
these powers pass from their proper and enduring state of
and transitory
of nature or of the world
come
chance, but spontaneously
and
when
state of activity, then
into existence, not

all
by a
all
the beautiful forms
divine creation, nor
by
these beautiful forms ot nature cease to exist,
the same powers repass again from this state of Pravritti, or activity, into the
state of Nirvritti, or repose.
The revolution
them revolve
Swabhavikas
of the states of Pravrrttif and Nirvritti
J|
is
eternal,
and with
the existence and destruction of nature or of palpable forms.

are so far
The
from ascribing the order and beauty of the world to blind
chance, that they are peculiarly fond of quoting the beauty of visible form as a
proof of the intelligence of the formative powers
from
the
eternal
succession of
new
forms.
and they
But they
infer their eternity
insist that these
powers
f My Bauddha pandit assigned these titles to theExfract made from his Sastras, and
always used them in his discussions with me. Hence I erroneously presumed them to be
derived from the Sastras, and preferable to Madyamika, &c, which he did not use, and
which, though the scriptural denominations, were postponed to those here used on his
authority as being less diagnostic. In making the extracts we ought to reach the leading
doctrines, and therein I think we succeded.
t Pra, an intrusive prefix and Vritti, action, avocation, from vrii to turn, move, exist.
See on these terms Burnouf, introduction, p.p. 441, 515.
:
||
Nir, a primitive prefix, and Vritti as before.
;;
24
and not impressed on
are inherent in matter,
God, that
finger of
by the
and therefore to be perishable
but animate forms, among which
deemed capable of becoming by

state of Nirvritti their bliss in which
sufficiently, are
not distinguished
eternal
efforts associated to the
of an
is,
Inanimate forms are held to belong exclusively to
absolutely immaterial being.

Pravritti,
it
man is
own
their
con-
state
repose or release from an otherwise endlessly recurring migration through

the visible forms of Pravritti. Men are endowed with consciousness, as well, I
sists of
believe of the eternal bliss* of the rest of Nirvritti, as of the ceaseless pain of the
are not regarded as
judges of mankind
ment
But those men who have won the

rulers of the universe, which rules itself
still'
are not admitted
own
of his
eternity of Nirvritti,
of Pravritti.
activity
fate
left in Pravritti
for the notions of
nor as mediators or
mediation and judg-
by the Swabhavikas who hold every man to be the arbiter

evil in Pravritti being, by the constitution of nature
weal and woe and the acquistion of Nirvritti being, by
good and
indissolubly linked to
the same inherent law, the inevitable consequence of such an enlargement of his
by habitual abstraction, as will enable a man to know what Nirvritti

To know this, is to become omniscient, a Buddha to be divinely worshipped
faculties,
is.
as such, while yet lingering in Pravritti

in Nirvritti, all at least that
and to become, beyond the grave, or
man can become, and all respecting which some of

much doubt, while others of them have insisted
the Swabhavikas have expressed
eternal repose, and not eternal annihilation (Sunyata)
that
it
this
more dogmatical
is
were
school,
it
even Sunyata,
it
would
being otherwise doomed to an eternal migration through

the more desirable of which are
little to
be wished
all
still
though, adds
be good
man
the forms of nature
and the
less so, at
any price
to be shunned.
From
the foregoing sketch
will be seen, that the
it
most diognostic tenets of
the Swabhavikas are, the denial of immateriality, and the assertion that
The end
capable of enlarging his faculties to infinity.
human
is
faculties is association to the eternal rest of Nirvritti, respecting the value
of which there
the
man
of this enlargement of
is
some dispute
and the means of
it are,
Tapas and Dhyana
former of which terms, the Swabhavikas understand, not penance, or
inflicted bodily pain,
but a perfect rejection of
and, by the latter, pure mental abstraction.
vikas do not reject design or

self-conscious being,
admit what
we
call
who gave
skill,
all
by
self-
outward (Pravrittika) things
In regard to physics, the Swabha-
but a designer, that
is,
a single, immaterial,
existence and order to matter
by
volition.
They
the laws of matter, but insist that those laws are primary
* The doctrine is, that they are

some doctors, however, say no the question turns
on the prior acceptation of Sunyata, for which see on.
This interpretation of the Swabhavika Sunyata is not the general one, though the
opponents of Buddhism have attempted to make it so for the prevalent sense of the
wind among the Buddhas, see on. Plotinus contended that the most perfect worship
of the Deity consisted in a certain mysterious Belf-annihilation or total extinction of
This
all our faculties.
See M. Laurien's account of Newton's discoveries p. 387.
explains the SaTflgata doctrine of Dhyana, and partially that of Sunyata also.
;

causes, not secondary
an immaterial
25
are inherent eternally in matter, not impressed on
They
creator.
which matter has had from
consider creation a spontaneity, resulting from powers

all
eternity,
and
have
will
So with
to all eternity.
respect to man, they admit intellectual and moral powers, but deny that
terial essence or being, to
which we
Swabhavika
-\
igour of nature, or Swabhava.
to be the oldest school of Buddhist philosophy;
school has, from the earliest times, been divided into
Swabhavikas simply, whose tenets
two
have endeavoured
termed the Prajnika Swabhavikas, from
imma-
Animate and inanimate
ascribe those powers.
causation, they alike attribute to the proper
believe the
by
it
parties,
one called the
to state above, the other
wisdom
the supreme
Prajna,||
but that
viz.
of
nature.
The Prajnikas* agree with the Swabhavikas,

entity, in investing
it
in considering
modes, or that of action and that of
But the Prajnikas
rest.
make
the powers of matter in the state of Xirvritti; to
summum
consider man's
state of Xirvritti
matter as the sole
with intelligence as well as activity, and
in giving it
two
incline to unitize
that unit, deity; and to
bonum, not as a vague and doubtful association to the
but as a specific and certain absorption into Prajna, the sum
The Aiswarikas admit
of all the powers, active and intellectual, of the universe.
of immaterial essence, and of a supreme, infinite, and self-existent Deity (Adi
whom
Buddha)
some of them consider
as the sole deity
and cause of
while others associate with him a coequal and eternal material principle
that
all
all things,
;
believing
things proceeded from the joint operation of these two principles.
The
Aiswarikas accept the two modes of the Swabhavikas and Prajnikas, or Pravritti
and
But, though the Aiswarikas admit immaterial essence, and a God,
Xirvritti.
they deny his providence and dominion; and though they believe Moksha to be an
him
absorption into his essence, and vaguely appeal to
things of Pravritti, they
deem
to be independent of him,
only by their
own
and the
efforts of
as the giver of the
bliss of Xirvritti to
Tapas and Dhyana,
efforts
fident will enlarge their faculties to infinity, will
worshipped as Buddhas on earth, and will
make them worthy
them
raise
be capable of being
union with him.

tion,
Moksha, or absorption
in
heaven
to
of being
an equal and
Supreme Adi Buddha;
into him, or, I should rather say, of
All the Bauddhas agree in referring the use and value of medita-
(earthly and heavenly,) of the rights and duties of morality, and of the
ceremo
ies of religion, solely to Pravritti, a state
coutemu
and to seek, by their own
their faculties, the accomplishment of

as complete as
ledge.
which they
are all alike taught to
efforts of abstraction, that infinite extension of
which
realizes, in their
own
godhead
persons, a
any of them, and the only one which some of them
The Karmikasand Yatnikas derive
by which
||
won
which they too are con-
selfearned participation of the attributes and bliss of the

for such is their idea of
good
the connection of virtue and felicity in Pravritti
acknow-
will
their names, respectively, from
I understand 'conscious moral agency,"
and Yatna, which
Karma,
interpret
Prajna, from pra, an intensitive prefix, and Jnyana, wisdom, or perhaps, the simple
jnn.
* See
the sequal for a good
summary glance
at the
philosophy of the Prajnikas.
26
I believe these schools to be
'conscious intellectual agency.'
more recent than
the others, and attribute their origin to an attempt to rectify that extravagant
quietism, which, in the other schools, stripped the powers above, (whether considered as of material or immaterial natures,) of all personality, providence and
dominion
and man, of
all his active
Assuming
energies and duties.
more general principles of their predecessors, they seem

chief attention to the phsenomena of
free will,
human
and the distinction between
to
as just, the
have directed their
nature, to have been struck with its
cogitative and sensitive powers, and to
its
have sought to prove, notwithstanding the necessary moral law of their
man must be
first
by the proper culture

of his moral sense,* which was the sentiment of the Karmikas, or, by the just
conduct of his understanding, a conclusion which the Yatnikas preferred and this,
I believe to be the ground of distinction between these two schools as compared
teachers, that the felicity of
secured, either
As compared with
with one another.

affinity
their predecessors,
they held a closer
with the Aiswarikas than with the other schools, iuclined to admit the
existence of immaterial entities, and endeavoured to correct the absolute impersonality
and quiescence of the Causa Causarum, (whether material or immaterial,)
by feigning Karma
or Yatna, conscious moral, or conscious intellectual, agency, to
The Karniika
have been with causation from the beginning.

a language as this,
"Sakya Sinha, who, according
to
sprang from Swabhava, and, according to others, (the
texts often hold such
some (the Swabhavikas),

Aiswarikas,)
Buddha, performed such and such Karmas, and reaped such and such
from Adi
fruits
from
them."
In regard to the destiny of the soul, I can find no essential difference of opinion
between the Bauddha and the Brahmanical sages. By all, metempsychosis and
absorption are accepted. But absorbed into what ? into Brahma, say the Brahmans,
into Sunyata, or Swabhava, or Prajna, or
the Buddhists.
And
I should add, that
Adi Buddha, say the various
by
their doubtful Sunyata, I
sects of
do not, in
general, understand, annihilation, nothingness, but rather that extreme and almost
infinite
attenuation which they ascribe to their material
the state of Nirvritti, or of abstraction from

as
compose the sensible world of
yata with Akasa, and through
and revolution of Pravritti,t
modus of primal entity in the
it
Pravritti.
it,
By
powers or forces in
particular palpable forms, such
tracing the connextion of Sun-
with the palpable elements, in the evolution
maybe
last
all
plainly seen, that Sunyata
and highest
state of abstraction
modifications such as our senses and understanding are cognizant
How
far,
and
in
what exact
is
the
from
uM and
all
the
articular
of.
sense, the followers of these diverse
and opposite
systems of speculation adopted the innumerable deities of the existent Buddhist
Pantheon,
I
it
must
rest
have no stomach
with future research accurately to determine.
for the marshalling of such
For
my
part,
an immense, and for the most
* Notwithstanding these sentiments, which are princpially referable to the state of

Pravritti, the Karmikas and Yatnikas still held preferentially to the Tapas and Dhyana,
the severe meditative asceticism of the older schools.
fSee tin; Dasakara or ten forms, where the evolution and revolution of each element
constitutes a phrase of divine energy.
THE RELIGION Or BHOT.

But some
part useless, host.*

tion
and connexion,
tion of these objects
of the principal objects of worship, with their rela-
he noticed.
The
leading, and
most fundamental associa-
that of the triad, or three persons
is,
named Buddha, Dharma,
In the transcendental and philosophic sense, Buddha means
and Sangha.
Dharma,
may
2J
'matter,'
'
mind,'
and Sangha, the concretion of the two former in the sensible or
phenomenal world.
In a practical and religious sense, Buddha means the mortal
author of this religion (Sakya), Dharma, his law, and Sangha, the congregation of
the faithful.
The
triad is liable to a theistic or atheistic interpretation in the higher or phil-
osophic sense, according as
The
next, and a
Buddha
is
creed between those avowed mortals
by their own
efforts,
preferred or postponed to
very marked distinction of persons,
who win
and the Buddhas of a
The most notorious of the former of

ised as "
Manushi
"
or
human
is
Dharma.
established in
the rank and powers of a
celestial nature
and
this
Buddha
origin.
who are all charactersix who are contradistin-
these are sevenf
of the latter are five or
guished as " Anupapadaka," without parents, and also as " Dhyani," or divine.
This second appellation of the Celestial Buddhas
name
all
for that abstracted
the Asiatic religionists, but which
istic of
is
derived from the Sanskrit
musing which has found more or

is
less
favour with almost
peculiarly and pre-eminently character-
Buddhism.
The Dhyani Buddhas, with Adi Buddha,
and justly
their chief, are usually
referred to the Theistic school.
The epithet Dhyani, however,
as applied to a class of Buddhas,
capable of an atheistic interpretation.

sense other schools
may admit
obviously
is
It is nevertheless certain, that, in
this term, or the class of divinities
which
whatever
it
charac-
Aiswarikas (beyond the bounds of Nepaul too)f ascribe this creative

Dhyana to a self-eonstent, infinite^ and omniscient "Adi Buddha," one of whose attributes is the possession of five sorts of wisdom. Hence he is called " Panchajnana
terises, the
was by virtue of these five sorts of wisdom, that he, by five

Dhyana, created, from the beginning and for the duration of
the present system of worlds, the " Pancha Buddha Dhyani."
Atmika;" and
it
successive acts of
The names and graduation of these Jnanas, Dhyanas, and Buddhas
are thus
Buddhas.
Jndnas.
1.
Suvisuddha Dharma Dhatu.
1.
Vairochana.
2.
Adarsana.
2.
3.
Prativekshana.
3.
Akshobhya.
Ratnasambhava.
Amitabha.f
Amoghasiddha.
4.
Santa.
4.
5.
Krityanushthana.
5.
* See further on for a goodly array.

f Called Vipasyi, Sikhi, Viswabhu, Kakutsanda, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa, and Sakya
Two others are frequently associated with these to form a series of nine mortal
Sinha.
Buddhas, the extra two being Dipankara and Ratnagarbha. But they are much less
notorious than the seven, and even of them I find nothing distinct recorded, with the
single exception of Sakya, whom I am therefore inclined to regard as the founder of
this creed, such at least as it has come down to us in the existing books and existing
practical religion of the Buddhists.
J For example, in the Katna Kuta Amitabha and Akshobhya are spoken of, and
in the Sarva dharma Mahasanti as well as in the Swayambhu purana and Guna
28
Dhydnas : The Dhyana of creation is called by one generic name Lokaand by five repetitions of this, tbe five Buddhas were created.
five
It might be expected, that the supreme Buddha, having created these
and
creation
of
the
active
cares
them
the
celestials, would have devolved on
Sansarjana;
Not
government of the world.
so,
however
the genius of genuine
Buddhism
is
eminentlv quiescent, and hence these most exalted seons are relieved from the
degradation of acdon. Each of them receives, together with his existence, the
virtues of that Jnana and
owed
his existence
Dhyana, to the exertion of which, by Adi Buddha, he
and by a similar exertion of both, he again produces a Dhyani
The Dhyani Bodhisatwas
Bodhisatwa.
and active authors of creation.
are,
one by one, in succession, the tertiary
These creations are but perishable
fore,
the
work
his worshippers in
and
sole
who
of the fourth Bodhisatwa,
Nepaul
are
wout
to invest
is
and, since the
The present world
beginning of time, three of them have passed away.
now Lord
him with
all
its course,
ernor of the next will be assumed by the
fifth
When
Bodhisatwa.
1.
Vairochana.
1.
Samantabhadra.
2.
Akshobhya.
2.
Vajra Pani.
3.
Ratnasambhava.
3.
Ratna Pani.
4.
Amitabha.
4.
Padma
5.
Amoghasiddha.
5.
Viswa Pani.
Pani.
are considered to stand in the relation
of fathers and sons to each other; and as there are
Manushi Bodhisatwas, who again bear
the
the offices of creator and gov-
The names and lineage of these Dhyani Bodhisatwas are as follows
The Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisatwas
there-
the powers of a supreme
God, the "Praesens Divus" being, as usual, everything.!
existing system of worlds shall have run
is,
of the ascendan", and
Dhyani Bodhisatwas,
so are there
Manushi Buddhas the
to their respective
connexion of pupil to teacher, of graduate to adept, of the aspirant after the
wisdom
of
competent
Buddhism
to
for a mortal
fle.-h, albeit,
him who
man
to
possesses that wisdom.
I should add, that
become a Buddha,** whilst he yet
it is
lingers in the
the entire fuliilment of the rewards, if not of the prerogatives, of that
transcendent character
is
assigned to a more unearthly state,
viz.,
the state of Nir-
V yiiha,
allPuranic or exoteric works, of which the first is not even obtainable

bhere any evidence tint any <>t' the other works were composed there.
See Csoma de Kerbs in Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal.
+ Original of the Chinese O-mi-to, a word as utterly without meaning as their Bonze,
Amitabha is the
of which latter the Sanskrit Bandya is the real ami significant form.
Bandya is a person entitled to reverence, and the collective
immeasurably splendid.
See Crawford's
or general appellation of all professed or ascetical followers of Buddha.
All
Archi})clago for a line representation of Akshobhya, the second Dhyani Buddha.
the five are represented in the Cave at Bag.
+ Hence the celebrity and popularity of his mantra or invocation (Om mani padme
hum), while those of the two other members of that triad to which Padmapani is thus
There is a fine image of Padma Pani
associated as the Sangha, are hardly ever heard of.
at Karnagarh on the Ganges, the old capital nf Champa, now Bhagalpur.
see further
The nine mortal Bodhisatwas are variously and vaguely set down;
on.
Ananda, Manju Ghosha, and Avalokiteswara, are the only ones of whom anything
Kavanda
iu Nepaul, noi
is
known.
Hence the Divine Lamas of Bhot
They are rather Arhantas.
somewhat.
is
**
though the original idea has been perverted

In the above remarks
vritti.
Buddhas and Bodhisatwas.
29
have inserted only the quinary
But there
is,
also,
Satwa, and the Bodhisatwa Vajra Pani, being added to the
Dhyani
Buddha Vajra
series of
a series of six, the
series of five, to perfect
2
Further, as the five material elements, 1 the five senses, and
the larger series.
the five respective (outward) seats of sense, 3 are referred to the series of five
so intellect, 4
Buddhas,
or the whole
And
with apprehension 5 and the objects of such apprehension*
phenomena
of the universe, 8 * are referred to Vajra
the dignity of useful knowledge to
prater en
Nor
what must otherwise have been mere
voces et
nihil.
is
there any
want of
sufficing original authority for the series of six Celes-
Buddhas,! au y more than
tial
Satwa Buddhaf.
should not escape remark, that the above associations give somewhat of
it
perhaps
for the series of five,
though the
latter
may
be,
and
in this place to caution the
Wherefore I will take leave
the older.
is,
reader against exclusive and confined opinions, founded upon any one enumeration
he
may
find
may have
It
also
with an express object,
find the series of six Celestial

senses,
is
ritualists
and shadowy grounds
frail
Buddhas (which
with the other
inconsistent
must at the same time be admitted that the
multiplied these Deities upon very
particular
But that does not imply that any other
a definite object.
and larger enumeration,

series.
Any
Pancha Buddha Dhyani.
as for instance, that of the
enumeration
as identified
appear to have
and in
way
this
with the elements,
and mind, I consider valid) augmented
Vajvadharma, and Vajrakarma.

divinities in this
religion is into
to nine by the addition of Vajrakaya,

The next material distinction of persons or
Exoteric or Pauranika Buddhas and Esoteric
and alone heretofore known to

Yogambara and Digambara they form
and their statues or
the link of connexion between Jainism and Buddhism
images are distinguished either by nudity or by a multiplicity of members they
or Tantrika.
The
The second
us.
first
are
are those ordinarily so called
more
specially styled
are wholly
unknown
to Europeans.
ter of the Tantrika ritual.
have already adverted to the general charac-
It is a strange
though vouched by numerous scriptural
The images
of the 5
and unintelligible adjunct of Buddhism,
authorities.
Dhyani Buddhas, which were sent
Bengal, occupy (and exclusively so of
all
to the Asiatic Society of
lower Buddhas) the base of every
Maha
chaitya, or highest order of temples in Nepaul; and those images are invariably
distinguished
viz.,
by the
respective differences exhibited in the specimens transmitted,
the position of the hands

(1)
Five Bhutas.
(2)
the nature of the supporters and the particular
Five Indriyas.
(5) Dharana.
(3)
(61
Five Ayatanas.
(4)
Manas.
Dharma.
senses are assumed to be. inert without Manas not even sensation, far less perception, or mental realization of sensation, can exist without Manas.
t Vajra Satwa, or the sixth Dhyani with his appendages, belongs to the Vamacharyas,
whose doctrine as to things in general, or the origin, nature, and connexion of material
and immaterial phenomena, can hardly he reconciled with the views of the older Dakshinaoharyas on these topics.
+ E grege the Sarva Dharma Mahasanti, said hy Mr. Csoma to be the bible of the
' oldest
Buddhist sect in Tibet.
For authorities for Adi Buddha and the six Celestial
Buddhas, see Quotations in Proof, 1837.
Temple and monastery are the respective equivalents of Chaitya and of Yiham.
*
The
'
30
cognizance of each, which

figured
placed between the supporters.
is
Vairochana
Buddhas occupy shallow niches
the other four celestial
hemisphere of the Chaitya, one opposite each cardinal point
Ratna Sambhava
east,
Vajra Satwa
the north.
to
to the south,
But
placed in the Chaityas.
is
seldom represented
met with
his
tetragonal pyramid, the grades of
him
Akshobhya
and never
image or sculptured figure in Yiharas.

Buddhist form of temple.
commonly surmounted by
a graduated cone or
which (the cone or pyramid)
are thirteen,
usually sur-
is
of the structure represents Akanishtha
or the highest heaven, or that of
Adi Buddha.
represent the abodes of the five
Dharrna Buddhas.
is
mani.
The
chiira-
but
first,
all
which they form the superstructure
supreme Buddha, and to his
by the Buddhists
are used
besides
which many sacred
for enshrining their mortal
edifices of
Buddhas, as
well as any of the numberless gods and goddesses of their ample Pantheon.
followers of
Buddha
are divided
equivalent to the Grihastha
Hindoos
but not
into
regular and secular
Asrama and Vairagf
equivalent to Laics and Clerics.
or
The
name
into four orders,
Bandya (person
called Bhikshu or
is
'the scantly robed,'
regulars are
entitled to reverence)
They
are
little
in
who
Their
all
;
monks, and
the seculars
better than heretics, until political ambition
to qualify the high-toned enthusiasm of the primitive saints
many having come
monastic,
and they are divided
constitute the congregation of the faithful, or only real Buddhists
began
all
(Yiharas).
'mendicants,' Sravaka or readers, Chailaka or
and Arhata or Arhanta or 'Adepts.'
having always been regarded as
The
division exactly
Sannyasi Asraina of the
as solitaries or as coenobites, living in deserts or in monasteries

collective
tomb
their principal edifices
Chaityas are frequently combined with small hollow temples,
celestial aeons.
Hindoo form
upon each of the
are sufficiently familiar with Chaityas in the sense of
of this nature are dedicated to the self-existent,
of
latter,
umbrella
hemisphere
the
and the cone or pyramid,
temples, or mausolea, or covers of relics (Dagopa)
five
Between
graved which typify omniscience.
is
called the garbha; the neck, gala;
The Nepaulese
Bhuvana,
five spokes of the
a short square neck for the
four sides of which a pair of eyes

is
The
and
The
Bodhisatwa heavens of Buddhist cosmography.
cone or pyramid terminates in apalus very like a lingam, and which
hemisphere
to the
are frequent in the
mounted by an umbrella. This part
and the cone or pyramid
seldom
and Aniogha Siddha
in statuary form,
to be the only exclusively
It consists of a solid hemisphere,
are typical of the thirteen
to the west,
pictorial representations of
illuminated Sastras, and I have
The Chaitya would appear
Amitabha
is
at the base of the
could not
all live in idleness,
and until very
these were allowed to
follow the various business of the world, their instruction being provided for by
the monks, some of
whom
thus became invested with a partially clerical character
which they exercised under the names of Acharya and Vajra Acharya or 'teacher
and powerful teacher.' The monasteries or conventual dwellings of the regular
Buddhists are called Yihara in Sanskrit, Bahi and Bahal in Newari.
They
are
usually large open quadrangles of a regular form, but sometimes irregular, and
built
round a Chaitya, or a Kiitagar temple, (the
former to Dhyani Buddhas).
latter sacred to
Mauushi, the
Every great church was formerly conventual, and
31
the four orders had each their separate Viharas, of which there are
still
fifteen in
the city of Patan alone, though the Nepaulese have long since abandoned
now
monastic institutes of their creed, and hence these monasteries are

ized,
hut
still
Bandya
exclusively appropriated to the
the
secular-
The
or tonsured Buddhists.
power appears to have been much

more limited than that of the Abbots and Priors of European monachism, and
since this decay of the monastic institutes in Nepaul it has become at all events
strikingly so.
Still, however, it is the Nayakas alone who confer the rank and
head of a Vihara
called
is
Nayaka, hut
his
Bandya
character of Bandya, and every
ostensibly attached to
is
or other, even though he do not dwell in any, as
some convent
not.
Any
person
a Bandya by submitting to tonsure and taking the usual vows of
may become
and humility, and
celibacy, poverty,
by a
many now do
these
all
which
peculiar dress and equipment,
monks
alike
are
as well as the
distinguished
ceremony of induction
will be found described in the sequel.

I have at present to offer on the subtime ago by an old Bauddha of Nepaul,
The following list of Buddhas completes all

ject.
Two
whom
were prepared
for
me some
but they were then laid

and explanation when opportunity should serve.
have accordingly had them compared, under my own eyes, with the scriptures
with
I have long
cultivated an acquaintance
future examination
aside for
I
lists
whence they were
extracted, and the comparison has suggested the following brief
elucidatory remarks.
In the
first
place, the lesser list has proved to be superfluous, all its
has been found to amount to 131, and not to 145, as stated
in the greater catalogue
elsewhere
times,
name being
the same
by reason of
repeated, in
some
instances,
this catalogue consisting of literal extracts
And
pendent works.
names being
In the next place, the whole number of Buddhas
contained in the larger one.
have thought
it
better to leave
it
two and three
from several inde-
in statu quo, than to
omit
Such omission might
sundry names of one series because they occur in another.
have interfered with some established contiguity of time, place, or circumstances,

in regard to the Buddhas, with
to the repetitions, they
may
There
attached to them.
is
which we
given in
my
list,
-50
list,
at a glance,
and with respect

by the references
one deviation from the catalogues as found in the
works whence they are drawn, and
Manushi Buddhas (No.
are not acquainted
be seen in the
it is
this.
name
to 50) the
of
After the names of the six great
Sakya Sinha, the seventh and
though not found at that place in the Lalita Vistara
because Sakya had not,
of the
my
catalogue in that place, in order to
now famous Sapta Buddha
distinct series of
'
is,
notwithstan-
make up the complement
Manushi,' or seven mortal Buddhas. Before each
names, the work from which
In the works cited,

are to be found,
last, is
possibly
when that work was compiled/attained Nirvana and become
a Tathagata in the proper sense. His name, though occurring before,

ding, reinserted in
many more
it is
derived,
is
uniformly noted.
names, besides those given in the catalogue,
and from the whole of the books which have been procured and
transmitted to Calcutta, hundreds of
new names might be drawn.
THE RELIGION OF BOHT.
32
In the Samadhi Raja,* Sarvartha Siddha (Sakya before he became a Buddha,)

is
how
asked by Maitreya and Vajra Pani,
he acquired Samadhi Jnana.
Iu reply,
he begins by naming- 120 Tathagatas, who instructed him therein in
his former
births; and at the conclusion of his enumeration of Buddhas, Sarvartha Siddha

observes,
were
'
There
is
many names exempli

number than eighty crores !
he has given so
really
no
less in
gratia,
but that his instructors
a verse in the Aparimita Dharani (to be found in
higher authorities) purporting that " the Buddhas
who have
many
these
Buddhas sprang,
divinely not generatively, from other
Akasa, and some from the Lotos.
Yet
chronology and history.
down
frequently drew
of
some from
These are evident nonentities, in regard to
them from
origin of the latter having been frequently
by the vanity of
traced up to heaven
often most difficult to distinguish
more substantial compeers, the
their
less
it is
Buddhas
be,
svill
Some
more numerous than the grains of sand on the banks of the Ganges."
are
and
other,
been, are, and
no
superstition, while its grovelling genius
among
Again,
the lineage of the former to earth.
the Buddhas confessedly of mortal mould, there are three wide degrees, that of
the Pratyeka Buddha, that of the Sravaka Buddha, and that of the Mahayanika
But the two former
Buddha.
more than mere men
are regarded, even
of superior sanctity
and as
by
their worshippers, as little
Maha-
infinitely inferior to the
yanika Buddhas, such as Sakya and his six great predecessors.
We
multitudes even of this highest degree
belongs not only to
Upon
and, besides, the
Manushi Tathagatas, but
the supreme
the whole, then,
it
also to all the
seems peculiarly
title
Dhyams
have, however,
indiscriminately.
desirable, in the present state of our
information, to keep a steady eye upon the authoritative assertion of the old
scriptures, that
been selected
Sakya
for
the seventh, and
is
such especial honour
Four of them belong
grounds.
golden (tra or Bhadra Kalpa
an
indefinite period,
mortal Buddhas save the
for I
me
have not
last,
Why
of the Buddhas.
seems impossible
seven have
on historical
to explain
to the present cycle of ages thence
the three
and I think
frequently occurred to
cessors
it
it
last are
first to
may
be safely asserted that
all
At
mythological shadows.
called the
the precedent Kalpa.
Kalpa
is
of the so-called
events
all
it
has
to doubt the historical existence of Sakya's six prede-
failed to
remark that while the Buddhist writings make
ample mention of Sakya's births (505), sayings, and doings, and while they ascribe
to
him the
effectual authorship of all the scriptural authorities of the
sect,
writings are nearly silent with respect to the origin and actions of the six
dhas
who went
before
him
the authorities in question.
Bud-
nor are any doctrines or dogmas referred to them in
To go
farther into this matter
would lead me beyond
What
the bounds I have prescribed to myself on the present occasion.

said will suffice to
these
shew why the catalogue
of
Buddhas has been
and perhaps would justify the withholding of

scriptures the form perpetually occurs
'
it
still.
so said Sakya,'
and
In
have
so long withheld,
the
forthcoming
this is the reason
the works are ascribed to him, though they took their written shape from
why
his
favourite disciples Kasyapa, Ananda, and Upali.
it
*I have this list before me extracted from the Samadhi Raja

worth while to add it to the lists already given.
1
but
do not think
LIST
LIST OP TATHAGATAS,
OF BUDDHIST WORKS.
33
COMPILED FROM THE LAEITA VISTARA, KRIYA 8ANGKAHA

AND RAKSHA BHAGAVATI.
LALITA
OF BUDDHIST WORKS.
LIST
34
7519 Nagadatta.
7620 Atyuckchagaini.
77
21
Mahavyuha.
7822 Rasmiraj.
7923 Sakyamuni.
8024 Indraketu.
81
(See No. 12)
25
8226
8327
8428
(See No. 56.)
8529 Sinhaketu.
8630 Gunagradhari.
8731 Kasyapa. (See
8832 Arcliihketu.
8933 Akskobhyaraj.
9034 Tagarasikba.
35
No. 55.)
Suryanana.
91
Sumati.
92_36 Mahapradipa.
9337 Padmottara (See No. 1.)
9438 Dharmaketu. (See No. 2.)
Nagabhiblni.
Bhaiskajyaraj.
Sarvagandhi.
LALITA VISTAEA, 20TH SECTION.

95
93
Vimalaprabhasa.
2 Ratnarchih.
3 Pusbpavalivanarajikusumitabbijna.
4 Obandrasuryajibuiikaraprabba.
99 5 Gunarjaprabhasa.
97
98
100
6 Ratnayashti.
7 Meghakutabhigarjitaswara.
102 8 Ratnacbbatrabbyudgatavabbasa.
103 9 Samantadarsi.
101
10410 Ganendra.
KRIYA SANGEAHA.
105
107
108
108
110
111
112
109
15 Ratnasambhava.
16 Vajraratna.
17 Vajrasurya.
2 Mabosbuisba.
120
3 Sitatapatrosbuisba.
121
4 Tejorasi.
12218 Vajraketu.
12319 Yajrabasa.
12420 Amitabba.t
5 Yijayosbmsba.
6 Vikiranoslmfsba.
21 Vajradbarma.
7 Udgatosbuisba.
125
8 Mabodgatosbuisba.
12022 Yajratiksbna.
12723 Vajraketu.
12824 Vajrabbasba.
113_9
Vijayosbnisba.
11410 Aksbobbya.
115
119
(See No. 58.)
1 Vairocbana.*t
(See No. 163.)
(See No. 85.)
11 Vajrasatwa.f
129-25 Aniogbasiddha.t
23 Vajrakarma.
27 Vajraraksba.
11612 Vajrai-aja.
11713
11814
103
131
Vajraraga.
13228
Vajrasadbu.
13329
Vajrayaksba.
Yajrasandbi,
Tbis name, although a repetition, is numbered because the personage here inby the name Vdirochana, is really Vairochana Jratdra, Manjusri. The six
celestial Buddhxs of Nepaul will he recognised in this list; but commenting were endThe six are those marked thus +, Vairochana being assumed to be V. proper, and
less.
*
dicated
not Manjusri.
SKETCH OF BUDDHISM.
35
RAKSHA BHAGAVATI.
134
139
140
141
(See No. 90.)
Ratnarckik.
137
142
4 Jayendra.
1385
(See No.
Padmottarasrf.
after
my
arrival in
tion of such a subject
me
general led
residence in a
9 Padmasn.
Nandasri.
writings of Nepaul.
Nepaul (1821), I began to devise means of procuring

Buddhism for, though the regular investiga-
relative to
was
cheerfully
Bauddha
7 Ekachkatra.
8 Sarnadkikastyuttarasrf.
Sketch of Buddhism.
II.
some accurate information
G Suryainandalaprabbasottama.
14310
1.)
From Bauddka
Soon
Ratnakara.
Asokasrf.
1352
1303
foreign
my
to
pursuits,
avail myself of the
to
my
respect
for science in
my
opportunity afforded, by
country, for collecting and transmitting to Calcutta the
my
There were, however, serious obstacles in
materials for such investigation.
way, arising out of the jealousy of the people in regard to any profanation of
by an European, and yet more, resulting from the Chinese notions

I nevertheless persevered; and time,
their sacred things
of policy adopted by this Government.
patience, and dexterous applications to the superior intelligence of the chief minisat length
ter,
My
in
first
was
Nepaul; and to
in the course of
this
which the reputation
of these he gave
sed
and
me
me
drew one of
a
many
large
His
copies of them.
at length, chiefly
large collection
my
When we
list.
brethren in the Bauddha

cutta a
list
for
works relating
my
This old
Buddhism
man
and
Having
some
influence with
was enabled to procure and transmit

of important Bauddha scriptures.*
faith, I
He
assured
of
did so
intelligent,
which
and these questions
his
Cal-
my curiosity was
and
set of questions,
to
anel
I desired
he
answers form
in his answers quoted sundry slokas in proof of his
and many of the scriptures whence these were taken being now in
possession, I
research gave
me
was tempted
to try the truth of his quotations.
in general satisfactory proof.
But the
that,
my
by
this
Thus one
step
anel, trieel
the Bauddha's quotations were not always so satisfactory.
* Nearly all were eventually procured,
Of
possession of the books
led to questions respecting their relative age anel authority

test,
gradually enlarged as his confidence increa-
through his kindness, and his
woulel answer from his boohs.
statements
to
became better acquainted, he volunteered
him (about 1823) a
the text of this paper.
scriptures
knowledge of an old Bauddka residing
people to his abode.
Meanwhile, as the Pdtna Bauddha seemed very

excited, I proposed to
Bauddha
end I privately instituted inquiries in various directions,
that Nepaul contained
to procure
toils.
to ascertain the existence or otherwise of
in tke city of Patan,
me
my
rewarded
object
chiefly, and in tke first place solely, I'm' Calwith the Librarian of the College of Foi t William,
then with the Asiatic Society, but were I'm- years utterly neglected, and still are so I
Those sent to France met with
fancy; so also the copies sent to London anel Oxford.
a far different reception see Burnouf.
cutta.
Tkey were deposited
lirst
36
OF BUDDHIST
LIST
WORKS.
led to anoth3r, until I comaivei the ilia of drawing' up, with the aid of
friend
und
his booln, a sketch of tlu terminology
sum
external parts of Bilihism, in the bjlisf that

fectly executed,
would be of some assistance
unknown
investigation of this almost
When, however,
me;
patience, and almost looked back
a ccurate account of
tain notices of
my
though but imper-
countrymen
as,
with
and acuu\*te
to enter into a full
it
would lead
of languages, and (to confess the truth) of
with a sigh
Bud Ihism whic h
comparative labour, from
old
subject.
my want
to feel
my
my
disposition of the
design, I little suspected where
I conceived that
began ere long
a sketch,
to such of
might be disposed
the books only before them,
and general
to tbe tolerably full
I hael obtained so long ago,
old frien d's answers to
Buldhism coming from time
to
my
queiies.
and tolerably
and with
I also
little
saw
cer-
tim e before the world, ushered by
the talents and industry of Klaproth anel Remusat; and, so far as I had opportunity
to learn
what these
notices
contained,
it
seemed that the answers to
much ample r and more accurate views of

men could extract from their limited sources
tions furnished
distinguished
add here a very considerable
forme from
those
that its accuracy
still
may
list of
my
ques-
the subject than these

of information.
the Baiiddlta scriptures in general, extracted
existing in Nepaul,
without
be relied on, and that
it s
further observation on
it
than
contents are so far from being local
to Nepaul, that the largest portion of the books neither are, nor ever
were pro-
curable in this valley.
The Bauddhast were used, in old time, to insert at the end of any particular
lists of the names of many of their sacred wr itings; and to this usage of
work,
theirs
am
indebted
for the large catalogue
LIST
1.
which
have obtained.
OP SANSKRIT BAUDDHA WORKS.
PURANAS OR EXOTERIC WORKS.
Satasahasrika Prajna Paramita.
2 Pancha Vinsati Sahasrika Prajna Paramita.

3 Ashtadasa Sahasrika Prajna Paramita.
4 Ashta Sahasrika Prajna Paramita.

5 Sapta Sati Prajna Paramita.
6 Prajna Paramita Vyakhya.
7
Ganda Vyuha.*
Bhadrachari.
8 Dasa Bhumeswara.
9 Samadhi Raja.f
10 Lankavatara.
II
Saddharma Pundarika
Bhadrachari.
12 Lalita Vistara.
13 Tathagata Guhyaka, or
Guhya Samadhi
(Tantra).
14 Suvarna Prabhasa.
*
Ascribed to Arya Sanga, and teaches the Yogacharya branch of the Mahayana.
tThis book and the Buddhavatamsaka and the Ratnakiita are works aseribd
whom the western barrier mountain of the Val
to Nagarjuna, a transcendentalist after

ley of Nepaul is named.
LIST
1*5
Mahavastuavadana.
1(3
Divyavad.ina.
OF
BUDDHIST WORKS.
37
Samaj ataka. Kinnarij ataka

Dipankaravastu. Birkiisavadana.
Sardvilak irnavadana.
Opakkadh avadana.
17 Satakavadana.
Barikavad
Rasktra Palavadana.
1
Bkadrakalpavadana.
Birkiisavadana.
Kinnarijataka.
Bodki Ckaryavatara.
19 Asokavadana.
Sapta Kurnarik ivadana.

Durgati Parirshodkana.
Akortitri vrata.
Kartika Makatmya.
Ckaitya Pungava.
20 Vicliitra Karnikiivadana.
21 Dwavinsatyavadana.
22 Rataamalavadana, or Ratnavadana
Suchandravakina.
23 Avadana Kalpalata.
24 Sugatavadana.
25 Dkarnia Koska.
26 Dkarma Sangraka.
27 Vinaya Sutra4
28 Makayana Sutra.
29 Makayana Siitralankara.
30 Gosringa Vyakkyana.
31 Salackakravadana.
32 Jatakavadana.
33 Jataka Mala
34
Maka Jataka
'
Viswantaraj ataka.
Mala.
35 Swayambkii Purana Kalpa.

36 Swayambkii Purana Mahata.
37 Swayambkii Purana
Madkyama.
38 Swayambkii Purana
Manickiiravadana.
39 Karanda Vyiika.
40 Gunakaranda Vyiika.
41 Sukkavati Vyiika.
42 Karuna Pundarika.
43 Lalita Vistara, or Tatkagata Janmavadana.

44 Laukika Lankavatara.
45
C baity a Makatmya.
46 Kalpadrumavadana
Kavikumaravadana.
X Only trace of Vinaya eo nomine, though this be one grand division of the book*
But Burnouf I think observes that the Vinaya la..
of the Ceylonese and Tibetans.
of books in those places is represented by the Avadana, its equivalent in Nepaul.
i
LIST
38
OF
BUDDHIST WORKS.
Uposhadhavadana.
47 Dharma Kosha Vyakhya.

Suinagadhavadana.
48 Avadana Sarasaniniuchaya
Sahakopadesavadana.
Kapisavadana.
Kathinavadana.
Pindapatravadana.
Nandimukka.
49 Vratavadana Mala
Sugkoskavadana.
Dhimatyavadana.
Sringabheri, &c.
50 Anumana kkanda.
51 Adikarrna pradipa.
52 Sadkana yuga Tippani.

53 Manju Sri Parajika.*
54 Vajra Satwa Parajika.

55 Lokeswara Parajika.
56 Okhando Mrityulata.
57 Suvarnavarnavadana.
58
Tara,
Satanama.
59 Buddha Siksha Samuchchaya.

60 Pancha Rakska.
61 Buddhokta Sansaramaya.
62 Lakska Chaitya Vratanusansa.

63 Pratimoksha Sutra.
64 Vajra
Siichi.
65 Buddha Charita Kavya.
66 Gautama Kavya.
67 Punya Pratisaha Kavya.
68 Lokeswara Sataka Kavya.

69 Sragdkara Kavya.
70 Vidagdkaruukhamandana Kavya.
2.
71
Pramodya Makayuga
TANTRAS OR ESOTERIC WORKS.f

Tantra.
72 Paramartka Seva Tantra.

73 Pindi
Krama
Tantra.
108 Vajravfra Tantra.

109 Vajra Satwa Tantra.
110 Marichi Tantra.
74 Samputodbhava Tantra.
Ill Tara, Tantra.
75 Hevajra Tantra.
112 Vajradhatu Tantra.
76 Buddha Kapala Tantra.
113 Virnalaprabha Tantra.
77 Samvara Tantra, or Sanivarodya.
114 Manikarnika Tantra.
*Nos. 53, 54, and 55 are Vinaya as to matter.

expulsion from the congregation.
fSee Asiatic Researches, vol.
Gogerly says 52 related to the law

v., p.
62 and note.
fo
OF BUDDHIST WORKS.
LIST
78 Varahi Tanira, or Varahi Kalpa.
39
115 Trilokvavijaya Tantra.
79 Yogambara Tantra.
110 Sampiita Tantra.
80 Dakini Jala Tantra.
117
81 Sukla Yamari Tantra.
118 Kuru Kula Tantra.
Marma
Kalika Tantra.
82 Krishna Yamari Tantra.
119 Bhiita Damara.
83 Pita Yamari Tantra.
120 Kala Chakra Tantra.
84 Rakta Yamari Tantra.
121 Yogini Tantra.
85 Syama Yamari Tantra.
122 Yogini Sanchara Tanira.
86 Kriya Sangraha Tantra.
123 Yogini Jala Tantra.
87 Kriya Kan
la
124 Yogambarapitha Tantra.
Tantra.
125 Uddamara Tantra.
83 Kriya Sagara Tantra.

89 Kriya Kalpa
Druma
12
Tantra.
Vasundhara Sadhana Tantra.
127 Nairatma Tantra.
90 Kriyarnava Tantra.
91 Abhidanottara Tanira.
128 Dakarnava Tantra.
92 Kriya Samuchchaya Tantra.
129 Kriya Sara Tantra.
93 Sadhana Mala Tantra.
130 Yamantaka Tanira.
94 Sadhana Samuchchaya Tantra.
131
95 Sadhana Sangraha Tantra.
132 Tantra Samuchchaya Tantra.
Manju
Sri Kalpa Tantra.
90 Sadhana Ratna Tantra.
133 Kriya Vatansa Tantra.
97 Sadhana Pariksha Tantra.
134 Tantra Sloka Sangraha.
9S Sadhana Kalpalata Tantra.
135 Hayagriva Tantra.
136 Sankirna Tantra.
99 Tatwa Jnana Siddhi Tantra.
137 Namasangiti Vyakhya, Tantra.
100 Jnana Siddhi Tantra.

101
Guhya Siddhi
138 Amrita Karnika nama Sangiti Tika.
Tantra.
102 Udyana Tantra.
139 Gddhotpada nama Sangiti Tika.
103 Nagarjuna Tantra.
140 Maya jala Tantra.
104 Yogapitha Tantra.
141 Jnanodaya Tantra.
105 Pithavatara Tantra.
142 Vasanta Tilaka Tantra.
103 Kalavira Tantra, or Ohanda Roshana. 143 Nispanna Yogambara Tantra.
Pancha Buddha Dharani
Pratyangira
107
Maha Kala
144 Dharani Sanjrraha.
Tantra.
Dharani,
Saptavara Dharani, ^Yit]l
hundreds more, the work
being a collection of them
all.
N. B. Names on the right are portions of the work written opposite them
on the left priorly they had been treated as separate works.
;
The whole
of the above are classed under the
two important heads of Exoteric
and Esoteric, the subdivisions not being noted. This list has been corrected
the paper to which it was originally attached was written.
In a clever paper in the
first
since
and second numbers of the Calcutta Quarterly
(Review of the Bombay Literary Transactions), it is said

that one of the distinctions between Jainisin and Buddhism is, that the Jaina
statues are all naked, and the Bauddha statues all clothed.
The pictures were
Oriental Magazine,
sent to prove that this notion
was
false.
The Bauddha images
are called
Digam-
THE BUDDHIST TRIAD.
40
bora* a name heretofore fancied to be peculiar to Jainism this is another error,

and were this the place for dissertation, I could bring forward many other pre;
who
sumptions in favour of the notion that the Jainas are sectarian Bauddhas,\
Bauddha brethren merely
dissented from their
in carrying to a gross excess,
and in
promulgating publicly, certain dangerous dogmas, which the more prudent Buddhists
chose to keep veiled from
though I have been
The Nepaul Buddhists
but the initiated.
all
jealous of any intrusion into their esoteric
dogmas and symbols;
(Bauddha though he
me some
brought
secret things at
esoteric pictures
all, if
small degree, myself;
nor probably should
had not been able
and
my
in
power, I at
With
my Bauddha
my
and
twelve months
have got at these
my
hands a picture
these decisive means of questioning
last
got
me
copies of the naked saLits,
sanctuary, to bring
that
examine the Bauddha books, in some
to
a B/iotii/a had not put into
if
containing one of these naked saints.
last
so,
old Vajra
dogmas
esoteric
has only within these
be,)
are very
much
my
for seven years enquiring after these things,
Achdnja friend only recently gave me a peep at the

CJiitrakdra,
so
assistants to
draw up the
and
to tell
veil of the
me
little
of
the naked doctrines.
Every part of each image

are marked,
mudrd)
the
by the
first,
secondly,
significant
is
the differences
by the variety of the supporters,
vaiiely of the cognizances or chinas
yellow, or golden
colour
is
white
by
Amitdblia's, red
difierence of
it
may
upon which
dha,
be advisable to state here
'
About the former
latter.
dlirl), I
Bodhandtmaka
in the first
Buddhism
of
rank stands the authority
To the word Dhdrana,
is
(under the names
often styled, in
'
Dharma,
that
bias
define
Dharma.'
iti
may
con-
or holding, containing, sustaining (from

;
Dharma,
first,
because
it is
opposed to
the prdvrlttika personification
the most authentic books, Prakrit estcari
goddess of matter
;'
and
thirdly, because this goddess
Abya Tatja, etc.) in very many passages

the ma erial cause of all things; conform-
Pra.txa,
Bauddha works, described
ably, indeed, with
The Bauddhas
of these definitions there can be no difficulty; there
the material goddess,' or
of old
Vai-
colour.
Ratna-Sambhava s
Dhdran-dtmaka
have assigned a material sense
of this principle,
is,
and
Buddha
iti
bodhdna; secondly, because the goddess
by
and
have assigned the meaning of intellectual essence to the word Bud-
the words thus
the root
and Amot/ha-Siddha's, green.J
and that of material essence to the word Dharma.
cerning the
the
There are a few matters connected with the following sketch
which
five
called
called vdhanas; thirdly,
Akshobhyds, blue
is
placed between the supporters
fourthly (where painting and colours are used),

rochana's appropriate
between the
the hands (which
different position of
as
towards materialism, which our heretofore scanty
knowledge of Buddhism has led us
to assign to the Saitjata faith.
*See J.R.A.S. ii. 1, 140.

f See Digambar and Yogambar.
% For the positions of these Buddhas in Chaitya temples see further on j Akshobhya
is enshrined on the east side, Ratna Sambhava on the south, Amitabha on the west,
and Anio/ha Siddha on the north. Vairochana is seldom found, but if he be, his
station is immediately to the right of Akshobhya, Amogha Siddha has always a canopy
of snakes.
For Nagapiija in Nepanl see further on.
BUDDHIST COSMOGONY.
member
Sangha, the third
of the Triad, belongs not to the exalted state of
things, or
which no sect of Bauddhas admits more than two principles of all

mind and matter, Buddha and Dharma. Sangha is defined Samuddyi
dtmaka
Sangha,
ninrWi,
in
iti
'
world of
'
In note 31, I have distinctly rejected the
my
Bauddha
old
There can be no doubt that
tive
name
the
Vajra
of the
of the
my
friend
Bandgas*
order of
fifth
friend's
or
Vajra
is
statement in the text of the
mistaken
many high
for in
collec-
Chatur Varna, and are therein described without mention of
Achdrgas.
you that he
may
It
serve to explain
my
friend's
statement
to tell
himself a Vajra Achdrga; and that as the genuine monachism
is
Buddhism has long
since passed
away
in Nepaul, sundry local books
been composed here by Vajra Achdrgas, in which they have made their
order coequal with the four ancient orders
modern Nepaul books

I
is
and true orders of Bandgas are called by the
authorities, the four original
of
held to be
is
the palpable world,' as unity
nirvrltti, or 'abstraction.'
Aehdrga*, in opposition to
Sketch.
because multitude
;'
the multitudinous essence
as strong a characteristic of pravrUH, or
sufficient
and
my
old friend
have
own modern
would hold these
warrant for the rank ascribed
Ms own
to
class.
have lately spoken to him on this subject, and he has confessed that there
no old authority
carefully to separate
quoad this point of
Buddhism
as
it is
If
classification.
works on Nepaul, you
how
will see
things as they are from

hints
order of Bandgas.
for his fifth
(in
my
In
is
note I have endeavoured
Nepaul) and Buddhism as
it
ought to
be,
you look into Kirkpatrick's and Buchanan's
they have been puzzled with the difference of
what they ought
and erroneous
to be, in those casual
which they have afforded on the subject of Buddhism.
In note 15, I have stated that the Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas entertained tolerably
just views on the grand subject of free-will and necessity; and I believe I
therein essentially correct

sion of faith,
'
Still,
'
otherwise are
we
Conduct
is
is
the vehicle of the sense of this passage, and
fate
:'
were I cross-examined,
law of freedom
I
am
to understand their confes-
the actions of a man's prior births are his destiny?'
metempsychosis, which
old adage,
how
for
Exclude the
we have
our
surely.
might be forced
to confess,
that
the ideas which
the Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas entertain of free-will, seem to resemble rather the
qualifications of our Collins
and Edwards, than the
full
and absolute freedom of
Clarke and the best European philosophers.
The Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas seem
to
have been impressed with the fact of
man's free-will, but to have been perplexed in reconciling such a notion with
the general spirit and tendency
of
the old
Sirdbhdvika philosophy.
But
in
the result, the Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas seem to have adhered to free-will, though
perhaps in the qualified sense above mentioned.
Question
How
and when was the world created
I.
*Bandya is the original and correct form of the Chinese Bonze and Mongolian
Bandida, as Arhata or Arhanta is of the Indo-Chinese Rahatun.
BUDDHIST COSMOGONY.
42
Answer.
According to the Sambhu Purdna, in the beginning
first
light that
was produced
nothing
called
Mahd
(See note
universe.
was,
else
Aum
was manifest was the word

1.)
all
The
was void (sunya).
and from
this
Aum
the alphabet
Varna, the letters of which are the seeds of the
In the
Sambhu was
Guna Kdranda Vyuha

that
is
written,
is
it
the self-existent (Swayamblm)
when
and
was before all, he is also called A'di-Buddha. He wished from one to

become many, which desire is denominated Prapia. Buddha and Prajna united
In
(See note 2.)
became Prajna Upaya, as Siva Sakti, or Brahma Mava.
as he
the instant of conceiving this desire, five forms or beings were produced, called
Vairochaxa,
the five Buddhas (see note 3), whose names are as follows
Akshobhya, Ratna-Sambhava, Amitabha, Amogha-Siddha. Each of these
Buddhas, again, produced from himself, by means of Dhydna, another being called
his Bodhi-Satioa, or son. Vairochana produced Samanta-Bhabra; Akshobhya,
Amitabha, Padma-Pani;
Vajra-Pani; Batna-Sambhava, Ratna-Pani;
and Amogha-Siddha, Viswa-Pani.
:
Of
these five Bodhi-Sahcas, four are engrossed with the worship of
known
Sambhu
them than their names; the fifth,

Padma-Pani, was engaged by Sambhu's command, in creation (see note 4) and
having by the efficacy of Sambhu's Dhydna, assumed the virtues of the three
Gunas, he created Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa, and delegated to them resAccordingly, by Padrua-Pani's
pectively, creation, preservation, and destruction.
(SwayambhiiJ, and nothing more
is
of
commands, Brahma
viviparous,
rous,
set about creating all things
etc.,*)
came
into
existence
and the Chatur-yoni (or ovipa-
Brahma.
by
The
creation of
Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa by Padma-Pani, is confirmed by the sloka (see note
5), the meaning of which is, Kamali (Padma-Pani,) produced Brahma for creaAnd the creation of
ting, Vishnu for preserving, and Mahesa for destroying.
Brahma is six-sorted, viz., Deva, Daitya, Mdnusha, etc. and, for the Devas,
;
Brahma made heaven
and
for the
Daityas, Pdtdla
and the four remaining lands
he placed between these two regions and upon the earth.
With
respect to the
the highest
And below
thirteen
is
it,
mansions (Bhuvanas) of the universe,
Bhuvand
called Agnishtha
(see note G)
of
this is the
named, Pramdditd,
it
is
related, that
abode of Adi-Buddha.
and according
to others,
Tl'mald, Prabhdkari,
Ar< hish-
Abhimukhi, Durangamd, AcJiald, Sddhumati, Dharma-megha
(x),
These thirteen Bhuvanas
are
Samanta-prabhd, Nirdpamd, Jnydnavati
work
and
according to some accounts, there are ten
Bhuvanas
mati, Sudurjayd,
the
Adi-Buddha: they
a faithful follower of
Buddha
(xiii).f
are the B6dhi- Sat ica
Bhuvanas
and whoever
is
will be translated to one of these mansions after
death.
By et ctetera always understand more Brdhmanorum.

t Aknishtha or Agnishtha is not named in the Dasa Bhuvana, and neither therein nor
here is any mention made of the abodes of the five Dhyani Buddhas and not Aehala
but Samanta Bhadra is the tenth Bhuvana. Nirupama, Aehala, and Jnyanavati are the
three extra Bhuvanas.
*
BUDDHIST COSMOGONY.
Below the
ually
These are subject to Brahma, and are named individ-
Rupyavachara,
lectively
43
are eighteen Bhuvanas, called col-
Bhuvanas
thirteen BddJd-Satica
Brahnia-kayika, Brahma-piirohita, Brahina-prashadya,
Maha Brahmana,
Anabhraka,
Paritabha, Apramanabha, Abhaswara, Parita-subhd, Subhakiskna,
Puuya-prasava, Yrikat-phiila, Arangi-satwa, Avriha, Apaya, Sudrisha, Sudarsana,
and Sumiikha.
Bhuvanas
And below
called
Pious worshippers of
Brahma
go to one of these eighteen
shall
after death.
the eighteen mansions of Brahma, are six others subject to Vishnu,
collectively
Kdmdvachard, and separately
as follows
Chatiir-Mahd-rdja-
Kdyikd, Trayastrinsd, Tushita, Yamd, Nirmdnavati, Paranirmitd-Vasavarti.
whosoever worships Vishnu with pure heart
And below
deva,
called
Bhuvanas of
Maha-
generally Arupyavachard, and
as
follows
Abhdgd-
Ritya-yatndpagd,
Indra Bhuvana,
down
earth are seven Divipas,
Par vat as or mountains
and Chandra Bhuvana
also called
Agni-kunda.
T âyu-kunda is Prithvi, or
Jambu Dwipa,
etc.
and the earth
is
as Dharani, etc.
is
and these eight compose the
Manjusrf.
Brahma down
Manjusri
is
command,
Thus Manjusri
by
his
and on the
and eight
Prithvi
six of
them
is
And
are the
Naraka, consisting of eight separate
hell of sinners
to the eight
and from the eighteen Bhu-
chambers of Naraka,
by the Bauddhas esteemed the great
structs the mansions of the
are
together
on the waters as a boat.
abodes of the Daityas; and the seventh
vanas of
seas,
And below
etc.
helow the Jdla-kunda are seven Pdtdlas,
abodes
And below Agni-
the earth
and seven Sdgai'as or
Sumcru Parvata,
(see note 7),
Jala-kunda, or the world of waters
and these are the
the planets, and various others which occupy
stars, of
Agni Bhuvana,
to the
Below the mansions enumerated,
Yama Bhuvana, Surya Bhuvana,
Vayu-kunda; and below
is
particularly
Akinchanya-yatndpagd,
Vgnyd-yatndpagd,
with the mansions of the fixed
kunda
And
go to one of these.
the six Bhuvanas of Vishnu are the three
heavens designed for pious Siva-Mdrgis.
the places
shall
all
is
work
the
architect,
who
of
con-
world by Adi-Buddha's command, as Padma-Pani,
creates all animate things.

(see note 8) is the
Visva-karma of the Bauddhas
and
is
also the
author of the sixty-four Vidyds.
Question
"What was the origin of mankind
II.
Answer.
It is written in the
narrative portion of our
Tantras, that originally the earth
was uninhabited. In those times the inhabitants of Abhdsumrd Bhuvana (which

is one of the Bhuvanas of Brahma) used frequently to visit the earth, and thence
It happened at length, that, when a few of these
speedily to return to Abhdsward.
beings, who, though half males and half females, had never yet, from the purity of
their minds, conceived the sexual desire, or even noticed their distinction of sex,
came, as usual, to the earth, Adi-Buddha suddenly created in them so violent a

longing to eat, that they ate some of the earth, which had the taste of almonds,
and by eating
it
they
lost their
power of
flying
back to their Bhuvana, and so
BUDDHIST COSMOGONY.
44
They were now constrained
they remained on the earth.
and from eating these
to eat the fruits of the
they conceived the sexual
earth
for sustenance
desire,
and from that time, and

and began to associate together
commenced from the union of the sexes.
fruits
in that
When
was
their leader,
and he was the

it
first
With
respect to time,
we
the immediate creator of
is
conceive the Satya-yuya to be the beginning of time,
and the Kali-yuga the end of
which
culars of
which
it
and the duration of the four yugas, the par-
Brahmanical scriptures, have no place in our's
are found in the
merely written that there are four yugas
it is
and that in the
lived 80,000 years; in the second, 10,000; in the third 1,000:

is
)*
king of the whole earth.
written that Adi-Buddha
is
'..
Sainvata
things in heaven and earth.
all
in
Maha
the beings above-mentioned came last from Abhdsward,
In another Tantra
manner,
(See note
the origin of mankind
divided into four periods; in the
the second,
fifty
years
the close of the Kali-yuga
alone remain
and then
all
which when completed,
all
and
all
How many
have
layas)
and their stature will
is
revolutions of the four yugas
now passed, and how many remain

matter, and
what
Adi-Buddha
a Pralaya.
is
things else to live in their dura-
things will be again destroyed, and thus there
Question
What
in
when
in the fourth,
will be seventy-one pralayas, or completions of the four yugas,
laya will arrive.
100 years;
will live
and
m< n
things will be destroyed, and Adi-
and this period of four gagas
will then again create the four yugas,

tion,
men
of which,
approaching, seven years only
is
be only the height of the thumb
Buddha
first
the third, twenty-five years
in
first,
and the fourth
to revolve,
is
when Malta Prahow many pra-
{i.e.
nowhere written.
III.
spirit ?
Answer.
Body
elements
five
and
Adi-Buddha.
of
ticle
and
in
(see note 10),
which
soul,
which
is
is
called
prdna and
all,
whether
faculty of
soul
in
is
unchangeable.
man
speech,
which the meaning

the Angas of
jiva, is a particle of the essence
Body, as created out of the elements, perisheth
of the divine spirit, perisheth not

lean, etc.
and Delia, was produced from the
called Sarira
or
Body
body
is
But men have,
any other creature.
this: " Delia is derived
Swayambhu"
soul, as a par-
different in all animals
is
which other animals have not

is
subject to changes
to
soul
fat
alike
besides prdna, the
according to the
from the
be
is
five Bltutas,
sloka,
of
and Jiva from
(See note 11.)
Question IV.
Is
matter an independent existence, or derived from
God
Answer.
Body, according to some, depends upon the inhaling and exhaling of the Prdna-
Vdyu; and
this inhalation
and exhalation of the breath
(prdna), which virtue, according to some,

* See
the
is
is
by virtue of the soul
derived from God, and according to
Tumour's and Csoma de Korijs versions

Asiatk tioritty of Bengal.
of
this legend,
in the
Journal of
BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY.
others (see note 12),
Some
this subject.
bhdvdka;
Swdbh&va
who makes
And
whence
And
45
much
diversity of opinion on
of the Buddha-mdrgis contend that deha (the body)
the eyes, the
womb ? Swdbhdva ! And
mother's
is
Swd-
is
from the copulation of males and females, new bodies proceed:
i.e.,
and they ask
beasts,
inherent in itself: there
is
who
points
them
timidity of the deer kind, and the fury of the ravenous
the
are
the limbs, etc. of the fcetus in the
flesh,
the thorns of the desert,
they? from Swdbhdva!
specimen of their reasoning and proofs, according to a sloka of
this is a
the Buddha-Chaiita-Kavya.
Some
(See note 13.)
sdra are Aiswarika (see note 14),
i.
again say, that deha and ean-
produced by Iswara, or Adi-Buddha,
e.,
according to another sloka.
Some
human body Kdrmika,
again call the world and the
the cause of this existence of deha and sansdra

to a
and works,
(kshetra),
field
affected
not
it
so
was the
man
but when
Karma,
ceived was subject to
And
to a seed.
which man received was created
solely
put
off
or the
opinion
"
first
Some
and some that
persons say that Sansdra

it is
of these matters.
Do you
body
first
body
body which he re(see note
15)
and
Mukti and Mulcsh a ; and
from transmigration must pay his
free
aftt r
And, in the Buddha-Charita-Kavva
Sakya
points,
is
expressed
Sivdbhdvaka, some that
Aiswarika and Atmaka;
is
deha
first
worldly goods to Buddha, nor ever
all his
respect to these
Karma
that
and at that time works
his first body, the next
works of the
suffer such things to excite his desires.
written, that with
e.,
they relate, that the
by Adi-Buddha
whoever would be
devotions to Buddha, and consecrate
i.
and they liken the
next, and all future ones, until he attained to
therefore they say, that
is
following
it is
Kdrmika,
for myself, I can tell
address your meditation to
it
the
you nothing
Buddha; and when you
have attained Bodhijndna, you will know the truth yourselves."
Question V.
What
are the attributes of
God ?
Answer.
His distinctive attributes are many; one of which
is,
that he
is
Panchqjndndtmaka
(see note 16), or, in his essence are five sorts of fndna, possessed
and which are as follows:
first,
Suvisuddha-Dharma-Dhdiuja
third, Pratyavekshanaja ; fourth,
beings, Vairochana, etc.,

in each of these five
attributes
is
were
Buddhas
Sdmtaja;
number
in
fifth,
five,
owing
to
by him alone
second, Adarsanaja
Armshthdnqja.
one of the jndnas.
is
these
The
five
first
created
Jndnas; and
Another of Adi-Buddha's
the faculty of individualizing, and multiplying himself, and again
individualizing himself at pleasure
another
is,
possessing the qualities of passion
and clemency.
Question VI.
Is the pleasure of
God
derived from action or repose
Answee.
There are two modes of considering this subject
secondly, according to pracritti.
first,
according to nirvritti; and
46
Nirvritti (see note 17) is this
and an
illusion
whom
nirvritti,
Adi-Buddha
nothing can be done
remains but himself.
an
to be
know
is
whose care
But some
containeth
all it
i>
view of
who
all
pravritti,
may
yet the wise
is
among
distributed
all
And
things.
king,
this
who
and punishes sinners
fructify the earth
with their rays
the
Such
pravritti,
in this latter
gives orders; and
who
execute his
In this
slaves.
way
the
the deities, each having his proper
Thus the
:
Buddhas
five
Brahma by
orders, destroys
Yama
Indra and Varuna give rain
is
the orders of
Vishnu, by the same orders, cherishes
and Maha Deva, by the same
sins,
and moon
and
and Adi-Buddha has no concern with it.

and moksha to good men
Paduta-Paui, performs the part of creator
zance of
He
but
found to be unity;
is
be distinguished in
give mukti (see note 19)
know
yet one.
all living things, is
Adi-Buddha may be considered a
business of the world
beings
and nothing
and outward members, of this monad
orders; and we, poor mortals, his subjects, servants,
all
inhabitants
its
annihilated,
the five Buddhas, and other divinities of heaven, his ministers,
functions;
Therefore,
things, without
profess nirvritti, contend that the
from Adi-Buddha
which, being deeply studied,
multiplicity,
is
the opposite of this
and
sustains the world
persons,
is distinct
the lirnbs
and they are but
which
is
(See note 18.)
error.
nirvritti,
and Pravritti
them they became
Adi-Buddha, though he comprehends

soul,
the world to be a mere semblance, unreal,
the author and creator of
he averts his face from
and the moment

world with
to
practice and notions of ordinary men.
sublime science, andis the

according to
and to know God to be one
and so of the
takes cogni-
and the sun
rest.
Question VII.
Who
is
Buddha
heaven, or of a
Is
woman
he God, or the creator, or a propbet or saint
born of
Answeh.
Buddha means,
and
in Sanskrit, 'the wise
;'
also, 'that
one of the names which we give
it is
dha, because he was before
all,
and
is
to
God,
which
is
known by wisdom
whom we
not created, but
is
also
the creator
;'
Adi-Bud-
call
:
and the
Pancha Dhydni Buddhas were created by him, and are in the heavens. Sakya, and
These latter,
the rest of the seven human Buddhas are earth-born or human.
by the worship of Buddha, arrived at the highest eminence, and attained Nirvana
Pada
call
(i.e.
tbem
What
were absorbed into Adi-Buddha).
all
is
(See note 20.)
We
therefore
Buddhas.
the reason for
Question VIII.
Buddha being represented with
curled locks
Answer.
Adi-Buddha was never seen. He is merely light. (See note 21.) But in the
and
pictures of Vairochana, and the other Buddhas, we have the curled hair
;
since in limbs
and organs we discriminate thirty-two points of beauty (TakshanasJ,
such as expansion of forehead, blackness of the eyes, roundness of the head, eleva-
tion of the nose, archedness of the
eyebrows
one of the points of beauty, and there

represented with curled locks.
47
so also the having curled locks
no other reason
is
for
is
Buddha's being
(See note 22.)
Question IX.
What
names of the great Buddha?

the word Buddha, or any substitute for it?
for Buddha ?
Does the Neicdri language admit
are the
and what
is
name
the Bhotiya
Answer.
The names
of
Adi-Buddha
are innumerable
Dharma-
Sarvajna, Sugata, Buddha,
Raja, Tathagata, Bhagavan, Samanta-Bhadra, Marajita, Lokajita, Jina, Anadini-
dhana, Adi-Buddha, Xirandhaka, Jnanaikachakshu, Amala, Jnana-Miirti, Vackeswara, Maha-Vadi, Vadirata, Vadipuugava, Vadisinha, and Parajata.
and the other

follows
five
Buddhas, have
also
many names.
Some
Vairochana,
of Vairochana's are as
Maha-Dipti, Jnana-Jyotish, Jagat-Pravritti, Mahatejas, &c.
and so of
Padma-Pani also has many names, as Padina-Pani, Kaniali,

Padma-Hasta, Padma-Kara, Kamala-Hasta, Kamalakara, Kamala-Pani, Aryathe other four.
valokiteswara, Aryavalokeswara, Avalokiteswara,
Many
23.)
whom
to
of the above
I do not
and
Loka-Xatka*
(See note
are intercommunicable between the several persona
Buddha
they are here appropriated.
BhoUya names
the
names
know
is
a Sanskrit word, not Neicdri
but I have heard they
call
Sakya Sinha.
Sungi Thuba: Sungi meaning the deity, and Thiibaf his Alaya or Vihdrn.
Question X.
In the opinion of the Banras, did
often
and what
is
God
make a descent on earth?

name of each Acatdra f
ever
the Sanskrit and Newdri
how
if so,
An saver.
According to the scriptures of the Bvddhamdrgis, neither Adi-Buddha nor any
of the Pancha
Dhydni Buddhas
(see note 24), ever
they were never conceived in mortal

certain persons of mortal
womb
made
a descent; that
is
to say
nor had they father or mother
mould have by degrees attained
but
to such excellence of
nature and such Bodhifndna, as to have been gifted with divine wisdom, and to have
Buddhamdrga
taught the Bodhi-charya and
Vipasyi, Sikhi, Viswabhii, Krakutchanda,
In the Satya-yuga were three

the house of
Vinduman Raja;
other
Vipasyi,
who wasborn
Sikhi, in TJrna
Desa, in the house of a Kshatriya
has
;
and these were seven, named
Kanaka muni, Kasyapa, Sakya Sinha.
in
Vindumati Niagara, in
Desa; and Viswabhii,
in the Trctdyuga,
in
Anupama
two persons became Budd-
one Krakutchandaj in Kskemavati Kagara, in the house of a Brahman; the

Kanaka Muni, in Subhavati Nagara, in the house of a Brahman and in
:
the Dwdpara-yuga, one person
named Kasyapa,
in Vdrdnasi
Nagara,
in the
house
We
do not find Matsyendra among these synonymes though he be now usually idenwith Padma Pani. For Avalokiteswara see Fahian, p.p. 115-117.
t Sanskiitice Stlnipa, a tomb, temple. But Csoma de Koros gives Sange Thubba as
*
tified
his
name
only.
T
[The name is Sangs- Gyas Thub-pa, from Sang-jay T'ub-pa, and means: 'the Holy
One, the Conqueror.' J.S.
"
48
of a
Sakya, then called Sarvartha Siddha
and in the Kali-yuga*
Brahman:
house of Suddhodana Raja, a Sdkyavansi, in the city of
25), in the
(see note
Kapilavastu, which
near
is
many
seven, there are
The
but none equal to these.
Buddhas,
history of these seven, and of other
Besides these
became Buddhas.
Gangasagara,f
illustrious persons
is
particular
written in the Lalita Yistara.
(See note 25.)
Question XI.
How many
Avatdras of Buddhas have there been, according to the Lamas
Answer.
They agree with
our
us in the
worship of the seven Buddhas, the difference in
Lamas go
notions being extremely small; but the
contend that they themselves are Avatdras.
were
his time, there
five
Lamas esteemed
divine
than this and
further
have heard from
my
father, that, in
the names of three of
them
have forgotten, but the remaining two are called Shamurpa and Karmapa.
Question XII.
Do
the
Lamas worship
the Avatdras recognized by the Newdrs
Answer.
The Lamas
are
orthodox Buddhamdrgis, and even carry their orthodoxy to a
greater extent than
we
do.
Insomuch, that
it
is
said,
that Sankara Acharya,}
Siva-Mdrgi, having destroyed the worship of Buddha and

taining
its
doctrine
in
Hindustan,
came
to
the scriptures con-
Xepaul, where also he effected
There he had a conference with

The Lama, who never bathes, and after natural evacuations
does not use topical ablution, disgusted him to that degree, that he commenced
The Lama replied, "I keep my inside pure, although my outreviling the Lama.
much
mischief; and then proceeded to Bhot.
the grand
side be
sr=>
Lama.
impure
while you carefully purify yourself without, but are filthy within
and at the same time he drew out his whole entrails, and shewed them to Sanand then replaced them again. He then demanded an answer of Sankara.
kara
Sankara, by virtue of his yoga, ascended into the heavens
I-
the
shadow of Saukara's body on the ground, fixed a knife

shadow Sankara directly fell upon the knife, which pierced
the
him
instantly.
for the fact
Such
is
is
perceiving
his throat and killed
the legend or tale that prevails, and thus
that the Buddhamdrgi practice of Bhot
more numerous, than
Lama
in the place of the
we account
purer, and its scriptures
ours.
Question XIII.
What
is
the
name
of your sacred writings, and
who
is
their author
* This allotment into four yugas is apochryphal.

The three first Buddhas belong to
the penultimate Kalpa, and the four last to the present, or Bhadra Kalpa.
Kapila was on
t Near or in Oude, or Rohilkhand, according to other works.
the Bhagirathi, near Kailas, say the Tibetan authorities.
back.
about
years
This
we learn from
1,000
flourished in the ninth century, or
the Brahmans, and the date is important as it agrees with the era of that persecution
which led the Southerners to seek protection in Nepanl and Tibet.
of the Sanskrit literature of Buddhism.
See pp. 36-39 for a corrected list
He
49
Answer.
We
" the nine
have nine Purdnas, called
Parana
is
Dharmas."
The
ceremonies of Buddhism, and the lives of our chief Tathagatas.

is
called Prajna Parantita,
work
(See note 2G.)
a narrative or historical work, containing a description of the rites and
of a philosophic character,
first
Dharma
Nydya Sdstra,
of being understood only by men
and contains 8,000

capahle
This
slokas.
is
or
of
named Ganda Vyiika,* of 12,000 slokas, which contains

the history of Sudhana Kumara, who made sixty-four persons his gurus, from
whom he acquired Bodkijndna ; the third, is the Samadhi Raj a, of 3,000 slokas,
science; the second is
in
which the nature and value of japa and tapas
Lankavatara, of 3,000 slokas, in which
is
are explained; the fourth
written
how Havana,
is
the
lord of Lanka,
having gone to Malayagiri mountain, and there heard the history of the Buddha,
from Sakya Sinha, obtained Bodliijnuna.
Guhya,
is
which
contains
an account of
mandala, and the mode and

of a temple dedicated to
ever temple
seventh,
is
The
fifth,
not to be found in Nepaul;** the sixth,
is
method of building a
the
fruits of
worshipping it.
Adi-Buddha
which
or to the
erected to Sakya, or other
called Tathagata
is
the Saddharma Pundarika
is
chaitya or
Buddha-
(Chaitya is the exclusive name
Pancha Dhyani Buddha
Manushi Buddhas, is
called
and what-
Kutdydr)
||
the
the Lalita Vistara, of 7,000 slokas, which contains the histoiy of the several
incarnations of Sakya Sinha Bhagavan,and an account of his perfections in virtue and
knowledge, with some notices of other Buddhas.
The
eighth,
is
the Suvarna
Prabha, containing, in 1,000 slokas, an account of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Prithivi;

how they lauded Sakya Sinha Bhagavan and how he, in return, gave each of
;
them what she
desired.
The
ninth,
the Dasa Bhiimeswara, of 2,000 slokas,
is
containing an account of the ten Bhuvanas of Buddha.

received from Sakya Sinha, and esteem
before the time of
memory
Sakya our
religion
them our
was not reduced
we
because
to writing, but retained in
the disadvantages of which latter method being evident to Sakya, he
secured our institutes
by writing them.
Besides these
Tantras and Dhdranis from Sakya Sinha.

in
All these Purdnas
primitive scriptures
Tantra
is
the
Puranas,
name
we
received
of those books
which Mantras and Yantras are written, explanatory of both of which we

Three of them are famous first, Maya Jala, of 16,000
have very many works.

slokas
second, Kala Chakra, of 0,000
third,
Sambhii Udaya, of 1,000.
The
Dharanis were extracted from the Tantras, and are similar in nature to the Guhya,
A Dharani is never less than eight slokas

and middle of which are written the " Vija
or mysterious rites, of the Siva-Margis.

or
more than 500;
in the beginning
Mantra," and at the end, the " Phiil Stotra," or the Mahatmya,
may
i.e.,
what
desire
be accomplished or what business achieved by the perusal of that Dharani
such, for example, as obtaining
merely the approbation of Buddha.

*See note at page 137** This is a very holy Tantra.
Kutagar is the name of the
children
advantage
over an
enemy
rainor
There are probably a thousand Dharanis.
was kept from me long, but at last I got it.

temples inferior to Chaityas, as now employed
Besides the Chaityas, the Nepaulese have temples, dedicated equally to
in Nepaul.
the Diiminores of the Bavddhas, and to many of the (adopted) deities of the Brahmans.
||
It
class of
50
Question XIV.
What
the cause of good and evil
is
Answer.
When
Tri-guna-Atmaka, that
Padina-Pani, having heconie
having assumed
is,
the form of Satyaguna, Rajo-guna, and Tamo-guna, created Brahma, Vishnu, and
Mahesa; then from Satya-guna, arose spontaneously (Swabhavaka), punya or
and from Tamo-guna, papa or
virtue,
two, which
mixed
quality that good acts,
and bad
acts,
of these Tcarmas or classes of actions

ten kinds,
called
excite
sixth, reviling
them
to quarrels
from speech
is
murder
(see note 27)
first
kdyaka or bodily,
slander
evil,
and from Rajo-guna, the mean of the
neither all good nor all evil
is
i. e.,
second, robbery
derived from Kdija
third, adultery,
fourth, lying
ninth, malice
e.,
derived
and tenth,
disbelief
i.
and these three are called manasa,
derived
i. e.,
ten actions opposite to these are good actions
The
of
secret
fifth,
is
which are
two persons as
and these four papas are called vachaka,
of the scriptures and immorality

'
seventh, reporting such words between
Each
from them.
divided into ten species, so that papa
eighth, coveting another's goods
from mdnas the mind.'
gun as are of such a
for these three
acts, necessarily flow
and
the ten actions, composed, half and half, of these two sorts, are mixed actions.
Question XV.
What
is
the motive of your good acts
the desiring of prospering in the world
the
love of
God
the fear of God or
Answer.
The primary motive
for
doing well, and worshipping Buddha, according to the
hope of obtaining Mukti and MoJcsha, becoming Nirvana, and
scriptures, is the
being freed from transmigrations
God
the love of
therefore they,
these exalted blessings cannot be had without
who make
true saints, and are rarely found;
difference, because they will eventually
Pada,
i.
e.,
Buddha
(see note 28)
has reached this state
from the fear of
hell,
and
to this degree
have arrived, and we

is,
in our creed, a
and avoid
are likewise rarely found,

sinners.
become Buddhas, and
will obtain
is
no
Nirvana
mukti (absorption,) and their jyotish (flame, essence), will be absorbed
into the jyotish of
Buddha"
themselves accepted of God, are the
and between them and Buddha there
evil
Sakya and the others of the "Sapta-
call
them Buddhas,
Buddha.
and their degree
is
constrained to suffer several transmigrations,

till
whoever
who
do good
from the desire of prospering
much above
in the world,
that of the class of
Their sufferings in Naraka will be therefore lessened
this world,
because,
Those persons
but they will be
and endure pain and pleasure in
they obtain Mukti and Moksha.
Question XVI.
world to come, to Adi-Buddha for your acts in this
world, or to whom will you answer ? and what rewards for good, and pains for evil,
will you reap in the next world ?
Will you answer,
How can
in the
the wicked arrive at
hurry them away to
Naraka
Answer.
Buddha ? (see note
29.)
Their wicked deeds will
and the good-will, by virtue of
their
good
acts,
be
1;
transported to the Bhuvanas of Buddha, and will not be there interrogated at

all
and those who have sometimes done good and sometimes
and deaths on
to a series of births
Yama
kept by
destined
evil, are
and the account of their actions
earth,
is
Raja.
Question XVII.
Do you
believe in the metempsychosis
Answer.
For
Y"es.
it is
written in the Jataka Mala, and also in the Lalita Vistara, that
Sakya, after having transmigrated through 501 bodies, obtained Nirvana Pada or
Mukti
in the last
body
but so long as
we
cannot acquire Mukti, so long
Some
pass through births and deaths on earth.

birth,
some
after the seventy-seventh,
where written that Moksha

but every
Moksha
we must
after the first
innumerable births.
after
to be obtained after a prescribed
is
man must atone for the

and when the sins
future births
and some
acquire
number
It is
no
of births
sins of
each birth by a proportionate number of
of the
body are entirely purified and absolved,
he will obtain absorption into Adi-Buddka.
Question XVIII.
What
and from whence are
note 80,) and
what
is
the Newars, from Hindust'han or Bhot
name
the word Newar, the
(see
of a country or a people
Answer.
The
natives of the valley of Nepaul are Newars.
In Sanskrit the country
is
and the inhabitants Naipali and the words Newar and Newari
are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of p to v, and l to R.
Thus too the
called Naipala,*
word Bandya, the name

bandana,
e.,
i.
salutation
Buddhamargi
of the
and reverence to the
(because
sect
its
make
metam-
followers
proficients in Bodhijnana), is
orphosed by ignorance into Banra, a word which has no meaning.
Question XIX.
Do the Newars
follow the doctrine of caste or not
Answer.
As
inhabitants of one country they are one
but
in regard to caste, they are
diverse.
Question XX.
How many
castes are there
amongst the Banras
Answer.
Banra, according to the true reading,
to our
Puranas, whoever has
is
Bandya,
adopted the
as explained above.
tenets of
According
Buddha, and has cut
off
the lock from the crown of his head, of whatever tribe or nation he be, becomes
thereby a Bandya (see note 31).
The Bhotiyas,
for
example, are Bandyas because
they follow the tenets of Buddha, and have no lock on their heads.
are divided into
two
classes
those
who
* From Ne,
'the sender to Paradise,' who
cherished. The Brahmans derive the word
name of a Patriarch or Muni.
'
'
The Bandyas
follow the Vahya-charya, and those
who
is Swayambhu Adi-Buddha, and pala,

Nepaul from Ne or Neyuni, the proper
52
adopt the Abhyantara-charya
words
The
a family man.
first
Grihastha asrama and
denominated Bhikshu
class is
the
The Bhikshu cannot marry; but the Vajra Acharya
second, Vajra Acharya,*

|
is
equivalent to the
The
Vairagi asrama of the Brahmanas.
latter is
Newars, Giibhal, which
is
sometimes
called, in the vernacular
not a Sanskrit word.
tongue of the
Besides this distinction into
monastic and secular orders, the Bandyasjt re again div ided, according to the scriptures, into five classes:
Chailaka;
fifth,
first,
The Bhikshu,
is
second, Bhikshu;
The Arhat
is
he
Sravaka;
third,
who
is
fourth,
perfect himself,
and
who eats what is offered to him, hut never asks for

he who assumes a staff and beggar's dish (bhikshari
can give perfection to others

anything.
Arhat;
Vajra Acharya.
;
and pinda patra), sustains himself by alms, and devotes
his attention solely to the
contemplation (dhyana) of Adi-Buddha, without ever intermeddling with worldly
The Sravaka
affairs.
tures read or reading
is
he
them
who
devotes himself to hearing the
to others
Bauddha
scrip-
these are his sole occupations, and he
sustained by the small presents of his audiences.
The Chailaka
is
is
he who contents
himself with such a portion of clothes (chilaka) as barely suffices to cover his
nakedness, rejecting everything more as superfluous.
The Bhikshu and the Chai-
laka very nearly resemble each other, and both (and the Arhat also) are bound to
practice celibacy.
The Vajra Acharya
is
he
who
has a wife and children, and
Such
devotes himself to the active ministry of Buddhism.
found in the scriptures
five classes
No
the account of the
is
but there are no traces of them in NepauLf
one follows the rules of that class to which he nominally belongs.
the Bhotiyas there are

are properly Arhats.
Among
many Bhikshus, who never marry and the Bhotiya Lamas

But all the Nepaulese Buddhamargis are married men, who
;
pursue the business of the world, and seldom think of the injunctions of their
The Tantras and Dharanis, which ought
religion.
tion,
to be read for their
own
salva-
they read only for the increase of their stipend and from a greedy desire
of money.
there
is
This division into
five
classes is according to the scriptures;
but
a popular division according to Vihars, and these Vihars being very
numerous, the separate congregations of the Bandyas, have been thus greatly
multiplied.^:
to the
or
In Patau alone there are fifteen Vihars.
five
Dhyani-Buddhas, called a Chaitya,
is
A temple to Adi-Buddha,
utterly
of Sakya and the other of the " Sapta

other chief saints and leaders of
fifteen
Buddha Manuski,"
Buddhism
are called Vihars.
distinct
from the
But the temples
Vihar, and of the form of a heap of rice or Dhanyarasya-akar.

as
well as those of
The names
of tbe
Vihars of Patan are as follows: Tankal- Vihar, Tii-Yilnir, Uak- Vihar, Bhu-
See farther on.
fin Nepaul
at present the Bandyas are divided pepularly into Vajra Acharya,

Sakya Vansi, Bhikshu or Biklm, and Chiva-bare.
The last derive their name from
living in a Vihar which has a Chaitya, vulgo Chiva, in its midst.
Others say that
Chiva in Chi vakabare is a corruption of Chailaka Bandya Potius, Bandyas wearing the
Chivara, a part of the monastic dress, a sense which would make the term signify
Bandyas adhering to their vows.
J Some years ago there were 5,000 Bandyas in the Valley of Nepaul out of a population of some 250,000.
Vihar, Haran-Varna-Maha-Vihar, f
Rudra-Yarna-Muha-Yikar,];
Dhom- Vihar, UnYihar,
Sakya- Vihar, Guhya- Vihar, Shi- Vihar,

In short,
may
structure
tinction,
any Bandya
if
and
die,
53
Bkiksku- Vihar,
etc.
(see note 32).
son erect a temple in his name, such
his
be called such an one's (after his name) Vihar.
however, that a temple to an eminent saint
is
denominated
With
this dis-
Maha Vihar
one to an ordinary mortal, simply Vihar.
NOTES.
Here a Sloka of tke Sambhii Purana is quoted
(1)
was
my
upon
first
intention to have repeated
reflection, I believe it will
and
be better to observe, that the Sambhii Purana
Many
a work peculiar to Nepaul.
in the original paper;
it
on the margin of the translation; but,
it
Bauddha
other
scriptures,
is
however, which are
not local, and are of high authority, symbolize tke forming and changing powers
of nature by the letters of the alphabet
letters to a,
it,
and
Ji
and ascribe the pre-eminence among these
making tke mystic
syllable 6m,
which
is
not less reverenced
by Bauddhas than by Brahmanas. A, tke Bauddhas say, is the Vija Mantra of

the person Buddha; U, the Vij a Mantra of the person Dharma; and M, that of the
person Sangha and these tkree persons form tke Buddhist Triad.
The Bauddhas, however,
differ in their
mode
of classing tke tkree
persons.
According to tke Aiswarikas, tke male, Buddha, the symbol of generative power,
is
the
second
first
member
or an active creator
of
is
tke female, Dharma, the type of productive power,
and Sangha, their son,
and
ruler, deriving his origin
Buddha and Dharma.
Sangha, according to
an inferior member, of the triad.

(2)
Another sloka
text, in
which there
and Swabkavikas.
is
is
is
the
the third, and represents actual creative power,
is
from tke union of tke essences
all
tke sckools, though a member,
||
here quoted; but
it
will not justify the language of the
some confusion of the opposite doctrines of the Aiswarikas
In tke triad of tke
Prajna), tke type of productive power,
latter,
is
tke
the 'symbol of generative power, the second
tke female,
first
member
Dkarma
;
(also called
Upaya, or Buddha,
and Sangha the third; their son
as before, and the active author of creation; or rather the type of that spontaneous
creation,
which
from the union of the two principles of nature
results necessarily
before mentioned.
Buddha and Prajna imited become Upaya Prajna;

the school, and vercr as in tke text.
objects of
Bauddha worship,
see
I take tkis early opportunity to
not
contrast, tke
statements
or vice
versa,
according to
(For some further remarks upon tkese chief
Notes 12 and 29.)
remark tkat candid criticism will compare, and
made
in
Notes 10, 12, 17, 20, and 29, especially
witk reference to tke Swabkavika doctrine.
(See Note 10.)
Throughout classical and vulgar names are mixed.

% Vulgo Uku.
t Vulgo Kon.
%BaM and Bdhd or Bahal arc the vulgar names for great and common Vihars, or
Vihars with a I'liaitva, and those witk a Kutagar only, erected in the midst of them.
Temples to Manushi Buddhas and other Deities are called Kutagar commonly, though
Kutagar temples sometimes enshrine Dhyani Buddhas. A Vihar may be built round
either.
||
See Wilson's Essays and Lectures,
ii.
23
ff.
54
The deduction
(3)
of the five
Dhyani Buddhae, and the
five
Dhyani Bodhisat-
twas, from Adi-Buddha, according to the Aiswarika Bauddhas, will be stated
and
It is a celestial or divine creation,
farther on.
is
here improperly mixed with
the generative creations, theistic and atheistic, of various doctors.

(4) See
Note 23.
The sloka quoted
(5)
worship,
of
is
from the
to be a faithful compilation
The
Kanda, which
Pivja
recent origin, and probably local to Nepaul.
latter of these is a
Buddha
was born
manual of
a mere
It professes,
however,
from the Guna-Karanda Vyiiha, and Karanda Yyiiha.
work
of respectable authority, and contains the following
Puja Kanda.
partial justification of the language of the

disciple Sarvanivarana
is
Vishkambhi,
as the son of
(Sakya, speaking to his
" In the very distant times of Vipasyi
says,)
Suganda Mukha, a merchant
in that birth I
heard from Vipasyi the following account of the qualities of Aryavalokiteswara
The sun proceeded from one of his eyes: and from the other, the
Mahadeva from between his shoulders, Brahma; from
(PadmaPani).
moon; from
his chest,
Vishnu
Prithvi
feet,
his forehead
This passage
added, that
is
is
from his mouth, Vayu
So many
from his navel, Varuna."
kiteswara's body.
it
from his teeth, Sarasvati
expanded
deities issued
from his
Guna-Karanda Vyiiha, wherein
in the
when Aryavalokiteswara had
created
Mahesa, they stood before him, and he said to the
Satyaguna and create:" and
from Aryavalo-
first,
Brahma, Vishnu, and

" be thou the lord of
"be thou the lord of Rajoguna and

preserve;" and to the third, "be thou the lord of Tamoguna and destroy." The
Guna-Karanda Vyiiha, is however a mere amplification of the Karanda Vyiiha,
and of much less authority. In a passage of the Saraka Dkara which is not
one of the sacred writings of Nepaul, but a work of high authority, written by
to the second,
Sarvajna Mitrapada, a Bauddha ascetic of Cashmeer

to issue
from the body of the supreme Prajna just
Vyiiha, they proceed from that of
The authority
(6)
for these ten
Padma
the Hindu
as,
deities are
Pani.
mansions
the Dasa Bhiimeswara, one of the
is
nine great works spoken of in the answer to the thirteenth question
The
treats professedly of the subject.

in
of
sundry works of high authority

the Chaitya
hemisphere
and which
thirteen mansions are, however, mentioned
and the thirteen grades of the superior part
Bauddha temple) are typical of the thirteen celestial

the text. The most essential part of the Chaitya is the
(or proper
mansions alluded to in
solid
made
according to the Karanda
but the vast majority of Chaityas in Nepaid have the hemi-
sphere surmounted by a pyramid or cone, called
Chudamani, and invariably
divided into thirteen grades.

(7) All this, as well as
manical writings.
tures.
There
is,
The Bauddhas seem
what
follows, is a
mere transcript from the Brah-
nevertheless, authority for

to
it
in the
Bauddha
and chronology of the Brahmans, and also a large part of their pantheon.
freely confess to
scrip-
have adopted without hesitation the cosmography
have done so at this day.
accepted by the Buddhists are, of males
The
Maha
They
favourite Brahmanical deities
Kala, Indra, Ganesa,
Hanuman,
and the
Of females
triad.
Lakshmi and
sidered by the Buddhists as the
and only entitled
Of
The Hindu
Sarasvati.
may seem fit
to he paid to faithful servants of
the origin of these deities, according to the
have already given one account, and referred to another.
three gunas and of the creation,
etc.,
by the Brahmanic
the Bodhisattwas, I look upon as modern
Buddhism, the Bodhisattwas
Bauddha hooks,
The notions
According to
inventions.
of the
triad as the delegates of
genuine
each in his turn, the active agents of the crea-
are,
and government of the world.
tion
An
(8)
important historical person, and the apparent introducer of Buddhism
into Nepaul.
(9) This
fesses to
by
triad are con-
mere servants of the Buddhas and Bodhisattwas,
to such reverence as
so high masters.
55
is
(See note 30).

a
most curious legend.
I have not yet seen the Tantra
whence
it
pro-
be extracted, and suspect that the legend was stolen from our Bible,
some
who
inhabitant of Nepaul,
Mosaic history of the origin and

formerly resident in this valley
had gathered a confused idea of the

mankind from the Jesuit missionaries,
perhaps the legend in question was derived
fall
or
of
from some of those various corrupt versions of the biblical story which have
been current among the Jews and Moslems of Asia
(10) This limited reply
is
the fault of
is
by the Buddhists,
called Prakriti
my
for
many
centuries.
as well as
The Swab-
by the Brahmans.*
havika school of Bauddha philosophy (apparently the oldest school)
have considered matter as the
have ascribed to
entity, to
sole
it all
seems
to
the attributes
one termed nirvritti, and the

it two modalities
To speak more precisely, the above is rather the
of deity, and to have assigned to
other pravritti.
Matter
friend and not of his books.
(See note 12.)
doctrine of the Prajnika Swabhavikas than of the simple Swabhavikas
for the
former unitize the active and intelligent powers of nature, the latter do not unitize
them
and prefer to
all
other symbols of those dispersed powers of nature the
letters of the alphabet generally,
of a,
xj,
and m.
Indeed,
it
is
and without much regard to the pre-eminence
probable that the mystic syllable Atjm
comparatively recent
importation
favourite type of creative
power with
sentations of
it
all
The
Buddhism.
into
Bauddhas
the
occur in a thousand places, and in as
altogether
is
Lotos
is
a very
and accordingly repre-
many
forms, in the
Bauddha
sculptures and architecture.
(11)
The
sloka
quoted
from a modern
is
not seen any adequate original authority;
maintain an eternal,
human
(12)
infinite, intellectual
soul an emanation from
him
manual of
have
but the Aiswarika Buddhists,
who
little
Adi-Buddha,
in all probability
of the four schools of
philosophy, and apparently the oldest, are divided into two sects
havikas simply, the other Prajnika Swabhavikas.
*Dharmma,
or that
which
and non-entity
is
Bauddha
one called Swab-
The former maintain that an
the system of nature, or of matter,
sustains, is the Bauchlha equivalent for the
Matra, or that which measures
made the
and considered Moksha a remanation to him.
The Swabhavikas, the name assumed by one
eternal revolution of entity
Puja.
all qualities in space,
the English 'matter.'
Brahmanical
56
exists.
The Prajnikas deify matter as the sole substance, and give
two modes, the abstract and concrete in the former, they unitize the active
and intelligent powers held to be inherent in matter, and make this unit deity.
Such is the abstract or proper mode, which is unity, immutability, rest, bliss.
which alone
it
The second is the contingent or concrete mode, or that of actual, visible, nature.
To this mode belong action, multiplicity, change, pain. It begins by the energies
of matter passing from their proper and eternal state of rest into their contingent
and transitory
state of action
and ends when those energies resume their proper
modality.
The proper mode
The powers
of matter cannot be described in their proper state of abstraction
In the
unity.
quality
is
called nirvritti;
latter state, all the order
mode
the contiugent
pravritti.
and
and beauty of nature are images of their
they are also symbolized by the Yoni, and personified as a female divinity
called Adi-Prajna and Adi-Dharina.
Man's
summum bonum
is
to pass
from the
transmigrations incident to the state of pravritti into the eternal rest or bliss
The
of nirvritti.
In the state of
lectual essence
triadic doctrine of all the schools is referable solely to pravritti,
nirvritti,
with some of the Aiswarikas, Buddha represents
and the then
sole entity
material essence exists biunchj with
With
one.
Buddha
in nirvritti, the
the Prajnikas, Prajna, in the state of
numen, Diva Natura
the
sum
of
intel-
with others of the Aiswarikas, Dharma, or
all
two being
nirvritti, is
the intellectual
the
and
in that state
summum
et
soktm'
physical forces of
matter, considered as the sole entity, and held to exist in the state of nirvritti
abstracted from palpable material substance, eternally, unchangeably, and essen-
"When
tially one.
pravritti,
associates
The
with
principle of
principle
and from that association
it,
is
male, Buddha.
feigned to be a female,
first
matter passes into the state of

first
proceeds from
the actual
results
it
and then
visible world.
the mother, and then the wife, of the
[For a glimpse at the esoteric sense of these a3nigmas, see note 29.]
The work
[13]
this essential
Buddha, the type of active power,
cited is of
exhibited in the text
is
but the mode

Bauddha works which treat
secondary authority;
to be found in all
of reasoning
of the
Swab-
havika doctrine.
[14] This is the name of the Theistic school of the Bauddha philosophers.
The Sambkii Purana and Guna-Karanda Vyiiha contain the least obscure enunand these books belong to Nepaul.
ciation of Theism
Other Bauddha scriptures,
however, which are not

interpretation.
is
the sole entity,
local,
contain abundant expressions capable of a Theistic
Bauddha philosophers who have insisted that matter

have ever magnified the wisdom and power of nature and
Even
those
they have reduced the difference of theism and atheism almost to a

nominal one so, at least, they frequently affirm.
doing
so,
The
all the schools is the want of Providence and of dominion in

though the comparatively recent Karmikas and Yatnikas
have attempted to remedy this defect. [See the following note.]
great defect of
their causa causarum,
appear to
[15]
Of two
of the four schools of
Bauddha philosophy, namely, the Swabthe two remaining schools
havika and Aiswarika, I have already said a few words

are denominated
the
Karmika and Yatnika
from
the words
Karma, meanino-
moral action
topics of these
nature
wisdom
and Yatna, signifying intellectual
two schools seem
its free-will, its
of
to
me
57
force, skilful
phenomena
to he confined to the
sense of right
and wrong, and
its
The proper
effort.
of
mental power.
human
To the
Swabhava, or Prajna, or Adi-Buddha, the Bauddhas, hoth Swabhavikas
and Aiswarikas, had assigned that eternal necessary connexion of virtue and
It remained for the Karmikas and Yatnikas
felicity in which they alike believed.
how
to discuss
each individual free-willed
man might most
surely hope to realize
that connexion in regard to himself; whether by the just conduct of his under-
seem
to
cultivation of his moral sense
by the proper
standing, or
have decided in favour of the former mode
Having settled these
the latter.
points, it
by linking them
to exalt their systems
was easy
to the
And
the Yatnikas
the Karmikas, in favour of
for the
Yatnikas and Karmikas
throne of the causa causarum
which they would be the more readily impelled,

faith the
in order to
to
remove from their
obloquy so justly attaching to the ancient Prajnika, and even to the
Aiswarika school, because of the want of Providence and of Dominion in their

first
That the Karmikas and Yatnikas originally limited themselves to the
cause.
phenomena
of
human
nature, I think probable, from the circumstance that, out
which
of some forty slokas
I have
had collected
to
illustrate
the doctrines of
these schools, scarcely one goes beyond the point of whether man's felicity is
And that when these schools go further (as I

?
have the evidence of two quotations from their books that they sometimes do),
secured by virtue or by intellect
the trespassing on ground foreign to their systems seems obvious
Avaddna, Sakya
says,
union of Upaya and Prajna
is
it is
said,
" Iswara
produced Yatna from Prajna, and the cause of pravritti and
manas
evil;
And
then declared to be a Karma.
work, in regard to the Yatnika doctrine,
all
thus in the Divya

arose
and from manas or 'mind' proceeded good and
lord of the senses;
and
"from the union of Upaya and Prajna,
the
and
this
same
Adi-Buddha)
(. e.,
in the
nirvritti* is
Yatna;
the difficulties that occur in the affairs of this world or of the next are
rendered easy by Yatna."
bably made to the
Impersonality and quiescence were the objections procause of the Prajnikas and Aiswarikas; and
it was to
remove these objections that the more recent Karmikas and Yatnikas feigned conscious moral agency (Karma), and conscious intellectual agency (Yatna) to have
first
been with the causa causarum (whether material or immaterial) from the beginning.
Of
all
the schools, the
Karmikas and Yatnikas alone seem
to
have been
duly sensible of man's free-will, and God's moral attributes.
The Karmika confession of faith is, a Purva janma kritam karma tad daivyam itikat.hyate" which
may be very well translated by our noble adage, " conduct is fate." Such
sentiments of human nature naturally inclined them to the belief of immaterial
existences,
and accordingly they will be found to attach themselves in theology

Aiswarika school.
chiefly to the
(16) This
nite
and
is
the divine creation alluded to in the third note.
intellectual
*Soe note 17
Adi-Buddha
possesses, as proper to his
for the sense of thpse cardinal terms,
own
The
eternal, infi-
essence, five sorts
BUDDHIST
58
PHILOSOPHT.
From these he, by five separate acts of Dhyana, created the five
of wisdom.
Dhyani Buddhas, to whom he gave the virtue of that jndna whence each derived
These five Dhyani Buddhas again created, each of them, a Dhyani
his origin.
Bodhisatwa by the joint
an act of his
efficacy of the
jndna received from Adi-Buddha, and of
own Dhyana.
The five Dhyani Buddhas are, like Adi-Buddha, quiescent and the active
work of creation and rule is devolved on the Bodhisatwas. This creation by
Dhyana is eminently characteristic of Buddhism but whose Dhyana possesses
creative
power
an eternal Adi-Buddha, say the Aiswarikas of the
that of
that
the Swabhavikas.
of any Buddha, even a Mdnushi

The Bauddhas have no other notion
by Dhyana,) which
is
Sdmbhu Parana
Buddha, say
of creation (than that
not generative.
(17) These terms are
common
to all the schools of
nirvritti is the state in
the Aiswarikas,
or mortal
which mind
Bauddha philosophy
with
exists independent of matter
With the simple

state in which it exists while mixed with matter.
Swabhavikas the former term seems to import non-entity the latter, entity. With
the Prajnika Swabhavikas, the former term signifies the state in which the active
pravritti, the
and
power of matter
intellectual
Moksha
of the
first is
Adi-Buddha
abstraction,
and
pravritti has
no pravdna.
pravritti,
am
(18) If so, I
afraid
the text in this place
is
In a word, nirvritti means
concretionfrom nirvana
is
formed
doctrine incidentally objected to
is
to the best
set off
nirvritti,
but
The doctrine of
few Bauddhas can be called wise.
that of the Aiswarikas,
The
visible nature.
of the second, absorption into
of the third, identification with Prajna.
Siinyata;
from
exists abstractedly
absorption into
advantage
the
that of the Swabhavikas and Prajnikas.
Sir
Jones assures us that the Hindus " consider creation (I should here prefer
the word change) rather as an energy than as a work." This remark is yet more
true in regard to the old Bauddha philosophers and the mooted point with them is,
W.
what energy creates
The
extrinsic?
no
old
an energy mtrinsic in some archetypal state of matter, or
Bauddha philosophers seem
sufficient evidence of
immaterial entity.
of them, at least, have united with that

operations
nor
is
to have insisted
But, what
dogma
is
a belief in moral
there one tenet so diagnostic of
and
that there
is
truly remarkable, some
Buddhism
and
as that
intellectual
which
insists
that
man
is
capable of extending his moral
True
it is,
as
Mr. Colebrooke has remarked, that the Hindu philosophy recognizes
this do-ma
pursued
it
their faith
coldly
recognizes
it,
and that
is
all
intellectual
whereas, the Bauddhas have
into its most extravagant consequences, and
and practice.
faculties to infinity.
made
it
the corner-stone of
(See note 20.)
(19)1 have not yet found that these Dhyani Buddhas of the Theistic school
They seem to be mere personifications, according to a Theistic
do anything.
theory, of the active and intellectual powers of nature and hence are called
Pancha
It
Bhiita,
may seem
Pancha Indriya, and Pancha Ayatana-Akara.

contrary to this notion of the quiescence of the five Dhyani
dhas, that, according at least to
some Nepaul works, each of them has a
BudSakti.
Vairockana's
is
59
Ratna Sambhava's,
Tara.
But I apprekend
Vajra-Dkateswari; Akskobkya's, Lochana;
Mainukki; Aniitabka's, Pandara;
Ainogka Siddka's,
tkat tkese Buddka-Saktis are peculiar to Nepaul
and tkougk I kave found tkeir
names, I kave not found tkat tkey do any thing.
Tkere
indeed a secret and filtky* system of Buddkas and Buddka-Saktis,
is
in wkick tke ladies act a conspicuous part
dka
styled Yog'unbara; and
is
and according to wkick, Adi-Bud-
Adi-Dkarma, Jnaneswarf.
But
only keen recently revealed to me, and I cannot say more of

(20) According- to tke Aiswarikas
yata
tke Swabkavikas say, into
Tke Swabkavika
tke Prajnikas, into Adi-Prajna.
mean
It cannot
ness, since tkere are eigkteen degrees of Siinyata,
wkereof tke
so far
is
from being deemed notkingness tkat
Language
to be tke only real substance.
Bauddka
abstractions
Akasa and
doctrine of Siinyata
darkest corner of tkeir metapkysical labyrinth.
Akasa
system kas
tins
at present.
it
tke
strictly notking-
first is
Akasa
and
again and again said
it is
sinks under
Siinis
tke expression of tke
but by tbeir Siinyata. I understand sometimes tke place,
and sometimes tke form,
in
wkick tke
exist in tkeir state of separation
N. B. Tke images of
all
infinitely attenuated
elements of
all
tkings
from tke palpable system of nature.
tke seven great Manuski Buddkas, referred to in tke
answer to tke seventk question, are exactly similar
Sakya Sinka, tke
to tkat of
Tkis image very nearly resembles tkat of Akskobkya, tke
seventk of tkem.
Tke
second Dkyani Buddka.
differences
Wken
and in tke cognizances! (chinas.)
are found
only in tke
coloured tkere
is
supporters,
a more remarkable
Akskobkya being blue, and Sakya and tke otker six ALinuskis, yellow.
Tke Sambhu Parana says, manifested in Nepaul in tke form of flame (Jyotirupa.) According to tke same work, Adi-Dkarma's (or Prajna's) manifestation
diagnosis,
(21)
in Nepaul
speculation
in tke
is
(22) Tkis
is
form of water
(Jala suri'tpa).
true solution of a circumstance
tke
tkougk tke notion
is,
wkick kas caused muck
no doubt, an odd one
for a sect
wkick
idle
insists
on
tonsure
names in kis ckaracter of active creator and govTkree Dkyani Bodkisattwas preceded kim in tkat
remains to follow kim.
(23) Tkese are Padina Pani's
ernor of tke present world.

ckaracter, and one (tke fiftk)
I
(2-4)
kave already stated tkat tkese
genius of Buddkism, do notking

creative
power
is
communicated
wko
Bodkisattwas alone
It is a ludicrous
writers kave
Hindu
instance of
conformably witk tke quiescent
to tke Bodkisattwas
exercise tkat
made a fourtk
deities,
tkey are merely tke
medium tkrougk wkick
from Adi-Buddka.
It is tke
power, one at a time, and eack in kis turn.
Bauddka contempt
for
action,
tka,t
some recent
delegation of active power to tke tkree gods of tke
Triad.
(25) Until ke attained bodhijndna; and even tken, wkile yet lingering in tke
flesk,
ke got tke name of Sakya Sinka.
Tkis name kas caused some speculation,
* Tantrika S3*stem.
+ Mudnis, tke name of tke several (all) positions of tke kands

cognizances placed between the supporters or vakana.
Chinas, tkat of the
60
on the asserted ground of
They
Gautamavansa, iu which
(25
all
the places
numberless births and
details of Sakya's
the origin or actions of his six

other
Bauddha
scriptures differ
named
acts,
great predecessors
The
but
is
Lcdita Vistara gives
nearly silent as to
and the
like
(26) These works are regularly worshipped in Nepaul as the "

are chiefly of a narrative kind.
kind
now
is
extant in Nepaul
This
is
substance though not
have
its
form or reduction
Bauddha
scriptures) to
The Bauddhas of Nepaul hold
to
copies of
to
Calcutta.
reduced to writing, the books are
now worshipped under
of nine
Dharmas
it
Its
writing, are attributed (as are those
Sakya Sinha.
having systeniatised these words of the Buddhas, and his
The aggregation
it
"Whatever the Buddhas
Sakya
an object of worship with the Bauddhas.
said, (sugatai-desita) is
Dharma.
Nava Dhartna."
of the speculative
of philosophy rather than of religion, and its spirit
esteem, and I have sent three
of all the other
true of
is
the Itakshd Bhdgavati, consisting of no less than
is
work
The most important work
sceptical to the very verge of pyrrhouism.
in the highest
was the
as
scriptures.
They
125,000 slokas.
are Indian.
Sakya was once born.
also
This must be received with some allowance.
bis)
many
but
Sakavansa was an Indian race or family
also say that the
ample
The Bauddha
not being Indian.
its
which Sakya was born
as to the city in
is
having
earliest disciples
the
names of Sutra and
for ritual purposes
why
but
the
nine specified works have been selected to be thus peculiarly honoured I cannot
They
say.
though
are probably the oldest
and most authentic scriptures existing
in
Nepaul,
opposed to the reverence expressed for the
this conjecture is certainly
That work,
Itakshd Bhdgavati, by the Buddhists.
(as already stated) is of vast
extent, containing no less than 125,000* slokas, divided into five equal parts or
khands, which are

(27)
The three
known by
first
without right, and
names
of the five Pdramitds and the five Hakshds.
sexual
rendered,
all
commerce whatever.
destruction of
The ten
life, all
taking
are the cardinal sins
and will bear a very favourable comparison with the
of Buddhism,
of
all
the
sins should be
five cardinal sins
Brahmanism.
The Buddhas mentioned
(28)
Many
Buddhas
of mortal
mould
are
vastly numerous,
are innumerable.
Even the
often said to be the seventh and last
is
yet reached the supreme grade of the

is
and of various degrees of power

}
Sakya Sinha
Mahd
Ydnika.
Manushi Buddha who has
Maha Yanika.
In the Lalita
Vistara,
a formal enumeration of the perfections in knowledge and virtue requisite
for attaining to each of these three grades
pious array of
tive
scriptures
These degrees are three, entitled, Pratyeka Srdvaka, and
and rank.
there
Bauddha
the
in
of them, however, are evident non-entities in regard to history.
name
human
perfectibility
The
a monstrously
three grades are
impracticable and im-
known by
the collec-
of " Tri Ydna."
(29) Genuine
Buddhism never seems
to contemplate
any measures of acceptance
*See list of books at pp. 36-39.

The jPrajnd Pdramitdia found in five different
degrees of development ; of these the second, though distinct from, is often blended
with the first.
with the deity
urges
its
which
it
teaches that
and thus
is
hetween
hut, overleaping the harrier
by
followers to aspire
man
is
own
their
capable, and
finite
ary omnipotence of the real Manushi Buddhas
Buddhism has no priesthood
and the plen-
celestial,
we must
thus too
account for
the saint despises the priest;
the saint scorns the aid of mediators, whether on earth or in heaven

(exclaims the adept or
Buddha
to the novice or
Bodhi-Sattwa)
the great secret (Sunyatd) of nature
know
become, on the instant, whatever priests have feigned of Godhead

identified
with Prajna, the sum of
the power and
all
and govern the world, and which,
tain
belong solely
to
matter
as
all
this,
and you
you become
wisdom which
the
sus-
they are manifested out of matter, must
not indeed in the gross and palpable state of pravritti,
but in the archetypal and pure state of

prdvrittika
" conquer
conquer the impor-
your mind to the meditation of abstraction, and you
tunities of the body, urge

shall, in time, discover
mind,
infinite
by attaining which man becomes God
explained both the quiescence of the imaginary
the fact, that genuine
and
efforts to that divine perfectibility of
nirvritti.
Put
off,
therefore, the vile,
mind
body, and the no less vile affections of the
necessities of the
(Tapas); urge your thoughts into pure abstraction (DJujdna), and then, as assuredly
you
can, so assuredly
you
shall, attain to
the
wisdom of a Buddha (Bodhi/ndna),
and become associated with the eternal unity and

is
to
the esoteric doctrine of the Prajnikas
but more timid and sceptical
it,
Such, I believe,
rest of nirvritti."
that of the Swabhavikas
is
nearly allied
they too magnify the wisdom and power of
nature so abundantly diffused throughout pravritti, but they seem not to unitize
wisdom and power
that
in the state of nirvritti,
as of a state of things concerning
vritti,
which, even though
it
and incline to conceive of nir-
which nothing can be predicated
be nothingness (Sunyatd),
is
otherwise doomed to an eternity of transmigrations through
nature:
nikas,
and while the Swabhavikas thus underrated the
it is
than the Prajnikas

dha)
is
they compensated
probable that
did, that prdvrittiJca
capable, even vpon earth.
person of the Prajnika Triad

the esoteric sense
is
this
is
It
all
omnipotence of which the wise
man (Bud-
has been already stated that the second
denominated Buddha and Upaya
Every man possesses
own
in his
of
which terms
understanding,
means
when
or
accomplished
till
pro-
expedient
person, a plenary omnipotence or divinity
begins even while he yet lingers in the flesh (in pravrittij

fully
Praj-
themselves by magnifying, more
(Updyajoi discovering the supreme wisdom of nature (Prajna), and of

this discovery, in his
man,
forms of visible
nirvritti of the
perly cultivated according to the rides of Buddhism, the
by
but
at least a blissful rest to
realizing
!
but which
he passes, by the body's decay, into the eternal
which
is
not
state of
nirvritti.
And as the wisdom of man is, in its origin, but an effluence of the Supreme
wisdom {Prajna) of nature, so is it perfected by a refluence to its source, but
whence Prajna is feigned in the exoteric system
without loss of individuality
ujanani sarva Buddhdto be both the mother and the wife of all the Buddhas,
:
ndm"
and " Jina-sundari
by a marriage.
;"
for the efflux is typified
by
a birth, and the reflux
62
The Buddha
is
wisdom of Buddhism (Bodhijndna) whose
the adept in the
duty, so long as he remains on earth,

are
willing to receive
communicate
to
is
his
wisdom
to those
first
who
These willing learners are the " Bodhisattwas," so
it.
from their hearts heing inclined to the wisdom of Buddhism, and " Sanghas," from their companionship with one-another, and with their Buddha or teacher,
called
in the Vihdras or coenobitical establishments.
And
such
is
The Bodbisattwa
has surmounted the very

is
member
the esoteric interpretation of the third (and inferior)
the Prajnika Triad.
Sangha continues
or
of
such until he
to be
grade of that vast and laborious ascent by which he
last
instructed that he can " scale the heavens," and pluck immortal
wisdom from
which achievement performed, he becomes a Buddha, that
its
resplendent source
is,
an Omniscient Being, and a Tathdyata*
of that gradual increase in
be subject to transmigration.
Bauddha
sense
title
implying the accomplishment
whose words have another, more
scriptures,
or ceases to
These doctrines are very obscurely indicated in the

obvious,
and very different
nor, but for the ambition of the commentators to exhibit their learning,
would
wisdom by which man becomes immortal
it
be easy to gather the esoteric sense of the words of most of the original
I never
scriptures.
was more surprised than when
my
old friend recently (after
a six years' acquaintance) brought to me, and explained, a valuable
upon a passage
in the
Prajnd Pdramitd.
all searchers after the doctrine of
and judge
scholar,
for themselves
am
and
and
indebted for
to the mediation of
my
old
to
all I
Let
me add
comment
in this place, that I desire
Bodkijnyana to look into the Bauddha scriptures,
remember, meanwhile, that I
am
not a Sanskrit
have gathered from the books of the Buddhists
Bauddha
friend,
and of
my
Pandit.
(30) Their physiognomy, their language, their architecture, civil and religious,
regard to women, and several less important traits in their

manners and customs, seem to decide that the origin of the greater part of the
Newars must be assigned to the north and in the Sdmbhu Purdna, a Baudtheir notions in
dha teacher named Manju Ghosha, and Manju Natha and Manjusri, is stated to
have led a colony into Nepaul from China ;f to have cleared Nepaul of the
waters which then covered it; to have made the country habitable; to have
built a temple to
brought with him)
Jyoti-rup-Adi-Buddha
as first
Raja of Nepaul.
and established Dharmakara (whom he
But
I nevertheless suppose (upon the
authority of tradition) that Nepaul received some colonists from India
some of the
direct
from India.
(whether
it
propagators of Buddhism
earliest
Be
that as
reached the valley
it
in
Nepaul came
From
Bhot
or China) seems to be unques-
Nepaul are written
the gradual decay of literature and of a knowledge
of Sanskrit
among the Newars has
translating
ritual
works into
and that
may, the Indian origin of Nepaulese Buddhism
direct, or via
tionable from the fact that all the great Saugata scriptures of
in the Sanskrit language.
to the valley
the
resulted the practice,
vernacular tongue
now very common,
and also
* Tathd, 'thus, absolutely, verily;' and gata, 'got, obtained

cessation from versatile existence, alias, nirvana pada.
;'
of
the usage of
the thing got being
tSee Fahien, pp. 112-115 for Manjusri; The place named is Pancha Sirsha Parvata,
which the comment says is in China. The words are both Sanskrit.
63
adding to the original Sanskrit of such works comments in the vulgar language.
The great
however have never heen subjected to the former process

for owing to Sanskrit having always been considered by. the
scriptures
seldom to the
latter
Buddhists of Nepaul the language of literature, they have neglected to cultivate

their vernacular tongue
mar
(31)
of
Of
nor does there exist to this day a dictionary or gram-
Newari language.
of the
course therefore the

that
caste;
is,
Bauddhas of Nepaul have not properly any diversity

birth, and
any indelible distinction of ranks derived from
necessarily carried to the grave.
Buddha
followers of
seems
to
Genuine Buddhism proclaims the equality of
deny
them the
to
All proper Bauddhas
avocations, and abhors the distinction of clergy and laity.

are
B.mdyas
and
all
perly all ascetics or

Vihdras,
are called
of every Vihara
is
Bandyas are equal
They
as brethrui in the faith.
monks some solitary, mostly

The rule of these Viharas is a
all
privilege of pursuing worldly
rule of freedom
new
always open$ both to the entrance of
are pro-
Their convents
coenobitical.
and the door
comers, and to the
Each Vihara
departure of such of their old inmates as are tired of their vows.
has a titular superior called N;iyaka,|| whose authority over his brethren depends
only on their voluntary deference to his superior learning or piety.
held equally worthy of admission with men, and each sex has
The
Bauddha
old
it
will
who are
Women
named
correctly described in the text
be seen that there
is
are
Viharas.
scriptures enumerate four sorts of Bandyas,
Bhikshu, Sravaka, and Chailaka,

that description
its
Arhan,
and from
no essential distinction between
them, the Arhan being only segregated from the rest by his superior proficiency in
Bodkijnana.
trace in
awa}
the
gradual, and
altar,
Of
Buddhism, there remains hardly a

The very names of the Arhan and Chailaka have passed
names, and the names only, of the other two exist and out of the
these the proper institutes of
Nepaul.
now
total, disuse of
monastic institutes, an exclusive minister of the
denominated Vajra Achdrya, has derived his name,
in Nepaul, not only without sanction from the
Bauddha
office,
and existence
scriptures,
but in direct
opposition to their spirit and tendency.
Nepaul
is still
covered with Viharas
have long resounded with the
and children.
The
Bandyas, entitled,
but these ample and comfortable abodes
of industry and the pleasant voices of
superior ministry of religion
Vajra- Achdrya in Sanskrit;
ministry, such Bhikshus as

fession, are
hum
still
is
now
Giibhdl in. Newari:
competent to discharge.
and pursuits, whether
civil
women
hands of the
the inferior
follow religion as a lucrative and learned pro-
And
these professions of the Vajra-Acharya
and of the Bhikshu, have become by usage hereditary,

tions
solely in the
as
or religious, in Nepaul.
have
And
Buddhism of Nepaul there are exclusive ministers of

there many Bauddhas who retain the lock on the crown
all
other avoca-
as in the
modern
corrupt
religion or priests, so
are
of the head,
and are
priest for ever a priest" is a maxim which Buddhism utterly eschews.

Bandya
Ndyaka, the superior of a convent, is Khanpo inTibet, Therom Ceylon
and Arltat is Bahatun in Indo-China. I
is Bonze, in Japan, Bandida in Altaia
demur to the frequent use of the word piiest as the equivalent of any of these teims.
"Oncea
||
BUDDHIST
64
not Bandyas.
PHILOSOPHY.
Bauddhas are
These improper
according to their various avocations and crafts
Kami, craftsmen.
agriculturists; the
never dwell in the Viharas
Udds, Japu, Kami,
called
the
Udas
are traders
They comprise the untousured
etc.,
the Japu,
class
they
look up to the Bandyas with a reverential respect
derived from the misapplication of certain ancient tenets and follow those trades
and avocations which are comparatively disreputable (among which is foreign
commerce) while the Bandyas, who have abandoned the profession of religion,
;
practise those crafts
both
but
is,
which
most esteemed.
are
Agriculture
by the untonsured
in fact, chiefly followed
equally open to
is
class,
who have
thus
become, in course of time, more numerous than the Bandyas, notwithstanding

the early abandonment by the Bandyas of those monastic
enjoins, the resort of the greater part of
and their usurpation of
all
the liberal,
them to the
and many of
vows which
their faith
active business of the world,
the mechanical, arts of their
The Vajra-Acharya and Bhikshu are the religious guides and priests
both Bandyas and non-Bandyas.*
All Bandyas, whatever be the profession
country.
trade they hereditarily exercise, are

cate in
classes
the social
all
but
between the one
an insuperable
dhists, of
of the
barrier.
some one
Newar
of
offices
equal
still
life
and
of
or
they intermarry, and communi-
the like
is
true of all of the other
and the other, growing superstition has erected
class
To the above remarks
it
may
be well to add, that Bud-
or other of the above denominations, comprise the vast majority
race,
and that the minority, are mostly Saivas and Saktas
sense peculiar to themselves, and with
my
which
subject does not entitle
but in a
me
here
to meddle.
(33)
The names
but from Newari.
The Vihara
these examples.
stories
high
are almost all barbarous
I have not thought

is
the architecture
built
is
it
that
not derived from Sanskrit,

to
enumerate any more of
round a large quadrangle, or open square, two

Chaitya properly means a temple of
Chinese.
Buddha, and Vihara, an abode of
is,
worth while
ccenobitical followers of
open square in the midst of every Vihara,
Buddha. t
but those words always bear the senses here attached to them
never be construed temple
never templum Dei
vel
it is
Bitddhje.
At
The Chaitya has often
less appropriate to
To conclude with respect to the notes that portion of

my own no one can be more sensible than I am that the
:
How
a sad jumble of cloudy metaphysics.
but
am
how
far that of
my
and Vihara can
the base of the hemisphere of every Nepaul
been blended with sundry structures, more or
mine, and
a convent, or monastery, or religious house, but
Chaitya are placed the images of the Dhyani Buddhas.
is
In the
placed a Chaitya or a Kutagar
is
it
first
which
half contains
far the sin of this indistinctness is
original authorities, I cannot
ready to take a large share of
Buddhism.
this sketch,
to myself.
pretend to decide
In regard to
this,
the most
*Bandya has no correlative term, like Laicus of Clerus ; one of many arguments
in favour of the nonadmittance of that distinction by Buddhism, as elsewhere attempted
seeFahian pp. 12, 172, 175, and 289, for sundry notices of so-called Clerus
to be shown
ct Laicus.
Those passages seem to prove that the distinction is foreign to genuine
:
Buddhism.
t Fergusson, tree and serpent worship,
p.
79.
BUDDHIST
speculative part of Buddhism,
it
vestigation,
by those who have
is
my
and placed within the reach of
PHILOSOPHY.
65
sufficient happiness for
me
countrymen the materials
leisure, patience,
to
have discovered
more accurate
in-
and a knowledge of languages
for
for
the undertaking; and who, with competent talents, will be kind enough to afford
the world the benefit of so irksome an exercise of them.
But
I trust that the
latter half
of
the notes, which embraces topics more
practical
and more within the range of the favourite pursuits of
will not
be found wanting in distinctness;
and
warrant the accuracy of the information contained in
my
leisure,
can venture confidently to

it.
QUOTATIONS FROM ORIGINAL SANSKRIT AUTHORITIES.

Several distinguished orientalists having, whilst they applauded the novelty
and importance of the information conveyed by my Sketch of Buddhism,! called
upon me for proofs, I have been induced to prepare for publication the following
translation of significant passages from the ancient books of the Saugatas,
still
Nepaul
are extant in
in
which
the original Sanskrit.
me (whilst I was collecting the works* in quessome years ago by Amrita Nanda Bandya, the most learned Buddhist then,
These extracts were made for

tion)
or now, living in that country

I
drew
public,
my
sketch
they formed the materials from which chiefly

and they would have been long since communicated to the
had the translator
assured that
are
sufficiently confident of his powers, or sufficiently
enlightened Europeans could
indigestaque moles
instance,
felt
'
of these
original
Koros or of Upham.
'
be brought
original authorities
in a higher
'
to
tolerate
the
'
ingens
which however, in the present
and better sense than those of Csoma de

to question whether the sages who formed
Without stopping
the Bauddha system of philosophy and religion used Sanskrit or high Prakrit or
both, or seeking to determine the consequent pretension of Upham's authorities
to be considered original,t
it
may
be safely said, that those of
Csoma de Koros
can support no claims of the kind.
necnon, Transactions of Ben% Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, London

gal Society, vol. xvi.
* The collection comprises, besides sixty volumes in Sanskrit, procured in
Nepaul
the very names of which had previously been unknown, some 250 volumes in the language of Tibet, which were obtained from Lassa and Digarchi. But for the existence of
tlie latter at Calcutta, Csoma de Koros's attainments in Tibetan lore had been comparatively useless.
The former or Sanskrit books of Nepaul are the authorities relied on
in this paper.
One complete set has been presented to the Indian Home Government,
another procured for the Asiatic Society, and most of the Sanskrit series for the LibraSince the first collection was made in Nepaul, very mainries of Paris and of Oxford.
new works in the Sanskrit language have been discovered and are yet daily under disThe
probability
now
is,
that the entire Kahgyur and Stangyur may be recovered
covery.
in the original language.
The whole series has been obtained in that of Tibet, 327
large volumes.
f Upham's authorities, however, even if allowed to be original, appear to consist
entindy of childish legends.
I allude
to the three published volumes.
The received
hypothesis, viz., that the philosophers of Ayodhyd and Magadha, (the acknowledged
founders of Buddhism) postponed the use of Sanskrit to that of Prakrit, in the orisinal exposition of their subtle system appears to me as absurd as it does probable that
their successors, as Missionaries, resorted to Prakrit versions of the original
Sanskrit
authorities, in propagating the system in the remotest parts of the continent
and in
;
PHILOSOPHY.
BUDDHIST
66
native works which the latter gentleman relies on are avowedly Tibetan
The
my
translations of
Sanskrit originals, and whoever will duly reflect upon the
dark and profound abstractions, and the infinitesimally-multiplied and microscopically-distinguished
Buddhism, may well doubt whether the
personifications of
language of Tibet does or can adequately sustain the weight that has been laid
upon
it.
Sanskrit, like
its
cognate Greek,
may
be characterised as a speech " capable of
giving a soul to the objects of sense, and a body to
those
who
are aware that the Saugatas taxed the
of
meta-
a like
power,
the abstractions
But, as the Tibetan language can have no pretensions to
physics."
whole powers of the Sanskrit
embody in words their system, will cautiously reserve, I apprehend, for the
Bauddha books still extant in the classical language of India, the title of original
authorities.
From such works, which, though now found only in Nepaul, were
to
composed
in the plains of India before
the accompanying extracts
may
lish "
and (as
drawn
the dispersion of the sect, I have
and though the
Eng-
merits of the " doing into
be small indeed, they will yet. I hope, be borne up by the paramount
I suspect)
unique authority and originality of
my
"original authorities,''
a phrase which, by the way, has been somewhat invidiously, as well as laxly,
used and applied in certain quarters.
It
is
still,
observe,
questioned amongst us, whether
dhism be the more ancient creed, as well
as
whether the
Brahmanism
latter
Bud-
or
be of Indian or
The Buddhists themselves have no doubts upon either

unhesitatingly
concede the palm of superior antiquity to their rivals
They
point.
and persecutors, the Brahmans; nor do they in any part of the world hesitate in
extra Indian growth.
pointing to India as the cradle of their faith.
Formerly we might be pardoned

origin of
surely
it
for building fine-spun theories of the exotic
but
Buddhism upon the supposed African locks of Buddha's images
is now somewhat too late,* in the face of the abundant direct evidence
:
which we possess against the exotic theory,
to go in
quest of presumptions to
the time-out-of-mind illiterate Scythians,t in order to give to
them the
glory of
On this ground, I presume the Prakrit works of Ceylon and Ava to be transa presumption so reasonable that nothing but the production
not originals
from Ceylon or Ava of original Prakrit works, comparable in importance witli the
Sir W. Jones
Sanskrit books discovered in Nepaul, will suffice to shake it in my mind.
had a copy of the Lalita Vistara whence he quotes a description of Dharma as Diva
that
assertion,
the, Buddhists
Sir W. Jones I believe to be the author of the
Natura.
committed their system to high Prakrit or Pali and so long at leasl as there were
not
presumption
was
wholly
unreaspnthe
no Sanskrit works of the sect forthcoming,
And Sir W. Jones was not unaware that Magadha or
It is, however, so now.
able.
Bihar was the original head-quarters of Buddhism, nor that the best Sanskrit lexicon
nor that the Brahmans themselves acknowledged
extant was the work of a BauddKa
But for his Brahmanthe pre-eminent literary merits of their heterodox adversaries.
ical bias therefore, Sir William might have come at the truth, that the Bauddha phil-
Ceylon.
lations,
osophers employed the classical language.

* Recent discoveries make it more and more certain, that the cave temples of the
Every part of India is illusWestern Coast and its vicinity, are exclusively Bauddha.
trated by splendid remains of Buddhism.
tThe Uighursof Push Balighad letters derived from the Nestorian Christians. Thence
Sramanism and Christian monachism may have met on the common ground of monaSramanism is nothing more than Tantrika Buddhism.
chism.
BUDDHIST
PHILOSOPHY.
6;
originating a system built upon the most subtle philosophy,

original records of
which
and
the copious
all
are inshrined in Sanskrit,} a language which, wherice-
soever primevally derived, had been,
when Buddhism
appeared, for ages proper to
the Indian continent.
The Buddhists make no

an extra Indian
at
Sakya Sihha
any
is,
serious pretensions to a very high antiquity
avowedly, a Kshatriya
historical existence, the
caste never call in question the
people, but only give a
manical one of their
more
affirm too, that all the six
it,
antique fact of a fourfold division of the

liberal interpretation to it
The records
the father-land of their creed.
Nor
is
which countries the people and
still
either Sanskrit or
there a single record or
monument
intrinsic or extrinsic evidence of
The speculations of
avowed
Buddhism
Tibetans, the Indo-
all
point to India as
Nepaul and in Tibet.
in
their mother-tongues are of the
translations
from
it
Mongol
by Indian pandit*.
of this faith in existence
which bears
an extra Indian origin.**
a writer of Sir
to prove, argumentatively,
of
Hindu
than the current Brah-
The Chinese, the Mongols, the
day.||
were
Saugata books treating on the subject of
Chinese, the Japanese, Ceylonese, and other Indian Islanders,
in both of
never hint
and, if his six predecessors had really
books which affirm
of Brahmanical or Kshatriya lineage.
stock, are
origin.
"W. Jones's day (Mr. Joinville). tending
from the characters of Buddhism and Brahmanism,
the superior antiquity of the former, have been lateky revived (see Asiatic Journal,
No. CLX.) with applause.

in the face of
But
besides that fine
such a mass of direct evidence as
of Joinville appear to
me
altogether based on errors of fact.
a character in few words),
cism in religion
drawn presumptions
we now
and whilst
is
are idle
possess, the reasonings
Buddhism
(to hazard
monastic asceticism in morals, philosophical scepti-
ecclesiastical history all over the
world affords abun-
dant instances of such a state of things resulting from gross abuse of the
reli-
X The difference between high Prakrit and Sanskrit could not affect this question,
though it were conceded that the founders of Buddhism used only the former and not
the latter a concession however, which should not be lightly made, and to which
In fact, it now appears that they used both languages, but Sanskrit
wholly demur.
only in the philosophical or speculative series of their Sastras,

The Brahmanical or Kshatriya family from which each of these Buddhas sprung
is expressly and carefully stated by the Bauddha writers, a fart which I hold to be decisive of this dispute, since if we would carry the etymon of Buddhism beyond the last
of these seven Buddhas, we cannot surely think of carrying it beyond the.iirst of them.
Seethe Bauddha disputation on caste, Royal Asiatic Society's Transactions.
** See Crawfurd's remarks on the purely Indian character of all the great sculptural
ami architectural monuments of Buddhism in Java. Also Barrow's remarks to the
same effect in his travels in China. The Chinese Pu-sa is VisvarApyd Prajnd or the
polyform type of "Diva Natura. " See Oriental Quarterly Magazine, No. xvi. pp. 218
222, for proofs of the fact that numberless Bauddha remains have been mistaken for
Brahmanical by our antiquaries, and even by the natives.
In the same work I have
proved this in reference to Crawfurd's Archipelago, Oriental Quarterly, No. xvi. pp.
||
232, 235.
I shown, from original authorities, how thoroughly Indian Buddhism
than it was immediately exclaimed, "Oh! this is Ne.paulese corruption
these are
merely popular grafts from Brahmanism."
The very same character belongs to
the oldest monuments of Buddhism, extant in India and beyond it
and
hav
Yet, no sooner had
is,
traced
that character to the highest scriptural authorities.
BUDDHIST
6&
PHILOSOPHY.
gious sanction, that ample chronicle gives us no one instance of it as a primitive

system of belief. Here is a legitimate inference from sound premises. But that
and not an original system, can he

Mends and of enemies.
in truth, a reform or heresy,
Buddhism was,
proved by the most abundant direct evidence both of
The oldest Saugata works incessantly allude to the existing superstition as the
Mdracharya or way of the evil one,tt contradistinguishing their reformation thereand the Brahmanical impugners of
of as the Bodhieharya or way of the wise
those works (who, upon so plain a fact, could not lie), invariably speak of Buddhism
;
as a notorious heresy.
An
section of the Saugatas alone, ever held the bald doctrine

and the Swabluivika denial of a creation of matter by the fiat
inconsiderable
of mortal souls
of an absolutely immaterial being, springs not out of the obesity of barbarian

dulness, but out of the over-refinement of philosophical ratiocination.
idea of the speculative tenets of

are bad indeed
Buddhism
is
but they are of philosophy "
fully subtle, sceptical too, rather
utterly
all
Joinville's
Many
erroneous.
of
them
compact," profoundly and pain-
than atheistically dogmatic.
somewhat miscellaneous in this preface, I must allude to

another point. The lamented Abel Remusat sent me, just before he died, a copy of
his essay on the Saugata doctrine of the Triad and Mr. Upham, I find, has de-
At
the risk of being
duced from Remusat's interpretation of that doctrine, the inference (which he

supports by reference to sundry expressions in the sacred books of Ceylon), that
I
am
Buddhism, in
in error in denying that
admits the distinction of Clems

distinction
but
it
may
et
be seen in
Laicus.
all its
its
first,
and most characteristic form,
It is difficult expressly to define that
breadth in Brahmanism and in Popery
whilst in Islamism, and in the most enthusiastic of the Christian sects, which sprang
out of the Reformation,

Christianity recognised
was a
society
as in place
it
is
wholly
not;*
it
lost.
According to
of peers, of brethren in the faith,
On
and character.
exclusive professional ones
my
view, Apostolic
the congregation of the faithful, the Church,
earth, there
all
essentially equal, in gifts,
were no indispensable mediators, no
and such alone I understand to be
priests.f
Again,
own nature, essenthe distinction of clergyman and layman, though we all know that
genuine monachism
all
over the world, I hold to be, in
its
opposed to
monastic institutions no sooner are rendered matters of public law and of exten-
tially
sive popular prevalence, than, ex vi necessitatis,
the
distinction in question
superinduced upon them, by the major part of the monks

becoming clergy.%
There are limits to the number of those
ftNamuchi by name,
chief of the Kakodemons.

to lay stress on his opinion,
laicising,
whom
and the
ia
rest
the public can
which is merely adduced

argument.
church holds that there is no virtue in any sacerdotal
f For example, the Anglican
function not performed by the successors of the apostles,' who are the only clergy.
% History informs us that, soon after monachism supervened upon our holy and
eminently social religion, there were in Egypt as many monks almost as peasants. Some
The community of
of these monks necessarily laicised, and the rest bcame clergy.
the Gosains and several others, of strictly ascetical origin, now in India, exhibit the same
necessary change after the sects had become numerously followed.
*
would not be understood
to illustrate
my
support in idleness
eome duty
and whoso would eat the bread of the public must perform
Yet who can doubt that the true monk, whether coenowho abandons the world to save his oiun soul as the true
to the public.
he
bite or solitary, is
clergyman
69
is
who mixes with
he
in respect to the people or laics has a distinctive function, and, it
an exclusive one
sects, then,
the former has no function at
the exclusive character of priest
all.
as sects are enthusiastic, they reject
Buddhism was
entirely monastic,
also in the nine
more or
Buddha
fullest
are
demand
Dharmds
(the oldest
less directly, or is clearly
monks
is
subject to the usual vows, (nature teaching to all
essentially peers,
and I
The true church, the congregation
piety.
with the clergy ;

distinct
Sane/ha,) is constantly said
greatly mistaken indeed if
body such
or, if
as
mean when we speak
(*. e.,
Vihdra) or in deserts,
the
to consist of such only
Buddha recognized an
Kirkmen)
The
first
he
is
absolutely
ordinarily
mention of an exclusive, profes-
sional, active, minister of religion, or priest, in the
(for so
claims of superior
of the faithful, (called
Bauddha
books,
comparatively recent date, and not of scriptural authority.
Achdrya
and
monks, tonsured,
Catholics, Lutherans, and
of the latter.
The
the church in this sense be synonymous
the primitive church of
we
all
C/tailaka,
mankind that wealth, women and
though of course acknowledging
this very circumstance
am
to
simple
rest, solitaries.
enumeration of these followers (Bhikshu, Srdoaka or Sramana*
wisdom and
me
||
being
not expressly treated), that the only true followers
the majority being coenobites, the
power, are the grand tempters,) resident in monasteries
from
of
if,
and highest written authorities), it is

deducible from the context, in a thou-
Arhata or Arhana or Arhanta) proves them to have been
and
But
In the Sata Sdhasrika, Prajnd Pdramitd, or Raksha JBhdr/avati,
sand passages (for the subject

of
who
able to go
and of an unboundedly enthusiastical genius,
did not recognise the distinction in question.
it
here they are.
affirmed
and
that in proportion
Whoever has been
suspicious of the validity of argumentative inferences, he
and
entirely monastic
and absurd
knows not
latter
be, also
in the above reflections can need only to be told that primitive
be satisfied that
facts,
may
and hate, (though nothing tainted with mon-
achism) the exclusive pretensions of the clergy
me
Amongst
objectless
is
that has glanced an eye over ecclesiastical history
along with
The
the world to save the souls of others?
called) first appears arrayed
is in
those of a
Therein the Vajra
with the ordinary attributes of
See Guizot's Civilization of Europe, ii. 61-63, & i. 86.

all the
Its distinguishing doctrine is that finite mind can be enlarged to infinite
As for the scepticism
schools uphold this towering tenet, postponing all others to it.
creation
providence,
marvels,
and
of the Swabhavikas relative to those transcendent
point to the
it is sufficient to prove its remoteness from "fiat Atheism," simply to
coexistence of the cardinal tenet first named.
Sramana includes the whole, and is equally ascetic; Sramani feminine, equal to monk
and nun. Sakya is often called the great Sramana.
the constitution of the church
Bunsen's controversy with Gladstone, and his work on
(published in IS 47) set this matter clearly in the light in which I viewed it; Bunsen
insists on the congregational church as the only true one, says the clergy church is pregnant with priestcraft and essentially untenable, contends that the future church must
be of the former kind, and adds that the reformation virtually extinguished the clergy
So Sakya argued and instituted in opposition to the cleric exorbitances of the
church.
||
B rahmans.
il
JO
a
Bat
priest.
his character
anomalous, as
is
and the learned Bauddhas of Nepaul
is
at the present
that of everything about
him
day universally admit the
falling
We have in these hooks, Bhikshus, Srdvakas, Chailakas,

from the true faith.
and Sdkya Vansikas,* bound by their primitive rules for ten days (in memory
tonsured, yet married ostenof the olden time) and then released from them
off
monks, but really citizens of the world.
sibly
From any
the above the Vqjra
of
Achdrya
he
drawn indiscriminately
is surrounded by un ton-
is
keeps the keys of the no longer open treasury; and he

sured followers,
who now
present themselves for the
trace with historical nicety
I pretend not to
time.
Bud-
and creed of millions up to the period of the dispersion

well aware, that the primitive doctrines were not, because they could
dhism as a public
but I
first
the changes which marked the progress of
all
am
institute
to, when what I hold to have been at first the closet specsome philosophers, had become the dominant creed of large kingdoms.
not be, rigidly adhered

ulation of
That the
latter character
was, however, assumed
by Buddhism
India for centuries! before the dispersion, seems certain
urge that the thing in question
is
and, as
in the plains of
many persons may
the dominant public institute, not the closet
speculation, and that whatever discipline prevailed before the dispersion must be
held for primitive and orthodox, I can only observe that the ancient books of the
Saugatas, whilst they glance at such changes as I have adverted
language of censure
and that, upon the whole, I
ion that genuine or primitive
Buddhism
rejected the distinction of Clcrus
by Upham,
is
generally inaccurate
et
;
do so in th
phrased
it
that the use of the
originally)
word
priest
and that the Sangha of the Buddhist triad
ought to have been invariably rendered by Remusat into

faithful' or 'church,'
to,
strongly incline to the opin-
I cautiously
(so
Laicus
still
'congregation of th
aud never into 'clergy' or 'priesthood.'
Remusat indeed
seems to consider (Observations, 23-29, and 32,) these phrases as synonymous; and
yet the question which their discrimination involves
our
own
religion, has
been
fiercely agitated for
is
one which, in respect to
hundreds of years; and
still,
by th
very shades of that discrimination, chiefly marks the subsisting distinction between
the various Churches of Christ
*An
Karli identifies the splendid Sdlivdhana with the head of the

The Sakya-Vansikas, or people of the rac
that of Sdkya Sinha.
of Sakya, appeared in Nepaul as refugees from Brahman bigotry, some time after BudSakya is universally allowed to have been
dhism had been planted in these hills.
the son of king Sudhodana, sovereign of Magadha, or Bihar (Kosala says Wilson, who
He is said to have been born in the "Sthanaof
calls it a dependancy of Bihar).
in Oude, as others say.
His
Kapila Muni," at Ganga Sagara, according to some
He may have been born
birth place was not necessarily within his father's kingdom.
when his father was on a pilgrimage to the shrine of the saint Kapila. Sakya died,
(Set
according to my authorities, in Assam, and left one son named Rahula Bhadra.
Csoma de Koros in No. 20 of Journal of Bengal Asiatic Society for origin of Sakya-VanTheir primitive sect was Tatta, their next Kapila in Oude, whence they migrated
sika.
The Sakas were Kshatriyas of the solar line, according to Bauddha
into Nepaul.)
authorities
nor is it any proof of the contrary that they appear not in the Brahmanical genealogies. See note in the sequel.
f Kven if we begin with Asoka we can hardly assign less than six to eight centuries
for Buddhist predominance, nor less than about double that duration for more or
less of prevalence in the plains of India. (See note at page 76.)
Saka
inscription
which
tribe,
at
is
at liberty, there-
adopt a sense which -would
fore, to
such as he alluded
works
to,
consist
and which, of course,
with
of phrases
found copiously scattered over the
consulted.
always rendered them advisedly into English, so as
priesthood, because I had previously satisfied myself,

tion that (hat cardinal tenet
diated by
its
was repugnant
me
Mr. Upham's
is
to
the genius of the creed, and repu-
but assuredly the determination

perfectly futile.
to exclude the idea of a
by separate inquiry and reflec-
may have been wrongly
This important point
primitive teachers.
determined by
as
Upham was
my interpretation
Following the authority he has relied on, Mr.
Such words
as
of
upon such grounds
it
Arhanta and Bandya, (which,
by the way, are the correct forms of the Barm3S3 Rahabun and the Japanese
Bonze,) no more necessarily
mean
clergy, than
priest,
milites as applied to Christianity, as little
Bhikshu, which means 'mendicant friar;' and as for the

putable
1
that
it
mean
does not
do the Latin Jideles and
can such a sense be ascribed to the word
literally priest,**
woid
and that
Sanylia,
it
does
it
is
mean
indis-
literally
congregation.'
If, as
liemusat and
Upham*
appear to
insist is the case,
every monastic follower
Buddha be a priest, then Bandya or Bonzef must be rendered into English by

the word clergyman.' But there will still remain as much difference between
Bandya and Sangha as, in Christian estimation, between an ordinary parson of
the present day, and one of the inspired primitive professors.
Of old, the spirit
descended upon all alike
and Sangha was this hallowed and gifted congregaof
'
tion.
apart.
But the glory has passed away, and the term been long
So
has, in part,
as a geneiic title,
and
for similar reasons, the
and Bhikshu, Sravaka, and Chailaka,| as
and set
But Bandya,
sanctified
word Arhata.
specilic
ones, are
still
** Observations,
p. 63.
* Bhikshu
now appears to be the word rendered priest by us in Ceylon. But it

unquestionably mendicant, holy beggar, as Thero is Ndyaka or Superior and Updsika
Servitor, of a Convent.
See Fabian, 12, 172, 234.
t The possible meaning of this word has employed in vain the sagacity of sundry
critics.
In its proper form of Bandya ( Vandya), it is pure Sanskrit, signifying' a person
ent tletl to reverence, and is derived fiom Vandaua.
Equally curio-is and instructive is it to find in the Sanskrit records of Buddhism
the solution of so many enigmas collected by travellers from all parts of Asia; e gnge,
Elphinstone's mound is a genuine Chaitya, and its proper name is Manik&laya, or th
is
The mound is a tomb temple.

The "tumuli eorum
place of the precious relic.
Christ i altaria" of the poet, is more true of Buddhism than even of the most percause
the
the
being probably
same, originally, in referverted model of Christianity
ence to both creeds, viz., persecution and martyrdom, with consequent divine honour*
The Bauddhas, however, have in this matter gone a step further in
to the sufferers.
for they worship
the descending --cale of representative adoration than the Catholics
the mere image of that structure which is devoted to the enshrining of the relics of
they worship the architectural model or form of the Chaitya.
their saints
The Chaitya of Sambhuna h in Nvpaul is affirmed to cover Jyoti rupya Swavambfiu.
nor was there ever anything exclusive of
or the self-existent, in the form of flame
theism in the connection of tomb and temple for Chaityas were always dedicated to
the Celestial Buddhas, not only in Ntpaul, but in the plains of India, as the
The Dhydni Buddhas appea:
Chaityas of Sanchi, of Gyd, and of Bag, demonstrate.
in the oldest monuments of the continent and islands.
+ Buddhist monachism agrees surprisingly with Christian, whether owing to Nest<>Thus there are several orders of monk*
rian infusion among the Uighurs or otherwise.
in both; in the former mendicant saints, naked or scantly clothed saints, and learned
;
72
every-day names of every-day people,

ascetics or
which
must be
priests, if it
so,
but as I conceive,
In the thick night of ignorance and superstition
monks merely.
envelopes Tibet, the people fancy they yet behold Arhatas in the
still
No
persons of their divine Lamas.
such imagination however possesses the heads
Buddha in Nepaul, Ceylon, or Indo -China though in the last

the name Arhata is popularly applied to the modern order of
country
mentioned
of the followers of
the clergy, an order growing there, as in Nepaul,
(if
my
opinions be sound) out of
that deviation from the primitive genius and type of the system
necessarily from its popular
as the rule of life
diffusion
which resulted
and practice of whole
nations.
my
In conclusion I would observe, that, in
apprehension, Remusat's interpreta-
tion of the various senses of the Triadic doctrine
the founder of the creed, and
all
rank of a Mahayanika Buddha
and by the
is
neither very complete, nor
In a religious point of view, by the
very accurate.
who, following his
by the second, the law
member
understood
is
have reached the
full
or scriptures of the sect
the faithful, or primitive church, or body
third, the congregation of
of original disciples, or any and
first
steps,
every assemblage of true,
i.
e.,
of monastical
observers of the law, past or present.
Dharma indicates the

Buddha is intellectual essence,
the efficient cause of all, and underived. Dharma is material essence, the plastic
cause, and underived, a co-equal biunity with Buddha or else the plastic cause, as
In a philosophical light, the precedence of Buddha or of
With
theistic or atheistic school.
the former,
||
before,
Sangha
but dependent and derived from Buddha.
compounded
of
Buddha and Dharma,
is
is
derived from, and
their collective energy in the
state of
action; the immediate operative cause of creation, its type or its agent.*
the
or
latter
atheistic
entity, invested
cause of
put
operation
Dharma
intrinsic activity
and
is
Diva
With
natura, matter as the sole
intelligence, the efficient
and material
all.
Buddha
first
with
schools,
derivative from
is
off
from
is
it
Dharma,
is
the active and intelligent force of nature,
and then operating upon
it.
embryotic creation, the type and
are spontaneously evolved
from
the union of
Sangha
saints like the Franciscans, Dominicans, etc., and all of

though hermits also be found.
Budhandtmaka iti Buddha, 'the intellectual essence is
Dharanitmaka
Dhirma,
is
the result of that
sum of all specific forms, which

Buddha with Dharma. *f The
both creeds are usually
social,
Buddha.'
the holding, sustaining or containing substance is

Dharma.' Again, Prakriteswari Hi Prajna, 'the material goddess isPrajna,' one of the
Dharma.
word
The
names of
Prajna is compounded of the intensive prefix pra,
and jnana wisdom, or jna, to know.
It imports the supreme wisdom of nature.
Dharma is the universal substratum, is that which supports all form and quality in
The Bauddha Dharma is the exact equivalent of the Brahmanical Mutra.
space.
Matra is that which measures space Dharma that which supports form and quality
in space; both are very just and philosophical ideas relative to what we call matter
and substance. The substans or supporter of all phamomena, whatever its nature, is
\\
iti
'
Dharma.
* Sanmdaydtmika
iti Sangha,
'the multitudinous essence is Sangha:' multitude is
the diaguosis of the versatile universe, as unity is of that of abstraction.
Upaya is the
*t Prajnaopayatmakam Jagatah, from Prajna and Upaya, the world.
energy of Prajna.
73
above are the principal distinc tions ; others there are which I cannot venture here
to dwell on.
With regard to Remusat's remark, " on voit

meme niveau, comme les trois representations
que
les trots
noma
sont places sur
des
memes
etres
dans
les
le
planches
M. Hodgson avec cette difference que sur celles-ci, Sangha est a droite, et Dharma a
may just add, that the placing of Sangha to the right is a merely ritual
de
gauche" I
Dakshindchdras* and that
technicality, conformable to the pujd of the
all
the philo-
sophers and religionists are agreed in postponing Sangha to Dharma.

I possess very
sat
but
many drawings
exhibiting the arrangement mentioned by
Remu-
subservient to mere ritual purposes and consequently worthy of no
all
The Matantara, or variorum
serious attention.
text of the Pujdris of the present
day, displays an infinite variety of formula, t illustrated by corresponding sculp-
and
tural
pictorial devices,
to the walls
embodied in those works, aud transferred from them
and interior of temples existing
all
over the valley of Nepaul.
THE SWABHAVIKA} DOCTRINE.

Swabhava.
It
2.
whom
proper for the worshipper at the time of worship to reflect thus
is
I address
:
tions, first,
by
Swabhava
in this order
R,
L, earth
Sumeru
which
fire
;
my
worship isNhiipta;
recollecting that all things

:
from
from that of the
the
letter
and from that of the
is
sits,
vija
||
with their
am
Mount
so
also does
And
Y,
Mantras come from

air
from that of the
and from that of the
Surneru.
and above the
supremely exalted, Vajra Satwa.
that
V'y'a
of the letter
V, or B, water
letter S,
a lotus of precious stones,
from Swabhava,
lam
God (Iswara) to
myself.
Thus meditating, the worshipper shoidd make pujd to
for example, to Vajra Satwa Buddha, let him pay his adora-
and the object of
the celestials
letter
governed by
(Ashta Sdhasrika.)
Nirl;pta,
all
am
All things are governed or perfected by Swabhava;:): I too
1.
lotus, a
as all
Vajra Satwa, thence
letter
On the summit of
moon crescent, upon
(other) things proceed
called the
self-existent.**
(Pujd Kdnda.)
3.
All things and beings (in the versatile universe) which are alike perishable, false
as a dream, treacherous as a mirage, proceed, according
God
(nature), and according to others, from
Swabhava and Iswara
are
essentially
to some,
from Swabhava
(Iswara); and hence
it
is said,
one, differing only in name.*f
that
(Ashta
Sdhasrika.)
* The theistic sects so call themselves, styling their opposites, the Swabhavikas
and
Prajnikas, Vamacharas.
The Pawranikas, too, often designate the Tarrfrikas by
the Litter name, which is equivalent to left-handed.
t See the classified enumeration of the principal objects of Bauddha worship appended to this paper.
%Swa, own, and bhava, nature. Idiosyncrasis.
Root, radix, seed.
Intact and intangible, independent.
** This may teach us caution in the interpretation of terms.
I understand the doTna
to announce, that infinite intelligence is as much a part of the system of nature as
The mystic allusion to the alphabet imports nothing more than its being the
finite.
indispensable instrument and means of knowledge or wisdom, which the Buddhists
believe man lias the capacity of perfecting up to the standard of infinity.
*J See note on No. 3, on the Yatnika system.
(|
74
4.
At
the general dissolution of all things, the four elements shall be absorbe
in Sunydkdra-Akdsa (sheer space) in this order

in air,
and
earth in water, water in
fire, fire
Akasa, and Akasa in Sunyata, and Sunyata in Tathata,* and
air in
is Maha Sunyataf) and Buddha in Bhdvana, and BhaAnd when existence is again evolved, each shall in the infrom the other. From that Swabhava, which communicates
Tathata in Buddha, (which
vana in Swabhava.
verse order, progress
its
property of infinity to Akasa, proceeded into being, in Akasa, the letter A, and
the rest of the letters; and from the letters Adi-BuddhaJ and the other Buddhas;
and from the Buddhas the Bodhi-Satwas, and from them the
Such
their Vija Mantras.
is
the Swabhavika Sansara
constantly revolves between Pravritti and Nirvritti, like
five
elements, with
which Sansara (universe)

a potter's wheel. (Divya
Avaddna).
5.
Maha Sunyata
Iswara
it is
is,
according to some Swabhava, and according to others,
bike the ethereal expanse,
Vija Mantras of the
letters,
In that Maha-Siin-
and self-sustained.
Mantra of Upaya,|| and the chief
yata, the letter A, with the Vfja
6. Some say creation is from God: if so, what is the

Karma ? *f That which made all things, will preserve and
which governs
7.
bark.
8.
Who
The
is
communicates
its
odour
fragrance to
its
?
destroy
Yatna
them
or of
;
that
It is
him who
from Swabhava.
tears off its
(Kalpalatd.)
elephant's cub, if he find not leafless and thorny creepers in the green
wood, becomes
Swabhava.
9.
tree freely
not delighted with
use of
(Buddha Charitra Kdvga.J
Nirvritti governs Pravritti also.
The Sandal
of all the
became manifest. (Rakshd Bhagavatl.J**
Who
The crow avoids the
thin.
ripe
mango.*J
The cause
is
still
(Kalpalatd?)
sharpened the thorn
to the deer kind,
(ichchhd) of any
or designer.!*
Who
and to the birds

and
if
(Buddha
gave their varied forms, colours, and habits
Swabhava
It is not according to the will
there be no desire or intention, there can be no intender

Charitra.)
* Tathata, says the comment, is Satya Jnyana; and Bhavana is Bham or Satta, i. e.,
sheer entity.
f See note on quotation 1 of section on Adi-Buddha.
J Here again I might repeat the caution and remark at quotation 2. I have elsewhere
observed that Swabhavika texts, differently interpreted, form the basis of the Aiswarika
doctrine, as well as that the Buddhas of the Swabhavikas, win.) derive their capacity of identifying themselves with the first cattse from nature, which is that cause, are
as largely gifted as the Buddhas of the Aiswarikas, deriving the same capacity from
Adi-Buddha, who is that eaicse. See remarks on Renmsat in the Journal of the Bengal
Asiatic Society, Nos. 32, 33, ami 34.
A. Cunningham has found this literal symbolic representation of the elements, and
See his Bhilsa Topes, p. 355 f.
See the note
Updya, the expedient, the energy of nature in a state of activity.
on No. 6 of the section Adi-SangJ&i.
**Th.eBakshaBhdgavati is the same work as the Prajnd Paramita.
Yatna and Burma may here be ren*t See the note on quotation 9 of this head.
dered by intellect and morality.
History
but not correct.
*Z These are assumed facts in Natural
+* Here is plainly announced that denial of self-co
or personality in the
which constitutes the great detect of the Swabhavika philosophy:
causa
and if this denial amount to atheism, the Swabhavikas are, for the most part, atheists
also that of the triad at Bhilsa.

||
;.
The conch, which
10.
among
be
is
worthy of
which
excellent things, and
itself insensate, yield?
is
all praise,
75
as the nioon, rated first
bright
benevolent to
all
sentient beings, though
it
melodious music, purely by reason of Swabhava.
its
(Kalpulatd.)
That hands and
11.
and belly and back, and head, in
feet,
whatever kind, are found
womb,
in the
the union of the soul or
(Atma) with body,
life
organs of
fine,
and
(Buddha
the wise have attributed to Swabhava;

is also
Swabhava.
Charitra Kdvya.)
From Swabhava
12.
preserved.
(nature)
all
things proceeded;
by Swabhava
all
All their differences of structure and of habits are from
and from Swabhava comes their destruction.
things are
Swabhava
All things are regulated (suddha)
by Swabhava.
Swabhava is known as the Supreme. (Pujd Kdnda, from the
Rakshd Bhagavati, where the substance is found in sundry passages.)
Akdsa
13.
by
own
its
eternal;
is
Swabhavika, because
it is
revealed by
its
preservation, and destruction

is
it
Buddhas
own
;
force
it is
it
and the
letters.
is
the essence
It is
is
and essentially
it is
The
uncreated or
five colours are
creation,
it is infinite
proper to
it;
and
Sunyata; self-supported; omnipresent:
to its essence belong both Pravritti and Nirvritti.

present,
it:
(Atma**) of
the essence of the five elements
(Bodhandtmika)
intellectual essence
the live
established, governed perfected (suddha),
it is
All things are absorbed in
force or nature.
This Akasa, which
is
omni-
intellectual,* because infinite things are absorbed into
it,
From the infinite nature of this Akasa were produced

moving things, each in its own time, in due procession from another, and with
proper difference of form and habits. From the secretf nature of Akasa pro-
declared to be infinite.
all
its
a moral ruler of the universe being a necessary sequel to it.

Excepting, however, a small and mean sect of them, they all affirm eternal necessary,
entity nor do any of them reject the soul's existence beyond the grave, or the doctrine
Still Newton's is, upon the whole, the right judgment, 'Deus sine.proviof atonement.
.'
The Swabhavika attempts to deify nature
dentia et dominio nihil est nisi
But, in a serious religious point of view,
are but a sad confusion of cause and effect.
I fail to perceive any superiority possessed by the immaterial pantheism of the Brahmanists over the material pantheism of the Buddhists. Metempsychosis and absorption
Both admit eternal necessary, entity or a substans for pheare common to both.
their denial also of
both admit intellect; both deny two classes of phenomena as well as two
them both affirm the hoinogeneousness and unreality of all phenomena,
and lastly, both leave the personality and active dominion of the causa causarum
nomena
substantes for
in obscurity.
** One comment
on the comment says, Atma here means sthan or alaya, i. e., the
ubi of creation, etc.
* Akdsa is here understood as synonymous with Stinyatd, that is, as the elemental
state of all things, the universal ubi and modus of primal entity, in a state of abstraction from all specific forms: and it is worthy of note, that amidst these primal prinIt is therefore affirmed to be a necessary ens, or
ciples, intelligence has admission.
eternal portion of the system of nature, though separated from self-consciousness or
In the same manner, Prajnd, the sum of all things, Diva natura, is
personality.
declared to be eternal, and essentially intelligent, though a material principle.
j- Secret nature of Akasa, that is, Akasa or Ether has no sensible cognizable properties such as belong to the ordinary elements.
The gradual evolution of all things in
Pravritti and their revolution into Nirvritti being perpetual, seem to prove that the
Buddhist Sunyata is not nothingness, but rather the utterly inscrutable character of
the ultimate semina rerum.
; ;
y6
ceeded
likewise, together with the
mobility
and from
with
air, fire
Tija
its
Mantra
own heat
of each one, air with its
and from
fire,
own
water with
its
and from water, earth with its own proper solidity or heaviness
own
and from earth, Mount Sumeru with its own substance of gold, or with its
of
kinds
various
the
all
sustaining power (Dhdtwdtmika) ; and from Sumeru,
and
flavours,
shapes,
colours,
the
variety
all
trees and vegetables and from them,
intrinsical coldness
fragrances, in leaves, flowers,
of
to burn)
fire
from
itself;
and
fruits.
Each derived
and the order of
its
its essential
property (as
procession into existence from the
manners
one precedent, by virtue of Swabhava,} operating in time. The several
two-legged,
of going peculiar to the six classes of animate beings (four-legged,
etc.)
and their several modes of
birth,
(oviparous, etc.)
all
proceeded from
Swabhava. From the Swabhava of each mansion or habitat (Bhuvana) resulted

the differences existing between the several abodes of all the six orders of animate
beings.
The existence
of the union of male

flesh, bones, skin,
womb
of the foetus in the
and female
and organs,
is
and
its
proceeds from the
Swabhava
gradual growth and assumption of
caused by the joint energy of the Swabhava of the
and that of time, or the Swabhava of the foetus, operating in time. The
maturity, and
procession of all things from birth, through gradual increase, to
foetus,
thence, through gradual decay, to death, results spontaneously from the nature of
as do the differences appropriated to the faculties of the senses
each being
;
and of the mind, and to those external things and internal, which are perceived
by them. Speech and sustenance from dressed food in mankind, and the want of
speech and the eating of grass in quadrupeds, together with the birth of birds
from eggs, of insects from sweat, and of the Gods (Devatds) without parentage
of any sort
Piijd
all
these marvels proceed
Kdnda, quotation
(Comment on
from Swabhava.
the
12.)
THE AISWARIKA* SYSTEM.

infinite, external, without mem1. The sell- existent God is the sum of perfections,
bers or passions; one with all things (in Pravritti), and separate from all things (in
Nirvritti), infiniformed and formless, the essence of Pravritti and of Nirvrittif.
(Swayambh it Pur ana
and of time says another comment thus time stands out

X By virtue of Swabhava
and both are quasi deified by
like spare, as a something superior to all phenomena,
;
Buddhists and by Brahmanists.

more Brahmanorum. That Buddhism forms an in By etcsetera, understand always
the multitude of terms
tegral part of the Indian philosophy is sufficiently proved by
and classifications common to it, and to Brahinanism. The theogony and cosmogony
additions only, which serve
of the latter are expressly those of the former, with sundry
to prove the posteriority of date, and schismatical secession, of the Buddhists. M. Cousin,
in his course of philosophv, notices the absence of a sceptical school amongst the
Indian philosophers. Buddhism, when fully explained, will supply the desideratum
and I would here notice the precipitation with which we are now constantly drawing
general conclusions relative to the scope of Indian speculation, from a knowledge of
the Brahmanical writings only writings equalled or surpassed in number and value
by those of the Buddhists, Jains, and other dissenters from the existing orthodox
*From Iswara, 'God.'
temof Vyasa and Sankara Acharya,
t Pravritti, the versatile universe; Nirvritti, its opposite, this world and the next.
action, occupation,
intensitive, and vritti,
Pravritti is compounded of Pra, an
from the root va, to blow as the wind; Nirvritti, of Mr, a privative, and vritti, as before.
He whose image
2.
Siinyata,
is
who
J?
like a cypher'' or point, infinite, unsus-
is
tained (in Nirvritti), and sustained (in Pravritti), whose essence
whom
who
by
all
things are forms (in Pravritti), and
the Iswara, the
is
own
his
will.
who
is
is
he
Nirvritti, of
Adi-Buddha, was revealed
intellectual essence, the
first
This self existent
is
yet formless (in Nirvritti),
whom all know as the
only true Being;
and, though the state of Nirvritti be his proper and enduring state, yet, for the sake
become Pancha-jnauatmika, he produced the
of Pravritti, (creation), having
Buddhas
thus
from
premely wise, from

colours
of
air,
Suvisuddhadharma-dhatuja-jnana,
whom
the organ of hearing, and
Sambhava, from
whom
all
proceed the element of
water, the organ of taste, and
whom
whom
su-
all
proceed the element
fire,
savours
the organ of smell, and
whom
and from Krityanushtha-jnana,
outward things dependent thereon.
Buddhas are Pravritti-karmanas, or the authors of
all
proceed the element of
Amogha
proceed the element of earth, the organ of touch, and
the sensible properties of
five
sounds; and from Pratyavekshana-jnana, Ratna
odours; and from Santa-jnana, Amitabha, from
Siddha, from
the
proceed the element of AkiUa, the organ of sight, and
and from Adarsana-jnana, Akshobhya, from
Vairochana,
creation.
all
All these five
They
possess the five
The
jndnas, the five colours, the five mt&drds, and the five vehicles.*
five ele-
ments, five organs of sense, and five respective objectst of sense, are forms of
And
them.J
these five
Buddhas each produced a Bodhi-Satwa,
The
see Asiatic Society's Transactions, vol. xvi.)
karmanas, or the immediate agents of creation
become Sarvaguna, (invested with

produced
3.
all
fiat.
(Comment on
and each,
(for the
detail,
Bodhi-Satwas are Srishtiin his turn,
having
invested with the three gunas,)
quot. 1.)
All things existent (in the versatile universe) proceed from some cause (hetu):
that cause
things by his
all qualities, or
five
This
* See
is
is
the Tatkagata
(Adi-Buddha)
and that which
the cause of
is
the symbol of the Triad and of the Saktis.
Appendix A.
Manas, as the sum of the faculties of sense, be excluded, we may lender the
else we must say elements, organs, and objects.
t The five Dhydni Buddhas are said to be Pancha Bhuta, Pancha Indriya and
Paneha Ayatana dkdra. Hence my conjecture that they are mere personifications,
fit'
passage as here
according to a theistic theory, of the phenomena of the sensible world. The sixth
Dhydni Buddha is, in like manner, the icon and source of the sixth sense, ami its
object, or Manas and Dharma, i. c, the percipient principle, soul of the senses, or
internal sense, and moral phenomena.
Manas is the Bhutu, Dhdrana the Indriya,
and Dharma the Ayatana, or mind, mental apprehension and the appropriate objects
of such apprehension, or all things.
Mind is the seat of consciousness and perception;
whatever its essence, and is the elfective cause of all sensation and perception.
is compounded of Tafhd, thus, and gata. gone or got, and
This important word
is explained in three ways.
First, thus got or obtained, via., the rank of* a Tathdgata,
ohtained by observance of the rules prescribed for the acquisition of perfect wisdom
of which acquisition, total cessation of births is the efficient consequence.
Second, thus
gone, viz., the mundane existence of the Tathdgata, gone so as never to return, mortal
births having been closed, and Nirvritti obtained, by perfection of knowledge.
Third, gone in the same manner as it or they (birth or births) came the sceptical and
necessitarian conclusion of those who held that both metempsychosis and absorption
are beyond our intellect (as objects of knowledge), and independent of our eilbrts (as
objects of desire and aversion
as contingencies to which we are liable) and that that
which causes births, causes likewise (proprio vigore) the ultimate cessation of them.
;
)
;
78
existence
(versatile)
is
the
the cause of
cessation or
extinction of all (such)
(Bhadra Kalpdvaddna.)*
existence
which animates it, is an emana4. Body is compounded of the five elements soul,
(SwayamMu-Furdna.)
tion from the self-existent.
and have been burned in
5. Those who have suffered many torments in this life,
:
so said
Sakya Sinha.
hell, shall, if
both.
they piously serve the Tri Ratna (or Triad), escape from the evils of
(Avaddna Kalpalatd.)
Subandhu
6.
Raja
(a
of Benares)
was
childless.
He
devoted himself to the
worship of Iswara (Adi-Buddba ;) and by the grace of Iswara a sugar-cane was produced from his semen, from which a son was born to him. The race remains
to this day,
7.
Awn
When
and
became
is
called
Ikshava Aku.
(Avaddna Kalpalatd?)
void, perfect void, [Siinya, Maha Sunya] the triliteral syllable

manifest, the first created, the ineffably splendid, surrounded by all
all
was
the radical letters (Vija Akshara,) as by a necklace. In that Aum, he who is

present in all things, formless and passionless, and who possesses the Tri Ratna,
was produced by his own will. To him I make adoration. (Swayambhii-Purdna.)
THE KARMIKAf SYSTEM.
From the union of Upaya and Prajna,^ arose Manas, the lord of the senses,
1
so said Sakya
and from Manas proceeded the ten virtues and the ten vices
Sinha. [Divya Avaddna'].
.
epithet Tathdgata, therefore, can only be applied to Adi-Buddha, the self-existent,

cessation of
is never incarnated, in a figurative, or at least a re.stiicted, sense
human births being the essence of what it implies. I have seen the question and answer,
'what is the Tathdgata? It does not come again,' proposed and solved by the Rakshd
One of a thouBhdga/oaM, in the very spirit and almost in the words of the Vedas.
The
who
sand proofs that have occurred to me how thoroughly Indian Buddhism is. Tathdgata, 'thus gone, or gone as he came,' as applied to Adi-Buddha, alludes to his
voluntary secession from the versatile world into that of abstraction, of which no
mortal can predicate more than that his departure and his advent are alike simple
Some authors substitute this interpretation, exclusively appliresults of his volition.
cable to Adi-Buddha, for the third sceptical and general interpretation above given.
The synonym Sugata, or 'well gone, (or well got, that is, happily got so as never to
be lost or virtually got, that is, by rigid observance of the laws or rules prescribed,
for ever emit of versatile existence,' yet further illustrates the ordinary meaning of the
word Tathdgata, as well as the ultimate scope and genius of the Buddhist religion, of
which the end is, freedom from metempsychosis and the means, perfect and absolute
enlightenment of the understanding, and consequent discovery of the grand secret
What that grand secret, that ultimate truth, that single reality, is. whether
of nature.
all is God, or God is all, seems to be the sole proposition of the oriental philosophic
religionists, who have all alike sought to discover it by taking the high priori road.
That God is all, appears to be the prevalent and dogmatic determination of the Brahmanists ; that all is God, the preferential but sceptical solution of the Buddhists
and, in a large view, I believe it would be difficult to indicate any further essential
difference between their theoretic systems, both, as I conceive, the unquestionable
growth of the Indian soil, and both founded upon transcendental speculations, conducted in the very same style aud manner. See Guizot's Civilization, ii. 386. India
Ions; long preceded Europe in the paths of transcendental philosophy.
* Since ascertained that this passage was misquoted for me, and that it is in fact
equivalent to the Sarnath inscription, which should be rendered thus, "Of all things
cause-produced the causes hath the Tathagata explained. The great Sramana hath likeFor these causes of existwise explained the causes of the extinction of all things."
ence and non-existence see the next section.
fFrom Karma, morality, the moral law of the universe.
\ See the note on quotation 6

tation 1 of the Ydtnika system.
of the section
Adi
Saaigha.
Also the note on quo-
):
The being
2.
order
from
of all things
knowledge,
false
general notions
ception; from
it,
it,
impression
delusive
from them, particulars
objects] of the senses;
from them, contact; from indefinite sensation and perfrom
thirst or desire;
among animate
things
it,
system
is
all
the distinctions of genus and
is
the procession of
all
after the
manner and
things into existence from
and in the inverse order to that of their procession, thev retro-
And
grade into non-existence.

fore this
einbryotic [physical] existence; from

it,
from them decay and death,
Such
period peculiar to each.
Avidya, or delusion
from delusive impression,
from them, the six seats [or outward
birth or actual physical existence; from
species
79
derived from belief, reliance, \j)ratyaya,~] in this
is
called
the egress and regress are both Karmas,* where-
Karmika.
(Sakya to his
disciples
in
the JRakshd
Bhdgavati.)
3.
The
existence of the versatile world
and this
nation, or belief in its reality;
or
first
is
false
derived sheerly from fancy or imaginotion
is
the
first
Karma
of Manas,
act of the sentient principle, as yet unindividualized (?) and unembodied.
This belief of the unembodied sentient principle in the reality of a mirage
ded with a longing after
and a conviction of
it,
its
worth and
reality
longing is called Sanskdra and constitutes the secondf Karma of Manas.
is
atten-
which
When Sans-
kara becomes excessive, incipient individual consciousness arises [third Karma]

thence proceeds an organised and definite, but archetypal body, the seat of that
consciousness, [fourth
sible
Karma]
from the
and cognizable properties
of]
last results the existence of [the six sen-
naturalj
objects,
moral and physical,
[fifth
*The Dasa Karma are, 1 Sanskdra, 2 Vijndna, 3 Ndmanipa, 4 Shaddyatana,

5 Vedand, 6 Trishnd, 7 Upddand, 8 Bhava, 9 Jdti, 10 Jardmarana.
f The first, not second ; ten in all.
J So I render, after much inquiry, the Shaddyatana, or six seats of the senses exterand which are in detail as follows Rupa, Sabda, Ganda, Rasa,
nal and internal
:
Dharma. There
The whole category
Sparsa,
is
an obvious difficulty as to Sparsa, and some also as to Dha
theAyatanas expresses outward things: and after much investigation, I gather, that under Rupa is comprised not only colour, but form too, so
far as its discrimination (or, in Kdrmika terms, its existence) depends on sight; and
that all other wispecified properties of body are referred to Sparsa, which therefore
includes not only temperature, roughness, and smoothness, and hardness, and its opposite, but also gravity, and even extended figure, though not extension in the abstract.
Here we have not merely the secondary or sensible properties of matter, but also
the primary ones and, as the existence of the Ayatanas or outward objects perceived, is
said to be derived from the Indriyas, (or from Manas, which is their collective energy,
in other words, to be derived from the sheer exercise of the percipient powers the Karmika system amounts to idealism. Nor is there any difficulty thence arising in reference to the Kdrmika doctrine, which clearly affirms that theory by its derivation of
all things from Pratyaya (belief), or from Avidyd (ignorance).
But the Indriyas and
Ayatanas, with their necessary connexion, (and, possibly, also, the making Avidyd the
source of all things,) belong likewise to one section at least of the Swdbhdvika school
and, in regard to it, it will require a nice hand to exhibit this Berkleyan notion
existing co-ordinately with the leading tenet of the Sirdbhdrikas.
In the way of
ma.
of
explanation
may
observe,
first,
that the denial of material entity involved in the
Indriya and Ayatana theory (as in that of Avidyd) respects solely the versatile world
of Pravritti, or of specific forms merely, and does not touch the Kirvrittika state of
formative power and of primal substance, to which latter, in that condition, the qualities of gravity, and even of extended figure, in any sense cognizable by human faculdenied, at the same time, that the real and even eternal existence of a
ties, are
substance, in that state,
is
affirmed.
Second, though Dharma, the sixth Ayatana, be rendered by virtue, the appropriated
80
When
Karina.]
the archetypally embodied sentient principle conies to exercise itself
on these properties of things, then definite perception or knowledge

as that this
is
white, the other, black
is
produced,
wrong, [sixth Kar-
this is right, the other
Thence arises desire or worldly affection in the archetj-pal body, [seventh

ma.]
Karma,] which leads to corporeal conception, [eighth,] and that to physical birth,
[ninth.]
From birth result the varieties of genus and species distinguishing animated nature, tenth Karma,] and thence come decay and death in the time and
manner peculiar to each, [eleventh and final Karma]. Such is the evolution
of all things in Pravritti

Xirvritti
is
opposed to which
is
Nirvritti
ting the reality and stability of Pravritti, or, which
abandonment of Avidya;
and
and
when Avidya
for,
is
also,
of course,
Now,
derived.
therefore,
we
sentient principle, vanish with
and
system
4.
is
Nirvritti,
called
Karmika.
Since the world
cipient principle,
which divide the
it is
things into existence
is
all
it is
world
is
a substance
such affection and
universe, are
it
which are thence only
see that Pravritti or the versatile
the consequence of an abandonment of
"Pravritti
absurd ideas respec-
the same thing, the
is
existences,
quence of affection for a shadow, in the belief that

vritti is
all
relinguished or overcome, Sanskara
Karmas or acts of the

all mundane things and
the rest of the
all
and the recurrence of
the sheer consequence of the abandonment of
the conse-
and Nir-
And
belief.
Karmas; wherefore the
[Comment on quotation 2.]

Karma of Manas,
produced by the
or sheer act of the per-
The manner of procession of all

from the union of Upaya* and of Prajna, Manas
therefore called Karmika.

is
thus
proceeded; and from Manas, Avidya

kara, Vijnana; and from Vijnana,
Ayatana t and from them, Yedana

;
and from Avidya, Sanskara; and from Sans-
Namanipa
;
and from
and from Narnariipa, the Shad

it,
Trishna
and from
it,
Upadana
object of the internal sense, it must be remembered, that most of the SwdbhaviTcas,
whilst they deny a moral ruler of the universe, affirm the existence of morality as a
Others again (the minority) of the Swabhavikas reject
part of the system of nature.
the sixth Indriya, and sixth Ayatana, and, with them, the sixth Dhydni Buddha, or
Vajra Satwa, who, by the way, is the Magnus Apollo of the Tdntrikas, a sect the
mystic and obscene character of whose ritual is redeemed by its unusually explicit
enunciation and acknowledgment of a "God above all."
The published explanations of the procession of all things from Avidya appear to me
irreconcilably to conflict with the ideal basis of the theory.
*See Fahian, 159 and 291. See also Gogerly, p. 15, his enumeration is precisely ours,
though his explanation differs, and is I think unintelligible, as is also Colebrooke's.
See Ceylon Journal, No. 1.

t That is colour, odour, savour, sound, the properties dependent on touch, (which acre
baldness, and its opposite, temperature, roughness and smoothness, and also, I believe
They are called the seats of
gravity and extended figure,) and lastly, right and wrong.
In this quotation I have purthe six senses, the five ordinary, and one internal.
Their import may be gathered from the immeposely retained the original terms.
diately preceding quotations and note, which the curious may compare with Mr. Colebrooke's explication.
See his paper on the Bauddha philosophy, apud Trans. Roy..
The following are the details of the three catagories, viz
As. Society, quarto vol.
;
Bhutas.
Indriyas.
Earth
Skin
"Water
Fire
Palate
Air
Akasa
Nose
Ear
Eye
Ayatanas.
Tangible properties.
Savours.
Odours.
Sounds.
Colours, forms.
and from
Bhava; and from
it,
rupya Manas,
[t. e.,
it
And
acter of the one or the other,
Such
and misery
is
and when Avidya
the cessation of
The
G.
He who
all
the
is
words and deeds partake of the charfelicity
being inseparably bound
Manas through Avidya

Now, since Avidya is a false
all mundane existence, when it ceases, the
from its illusion, is absorbed into Upaya
medium
of
cease with
is
Nirvritti
it.
Pravritti and Nirvritti
are
and
both Karmas.
2.]
wisdom
[Punya ParodaJ]
own heart, and
as to read his
even he cannot erase the characters which Vidhdtri% has written
[Avaddna KalpalatdJ]
the faithful servant walks behind his master
behind him when he stands, so every animate
being
walks, and stands
when he
is
bound in the ohains
of
Karma.
8.
the state of things under the influence of Avidya
Avidya
others,
Jati-
things into existence from
has received from nature such
on his forehead.
As
And from
Jaramarana.
actions of a man's former births constitute his destiny 4
5.
7.
it,
by the very nature of Karma.
all
[Another comment on Quot.
those of
as men's
and Manas, relieved
Pravritti
Prajna.f
and from
their lot disposed
ceases, all the rest
is also
world vanishes
is
to vice,
the procession of
knowledge, and
the sentient principle in organized animate beings] emanated
the ten virtues and ten vices.
to virtue,
Jati
Karma accompanies
everyone, everywhere, every instant, through the forest,
and across the ocean, and over the highest mountains, into the heaven of Indra,
and into Tdtdla (hell); and no power can stay it. (Avaddna Kalpalatd.)
Kanala, son of king Asoka, because in one birth he plucked out the golden
own eyes plucked out in the next and because
9.
eyes from a Chaitya* had his
he in that birth bestowed a pair of golden eyes on a Chaitya, received himself in

the succeeding birth eyes of unequalled splendour.
womb
of his
caused by the
Although
11.
son,
had acquired (Sakya speaks of himself) a perfect body,
even in this body, defect again appeared; because

residue of the sins of former births.
Perception or conscious sensation.
is,
fThe
as
still,
had yet to expiate a small
Ayata
Indriyas.
Manas
and include thought, considered
(Lalita Vistara.)
Bh-utas.
that
named Rahula Bhadra, remained six years in the

mother Yasodhara. The pain and anxiety of mother and son were
Karmas of their former births. (Avaddna Kalpalatd.)
Sakya Sinha's
10.
The sum of all phenomena which art

homogeneous and result from Manas h
one of the phsenomena of DivaNatura, or thought,
perception regarded as the sole measure of all things, thesole reality.

Up iya: see note on quotation ti of the section
Vdmdchdras gay, into Prajn
human
Adi Sangha.
ZDaivya, identified with Adi Buddha by the theistic, and with Fate, by the atheThe precise equivalent of the maxim itself is our conduct is fate.'
Brahma, but here understood to be Karma.
istic doctors.
'
i.
is the name of the tomb temples or relic-consecrated churches f the BudThe essential part of the structure is the basal hemisphere: above this a
square neck or Gala always supports the acutely conical or pyramidal superstructure:
and on all four sides of that neck two eye, arc placed, which are typical of omniscience.
'the
Whereverthe hemisphere is found, it is indisputable evidence of Buddhism, e.
In niches at the base of the hemisphere ar<
topes' of Manikydla aud of Pesh&war.
Chaitya
dhists.
</.,
82
THE YATNIKA* SYSTEM.

Iswara (Adi-Buddha) produced Yatna froin Prajna
1.
and Nirvritti
vritti
this
is
Yatna
and the cause of Pra
and all the difficulties that occur in the affairs of
world and the next are vanquished by Yatna (or conscious intellectual
effort.)
(Divya Avaddna.)
That above mentioned Iswara, by means of Yatna, produced the
2.
whence sprang the
Buddhas. The
five
five
Buddhas, in
of Yatna, produced the five Bodhisatwas
like
and they again,
five
Jnanas,
by means
by the same means,
manner,
i.
e.,
created the greater Devatas from their bodies, and the lesser ones from the hairs of
the bodies.
In like manner,
Brahma
created the three Lokas*[ and all
Among
mortals,
all difficulties
motionless things.
are
overcome by
moving and
YT atna;
for
by medicine, those of travelling

by equipages and want of paper, by prepared skin and bark of trees. And as all
our worldly obstacles are removed by Yatna, so the wisdom which wins Nirvritti
example, those of the sea by ships, those of
illness
for us is the result of
Yatna
because by
Since therefore
virtues acquired.
all
it
alone are charity and the rest of the
the goods of this world and of the next
depend upon Yatna, Sakya Sinha wandered from region to region to teach mankind
(Comment on
that cardinal truth.
That Adi-Buddha,
3.
whom
quotation
the
1.)
Swabkavikas
call
Swabhava, and the Ais-
warikas, Iswara, produced a Bodhisatwa, who, having migrated through the three
worlds, and through all six forms of animate existence, and experienced the goods
and
evils of
every state of being, appeared, at
last, as
Sakya Sinha,
to teach
man-
kind the real sources of happiness and misery, and the doctrines of the four
of philosophy
schools
;||
and then, by means of Yatna, having obtained Bodhi-
jnana, and having fulfilled
became Nirvana.
all
the Paramitas (transcendental virtues,) he at length
(Dir.ya Avaddna.)
Sakya Sinha, having emanated from that
4.
some,
Swabhava, and, according to
is
purpose of preserving
all creatures.
He
self- existent,
others, is Iswara,
first
which, according to
was produced
for
the.
adopted the Pravritti Marga (secular
frequently enshrined four of the fire Dhydni Buddhas, one opposite to each cardinal
point. Akshobhya occupies the eastern niche
Matnasambhava, the southern Amitdbha
the western; and Amoglmsiddha, the northern.
Vairochana, the first Dhydni Buddha
is supposed to occupy the centre, invisibly.
Sometimes, however, he appears visibly,
being placed at the right-hand of Akshobhya.
;
From
Yatna,
intellectual force and resource.'

and infernal divisions of the versatile universe.
conceive, is an attempt to remedy that cardinal defect of the older
$ This, as I
Swdbhdvika school, viz., the denial of personality, and conscious power and wisdom
in the first cause.
To the same effect is the Kdrmika assertion, that Manas proceeded from the union of Updya and Prajnd. Karma I understand to mean conscious
moral effort, and Yatna, conscious intellectual effort. Their admission in respect to
f The
human
'intellect,
celestial, terrene,
nature implies
its
free will, as their assignation to the divine
nature implies
its
personality.
Passages of this entirely pyrrhonic tenure incessantly recur in the oldest and
highest authorities of the Buddhists; hence the assertion of the preface that Sugatism is rather sceptical than atheistically dogmatic.
Expressly called by my Bauddha pandit the Swdbhdvika, Aisivarika, Ydtnika, and
Kdrmika systems; and the terms well denote the things meant to be designated:
see note at p. 23.
character,) and in several births
of his actions in
in the Nirvritti
all
the three
Marga (ascetical
83
exercised Yatna and Karma, reaping the fruits

He then exercised Yatna and Karma
worlds.
or monastic character) essaying a release from this
virtues from the Satwa to the Dwapara Yuga,

Yuga, having completely freed himself from sublunary
cares, having become a Bhikshuka,** and gone to Buddha Gaya, he rejected and
reviled the Brahnianical penance, did all sorts of true penance for six years under
mortal
till
the ten
fulfilling
coil,
at last, in the Kali
the tree of knowledge on the banks of the Niranjana river; conquered the Narnu-
wisdom
to
among
hare
in
it
tiger
appears that
by means
Yr atna
of Y'atna the hare
6.
tiger
Nara Sinha, Raja of Benares, was a
Swama Raja, by means of Yatna,

Rajkumars, whom Nara Sinha had destined for
monster of cruelty.
threw the
prevails over physical force, knowledge,
(Bhadra Kalpdoaddna.)
and the Mantras.
up 100
with a
perfect of the Buddhas,
(Ananda Bhikshu and the rest,) granted

of millions of people, and gave Moksha*
Vistara.)
(Lalita
to himself.
fell
Hence
into a well.
deliver
the Bodhisatwas,
to the simple, fulfilled the desires
them and
5.
became the most
Bodhijnana,
obtained
chimara,*||
seated himself
Satta
compelled him to
a sacrifice to the
(Bhadra Kalpdvaddna.)
Sudhana Kumara found a beautiful daughter of a horse-faced Raja named
r
Bruina. By means of Y atna he carried her off, and kept her and was immor-
gods.
7.
talized for the
(Swayambhu Parana.)
exploit.
ADI-BUDDHA.f
1.
Know that when, in
the beginning,
all
was
perfect void
(Maha siinyata,;) and

was revealed in the
the five elements were not, then Adi-Buddha, the stainless,
form of flame or
2.
He
(form of
in
light.
whom
all
are the three ffimas,
things,)
became manifest
who
is
he
is
the
Maha
Miirti
and the Visvarupa
the self-existent great Buddha, the
Adinatha, the Maheswara.

**
Mendicant one of the four regular orders of the Bauddhas. See the preface.
*||A Daitya of Kdnchomapura, personification of the principle of evil. .Bodhijn&na
is the wisdom of Buddhism. Ananda was one of the first and ablest of Sakya's disciples.
The first code of Buddhism is attributed to him in conjunction with Kasyapa and Upali.
He succeeded the former as heresiarch.
* Emancipation, absorption.
\ Adi 'first,' Buddha 'wise.'
Eighdarkest corner of the metaphysical labyrinth.
t The doctrine of Sunyatd is the
I understand it
teen kinds of Sunyatd are enumerated in the Bakshd Bhdgavati.
to mean generally .spat !', which some of our philosophers have held to be a pie',
In the transcendental sense of the Buddhists, it signifies not merely
others a vacuum.
the universal ubi, but also the modus existendi of all tilings in the state of quiescence
The Buddhists have eternised matter or
and abstraction from phsenomenal being.
The energy of nature ever is, but is not ever exerted; and when
nature in that state.
not exerted, it is considered to be void of all those qualities which necessarily imply per:
ishableness, and, which is the same thing, of all those qualities which are cognisable
Most of
01 distinguishable, and hence the energy in that state is typed by sheer space.
the Buddhists deem (upon different grounds) all phenomena to l-o as purely illusory
those
of
energies
God
of
The phamomena of the latter are sheer
as do the Yedantists.
the former are sheer energies of Nature, deified and substituted for God. See note
The AiswarUcas put their Adi Buddha in
on <mot. 6 of this section Adi Sangha.
See Journal of As. Soc. No. 33, Art. 1.
place of the nature of the older Swdbhdvikas.
;
84
3.
He
being
is
the cause of
From
also.
existences in the three worlds
all
the cause of their well-
his profound meditation (Dhyana,) the universe
was produced
hy him.
4.
is
He
is
or passions
things are types of him, and yet he has no type: he
all
of perfections, the infinite, void
sum
the self-existent, the Iswara, the
members
of
the form of all things, and yet formless.

5.
He
without parts, shapeless, self-sustained, void of pain and care, eternal
is
and not eternal;* him I

6.
Adi-Buddha
of the
wisdom
(Kdranda Vyuhu.)
salute.
without beginning.
is
He
is
within, the essence
perfect, pure
He knows
of thatness, or absolute truth.
all
the past.
His words
are ever the same.

7.
He
is
without second.
Kutirthya deer.f
8.
who
make
(Ndma
He
Adi-Buddha, who
salutation to
in the greatest Siinyata, as the
in
the Nairatmya lion to the
is
one and sole in the universe
is
Adi-Buddha
is
whose name
is
Upaya
see our forms reflected, so
manifest
who have attained

the mirror we mortals
only to those
As
is
who became
Who is the Tathagata who
letter A.
the wisdom of absolute truth. (Ndma
gives every one Bodhi-jnana
9.
He
omnipresent.
is
sangiti.)
known
sangiti.)
known
by the thirty-two lakshanas and eighty anuvinjanas. (Ndma sangiti.)

10. As the rainbow, by means of its five colours, forewarns mortals of the coming
weather, so does Adi-Buddha admonish the world of its good and evil actions by
(in Pravritti)
means of
11.
his five essential colours.
Adi-Buddha
loves those
who
delights in
His majesty
serve him.
the assuager of pain and grief.

12.
He
is
(Ndma
sangiti.)
making happy every

fills all
sentient being; he tenderly
He
with reverence and awe.
is
(Ndma sangiti.)
the possessor of the ten virtues; the giver of the ten virtues; the
lord of ten heavens
lord of the Universe
present in the ten heavens.
(Ndma
sangiti.)
13.
By
reason of the ten jnanas, his soul
He
He is
lightener of the ten jnanas.

strengths,
and ten
vasitas.
is
enlightened.
He
too
is
the en-
has ten forms and ten significations, and ten

omnipresent, the chief of the Munis.
{Ndma
sangiti.)
in Nirvrttti; the other in Pravritti; and so of all the preceding contrasted epiAll
Pravritti, action and concretion.
Nirvritti is quiescence and abstraction
the schools admit these two modes, and thus solve the difficulty of different properties
existing in cause and in eifects.
*One
thets.
says, that Nairdtmya is ' Sarva Dharmdndm nirdbhdsa lakshanam, that

things are unreal; and that Tirtha means Moksha, and Kutiriha, any perversion of the doctrine of Moksha, as to say it consists in absorption into Brahma and it
explains the whole thus, He thunders in the ears of all those who misinterpret Moksha,
Another comment gives the sense thus, dividing
there is no true Moksha but SUmyatd.'
there is no dtmd (life or soul) without him: he alarms the
the sentence into two parts,
wicked as the lion the deer.' The first commentator is a Swdbhdvika ; the second, an
is,
Comment
'
all
'
'
one.
For a
White, blue, yellow, red. and green, assigned to the five Dhydni Buddhas.
detail of the lakshanas , anuvinjanas, balas, vasitds, etc , of the neighbouring quotations,
see Appendix A.
He
14.
has
and
bodies,
five
(Ndma
Buddhas, without partner.
five
He
15.
the creator of
is
cherished by him.
He
unmade.
made
made.
16.
He
is
he
Aliter,
He is the author
He is the essence
and
five jnanas,
the chief of the Bodhisatwas are
Prajna, and of the world
the creator of
is
the world by the assistance of Prajna
He
is
straw of ignorance.
by reason
fire,
(Ndma
himself
himself un-
(Ndma
of virtue, the destroyer of all things.*
of all essences.
sangiti.)
the Vajra-atma (eternal being).
the instantly produced lord of the universe;
assumes the form of
the miikat of the
is
sangiti.)
the Buddhas
all
85
five sights
creator of Akasa.
the
of the Prajnariipi-jnana, to
He
consume the
sangiti.)
ADI PEAJNA,t OR DHARMA.

I salute that Prajna Paramita,
1.
who by
reason of her omniscience causes the
tranquillity-seeking Sravakasf to obtain absorption
ways
the
men have
wise
that
said,
the external and
animate nature, are produced by her
Buddha
Matra), of that
First
then
air,
Sumeru, the
to
whose
who
which
Prajna, the mother of
all
make
all
whom
all
Buddha (Buddha
and Bodhisatwas dedi-
salutation
to the
of precious stones,
sits
Prajna Paramita,
Lallita-
the gods (Prasu-bhagavatang,) and
Prajna Devi,
who
is
Nirrupya, and the universal mother.
Prajnarupya, the
sustaining the
in the
(Bhadra Kalpdvaddna.)
without beginning or end, (anadyanta.)

3.
of
are the residence of the thirty-three millions of gods
above these, upon a Lotos
||
the mother of
belonging to
internal diversities
is
service all the Sravakas
mansion of the moon (or a moon-crescent),
manner
to his genius
then water, then earth, and in the centre of earth,
fire,
sides of
(Devatas,) and
asan
who, by her knowledge of
(Panchavinsati Sdhasrika.)
cate themselves.
2.
of action, causes each to go in the path suited
the Prajna Paramita, the
(Pujd kdnda.)
Thou Prajna, art like Akasa, intact and intangible; thou art above all
He who devoutly
human wants thou art established by thy own power.
4.
serves the
serves thee
5.
good
Thou mighty
qualities;
distinction
Tathagata
object
of
and Buddha
my
is
(Ashta Sdhasrika.)
also.
worship!
the Guru
between thee and Buddha.
thou Prajna,
of the world.
art
the
sum of all
make no
The wise
(Ashta Sdhatrika.J
* The comment on this passage is very full, and very curious, in as much as it reduces
many of these supreme deities to mere parts of speech. Here is the summing up of the
comment
He (Adi-Buddha ) is the instructor of the Buddhas and of the BodhiHe is the creator and dessatwas. He is known by the knowledge of spiritual wisdom.
:
'
troyer of all things, the fountain of virtue.
'
Spiritual
wisdom
is
stated to consist of
Samddhi, Prajmi, Vimukti, aofiJn&na.

f Adi 'first,' Prajna 'supreme wisdom, nature:'
Sila,
see p. 12.
of one of the ascetical orders of Buddhists.
In this enumeration of material elements, Akasa is omitted: but it is mentioned,
and most emphatically, in quotation 4, as in the fifty other places quoted. In like manner, the five elements are frequently mentioned without allusion to the sixth, which
however occurs in fit places. Omission of this sort is no denial.
the other, advanced and resting on the bow of
i. c., one leg tucked under the seat
I
Name
||
the moon-crescent.
Kl
86
6.
who
thou
of thee
7.
thy worshippers, the benevolent, knowing thee
art merciful to
to be the source of
Bauddha
excellence, attain perfect happiness
by the worship
(Ashta Sdhasrika.)
who
Those Buddhas
Buddhas
are merciful, and
Thou
are thy children.
art
the Gurus of
the world,
such
all
good, and the universal mother (Saka-
all
lajagat Pita Mahi.) (Ashta Sdhasrika.)

8.
Every Buddha assembling
his disciples instructs
becomest multiformed and many named.

9.
Thou comest not from any
them how from unity thou
(Ashta Sdhasrika.)
any
place, thou goest not to
The Buddhas, Pratyeka Buddhas, and Sravakas,f have
10.
By
thee.
thee alone
What
11.
is
all
;
dom;
own
full
certainly be
was
will.
all
wisdom
Prajna,
Devi was revealed out of Akasa with

the Buddhas and Bodhisatwas, in whose
all
who
is
of absolute truth
the ever living (Sanatani);
hath revealed any attribute by
(Ashta Sdhasrika.)
Svinyata, Prajna
ever resides;
of the
No Purana
known.
Prajna, the mother of
Dharma
heart
devoutly served
all
These are truths revealed in
absorption obtained.
tongue can utter thy praises, thou of whose being (or manifestation)
When
the letter
wisdom,
is
no cause but thy
which thou rnayest

12.
the wise
(Ashta Sdhasrika.)
Sastras.
there
Do
place.
find thee ?* (Ashta Sdhasrika.)
nowhere
the
without the world and the world's

the giver and the ikon of that wis-
inscrutable;
the
mother of
Buddha.^
(Pty'd kdnda.)
13.
Prajna Devi!
the grandmother of
creatures
15.
art
the
mother (Janani) of
Bodhisatwas, and
thou art the goddess
great
all
the Buddhas,
all
grandmother of
all
(other)
(Pujd kdnda.)
(Isanf.)
Thou, Sri Bhagavati Devi Prajna, art the sum of
14.
mother of
verse
thou
the
the
all
sciences,
the
the Buddhas, the enlightener of Bodhijnana, the light of the uni-
(Gimakdranda Vyiiha.)
The humbler
of
the pride of
the giver of the quality of Satya
mi; the protector of
all
Namuchimara, and of
the possessor of
mortals; such
is
the
all
all
the sciences
Dharma Ratna.
proud ones;
the Laksh-
(Gunakdranda
Vyuha.)
16. All that the
Buddhas have
the rest of the Sutras,
is also
said, as contained in the
Dharma Ratna.*
Mahayana Sutra and
(Gunakdranda
Vyiiha.)
The force of the question is this, the wise certainly find thee,
+ The Buddhas are of three grades: the highest is Mahdydna, the medial, Pratyeka, and the lowest, Srdvaka.
These three grades are called collectively the Triyiina, or 'three chariots,' bearing their possessors to transcendental glory.
The Triydna are otherwise explained as three paths leading to different degrees of beatitude
suited to the different capacities of those who propose to follow them. The Mahdydna
the great or popular, or the great or most excellent.
% Sugataja, which the Vdmdchdras render, 'of whom Buddha was born;' the
sihiiiicJidras,
'born of Buddha, or goer to Buddha,' as wife to husband.
Bauddha personification of the principle of evil.
* Hence the scriptures are worshipped as forms of Adi
Dharma.
Sutra
is
Dak-
means
Because Buddha
17.
sits
87
on thy brow, the splendour thence derived to thy form
illuminates all the ethereal expanse, and sheds over the three worlds the light
of a million of suns
the four Devatas, Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesa, and Indra, are
oppressed beneath thy foot, which
he
who
shall meditate
is
O Arya
advanced in the Alir-Asana.
on thee in this form shall be relieved from
all
Tara
future births
(Sarakd Dhdrd.f)
Thy
18.
manifestation, say
hairs of thy
body
inhabitants, the
some of the wise,
sprang- Akasa, heaven,
greater
dharbas, and Nag-as.
is
thus
earth, and
from the roots of the
together with their
hades,
So too (from thy
hairs,)
wonderful to
Gan-
Siddhas,
Devatas, the lesser, the Daityas, the
were produced
tell!
the various mansions of the Buddhas, together with the thousands of Buddhas
who occupy
From thy own being were formed
them.f
things without exception.

19. Salutation
all
moving- and motionless
{Sarakd Dhdrd.)
Prajna Devi, from whom, in the form of
to
duction of the world was excellently obtained,
who
is
desire, the pro-
beautiful as the full
moon?
the mother of Adi Buddha, (Jinendra Matra,) and wife of (the other) Buddha,
who
is
20.
(Sddhana Maid.)
imperishable as adamant.
That Yoni, from which the world was made manifest,

In the midst of the Yantra or trikon (triangle)
Yantra.||
from that binda, Adi Prajna

side of
the triangle
Adi
revealed herself
Prajna produced
is
by her
is
the Trikonakara
a binda (point,cypher):
own
will.
From one
Buddha, and from another
side,
That Adi Prajna is the mother

Dharma, and from the third side, Sangha.
of that Buddha who issued from the first side; and the Dharma, who issued
from the second
21. Salutation to
revealed by her
the sustainer of
of the Buddha of
(Comment on quotation
side, is the wife
mother of the other Buddhas.
Prajna Paramita, the
own
all
will,
infinite,
out of the letter U.
things, (Dharmiki) the
the
first
side,
and the
19.)
who, when
all
was
void,
was
Prajna, the Sakti of Upaya,
mother of the world, (Jagan-mata
the Dkyanariipya, the mother of the Buddhas.
The modesty
of
women is
;)
a form
aphorism.
Sdhya, like other Indian sages, taught
(discourse,)
doubtful if he himself reduced his doctrines to a written code, though
the great scriptures of the sect are now generally attributed to him, though in fact
reduced to writing and systematized by his disciples Kasyapa, Ananda, and Upali.
Sutra is now the title of the books of highest authority among the Bauddhas.
f Composed by Sarvajna MUrapdda of Kashmir, and in very high esteem, though not
literally thread of
orally,
and
it
is
of scriptural authority.
X These thousands of BuddJuis of mortal mould are somewhat opposed to the so-called
simplicity of Buddhism II whatever werethe primitive doctrines of Sdhya it is certain
that the system attributed to him, and now found in the written authorities of the
sect, is the very antipodes of simplicity.
'well got from the rise
% Dharmodaya-satigata Kdmarupini, variously rendered,
of virtue,' 'well got from the rise or origin of the world;' also as in text, Dharmodaya, the source of all things, signifies like wise the Yoni, of which the type is a triThe tiiangle is a familiar symbol in temples of the Buddha Sukti*,
angle. See 20.
and of the Triad. The point in the midst represents either Adi-Buddha or Adi
Prajna, according to the theistic or atheistic tendency of his opinions who uses it.
Our commentator is of the Vdmdchdra or atheistic school, and such also is his
text.
(See Kavenshaw in the J.K.A.S. on the Khat Kon Yantra.)
See J.R.A.S. xiii. 1, 79, and 171.
||
88
of her, and the prosperity of
and the
is
all
She
earthly things.
is
wisdom
the
of mortals,
and the joy, and the emancipation, and the knowledge.
ease,
present everywhere.
Prajna
(Sddhana Maid.)
ADI SANGHA.*
That Amitabha, by virtue of his Siinta-jnana, created the Bodhi-satwa named
1.
Padma-pani, and committed to his hands the

2.
From between his (Padma-pani's) shoulders sprang Brahma from his foreMaha Deva from his two eyes, the sun and moon from his mouth,
;
from his teeth, Saraswati; from
air;
Lakshmi
from his
his hair, the Indras

3.
(Gunakdranda Vyuha.)
;
head,
the
lotos. f
feet,
the earth
belly,
(Gunakdranda
and other Devatas.
For the sake of obtaining
his
Nirvritti, I devote
from his knees,
Varuna;
from his navel, water
from the roots of
Vyiiha.)
myself to the feet of Sangha
who, having assumed the three Gunas, created the three worlds.
(Padma-pani)
4. lie
is
(P&jtt kdnda.)
the possessor of Satya Dharma, the Bodhi-satwa, the
lord of the world, the Maha-satwa, the master of all the
Dharmas.
(Gunakd-
randa Vyiiha.)
5.
The
lord of all worlds, (Sarvalokadhipa,)
the Sri-man, the
the Lokeswara, sprang from Adi-Buddha** (Jinatmaja.)
know
6.
for the
Sangha Ratna.
From the
which
is
P. S.
(Gunakdranda
union of the essences of
Such
is
Dharma
he
Raja,
whom men
Vyiiha.)
Upaya and
of Prajna* a proceeded the world
Sangha.
With
regard to the consistency or otherwise of the view of the subject
taken in the sketch of Buddhism, with the general tenor of the foregone quota-
Adi
'first,'
Sangha 'congress, union.'
is the fourth Dhydni or celestial Buddha:

minister.
Padma-p&ni is the prozsens Lints
Hence his identification with the third
of the existing system of worlds.
member of the Triad. He is figured as a graceful youth, erect, and bearing in either
hand a lotos and a jewel. The last circumstance explains the meaning of the celebrated Shadakshari Mantra, or six-lettered invocation of him, viz., Om! Muni r
horn! of which so many corrupt versions and more corrupt interpretations have
The
appeared from Chinese, Tibetan, Japanese, Mongolian, and other sources.
1.
in question is one of three, addressed to the several members of the Triad.
f Type of creative power.
Padma-pdni
and creator
is
his
Arnitdbha
dEon and executive
Om
Om
tri2. Om
sarva vidyc horn.
form Deity is in the all-wise (Buddha). 2. The mystic triform Deity is in Prajna
(Dharma). 3. The mystic triform Deity is in him of the jewel and lotos (Sangha).
But the prcesens Di/vus, whether he be Augustus or Padmt pdni, is everything with the
many. Hence the notoriety of (his mantra, whilst the others are hardly ever heard of,
and have thus remained unknown to our travellers.
** From Arnitdbha Buddha immediately
mediately from Adi-Buddha.
*a
The Prdjnikas read ' from the union of Prajna
Such is the Aiswarilea reading.
and Updya.'
With the former, Updya is Adi-Buddha, the efficient and plastic cause, or only the
former j and Prajnd is Adi DJwrma, plastic cause, a biunity with Buddha, or only a
Prajndye
horn.
3.
mani-padmc
horn.
1.
The mystic
tions, I
vika,
would observe, that the
ideal theory involved in the
Prajnika-Swabka-
and in the Karmika doctrines, was omitted by me in the sketch, from some
then remaining hesitation as

schools,
the
89
and no
Upon
other.
rest, I retain
to its real drift, as well
unchanged the opinions expressed
connexion with those
as its
connexion I have
this exclusive
still
some doubt.
in the sketch, that the
and Yatnika schools are more recent than the others
that
For
Karmika
they owe their
ori-
gin to attempts to qualify the extravagant quietism of the primitive Swabhavikas,
and even of the Aiswarikas
them
preference given by
The
final beatitude.
and
that their contradistinguishing
mark
respectively to mortals, or to intellect, with a
Swabhava
assertion of the Ashtasahasrika, that
is
the
view
to
or nature
immaBuddha
absolutely disposes of us, not less than the assertion of other works, that an
terial abstraction so disposes of us,
very logically leads the author of the
To oppose
Oharitra to deny the use of virtue or intellect.
these ancient notions
was, I conceive, the especial object of those who, by laying due stress on Kar-
ma
and
Yratna,
gave
latter entertained
will, as
we
are
improbable.
rise to the
Karmika and Yatnika
now
familiar with,
None such they could
it
is
but
its
principally to that
more
numerous phrases, a philosophical
among
enthusiastic contempt of
the Buddhists are ascribable
action
for
Their passionate love of abstractions
are so remarkable.
altogether
ideal theory or denial of the reality
its
prevalence and popularity
is
as I believe, they adopted the
if,
The
some of
versatile world, has, in
of the
But that these
not necessary to suppose, and
entertain
general principles of their predecessors.
foundation
schools.
such just and adequate notions of God's providence, or man's free
which these
quietists
another prop of this
is
theory.
product. With the latter, Updya is the energy of Prajnd, the universal material cause.
The original aphorism, as I believe, is, Prajnopdyutmctkam jagatah,' which I thus
From the universal material principle, in a state of activity, proceeded the
translate
This original Sutra has, however, undergone two transformations to suit it to
world.
the respective doctrines of the Triadic Aiswarikas and of the Kdrmikas.
The version of the former is, Updyaprajndtmakam sangha, that of the latter is, Updyaprajndtmakam manas. Of both, the Updya is identical with Adi-Bvddha, and the
But the result the unsophisticated jagat of the PrdjniPrajnd, with Adi Dharma.
kas, became Adi Sangha, a creator, with the Aiswarikas-; and Manas, the sentient principle in man, the first production, and producer of all other things, with the KdrmiAvidj/d, or the condition of mundane things and existences, is an illusion, alike
kas.
with the Prdjnikas aad with the Kdrmikas. But, whilst the former consider Avndyd
the universal affection of the material and immediate cause of all things whatever; the
latter regard Avidyn as an affection of manas merely, which they hold to be an immaterial principle and the mediate cause of all things else, Adi-Bvddha being their final
The phenomena of both are homogeneous and unreal
cause.
but the PrajnikttB
derive them, directly, from a material source
the Kdrmikas, indirectly, from an
immaterial fount.
Our sober European thoughts and languages can scarcely cope
with such extravagancies as these but it would seem we must call the one doctrine
material, the other, immaterial, idealism.
The phsenomena of the Prdjnikas arc sheer energies of matter those of the Kdrmikas, are sheer (human) perceptions.
The notions of the former rest on general grounds
those of the latter, on particular ones, or (as it has been phrased) upon the putting
the world into a man's self: the Greek "panton metron anthropos."
'
'
'
PHILOSOPHY.
BUDDHIST
9o
APPENDIX
A.
DETAIL OF THE PRINCIPAL ATTRIBUTES OF ADI-BUDDHA AND OF THE
EIGHTEEN SUNYATA.
THE THIRTY-TWO LAKSHANA.*

Chakrankitapanipadatalata.
17. Urnalankritarnukkata.
2.
Supratiskthitapanipadatalata.
18. Sinkapiirvardkakayata.
3.
Jalabuddhavaj rangulipanipadatalata.
19.
4.
Mridutarunahastapadatalata.
20. Ckittantarangata.
5.
Saptochhandata.
21. Rasarasagrata.
1.
Susambhritaskandhata.
Dirghangulita.
22. Nyagrodbaparimandalata.
7.
Ayataparshnita.
23. Usbnisbasiraskata.
8.
Rijugatrata.
24. Prabbutajihwata.
9.
Utsangapadata.
25. Prastarubarata.
6.
10. Urdhangaroniata.
26. Sinbabanuta.
11. Aineyajungliata.
27. Suklabanuta,
12. Paturubahuta.
28. Samadantata.
13. Koshagatavastiguhyata.
29. Hansa\dkrantagamita.
14. Suvaniavarnata.
30. Aviraladantata.
15. Suklachliavita.
31. Saraacbatwarinsaddantata.
16. Pradaksliinavartaikaromata.
32. Abbinilanetrata.
THE EIGHTY VYANJANA.

41. Suchasamudacharata.
1.
Atamranakbata.
2.
Snigdbanakhata.
42. Vyapagatatilakalagatrata.
3.
Tunganakbata.
43. Gandhasadrisasukumarapanita.
44. Snigdbapanilekhita.
4. Cbitrangulita.
5.
45. Gambbirapanilekbita.
Anupurvangulita.
6. Giidbasirata.
46. Ayatapanilekbita.
7. Nirgrantbisirata.
47. Natyayatavacbanata.
8.
Giidbagulpbata.
48. Birabapratibinibosthata.
9.
Avisbamapadata.
49. Mridujihwata.
10. Sinbaviki-antagainita.
50. Tanujibwata.
11. Nagavikrantagamita.
51. Megbagavjitagbosbata.
12. Hansavikrantagamita.
52. Raktajibwata.
13. Vrisbabbavikrantagamita.
53.
14. Pradaksbinagamita.
54. Vrittadansbtrata.
15. Cbarugamita.
55. Tiksbnadausbtrata.
16. Avakragamita.
56. Sukladansbtrata.
17. Vrittagatrata.
57. Samadansbtrata.
18. Mrisbtagatrata.
58. Anupurvadansbtrata.
* Reinusat in his
Melanges applie s
all
Madhuracharumanj uswarata.
these to Sakya.
19. Anuptirvagatrata.
59 Tungauasikata.
20. Suchigatrata.
60,
21. Mridugatrata.
01. Visalanetrata.
91
Sucbinasikata.
Cbittrapaksbmata.
22. Visuddhagatrata.
62,
23. Paripiirnavyanjanata.
63. Sitasitakamaladalanetrata.
24. Prithucharuniandalagatrata.
64. Ayatakrikata.
25. Sarnakrarnata.
65. Suklabbrukata.
26. Visuddkanetrata.
GO. Susnigdbabbnikata.
27. Sukunmragatrata.
07. Pmayatabbujalatata.
28. Adinagatrata.
08. Samakarnata.
29. Utsahagatrata.
09. Anupabatakarnendriyata.
30. Gambhirakukshita.
70. Aparistbanalalatata.
31. Prasannagatrata.
71. Pritbulalatata.
32. Suvibhaktangapratyangata.
72.
33. Vitimirasuddhalokata.
73. Bbramarasadrisakesata.
34. Vitungakukshita.
74, Cbittrakesata.
35. Mrishtakukskita.
75,
Gubyakesata.
30. Abhayakukshita.
70,
Asangunitakesata.
37.
Akskobhakukskita.
S uparipiirnottamangata
77. Aparushakesata.
38. Gambkiranabhita.
78. Surabbikesata.
39. Pradakskinavartanabhita.
79. Srivatsamuktikanandyata.
40. Saruantaprasadikata.
80. Vartulacbibnitapanipadatalata.
THE FIVE VABANA.

1.
Sweta.
2. Nfla,
3. Pita.
4.
Rakta.
5.
Syaina.
92
THE TEN JNANAS.

1.
Dulakliajnana.J
2.
Sarnudyajnana.J
7.
Sam vrittij nana.

Parachittajnana.
Arthajnana.
6.
3.
Nirodkajnana.}
8.
4.
Margajnana.J
9.
5.
Dharmajnana.J
10.
Kshayajnana.
Anutpadajnana.
THE TEN AKARA.

1.
PrithivyaMra.*
6.
Akasanirodkakara.t
2.
Jalakara.*
7.
Vayunirodkakara.t
3.
Agnyakara.*
8.
Agninirodkakara.t
4.
Vayvakara.*
9.
Jalanirodhakara.t
5.
Akasakara.*
10. Pritkivinirodhakara.t
THE TEN ARTHA.

1.
Pranartha.
0.
Kurmartha.
2.
Apanartha.
7.
Krikarartha.
3.
Sarnanartha
8.
Nagartha.
4. TJdanartha.
9.
Vyanartha.
10.
5.
Devadatartha.
Dhananj ayartha.
THE TEN BALA.

1.
Sthanasthanaj nanabala.
2.
Karmavipakajnanabala.
3.
Nanadhatuj nanabala.
4.
Nanavirnuktijnanabala.
5.
Sadindriyaparaparaj nanabala.
7.
Dhyanavimokshasamadhisamapattisan-
8.
Purvamvasanusmritijnanabala.
9.
Cbyutyntpattij nanabala.
klesa\*yavadanastlianajnanabala.
10. Asravakshayajnanabala.
6. Sarvatragamipratipattij nanabala.
THE TEN VASITA.

1.
Ayurvasita.
2. Cbittavasita.
6.
Janniavasita.
7.
Adkiinuktivasita.
3.
Parishkaravasita.
8.
Pranidhanavasita.
4.
Dbarniavasita.
9.
Karmavasita.
5.
Avadhivasita.
10. Jnanavasita.
THE FIVE KAYA,

1.
Dbarmakaya.
4.
2.
Sambbogakaya.
Mahasukbakaya.
3.
5.
Mrrnanakaya.
Jnanakaya.
Five in Pravritti.
% Five in Nirvritti.
* Evolution of the five elements in Pravritti.
T Revolution of the five elements in Nirvritti,
Five in Pravritti and five in Nirvritti and so of the Bala and Vasita.
||
93
THE FIVE CHAKSHU.

1.
Mansachaksku.
4.
Divyachaksku.
2.
Dkarniackaksku.
5.
Buddkackaksku.
3.
Prajnanackaksku.
THE EIGHTEEN SUNYATA.

1.
Adkyatinasiinyata.
10. Anavaragrastinyata.
2.
Bakirdkasunyata.
11. Anavakarasunyata.
3.
Adkyatmabakirdkasunyata.
12. Prakritisunyata.
4.
Sunyatasunyata.
13. Sarvadkarinasiinyata.
5.
Makasunyata.
14. Salakskanasiinyata.
G.
Parainartkasiinyata.
15.
Anupalambkasiinyata.
7. Sanskritasiinyata.
16.
Abkavasunyata.
8. Asanskritasiinyata.
17.
Subkavasunyata.
9.
Atyantasunyata.
18. Abkavasubkavasunyatii.
MATANTABA TWENTY SUNYATA.

19. Lakskanasiinyata.
20. Alakskanasiinyata.
APPENDIX
B.
CLASSIFIED ENUMERATION OF THE PRINCIPAL OBJECTS OF
BAUDDHA WORSHIP.
Ekdmndya,
Upaya.
Adi-Buddka.
M aka- Vair ockan a

Ekdmndyi.
Prajna.
Prajna-paraniita.
Dwydmndya.
1.
Upaya.*
2.
Prajna.*
1.
Prajna.
2.
Upaya.t
Trydmndya.
1.
Dkarma.J
2.
Buddiia.t
3.
Sangka.J
2.
Sangka.
1.
Buddka.
3.
Dkarma.
1.
Buddka.
2.
Dkarma.
3.
Sangka.
Paneha-Puddhdmndya.
4.
Amitabka.
2.
Akskobkya. l.Vairockana.
3.
Ratnasambkava.
5.
Aniogkasiddka,||
Pan cha-Prajn dmndyi.

4.
Pandura
Root of
2.
Lockana.
1.
Vajradkatwisvari.
Tkeistic
5.
Tara.
t Root of atkeistic doctrine.
theistic doctrine.
+ Atkeistic.
3. Mtiniakf.
diversely
so.
A sixtk is often added, or Vajra

tke famous Dkyani Buddkas.
Satwa.
Tke series of five is tke common exoteric one: tke sixtk seems to belong
rather to the esoteric system.
(j
Tkese
five are
94
Pancha-Sanghdmndya.
Padniapani.
4.
Vajrapani.
2.
Saniantabhadra.
1.
Ratnapani.
3.
Viswapani.
5.
Paneha-Sanghdmn dyi.
Bhrikuti-tara.
4.
Ugratara.
2.
1.
Sitatara.
Ratnatara.
3.
5.
Yiwatara.
Matdntara-Pancha-Biiddhdmndya.
1.
Vairocliaua. 2. Akshobhya. 3. Ratnasanibhava. 4. Amitabha. 5. Anioghasiddha.
Matdntara-Pancha-Prajndmndyi.
1.
Vajradhatwisvari.
2.
Locbana.
Mauiaki.
3.
4.
Pandura.
o.
Tara.
Matdntara-Pancha-Sanyhdmndya.
1.
Samantabbadra.
Vajrapani.
2.
3.
Ratnapani.
Padmapani.
4.
Viswapani.
o.
Matdntara-Pan cha- Sanghdmndyi.

1. Sitatara.
2.
Ugratara.
3.
Ratnatara.
Bbrikutitara. 5. Visvatara.
4.
Matdntara-Pancha-Buddhdmndya.
4.
Aniitabba.
Amogbasiddba.
2.
1.
Vairocbana.
Ratnasambbava.
3.
5.
Aksbobbya.
Matdntara-Pancha-Prajndmndyi.
4 .Tara.
Mainaki.
2.
1.
Vajradbatwisvari.
Pandura.
3.
5.
Locbana.
Shad-Amndya-Buddhdh.
2.
Aksbobbya.
1.
Ratnasambbava.
3.
Aniitabba.
4.
Vairochana.
6.
5.
Amogbasiddba.
Vajrasatwa.
Shat-Prajn dmndyi.
2.
Locbana.
1.
3.
Mamaki.
4.
Vajradbatwisvari.
Pandura.
6.
Tara.
5.
Vajrasatwatmika.
Sh at- Sanghdm n dya.

2.
Vajrapani.
Ratnapani.
3.
4.
Padmapani.
Samantabbadra.
1.
Mdnushiya-Saj)ta-Buddh dmn dya.

2.
Sikbi.
3.
Viswabbii.
1.
Vipasyi.
4.
Kakutsanda.
o.
5.
Viswapani.
Gliantapani.
0.
Kanakamuni.
7.
G.
Kasyapa.
Sakyasinba.
Matdntara-Mdiiushiya-Sapta-Bnddhdmndya.
4.
Kakutsanda.
6.
2. Sikbi.
1.
Vipasyi.
Kasyapa.
3.
Viswabbii.
7.
Kanakamuni.
5.
Sakyasinha.
Prqjnd-Misrita-Dydni-Nara-Buddhdmndya.
2.
8.
Aksbobhya.
Pandura.
* All
Dhyani,
0.
1.
Vairocbana-Vajradbatwisvari.
Locbana.
the Deities
4.
Aniitabba.
named above
as specified.
5.
3.
Amogbasiddba.
are Dbyani, or celestial.
Ratnasambliava.
7.
Mainaki.
The following
0.
Tara.
are Miimishfya
..
BUDDHIST
. .
PHILOSOPHY.
95
Dhydni-Nava-Buddhdmndydh.
4.
Arnitabha.
Akshobhya.
2.
Vajradbarma.
8.
1.
Vairocliana.
Vajrasatwa.
G.
Ratnasambhava.
3.
Vajraraja.
7.
Amoghasiddha.
5.
Vajrakarma.
9.
Dhydni-Nava-Prajndmndyi.
4.
8.
Pandora.
Lochana.
2.
Dhannavaj rini.
Vajradhatwisvarf.
1.
Vajraaatwatmika.
0.
7.
3.
Mamaki.
Ratnavajrini.
Tara,
5.
Karmavajrini.
!).
Dhydn i-Nia va-Sangli dmn dydh

4.
Padmapani.
8-
Vajrapani.
2.
Dharmapani.
G.
Samantabhadra.
1.
Ghantapani.
Ratnapani.
3.
Manipani.
7.
Viswapani.
5.
Karmapani.
9.
Misrita- Na va-Sa ngh dmn dydh

2.
G.
Maitreya.
Manjughosha.
4.
8.
Avalokiteswara.
1.
Samantabbadra.
5.
Ksbitigarbba.
Qaganaganja.
3.
Vajrapani.
Sarva-nivarana-visbkambbi.
7.
Kbagarbba.*
9.
Nava-DharmdmndydJi-Paustakdh (Buddha-Dhanna-sanglui-Marulale
Pujanakrame etan Mi'dam.)
Gandavyuha.
2.
C.
1.
Saddbarmapundarika.
Prajna-paramita.
Samadbiraja.
4.
5.
3.
Dasabbiiiniswara.
Lankavatara.
8. Lalita-vistara.
9.
Tatbagataguhyaka.
7.
Suvarna-prabba.
Na va-Bodh isat wa-Sa nghdmn dydh

4. Sitatara.
8.
2.
Maitrayaui.
Dipatara.
G.
1.
Bbrikutitara.
Vagiswari.
7.
Pusbpatiira.
3.
Dhupatara.
9.
5.
Ekajata.
Gandbatara.
Nava-Devi-Prajndmndyi.
2.Vajravidariui.
1.
Vasuudbara.
Parnasavari.
o.
3.
Gauapati-bridaya.
Grabamatrika.
7.
8.
8.
Maricbi.
Pratyangirab.
9.
4.
Usbni'sba-vijaya.
Dbwajagrakeyuri.
Misrita-Nava-Dharmdmndydh.
4.
8.
Pandura.
Locbana.
2.
Pratyangirab.
G.
1.
Vajradbatwiswari.
Vajraaatwatmika.
7.
3.
Mamaki.
Vasuudbara.
9.
5.
Tara.
Gubyeswan'4
Mdnushiya-Nava-Buddhdmndydh.
4.
Sikbi.
8.
2.
Ratnagarbba.
Kasyapa.
G.
1.
Dipankara.
Kakutsanda.
7.
3.
Vipasyi.
Kanakamuni.
9.
5.
Viswabbii.
Sakyaamha.
Man ush iya-Na va -Bitddh dm n dydh

1.
Dipankara.
G.
2.
Kakutsanda.
Ratnagarbba.
7.
3. Vipasyi.
Kanakamuni.
8.
4. Sikbi.
Kasyapa.
9.
5.
Viswablui.
Sakyasinba.
* Avalokiteswara is probably identical with Matsyendra nath, bhe introducer of Natlii.siu

into Buddhism, but not with Padma Pani, the fourth Dhyani Bodhisatwa, though now
Manjughosha is a
Maitreya is the Buddha next to come
usually so identified.
4-5 are
historical person and the apparent introducer of Saktiisni into Buddhism
;
Dhyinis, shadows like the rest.

X Guhyeswari is now worshipped by the orthodox as the Sakti of Pasupati Nath.
But the expelled Buddhists claim the goddess as their own and affirm that there is
a subterranean way from their great temple of Sanibhunath to hers.
116.
We have here nine mortal Biuldlias
For Ratnagarbha see Fahian, p.
BUDDHIST
96
PHILOSOPHY.
Manushiya-Nava-Prajndmndyi.
1.
Jwalavatf.
2.
Lakskanavati.
Kakudvatf.
0.
Yipasyanti.
3.
KantkanainaLini.
7.
8.
4.
Sikkamalim.
Makidkara.
9.
Viswadhara.
5.
Yasodkara.*
Na va-Bh ikshu- Sangh drum ayah

1.
Pradipeswara.
2.
Ratnaraja.
Sakalainangala.
6.
7.
3.
Makamatk
Kanakaraja.
8.
4.
Ratnadkara.
Dkarraodara.
9.
5.
Akasaganja.
Ananda.
Iti-Sri-Ehdmndyddi-Nardmndya-Devatdh Samdptdh
N. B.
Tke
autkority for tkese
details
is
tke
Pkarma Sangraka,
Bauddka system
raisonne of tke terminology of tke
EUROPEAN SPECULATIONS ON BUDDHISM.

In tke late M. Ahel-Rernusat's review of
ky Mr.
Prinsep,
J.
my
moins de lumieres,
est celle des
keen
quant aux incarnations,
1'essai
a,
Sakia
n'e'st
favoured
" L'une des
de M. Hodgson fournit
avenemens ou incarnations (avatdra).
de Tathdgata (avenu**) qu'on donne

et
I kave
there occurs (p. 2G3) tke following passage
croyances les plus importantes, et celle sur laquelle

le
||
sketch of Buddkism, (Journal
witk tke perusal of wkick
des Savans, Mai, 1831,)
or catalogue
of pkilosopky and religiou.
Le nom
point explique dans son memoire
religieux dont les reponses ont fourni la sukstance
le
de ce memoire, ne semkle pas en reconnoitre d'autres que celles des sept Bouddkas.
II est
du Tiket
pourtant certain qu'on en compte une infinite d'au tres
se considerent
eux memes comme autant de
et les
lamas
divinites incarnees pour le
salut des homines,"

I
confess
am somewkat
surprised
by tkese okseivations,
degree of useful mformation relative to Buddkism
and
London Transactions may
necessitatis)
ligkt, I
is
since
wkatever
essays in tke Calcutta
furnisk, tkey profess not to give any, (save ex vi
And
in
wkat
sober sense to regard " une infinite " of pkanioms,
chal-
concerning
pray you,
my
tke
'
veritaklo nonsense'
of tke system.
lenging belief in tkeir kistorical existence as tke founders and propagators of a
given code of laws?
Tke
Lalita
Vistara gravely assigns 505, or according to
anotker copy, 550, avatdras to S.'.kya alone.

task of collecting and recording
tities ?
or,
was
it
all
tkat
is
Was
I seriously to
incline to tke
attributed to tkese palpakle nonen-
merely desired tkat I skould explain tke rationale of tke doctrine
Tke Soutkinstead of seven, which latter is tke usual series, vide tke Amarakoska.
All depends on the Kalpas, each lias its own Buddhas, and
erns usually cite only four.
to the last or present Kalpa belong the four of southern notoriety.
* Yasodhara was tke wife of Sakya, and liakula their son.
Rakula therefore ought
but he Avas dull and little known whilst Ananda
to have been the ninth Sangha
was most famous and succeeded Sakya as Heresiareh after Kasyapa's speedy demise.
Printed from the Journal of tke Asiatic Society of Bengal. "Nos. 3'2, 33, and 34,
A.D. 1834.
**A radical mistake; sec the sequel.
:
||
97
If the latter only be the desideratum, here
of incarnation?
summary
is
what I thought I had already sufficiently explained.

Bauddha perfectibility has countless degrees, several of which
summit express attributes really divine, however short of the tran-
recapitulation of
The
scale of
towards the
scendental glory of a tathdgccta in nirvritti.

to persons subject to
Nevertheless, these attributes appertain
mortal births and deaths, of which the series
which
as is that scale of cumulative merits to
it
limited
is as little
But,
expressly refers.
the scale
if
of increasing merits, with proportionate powers in the occupiers of each grade, have
almost
infinite extent,
highest,
again in
and yet mortal birth cleave to every grade but the very
what wonder that men-gods should be common ? or, that the appearance
the flesh, of beings, who are far more largely gifted than the greatest
Such
of the devatds, should be called an avatar?
mortal advents
avatdras, in all their successive
they can reach the estate of a tathagata, are the arhantas, and
till
the bodhisativas, the pratyeha and ths srdvaka-Buddhas.
more than gods
When
men.
yet they were originally, and
I stated
that the divine
still
Lamas
They
and
are gods
quoad birth and death
are,
far
mere
of Tibet are, in fact, arhantas:
but that a very gross superstition had wrested the just notion of the character of
the latter to its
own
use, I
thought I had enabled every reader to form a clear
human
idea of that marvel
of
divinities of Tibet
How few
bility,
folly,
the immortal mortals, or present palpable
and easy the steps front a theory of human perfecti-
with an apparently interminable metempsychosis, to a practical tenet such
as the Tibetans hold!
But Remusat speaks of the incarnations of the tathdgatas:
and a radical one.
that mortal birth in
way,
once,
is
Tathagata
may
this is a mistake,
be such whilst yet lingering in the flesh of
which he reached
supreme grade
this
and
by that body's decay, the Tathagata has passed into
by the
here,
another very obvious foundation for the Tibetan extravagance

nirvritti,
but when
he can never
The only true and proper Buddha is the Maha Yanika or

Tathagata Buddha. Such are all the sapta Buddha
of whom it is abundantly
certain that not one ever was, or, by the principles of the creed, could be, incarnated.
be again incarnated.
'
Sakya's incarnations
Absolute
quietism
'
all
belong to the period preceding his becoming a Tathagata.
is
the enduring
state
of
Tathagata
and, had
it
been
Buddhism would have been justly chargeable with a more stupendous

absurdity than that from which Remusat in vain essays to clear it.
Plusieurs
otherwise,
'
absolus
plusieurs
infinis
'
there
are
and they
are
bad enough, though the
absolute infinity be restricted to the fruition of the subject.
But the
have been tenfold worse had activity been ascribed to these beings
then have had an unlimited number of
of the Buddhists
is
never incarnated
infinite ruling
nor the
finite of
an essential and consistent part of Brahmanism

tent part of
Buddhism
and there
is
providences
the Brahmans.
an
case
would
we
should
for
The
infinite
Avataras are
unessential and inconsis-
always this material difference
the avatara of the former and of the latter, that whereas in the one
it is
between
an incarna-
* Not a syllable is told of these mortal Bodhisatwas with the exception of the
Sikya's most famous disciple.
last,
of the supreme and infinite
tion
rule
PHILOSOPHY.
BUDDHIST
98
in the other, it
mated hy
its
own
spirit,
the infinite) and for
efforts to
creation or
for recognised purposes of
an incarnation of a mere
is
human
spirit
what purpose
(however approxiimpossible to
it is
I exclude here
say, consistently with the principles of the creed.
considerations
all
of the dhydni, or celestial Buddhas, because Pieinusat's reference is expressly to

the seven m&mishi or
human
ones.
never appear again
degree, in the
down
the precepts therein laid
as
in a
wisdom
beginning, of
obtained, degree
by
Bauddha scriptures, and by observance of

word by tapas and Dhyana,or severe ascetic
3rd. thus gone, that
who
and that that which
is,
gone as
hold that doubt
the ultimate cessation of them, whether that
likewise
will
perfection.
in the
the pyrrhonic interpretation of those
as well
by the attainment of
to say, (cessation of births)
is
manner described
purity and transcendental meditation.
came
manner that he (the Tathagata)
in such a
births having been closed
2nd. thus got or obtained, which
and explained in three ways
to its elements,
The word Tathagata is reduced

1st. thus (j one, which means gone
'
(birth)
the end,
causes births, causes
final close
Thus the epithet Tathagata,
immortality or virtual nothingness.
it
is
be conscious
'
so far
from mean-
ing 'come' (avenu), and implying incarnation, as Remusat supposed, signifies

the direct contrary, or
and
incarnation;
'
gone
for ever,'
this according
to
and expressly announces the

the
all
schools, sceptical,
impossibility of
theistic,
and
atheistic.
I shall not, I suppose, be again
asked
for the incarnations of
the Tathagatas.*
Nor, I fancy, will any philosophical peruser of the above etymology of this important
word have much
of his serious
shadows with the

it
the
'
infinite
To my mind they belong
really are.
closed
hesitation in refusing, on this ground alone,
attention to
infinity of
to
distinct
of
'
any portion
Bnddhist avatdras, such as they
the very same category of mythological
Buddhas, which
latter,
when
as a fact in relation to the belief of these sectaries, led
me
I first dis-
to
warn
my
readers " to keep a steady eye upon the authoritative assertion of the old scriptures, that
Sakya
is
the seventh
and
of the Buddhas,"t though I believe
last
that Sakya's six predecessors are voces etprceterea
The purpose
of
my two
essays
the leading and least absurd of the opinions

order to facilitate to
my
nihil.
on Buddhism was
to seize
and render
and practices of these
intelligible
religionists, in
countrymen the study of an entirely new and
subject in those original Sanskrit authorities
81
which
difficult
had discovered and placed
*To the question, what is the tathagata, the most holy of Buddhist scriptures
returneth for answer, "It dors not come again, it does not come again."
t Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi. p. 445.
"Nearly seventy volumes in Sanskrit, and some in the language of Tibet, were
The former had never been
sent by me to Calcutta between the years 1824 and 1630.
,1, by Europeans.
before heard of, nor the latter pos
[See the notices of the contents of the Tibetan works and their Sanskrit originals by
M. ('soma de Koros, and by Professor H. H. Wilson in the third volume of Gleanings,
and first volume of Journal As. Soc. Ed.]
Eventually I procured
See at pp. 137-139 of vol. i. for list of Sanskrit works.
from Lhasa the complete Kahgyur and Stangyur in 327 large volumes. The catalogue
thereof had previously been obtained, and its general character reported on before
('soma de Koros made his appearance.
<
'
99
within their roach, but no living interpreters of which,

to
them, in Bengal or
in
I had no purpose, nor have
to
I,
Bauddha philosophy or
of the
and, had I not been called upon for proofs
my
two essays contained,
But
the topic.
all to
scepticism of our day and race,
Royal Asiatic Society,
knew, were accessible
meddle with the interminahle sheer absurdities
religion
of the numerous novel statements
bably have recurred at
Europe.
have answered that
call,
had some years previously discovered the existence of
my two
a further consideration of
paper just mentioned, will
1 trust that
in Nepaul.
by the new
published essays, as illustrated
suffice to
literary
and furnished to tho
from those original works which I
copious selection
I should not pro-
sensible of the prevalent
remove from the minds of
my
continental
readers most of those doubts of Reinusat, the solution of which does not necessarily
imply conversancy on
not, however, be
my
part with details as absurd as interminable
answerable for the mistakes of
my
one, on the part of the lamented author in question, I have just discussed
of importance I have adverted
to
elsewhere
and
I can-
One
commentators.
signal
others
myself to
shall here confine
the mention of one more belonging to the review from which I have quoted.
In speaking of the classification of the people, Reinusat considers the vajra dchdrya
to be laics
the clergy.
which is so far from being true that they and they alone constitute
The bhikshuka can indeed perform some of the lower offices of reli-
gion:
but the
higher
dchdrya
vajra
solely
are
competent
to the
and, in point of fact, are the oidy real clergy.
clerus et laicus in this creed is altogether
discharge of the
That the distinction of
an anomaly, resulting from the decay of
the primitive asceticism of the sect, I have endeavoured to shew elsewhere, and
cannot afford room for repetition in this place.
The
critics
generally have been, I observe, prompt to adopt
they have carried their caution too
and suspicion over things
this creed, be
Buddhism
it
far,
uniformity
professed
its
may always
where
it
a great
be presumed to exist in
its
degree
reference to
may.
doctrine and discipline were fixed
and the con-
by means of one of the
most perfect languages in the world (Sanskrit), during, or immediately

age of
But
Allow me,
exemption therefrom.
shew the grounds upon which
arose in an age and country celebrated for literature
sequence was, that
caution relative
and by so doing, have cast a shade of doubt
sufficiently entitled to
then, to reverse the medal, and to

of certainty and
my
opposed to the original creed of the Bauddhas.
to local superstitions, as
after,
the
founder.
Nor, though furious bigots dispersed the
sect,
records, did they succeed in the latter attempt.

safely, but protection,
and attempted
to
destroy
its
The refugees found, not only
and honour, in the immediately adjacent countries, whither
they safely conveyed most of their books, and where those books
either in the original Sanskrit, or in
still
exist,
most carefully made translations from
it.
The Sata Sdhasrika-Prqjnd-Pdramitd, and the nine Dharmas, discovered by me in

Nepaul, are as indisputably original evidence of Buddhism as the Vedas and
Puranas are of Brahmanism. The Kahgyur of Tibet has been proved to have been
IOO
rendered into Tibetan from Sanskrit, with pains and fidelity
Burmese and Ceylonese he not originals,
hooks of the
in the earlier ages of
were translated
into
and
the numerous
if
certain that they
Buddhism, and that they were rendered
a language (high Prakrit) which, from
its close affinity to
that of the origi-
translators every facility
must have afforded the
nal hooks of the sect, (Sanskrit,)
it is
in the prosecution of their labours.
But
the Buddhists, whether of the continent or islands of India, or of the
if
beyond the former,
countries
still
possess
and consult the primitive
best age of their

is
church, how can Buddhism
practically used as the rule of
as to essentials at least.
And
life
and of faith,
is
told to the
present professors of this faith in diverse regions

of whatever he can glean from their books
composed
Hebrew
to exhibit a
fail
Nor
or Spain exclusively.
of one country
try professing
is
it,
than
it
In regard to Nepaul,
is it
much
less
by our
referred to
not without limit
closet students are
result of
as to say that the

for Italy, France,
of any
and every other coun-
is
superior to verbal evidence.
and where, on the one hand, the books
numerous and
difficult,
and respect an
the other hand, our personal inquirers have
time and opportunity at command, and

telligent witnesses,
just as
would be to allege the same of Christianity.
subject, whilst, on
new
entirely
is
is
absurd to affirm, that the Buddhism
Buddhism
Questionless, in the general case, documentary
But the superiority
it,
it
Dharmas were
the nine
Testament was composed in and
essentially unlike the
by the
nay, constituting the substance
and have exclusive reference to
New
Greek
and opinions,
rites
intelligent traveller
Paramita, and
the Prajna
in that country,
Old, or
it
common character
wherefore, I would fain know, should European
constituting the substance of whatever
absurd to insinuate, that
in the
the several countries where
in
from their study, incessantly prate about mere local
scholars,
scriptures of
made
their faith, either in the original language, or in careful translations,
can question and
cross-question in-
and cause reference to be made to the written
an appeal to the living oracles will
oft
authorities, the
times prove as valuable as
that of one to the dead without any other guide.
Let the
closet student, then, give reasonable faith to the traveller,
subject; and, whatever
theism,
him not suppose that
interrogated
even upon
this
be the general intellectual inferiority of the orientals
or the plastic facility of change peculiar to
of our day,
let
may
the living followers of
touching the creed they live and die in
not presume that a religion fixed, at
its
every
form of poly-
Buddha cannot be
;
and, above
earliest period,
profitably
all, let
him
by means of a noble
written lan-uage, has no identity of character in the several countries where

it
is
now
to this day,
lations
professed, notwithstanding
by
the possession and
that that identity has been
from them, which were made in the best age of
For myself, and with reference
guarded, up
use of original scriptures, or of faithful trans-
to
this church.
the latter point, I can safely say that
my
comparisons of the existing Buddhism of Nepaul, with that of Tibet, the Indo'binese nations and Ceylon, as reported by our local enquirers, as well as with
(
IOI
that of ancient India
itself, as
evidenced by the sculptures of Gaya,* and of the
cave temples of Aurungabad, have satisfied

identity of character in all times
me
that this faith possesses as
and places as any other we know, of equal
much
anti-
quity and dift'usion.t
P.S.
Whether
Rernusat's avenu be understood loosely, as meaning
as signifying
.strictly,
pretation of
'
come
the word Tathdgata;
announce that
all
reiteration
because Tathdgata
is
and contingency whatever
come,' or
designed expressly to
barred with respect to
is
They cannot come nor can anything come
the beings so designated.
'
to pass,' it will be equally inadmissible as the inter-
to pass affect-
ing them.
And
if it
be objected, that the mere use of the word avenu, in the past tense,
does not necessarily imply such reiteration and conditional futurity,
R^musat
on
me
me
clearly
meant
it
to
of these avenus ?
for the successive incarnations
used substantively, implies
that absolu,
But
propriety of speech.
mere mortals
infinites,
who
and
answer that
convey these ideas, or what was the sense of calling
I use it
'
It has
been suggested to
Perhaps
activity.'
so,
in Parisian
merely as opposed to relative with reference
I trust that the affirmation
are nevertheless inactive
there
are
may at least be
many
absolutes,
to
many
distinctly understood.
have nothing to do with the reasonableness of the tenet so affirmed or stated, being
only a reporter.
* See the explanation of these sculptures by a Nepaulese Buddhist in the Quarterly
Oriental Magazine No. xiv. pp. 218, 222.
+ As a proof of the close agreement of the Bauddha, systems of different countries,
we may take this opportunity of quoting a private letter from Colonel Burney,
relative to the 'Burmese Thilosopher Prince,' Mekkhara Men, the King of Ava's uncle.
"The prince has been reading with the greatest interest M, Csoma de Korbs's
different translations from the Tibet scriptures in your journal, and he is most anxious
to obtain the loan of some of the many Tibetan works, which the Society is said to
He considers many of the Tibetan letters to be the same as the Burmese,
possess.
He is particularly anxious to know if the monastery
particularly the b m, n, and y.
called Zedawuna still exists in Tibet, where, according to Burmese books, Godama dwelt
a long time, and with his attendant Ananda planted a bough which he had brought
The prince is also anxious to know
from the great pipal tree, at Buddha-Gaya.
whether the people of Tibet wear their hair as the Burmese do ? how they dress, and
how their priests dress and live ? The city in which the monastery of Zedawuna stood,
is called in the Burmese scriptures Tha/wotthi, and the prince ingeniously fancies, that
The Burmese have no s, and always use
Tibet must be derived from that word.
hence probatheir soft th, when they meet with that letter in Pali or foreign words
I enclose, a list of countries and
bly Thawotthi is from some Sanskrit name Sawot.
cities mentioned in the Burmese writings, as the scene of Godama's adventures, to
which if the exact site and present designation of each can be assigned from the
Sanskrit or the Tibet authorities, it will confer an important favour on Burmeseliterati."
It is highly interesting to see the spirit of inquiry stining in the high
The information desired is already furnished,
places of this hitherto"benighted nation.
and as might be expected, the Burmese names prove to be copied through the Prakrit
or Pali, directly from the Sanskrit originals, in this respect differing from the Tibetan,
which are translations of the same name.
( Dictionnairt
that which hath happened.
Avenu signifies quod evenit, eonUgU
Tathdgata; tathd thus (what really is), goto, (known, obtained.)
de Trevoux.)
,
(Wilson's Sans. Diet.)
Ed.
;
,
102
FURTHER REMARKS ON
Adverting again
I
to Reniusat's
Review
mention of the Avatars.
It is
no
than the omission of
less
Buddha)
'Sapta
dont
advanced
the following
is
" Les
all
The passage
Buddhas than the seven celebrated Manushis.

is
May, 1831
in the Journal des Savons for
with another omission more important than that of
find myself charged
allegation
REVIEW OF BUDDHISM.t
M. REMTJSAT's
sont connus des Chinois, et
noms de
ils
all
mention of any other
in
which
this singular
ces sept personnages (the
en indiquent une
infinite d'autres
Bouddhiste Xipalien ne parte pas."
le
My Essay in
London Transactions was the complement and continuation of

Remusat was equally well acquainted with both
he would have had me indulge in most useless repetition, he must have
the
that in the Calcutta Researches.

and, uidess
felt
convinced that the points enlarged on in the former essay woidd he treated
Why,
cursorily or omitted, in the latter.
then, did he not refer to the Calcutta
paper for what was wanting in the London one
Unless I greatly deceive myself,
who shewed clearly, and proved by extracts from original

Sanskrit works, that Buddhism recognises " une infinite " of Buddhas, Dhyani and
Manushi, Pratyeka, Sravaka, and Malm Yanika.* The sixteenth volume of the
I
was the
person
first
Calcutta Transactions was published in 1828.

essay, the substance of
In that volume appeared
which had, however, been
was published.
nearly three years before
it
of nearly 150 Buddhas
(p.
446, 449)
in the
my
first
hands of the Secretary
In that volume I gave an original
I observed that the
list
Buddhas named
in
the Buddhist scriptures were " as numerous as the grains of sand on the banks of
the
Ganges;" but
and history, the
rational curiosity
Samadhi Raja,
cardinal
that, as
list
;
in regard to chronology
would probably more than
on which account I suppressed another long
ichich
dogma
most of them were nonentities
actually furnished
was then
of Sugatism,
in
viz.,
my
that
hands, (p. 444.)
man can
By
list,
suffice to gratify
drawn from the
fixing attention on that
enlarge his faculties to infinity, I
enabled every inquirer to conclude with certainty that the Buddhas had been
multiplied ad libitum.
Bodhisatwas
By
tracing the connexion between the Arhantas and the
between the
latter again,
and third, degree of eminence and power

the
finite
becomes confounded with the
and the Buddhas of the
infinite,
man with
served in conclusion that the epithet Tathagata, a
pourtrays
this transition.
(London Transactions,
awkward opponents except

with a
been
in
'
to those,
tant pis pour les faits
!'
first,
I pointed out the distinct steps
vol.
synonym
ii.
part
Buddha
second,
by which
and
ob-
of Buddha, expressly
i.)
Facts and dates are
who, with Reniusat's compatriot, dismiss them
For years before
I published
my first essay,
had
made from the Buddhist pictures and

saturated, and which drawings have not vet
possession of hundreds of drawings,
sculptures with
which
this land is
been published, owing to the delay incident to procuring authentic explanations

t Printed from the Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society, No. 33, A.D. 1834.
* The triydna,
or three paths to bliss (of three different degrees) suited to
live capacities
of the several followers of this creed, want elucidation.
Mahdydna is elsewhere spoken ol as the humblest path some call it the highest.
According to usage in that matter provided.
;
off
the
The
BUDDHIST
them from
ledge, that
All the gentlemen of the residency can testify to
original sources.
the truth of this assertion

it is
and can
tell
who would
those
you break your shins against an image
of Nepaul, lest perchance
them endowed with
of
a multiplicity of
of all sizes
members
teeming fancy of any Brahman of MadhyaDesa!

is
it
literally thus,
six or ten
be wiser for the know-
often requisite to walk heedfully over the classic fields of the valley
These images are to be met with everywhere, and
many
IO3
PHILOSOPHY.
and
riot
principles of
first
in the production of
my
my
years, accable des richesses
Buddhas with three heads instead of one

The necessity of reconciling these things
Buddhism,* may reasonably account for delay
!
Meantime,
pictorial stores.
myself condoled with for
poverty
One
of these interminable trifles
sufficient to satisfy the
Start not, gentle reader, for
otherwise.
arms in place of two
with the so called
Buddha!
of a
and shapes, very
am
cannot but smile to find
and have been
really,
is,
for ten
by means
interesting result only have I reached
and that
when
strong presumptive proof that the cave
temples of Western India are the work of Buddhists
and that the most ap-
solely,
parently Brahmanical sculptures of those venerable fanes are, in fact, Buddhist.
hint to this effect
Pgave
(No. XVI. p. 219
zine,
so long ago as 1827, in the Quarterly Oriental
and can only afford room to remark
;)
Maga-
in this place, that
subsequent research had tended strongly to confirm the impressions then derived
my
from
number
The
very learned old friend Amrita Nanda.
of
Buddhas
existence of an infinite
the existence of the whole Dhyani class of Buddhas; the
personality of the Triad
philosophical and religious meanings
its
the classification
and nomenclature of the (ascetical or true) followers of this creed

tinction of its various schools of philosophy
faintly but rationally indicated
and, as the result of
Mmdebted
me and my
to
him and
never seen one line of
its
means of speaking
knowledge of which,
subject,t are matters for the
indebted to
philosophy with
consistently
for
his,
till
he sent
the
dis-
if
me
Re'rnusat
his essay
its
religion
upon the general
authorities, it is absolutely certain that
his
the peculiar tenets of each school,
the connexion of
the
all these,
be not wholly
I
am
on the Triad,
wholly
I
had
or any other continental writer's, lucubrations on
Buddhism.
I
have ventured to advance above that in the opinion of a learned
friend, the
Chinese and Mongolian works on Buddhism, from which the continental savans
have drawn the information they possess on that topic, are not per
to supply
As
me
any very
intelligible
this is an assertion
which
to propose the following.
jives
the subjoined sketch
of
views
it
of
may seem
Remusat
se
adequate
the general subject.

desirable to
support by proof, allow
observes, that a
the Buddhist cosmogony.
work
of the first order
"Tous
les etres etanl
contenus dans la tres pure substance de la pensee, une idee surgit inopinement
e1
See Erskine's Essays in the Bombay Transactions.

learned friend assures me that "a world of Chinese and Mongolian enigmas
have been solved by means of your general and consistent outline of the si/stcm, but
for which outline the said enigmas would have continued to defy all the Continental
CEdipuses." (Sir G. Haughton in epis. 16 January, 1832.)
*
+A
104
produisit la fausse luniiere
Quaud
s'imposerent reciproquenient des

deterniinees,
il
la fausse luniiere fut n6e, le vide et l'obscurittS
Les formes qui en resulterent etant in-
liniites.
De
agitation et niouvenient.
y eut
la
L'intelligence luniineuse
qui contient les niondes.
naquit
mens
contact niutuel du
feu et la lumiere, qui sont les principes des change-
le
lumiere precieuse engendre la liquidite qui bou-
La
et des modifications.
tourbillon de vent
principe de solidite,
Le
d'ou naquit la roue d'or qui soutient et protege la terre.
vent et du metal produit
le
e"toit le
illonne a la surface de la lumiere ignee, d'ou provient le tourbillon d'eau qui
em-
brasse les niondes de toute part."
Now
I ask, is tb ere a
man living,
not familiar with tbe subject,
a particle of sense from the above passage
who
illustration of a novel
see
wbat can be made of the enigma.
can extract
are not sucb passages, produced
veriest obscurations thereof
theme tbe
in
yen-king,
And
But
let
us
This apercu cosmoyoniqae of the Lang-
in fact, a description of the procession of tbe five elements, one from
is,
another, and ultimately from Prajnd, the universal material principle, very nearly
akin to the Pradhdna of the Kapila Sankhya.
modes
or states of being, one of
which
the other, the contingent, relative,
is
and
This universal principle has two
the proper, absolute, and enduring
transitory.
mode
These modes are termed re-
spectively Nirvritti and Pravritti.
The former
with
all
is
abstraction from
effects, or activity.*
effects exist
all effects,
When
or quiescence
the latter
that energy relapses into repose, they exist not.
when
is
the intrinsic energy of matter
concretion
is
exerted,
All worlds
and beings composing the versatile universe are cumulative effects and though
the so-called elements composing them be evolved and revolved in a given manner,
one from and to another, and though each be distinguished by a given property or
;
properties, the distinctions, as well as the orderly evolution
and revolution, are mere
results of
the gradually increasing and decreasing energy of nature in a state of
activity 4
Ujpdya, or
'
the expedient,'
the
is
name
of this energy
decrease of
increase of phenomenal properties
All phenomena are homogeneous and
properties.
;
tended figure, no
phenomenon, nor does

energy begins at a
decreases again to a
or property
air,
than colour and sound.
less so
it
increase of
decrease of
of intensity,
minimum. Hence
alike unreal; gravity
the second, has two

fifth,
and increasing
to a
it is
phenomenal
Extension in the abstract
belong properly to the versatile world.
minimum
has four; and earth, the
is
it
and exis
not a
The productive
maximum, thence
dkdsa, the first product, has but one quality

fire,
the third, has three
water, the fourth,
has live.*
also pp. 130, 187.

Bailly's History of Asia, pp. 114, 118, 124, 1S7, of vol. i
Also Goguet, 1. 170.
of ideas
world, cannot be truly alleged to exist.
J Causes and effects, quoad the versatile
There is merely customary conjunction, and certain limited effects of proximity in the
precedent and subsequent, by virtue of the one true and universal cause, viz, Prujad.
With the primitive Swahhavikas cause is not unitised for the rest, their tenets are
very much the same with those above explained in the text only their conclusions
It may also perhaps be donbted whether
incline rather to scepticism than dogmatism.
with the latter school, phenomena are unreal as well as homogeneous. In the text, I
would be understood to state the tenets of the Prajnikas only.
*There is always cumulation of properties, but the number assigned to each element
*See
Wondrous concord
is
variously .stated.
BUDDHIST
PHILOSOPHY.
105
These elemeuts are evolved uniformly one from another
and are revolved uniformly
the above manner,
in
in the inverse order.
Sunyatd, or the total abstraction of phaenomenal properties,

total
suspension of nature's activity.
is
the result of the
and the modus, of the uni-
It is the ubi,
versal material principle in its proper and enduring state of nirvritti, or of rest.
is
Avidya, which
is
mundane
the
this disposition to activity
entities, or
the
sum
of pheenomena,
hence their existence
is
is,
which
are regarded
remember that
is
also the
represents phsenomenal
it
ascribed to ignorance or Avidya.
extract from the Lang-yen-king, and
Avidya
of pravritti.
in other words
opposite of Sunyatd
the universal principle, or the
of
affection
universal principle in a state of activity, that

result of
The
with the sceptical few.
It is not nothingness, except
as
wholly unreal, and
we
revert to the
la pensee,*
l'intelligence
Now,
if
lumineuse,* and la lumiere precieuse,* refer alike to Prajna, the material prinof
ciple
all
shall find
things,
nothing
(which
to
left
personified as a goddess
is
impede a
-beyond some metaphorical flourishes analogous to

epithets
de
vent,
and
le
by the
tourbillon d'eau are the
principe de solidite
we
that variety of descriptive
by which he has characterised the one universal

and
religionists,)
of the author's meaning,
notion
distinct
principle.
Tow-billon
elements of air and of water, respectively
the element of earth.
is
" Tous les etres etant contenus dans la pure substance de Prajna une idee surgit
inopinement et produisit
ciple, or
abstraction and repose,

sive
la fausse
lumiere:"
that
goddess Prajna, whilst existing in
mundane
its,
was snddenly disposed

"
affection (Avidya.)
et l'obseurite s'imposerent
Quand
is,
to activity, or impressed
la fausse
reciproquement des limites."
disposition to activity, or this
was limited by the coming
mundane
the universal material prin-
or her, true and proper state of
affection,
with delu-
lumiere fut nee,
The
le
vide
result of this errant
was that the
universal void
into being of the first element, or dkdsa, which, as
the primary modification of sunyatd (space), has scarcely any sensible properties.
Such
is
the meaning of the passage " les formes qui en resulterent etant indeter-
minees," immediately succeeding the last quotation.

agitation et
mouvement," merely
refers to
perty of that element (air) which
is
air.
"
about to be produced.
Thence
(i.e.,
was the
De
la
naquit
le
Prajna
in
principle of solidity,
proceeded the wheel of gold which sustains and
protects the earth.
element of earth, stands
for that element;'
mount Mora, the distinctive attribute of which is proand sustaining power this passage, therefore, simply announces the evolu-
and the wheel of gold

tecting
y eut
" L'intelligence lumineuse etoit le principe
the form of light (her pravrittika manifestation)
Solidity, the diagnostic quality of the
il
from dkdsa) proceeded
de solidite, d'ou naquit la roue d'or qui soutient et protege la terre."
whence
"
mobility being the characteristic pro-
tourbillon de vent, qui contient les moudes."
the element of the circumambient
Its sequel again,
is
* Prajna is literally the supreme wisdom, videlicet, of nature.

Light and flame are
types of this universal principle, in a state of activity.
Nothing hut extreme contusion
can result from translating these terms au pied de la letlre, and without reference to
their technical signification.
That alone supremely governs both the literal and metaphorical sense of words.
pi
I06
appendage, mount Meru.
tion of the element of earth, with its mythological
But, according to
all
the authorities within
my
knowledge, earth
is
the
last
evolved
Nor did I ever meet with an instance, such as here

of the material elements.
occurs, of the direct intervention of the first cause (Prajnd) in the midst of this
"
evolution of the elements.
Le contact mutuel du vent
et lalumiere, qui sont les principes des
elements of
change.
stand by
which
air
This
and of earth produce
is intelligible,
which
changes and transformations.
Nor
Remusat's.
To
La
the igneous element
assumed by our author
is
Metal
for earth is
five,
and
its
is
ascribed the
as the principle of all
an obvious misapprehension of
element (earth) in the
so is the false allocation of this
less
general evolution of the

"
light,
beii
light is held to be a modification.
special property of heat,
and
le feu
g made for palpable mistakes. I underout of the element of air of that of fire, of
allowance
merely the evolution
it,
fire
du metal produit
et
The mutual contact of the

which are the principles of
changemens."
introduction here.
lumiere precieuse engendre la liquidite qui bouillonne a la surface de la
lumiere ignee, d'on provient
Prajnd
surface
of
form
the
(in
le
tourbillon d'eau qui embrasse les mondes."

light)
of
produces
the liquidity which boils on the
igneous light, whence proceeds the element of water embracing the
world.
This figurative nonsense,
when reduced
to
plain
evolution of the element of water from that of
upon the waters
like
prose,
a boat, according to the Buddhists
(embracing the world) of the text.

interference, a second time, (and
What
is
merely announces the
Our
fire.
terrestrial globe rests
and hence the
deserving of notice
in respect to earth, a third
eausans with the procession of the elements, one from another.

are silent in regard to
any such repeated and
creation properly so
to
trine
of
all
called
a tenet directly opposed
Swabhavikas.
the
Certain
material subtances in the versatile world

perception.
But
these idealists,
is
direct agency;
time,) of the causa
All
my
certaia.
authorities
which amounts
to the
in
fact,
fundameutal doc-
Buddhists hold the opinion, that
all
have no existence independent of human
that the Chinese author quoted by Mr. Reruusat
by no means
allusion
the direct
is
was one
of
His more immediate object, in the passage
quoted, evidently was, to exhibit the procession of the
five
material
elements,
To that I at present confine myself, merely observing of

the other notion, that what has been stated of the homogeneousuess and unreality
The doctrine of
of all phsenomena, is not tantamount to an admission of it.
one
from another.
vidyd, the
mundane
affection of the universal principle, is not necessarily the
same
with the doctrine which makes the percipient principle in man the measure of all
things* Both may seem, in effect, to converge towards what we very vaguely call
idealism; but there are
may
many
separate paths of inquiry
by which that conclusion
be reached.
Nepaul, August, 1834.

Manas, the sixtli element, is the percipient principle in man. The Chinese author
mentions it not, unless the passage beginning " la mme force, " and immediately
That passage
following that 1 have quoted, was designed to announce its evolution.
as it stands, however, does not assert more than the homogeneousuess of this sixth
element with the other tive.
1
resume
my
notice of Remusat's speculations on
IOJ
Buddhism
in the Journal d<
Savans.
On ne
Pie observes, "
seroit pas surpris de voir que,
tion* et la destruction des
mondes
soient presenters
dans ce systeme,
conime
les resultats
forma-
la
d'une revolu-
tion perpetuelle et spontanee, sans fin et sans interruption ;" and afterwards remarks,
" II y a dans le fond
du monde que
nieme des idees Bouddhiques une objection contre
tous les etres rentroient dans
menes cesseroient
terme ou tous
l'e'ternite'
theologiens de cette religion ne seinhlent pas avoir prevue.
les
le
repos reel et definitif
dans
et disparoitroient
que
les
Si
phemo-
de l'existence aljsolu, on concuit un
le sein
Buddha,
etres seroient devenus
les
l'instant
;i
monde
et oil le
auroit cesse
d'exister."
This Buddha,
nature est un
Now,
souveraine, dont la
iniinie, la cause
be such a supreme immaterial cause of
there
if
" l'intelligence
said, is
is
it
effet."
all
things,
what
is
meaning of alleging that worlds and beings are spontaneously evolved and
volved
or cease
and
endless,
what becomes
to the real definitive repose,
or
of the apprehension that they should ever fail
as certainly
God
re-
and, if these spontaneous operations of nature be expressly allowed to be
incessant
As
the
and the absolute existence, spoken
of,
they are
and customarily predicated of Diva natura by the Swabhavikas,
Adi-Buddha, by the Aiswarikas;
opposite opinions confounded
which two
to
as of
two
sects respectively the
by Remusat exclusively belong.
Again, " Tout est vide, tout est delusion, pour l'intelligence supreme (Adi-
Buddha, as before defined).

une
L'Avidya seul donue aux
sorte de realite passagere et
du monde sensible
clioses
Avidya, therefore, must
purement phenomenal."
according to this statement, be entirely dependant on the volition of the one supreme
immaterial cause: yet immediately
after,
it
is
observed, " on voit, a travers des
brouillards d'un langage enigmatique, ressortir l'idee d'une double cause de tout ce
(Adi-Buddha)
qui existe, savoir rintelligence supreme
But
the fact
stance, but a
is,
mode
Avidya,
ef/'ret.
that
Avidya
is
not a being, but
repeat,
is
all
Avidya ou matiere,"
not
phamoniena
"made
are, according to
homogeneous, and utterly unreal.
The
belonging to that
set of philosophers
who have
causes from the
two
distinct classes
it is
of
Avidyalists,
inferred
not a sub-
It is
a cause, but an
nothing primarily causal or substantial:

:
In other words,
an affection of a being
aomenon, or rather the sum of phenomena and

are."
et
not a material or plastic cause.
is
a plnu-
of such stuff as
dreams
it
this theory, absolutely
therefore, are so
two
phsenomena existing
effets
logiques"- and in the very next page

qui lient
*
effets
The question
and
is
rested.
materiels sont subordonnes aux effets psycho-
we
aux causes, tant dans
hear that
l'ordre
"on
appelle lois les rapports
physique que dans l'ordre moral,
of formation is a very different one from that of continuance.

Yet
would seem to have confounded the two. See the passage beginning "Mais
qui merite d'etre remarque."
ltciiius.it
ee
les
from
in the world, thai
they entirely deny the justice of the premises on which that inference
Remusat next observes, " Les
far
distinct substances
!;
BUDDHIST
108
ou, pour parler plus exactenient, dans
Now,
PHILOSOPHY.
unique,
qui constitue
phenomena
in the world,
l'ordre
there be really but one class of
if
either the material, or the immaterial, class

this doctrine, the question of
physical
I shall
that
phenomena, must,
phenomena
mere facon de parler.
And
in one essential sense, be a
are homogeneous, whatever they
can be allowed to be altogether so
and
if
it is
whose cardinal tenet
may
is,
think upon the further
actually such.
obvious
is
modification of matter
fifty
tem does not

and
name
existence
its
l'ordre
in the
Mind
is
e'est
only a peculiar
l'ordre
physique
Europe declared that " the universal
principles so essentially different
sys-
from one another
but that the whole must be of some uniform composition
system
so that the material or immaterial part of the
This notion, unless
Chinese language," the reason
denied.
is
unique de l'univers
of genius in
of two
consist
spirit
et
man
years since a
as matter
they seem, at least to be such as they
difficult as
or soul " have no
mind
of that at least
Not
hold
upon
indeed, therefore necessary " joindre la notion d'esprit " before these puzzles
is,
must be
who
the dependence or independence of mental
question of their reality or unreality
seem
consequently, with those
venture to assert, that with most of the Buddhists
all
It
l'univers.''
it
am
mistaken,
is
to be
is
superfluous."*
found at the bottom of most Indian
systems of philosophy, Brahmanical and Buddhist, connected with a rejection in
some shape or other of phenomenal
reality in order to get rid
different properties existing in the cause (whether
The
mind
or matter)
of the
and
in
difficulty
of
the effect^.
assertion that "material effects are subordinate to psychological"
is
no
otherwise a difficulty than as two absolutely distinct classes of phenomena, are
assumed
have a real existence
to
and I believe that there
Bauddha philosophers which has not denied the one

that the prevalent opinions include a denial of both.
is
scarcely one school of
or the other assumption
All
and
known phenomena may
be ascribed to mind or to matter without a palpable contradiction
nor,
with the
phenomenon which does not seem

Hence the doctrines of
phenomenal reality.
single exception of extent, J is there a physical
to countenance the rejection of
Avidya and of Maya

strain,
and
would ask those whose musings are in an impartial
whether the Bauddha device be not
to stave off a difficulty
as
good a one as the Brahmanical,
which the unaided wit of man
is
utterly unable to cope
with?
* A writer in the Edinburgh Review for January 1852, p. 192, says that to make immortality dependant on immateriality is most illogical.
f Remusat desired to know how the Buddhists reconcile multiplicity with unity,
relative with absolute, imperfect with perfect, variable with eternal, nature with
intelligence
answer by the hypothesis of two modes one of quiescence, the other of activity
But when he joins "l'esprit et
one of development, the other of non-development.
la matiere*" to the rest of his antitheses, 1'must beg leave to say the question is entirely
consideration
of the extract given in the
altered, and must recommend the captious to a
Not that I have any sympathy with
text from a European philosopher of eminence.
that extravagance, but that 1 wish merely to state the case fairly for the Buddhists.
which however cannot, and are not classed among phenomena
I Time and Space
by Indian or European philosophers. Limited time and space are considered quasi
I
phenomena
by'all.
Sec Ballantyne's Vedanta, p. 80 the very phrase " ignorance " or

tially the same and more precise than Mdyd,
Ajn&na
is
essen-
'
Questionless,
not easy,
it is
if it
lent to material and psychological
IO9
be possible, to avoid the use of worcta equiva-
but the tenet obviously involved in the formal
subordination of one to the oLher class of phoenomena,

tenet, that all
phoenomena are homogeneous,
trick of words, or creates an irreconcileable contradiction
and in
fact
Remusat has here again commingled
If I have been held accountable for
my
"des
substantial than
etre
Buddha."
Now,
some of the notions above remarked on, I
arguti.es mystiques."
Remusat expressly
comme
admettre,
d'
must crave leave
"M. Hodgson
qttil
nomine Adi-
to say that I never admitted anything of
four systems,
sufficiently difierent,
all
the Swabhavika and the Aiswarika.
viz.,
says,
base du systeme entier, l'existence
but, on the contrary, carefully pointed out that the " systeme entier
consists of
so
by quite
tenets held exclusively
souverainement parfait et intelligent, de celui
d'un seul
mere
between the two doctrines,
supposed opinions have been opposed by something more
a eu parfaitement raison
the sort
placed beside the
Buddhist philosophy.
distinct schools of
suspect that these
when
at once renders the former a
Remusat has made
and two of them, radically
It is
most apparent to
a melange out of the doctrines of
all
me
the four schools
that
;
and
there are very sufficient indications in the course of this essay that his principal
authority
was of the Swabhavika
sect.
In speaking of the twof bodies of

corps est identifie avec la science et la
(Prajna)."
He had
Now
law, science, and so forth,)

difficulty in
this
those
is
the same observation, "La loi meme est son

who are aware that Prajna (most idly translated
name of the great material cause * can have no
made
previously
principe et sa nature."
Buddha he remarks, that "le veritable

loi.
La substance meme est la science
the
reaching the conviction that the Buddhist authority from whence
assertion
of Prajna being the very essence, nature, and

belonged to the Swabhavika school, and would have laughed
was borrowed,
principle of Buddha,'
'
at the co-ordinate doctrine of his translator, that
cause, of
whom
nature (Prajna)
is
an
The Swabhavika Buddhas, who derive

with the
Jirst cause
Buddha
is
the sovereign and sole
effect.
from nature, which
their capacity of identifying themselves

is
that cause, are as all-accomplished
as
the
Buddhas of the Aiswarikas, who derive the same capacity from Adi-Buddha,
who
is
that cause.
In this express character of sovereign cause only,
is
the
warikas distinguishable amid the crowd of Buddhas of

interminable subtleties of the
'
systeme entier
'
Adi-Buddba of the Ais-
all sorts
that he
who
and such
shall not
are the
carefully
five bodies named by me

see page 92.
Prakriteswari iti Prajna; and again, Dhdranatmaka iti Dharma. Dharma is a
synonyme of Prajna.
Prajna means Supreme Wisdom.
Whose? .Nature's
and
nature's, as the sole, or only as the plastic, cause.
So, again, Dharma means mortality in the abstract, or the moral and religious code
of these religionists, or material cause, in either of the two senses hinted at above ; or,
lastly, material effects, viz., versatile worlds. These are points to be settled by the context and by the known tenets of the writer who uses the one or other word
and when
it is known that the very texts of
the Sw&bhavikas, differently interpreted, have
served for the basis of the Aiswarika doctrine, I presume no further co-veto can be required.
I
*
There are in fact
I I
this cardinal point of
mark
guide him
primary causation, will find
unconfusedly through the various labyrinths of the several schools.

like the following ?
Did Remusat never meet with passages
"And
others unavailing to
all
other things and beings proceeded from
as all
or nature, so did
Swabhava
have
Vajra, Satwa, Buddha, thence called the self-existent:' Even the Swabhavikas
Adi-Buddha.
their Dhyani Buddhas, and their triad, including, of course, an
Names, therefore, are of little weight and unmeasured epithets are so profusely
;
scattered on every
hand that the practised alone can avoid
their snare.
I did not
designated as Adi, or the
first
admit a Theistic school, because I foimd a Buddha
forth
so
and
eternal,
omniscient,
yclept
infinite,
nor yet because I found him
but because I found him explicitly contradistinguished from nature, and syste-
matically expounded as the efficient cause of
when
announced the
Nor should
all.
it
be forgotten that
fact of a Theistic sect of Buddhists, I observed that this
compared with the Swabhavika, both recent and confined.

and the three preceding letters, I have spoken harshly
of Remusat's researches, let it be remembered, that I conceive my labours to have
been adopted without acknowledgment, as well as my opinions to have been miseraeect was, as
If,
in the course of this,
bly distorted.
that
avow
is
me
indebted to
have been most courteously
for the
name
of
in the face of the
world
my conviction
Buddhism possessed by
views were thence derived
telligible
The
Such
the extent of the obligation.
golian works on
told, that
Adi-Buddha
"
" the learned of Europe are

inference
is
palpable that
insidious injustice compels
that,
me
to
whatever the Chinese and Mon-
the French Savans
may
contain, no in-
of the general subject before
my
essays
appeared, or could have been afterwards, but for the lights those essays afforded.
I
had access
to the original Sanskrit scriptures of
to
interpreted
me by
learned natives, whose
just understanding of their contents.
discovered very
many
at
expound
to
their first steps
For the
rest,
to
little
upon
merit, if I
who were reduced
from the most refined and copious of languages upon
most subtle and interminable of
hand
hereafter depended
wonder, therefore, and
things inscrutably hidden from those
to considt barbarian translations
the
No
the Buddhists, and they were
hopes
them the dark
topics,
and
who had no
through the most labyrinthine of human mazes.
and personally, there
living oracle ever
signification of the written
is
word
to guide
||
bienseance for biensSance, and a sincere
tear dropped over the untimely grave of the learned
Remusat.
+ Burnouf seems to hold that the transcendentalists had very early an atheistic and
a theistic section, the theistic being the Yogacharyas, whose founder was Arya Sangha,
and that a sect apart from both held the middle path, and were therefore called MAdhyamikas.
my
original authorities, which stand

because
The case is altered materially now;
far less in need of living interpreters, are generally accessible.
Ye Dharmdnityd
I
beg to propose, as an expcrimentum cruris, the celebrated text
||
If the several theistic, atheistic, and sceptical meanings
Sata Sdhasrika.
in these few words, can be reached through Chinese or Mongolian
translations uninterpreted by living authorities, I am content to consider my argument
of the
wrapped up
worthless.
I I I
NOTE ON THE INSCRIPTION PROM SARNATH.
Number
have just got the 39th
hasten to
tell
of the Journal of the Asiatic Society and
you, that your enigma requires no (Edipus for
mandu, where almost every man, woman, and

repeat the confessio Jidei (for such
solution at
its
Bauddha
of the
Kath-
faith,
can
be called), inscribed on the Sarnath
Dr. Mill was perfectly right in denying the alleged necessary connexion
stone.
between the
No
may
it
child,
and the complement to
inscription,
such complement
is
needed, nor
produced by M. Csoma de Koros.
it
found in the great doctrinal authorities,
is
wherein the passage occurs in numberless places sometimes containing but half of the
dogma
complete
of the inscription;*
Even thus
teshdn Tathdgato."
cha yo nirodha, evam (rddi)

translation
"
Of
thus:
" Ye
Dharmd
hetu-prabhavd ; hetus
curtailed, the sense is complete,
Mahd
Sramana,"
without the "Teshdn

you may perceive by the following
as
things proceeding from cause, the cause
all
additional word, "
Of
all
is
Tathagata;"
or,
with the
things proceeding from cause, the cause (of their proces-
To complete the dogma, according to

The great Sramana hath likewise declared the
sion) hath the
Tathagata explained."
the inscription,
we must
"
add,
cause of the extinction of
all
With
things."
render this passage thus, " The causes of
the help of the commentators, I
all sentient
existence in the versatile world,
The Great Sramana hath
the Tathagata hath explained.
likewise explained the
such existence. "

Nothing can be more complete, or more fundamental, than this doctrine.
causes of the cessation of
asserts that
all
Buddha hath revealed the
as well as the causes of
its
The addition
mundane
complete cessation, implying, by the
to the eternal quiescence of Nirvritti,
vows.
causes of (animate)
which
latter, translation
the grand object of
is
by M. Csoma,
to the inscription supplied
cation merely of the general doctrine of the inscription.
It
is
all
Bauddha
the ritual appli-
explains especially
the manner in which, according to the scriptures, a devout Buddhist
from mundane existence,
It
existence,
may hope
by the practice of all virtues,

avoidance of all vices, and by complete mental abstraction. More precise, and as
usually interpreted here, more theistic too, than the first clause of the in-
to attain cessation
scription is
the terser sentence already given
to the Nepalese,
hagata:"
mood,
I used
Dharmd
viz.,
"
Of
understanding
with the
all
which likewise
by Tathagata, Adi-Buddha.
to reproach
is
more familiar
things proceeding from cause, the cause
my
old
friend,
atheistic tendency of his creed,
And
Amirta Nanda, (now
hetu-prabhavd hetus teshdn Tathdgato
is
the Tat-
whenever, in playful
alas
he would always silence
to the supreme, self-existent (SwayarnbhA)

*
viz.,
" insisting, that
me
no more)
with,
"Ye
Tathagata referred
Buddha.
is traditional not scriptural.

See pp. 79-80 for these causes, viz., Avidyd, Sanskdra, etc.
t The great temple of Swayambhu Natli is dedicated to this Buddha whence its name.
It stands about a mile west from Kathmandu, on a low, richly wooded, and detached
This curtailed version
and consists of a hemisphere surmounted by a graduated cone.

The majestic size, and severe simplicity of outline, of this temple, with its burnished
cone, set otf by the dark garniture of woods, constitute the Chaitya of Swayambhu
Nath, a very beauteous object.
hill,
I f
Nor did I often care to

word (Tathagata) as
had taught me
rejoin, that lie
tant
to strip the
dogma
of
impor-
so to interpret that
its necessarily theistic spirit
have already remarked in your Journal,* that the Swabhavika texts, differently
interpreted, form the
groundwork of the Aiswarika
It will not,
tenets.
Buddhism
therefore, follow, that the theistic school of
is
recognition upon the ground of original authorities; for the oldest
authority of
all
the aphorisms
and proved, by the
them by
this school
however,
not entitled to distinct
of the founder of the creed
are
and highest
justly
deemed,
upon
theistic school, to bear legitimately the construction put
proved in many ancient

commands a
the scriptural validity of which
books, both Pauranika and Tantrika,
necessary assent.
As
it
seems to be
supposed, that the theistic school has no other than Tantrika authorities for
sup-
its
mention the Swayambhu Parana and the Bhadra Kalpdoaddna, as

instances of the contrary. In a word, the theistic school of Buddhism, though
port, I will just
not so ancient or prevalent as the
atheis'.ic
and the sceptical schools,
is
as authentic
and legitimate a scion of the original stock of oral dogmata whence this religion
sprang, as any of the other schools. Nor is it to be confounded altogether with the
mummery
obscenity and mj'stic
vile
to
Tantras, though acknowledged to
of the
have considerable connexion with them.
Far
less is it to
be considered peculiar
Nepaul and Tibet, proofs of the contrary being accessible to
Buddha Dhydni
the Pancha
all
are inshrined in the cave at Bdgh,
and
Gyd ; as to which see my

A. Cunningham of Bengal, Wilson
temples surrounding the great edifice at

Pamlit's report
further on.
and Chapman of Madras, have

I
have myself seen a
fine
all
for instance,
minor
in the
Bauddha
of Bombay,
old
And
recorded opinions substantially the same.
image of Padma Pani, the aeon of the Dhydni Buddha
at Karnagurh on the Ganges. As I was looking over your Journal, my

Newari painter came into the room. I gave him the catch word, " Ye Dharnia,'
and he immediately filled up the sentence, finishing with Tathagata. I then
Amitabha,
uttered " teshan cha," and he completed the doctrine according to the inscription.
But
it
was
plement
to
he
no purpose that I
knew
it
tried to carry
him on through Csoma's
After I had explained
not.
its
meaning
ritual
com-
to him, he said,
the substance of the passage was familiar to him, but that he had been taught
to utter the sentiments in other
words, which he gave, and in which, by the way,
the ordinary Buddhist acceptation of Kusal
Kusal
out.
tum
vel
is
good.
mandatum
I will presently
Akusal
quod
is evil,
and
its
il'licitum vel
came
opposite, or Akusal,
in a moral or religious sense.
Quod
lici-
prohibitum.
send you a correct transcript of the words of the inscription,
from some old and authentic copy of the Rakshd Bhdgavati, or Prajnd Pdramitd,
as
you seem
to prefer calling
it.
So
will I of Csoma's
lay
my
hands on the Shurangamd Samddhi, which
At
all
events, I do not at once recognise the
dha work.
Meanwhile, you will
no pandit, but a perfectly

*t.
c,
J.
A. S. B.
notice, that as
illiterate
name
my
supplement so soon as
can
do not think I have by me.
as that of a distinct
Baud-
draftsman, above spoken
of, is
craitsman merely, his familiar acquaintance
with your inscription
And
dhists.
may
show how
serve to
I I
perfectly familiar
Bud-
to all
it is
here I would observe, by the way, that I have no doubt the inscrip-
tion on the Dehli, Allahabad,
and Behar
pillars is
some such cardinal dogma of
this faith.
am
no competent
assertion, that
but
used in the inscription, means not
as
Such
meaning
is its
where the sense
even larger, embracing the substance of
is
am
in question
"
all
inanimate as well
The universe
is
eter-
assured) to prove that the signification of ye
not always strictly relative, but often expletive merely
The points
infer-
The passage just quoted from the Sata Sd-
(without maker or destroyer.)
hasrika serves likewise (I
merely,
and
famous Ye Dharm&nitya of the Sata Sdhasrika,
in the
as animate entity, thus: "All things are imperishable," or,

nal,"
human actions
sentient existences in the three versatile worlds (celestial, terrene,
all
nal).
but I have competent authority for the
critic of Sanskrit,
Dharma,
undoubtedly
are,
but
is
let that pass.
existence in the Prdcrittiha or versatile
world, and cessation of such existence, by translation to the world of Nirvrifti;
and of such translation, animals generally, and not
human
beings solely, are capable.
Witness the deer and the chakwa, which figure so much
The
tales
of their
advancement
in
Bauddha sculptures
The word
to Nirvritti are popularly familiar.
nirodha signifies, almost universally and exclusively, extinction, or total cessation of

versatile existence
a meaning, by the way,
interpretation of dharma,
man
actions.
The
which confirms and answers
by general existences,
entities,
to the
and not by merely hu-
causes of versatile existence and of its extinction are given at
pp. 79-80.
worth while
It is scarcely
remark that there
to
cumber the present question with the further
Bauddha philosophers holding opinions which confound

universal entities throughout the versatile world, making
a sect of
is
onscious actions with
the latter originate absolutely and physically from the former, (see
Rmnusat
in the Journal,
It is not,
all
it
has,
may
Journal.*
Such
Dhdrandtmaha
(ens) is dharma.
mundane substances and existences,
is
the general
iti
1
dharma"
The sub-
physical and moral, in a word,
How many
meaning of dharma.
other meanings
be seen by reference to a note at the foot of p. 502, No. 34, of your
The
root
of the
might be expected from
word
is
Bauddha
dhri,
'
to hold.'
lexicographer.
the precise equivalent of dharma,
in space, and of the
Wilson's dictionary gives
This
is
essentially correct, as
The English word "substance"
which means that which supports
qualities
Brahmanic mdtrd, meaning that which measures space or
limits space, because space is only
speak here merely of etymologies.

*See
"
dogmata.
sustaining, essence
or
Nature as Amara Sinha's explanation of dharma.
is
remarks on
form and quality in the versatile universe, the sustainer (in space)
of versatile entity,
all things.
my
431.)
to very peculiar
the holding, containing,
stratum of
p.
however, admissible so to render generally received texts, as to make
them correspondent
1
No. 33,
p. 109, in notes.
measurable by the substances
it
holds.
[4
Note.
If
Mr. Hodgson's general interpretation of dharma
seems most probable, though
its
agreeable to M. Csoma's supplement)
appears manifestly
least,
Adi-Buddha
Even
plural, cansas.)
if
is
its
the true one, (which
more
cannot mean " Tathagata or the
it
evident from the accusative hetun (which
we were
is
implication, in the present reading, at
For that
atheistic.
the cause,"
is
is
the sense of moral duties
specification in
word avadat
to strike out the
also
is
the former
Ceylon
some
or aha
still
which is on the inscriptions, and the latter repeated in
word of that meaning is plainly understood and this may help to shew that the
explication given by the Aiswarika Buddhists (as though the words were he'tus
and that the Buddhist system
te.diain Tathagatas) is a more recent invention,
of
properly recognizes
moral causes,
being superior to the sage expounder of physical and
no
whose own exertions alone have raised him to the

the Epicurus of this great Oriental system,
highest rank
of existences,
qui potuit reruni cognoscere causas,
Atque metus omnes
et inexorabile
fatum
Subjecit pedibus.
What
is
mere
figure of speech in the
Roman
of wisdom, becomes religious faith in the east
poet, to express the calm dignity
opponent of popular superstition and Brahmanical
supreme over
all visible
and
invisible things,
the elevation of a philosophical
viz.,
caste, to the character of a
being
and the object of universal worship.
W. H. M.
Note on the Note of W. H.
M,
My friendly and learned
to the comparative recency of the
since expressed
But he
by myself.
old or unquestionable basis
and ancient authorities in

fancies of
Sir
criticism, it
W.
is
Aiswarika school and
for
its
is
wrong
support.
So that
mouths of Buddhists,
it,
is
case.
As
the
to verbal
That
my
fact
terser text is
and I never
the inscription, or that I
causes of versatile existence, alluded to
had seen
by Sakya,
in the text
my
"Quotations
enumerated in
etc., as
Proof" under the head of the Karmika doctrine
ble
fair to revert to
ipsissimis verbis.
the causes of the extinction of such existence.

is
no
quoted popular words popu-
an unquestionable
form was that of
graved at Sarnath, are Avidya, Sanskara,
passage
long
surely scarce necessary to observe that the governing verb being
scriptural authority for
in
hardly
it is
Jones' day, under cover of a Latin quotation
said, either that this terser
The express
right as
in supposing that that school has
and omitted the nice inflexions of case and number.
familiar to the
is
find that opinion
both Mr. Csoma and myself have pi-oduced genuine
removed, the noun will take the nominative

larly
annotator
may
and
there, too,
may
See pp. 79-80 of this
be found
vol.
This
the true complement or exponent of the ye dharmd, and leaves no possi-
doubt as to
its
meaning.
11$
NOTICE OP ADI-BUDDHA AND OF THE SEVEN MORTAL BUDDHA8,*

(With reference to Nepaul
chiefly)
FROM THE SWAYAMBHU PURANA.

The Swayambhu Purdna
was of
valley of Nepaul
mountains confining
relates in substance
circular form,
That formerly the
very deep water, and that the

forests,
giving shelter to
it
was beautiful
as the lake of Indra; south of
the Hemachal, the residence of Karkotaka, prince of the Nagas
and as many broad.
The
Countless waterfowl rejoiced in the waters.
was Naga Vasa;
of the lake
as follows
full of
were clothed with the densest
it
numberless birds and beasts.
name
and
In the lake were
many
seven cos long,
sorts of water-plants
but not the
Buddha arrived, with very many disciples and

Bhikshus, from Vindumati Nagar, in Madhya Desa, at the Lake of Naga Vasa,
After
lotos.
a time, Vipasyi
Vipasyi, having thrice
customary religious peregrinations.
in the course of his
W.
circumambulated the lake, seated himself in the N.

it,
(Vayukona)
side of
and, having repeated several mantras over the root of a lotos, he threw
the water, exclaiming, "
What
it
into
time this root shall produce a flower, then, from
out of the flower, Swayambhii, the Lord of Agnishtha Bhuvana, shall be revealed
the form of flame
in
Having
country.'*
of this prophecy,
it
was
according to the
fulfilled
of respectful followers,
Long
after the date
letter.
to
Naga
Vasa with a great
composed of rajas and persons of the four castes
Sikhi, so soon as he beheld Jyoti-rupa-Swayainbhii, offered to
(chatur varna).
many
become a cultivated and populous
repeated these words, Vipasyi departed.
Buddha, came Sikhi Buddha
After Vipasyi
company
shall the lake
and then
laudatory forms of prayer
and, having done
so,
then
rising,
him
he thrice walked round Naga Vasa,
thus addressed his disciples
"This place
shall hereafter,
by
the blessing of Swayambhu, become a delightful abode to those who shall resort
to it from all quarters to dwell in it, and a sweet place of sojourn for the pilgrim
and passenger
me and
my
apotheosis
depart to your
own
is
now
country."
near at hand, do you
all
waters of Naga Vasa, grasping in his hands the stalk of the
was absorbed
their master,
i.
e.,
the
into the essence of
threw themselves
self-existent
Buddha who
Madhya Desa
visited
;
many
disciples
Swayambhu.
into the lake,
the rest
Naga Vasa.
his life
Nepaul was long
was devoted
returned
Many
lotos,
and his soul
of his disciples, following
and were absorbed into Swayambhu,
home.
Viswabhu was born
Viswabhu was
in
the
third
Anupama-puri-nagar, of
His
to benefitting his fellow-creatures.
after that of Sikhi, and, like Sikhi, he
and
take your leave of
So saying Sikhi threw himself into the
visit to
brought with him a great
Bhikshus, Rajas and cultivators, natives of his
Having repeated the praises of Swayatnbhu-jyoti-rupa, he observed
own
land.
" In this lake
* Printed
from the Bengal Asiatic Journal, No. 29, A. D. 1834.

the lake was desiccated (by the sword of Manjusri says the myth probably earthquake) Karkotaka had a fine tank built for him to dwell in and there he
is still worshipped, also in the cave-temple appendant to the great Buddhist shrine of
When
Swayambhu Nith.
BUDDniST PHILOSOPHY.
A Bodhisatwa will,
Prajna-surupa-Guhycswari* will be produced.

her manifest out of the waters
will
become
with
replete
and
this place,
villages, towns,
and
through the
tirthas,
make
Swayambhu,
in time,
blessing- of
and inhabitants of various
Having thus prophesied he thrice circumambulated the lake*

and returned to his native country. The Bodhi-atwa above alluded to is Manju
Sri, J whose native place is very far off, towards the north, and is called Pancha Sirsha
and diverse
tribes."
Parvata, [which
Buddha
situated in Malta
is
Naga Vasa, Manju
to
Sri,
China Des.] After the coming of Viswabhu
meditating upon what was passing in the world,
discovered by means of his divine science that Swayambhii-jyoti-rupa, that

self-existent, in the
Naga Vasa.
spot,
and
Again, he
my name
is,
the
form of flame, was revealed out of a lotos in the lake of

reflected within himself
" Let
me
behold that sacred
will long be celebrated in the world;" and on the instant, col-
lecting together his disciples, comprising a multitude of the peasantry of the land,
and a Raja named Dharmakar, he assumed the form of Viswakarma, and with his
two Devfs
(wives,)
and the persons above-mentioned,
journey from Sirsha Parvata to Naga Vasa.
made
all
piija.
to the self-existent,
the while the aid of
set
out upon the long
There having arrived, and having
he began to circumambulate the lake, beseeching
Swayambhu
in prayer.
In the second circuit,
when he had
reached the central barrier mountain to the south, he became satisfied that that
was the best
place whereat to
draw
off the
waters of the lake.
Immediately
he struck the mountain with his scimitar, when the sundered rock gave passage to
the waters, and the bottom of the lake became dry.
the mountain, and
began
to
walk about the valley
He
then descended from
in all
directions.
As he
approached Gukyeswarf,|| he beheld the water bubbling up violently from the

spot,
and betook himself with pious zeal to the task of stopping
he commenced than
the
ebullition
of
the
water became
leaving bare only the flower of the lotos, the root of
it.
No
sooner had
less violent,
which
is
when,
the abode of
Guhyeswari, he erected a protecting structure of stone and brick over the recumform of Prajna, who is the same with Dharma and the
Adi-Buddha, according to the Triadists.
The type of AdiBnddha in Xepaul is fire that of Adi-Dharma, or Prajna or Guhyeswari is water or
she has no type, is of a secret form, i.e.., Guhyeswari, or lastly, according to the Tantras, her type is the Yoni, which, as well as the whole ritual belonging to it, is Guhya
or esoteric and concealed.
% The Tibetans identify Manjusri 'with Tim mi Sam bhota, minister of King Srongtsan, who lived in the seventh century, and was the great, introducer of Buddhism into
Tibet. Manjusri' s Tibetan name is Jam yang; Thumi is an incarnation of him.
The bracketed portions are from the commentators.
The site of the temple is near the centre of the valley, on the skirts of the lovely
grove of Pasupati and above 24 or 3 miles east from Mount Sambhii.
The fable
says, that the root of the lotos of Guhyeswari is at the former place, and the flower
the recumbent stalk being extended throughout the interval between
at the latter
Swayambhu or Adi-Buddha is supposed to reside in the flower, in the form of
them.
flame; Prajna, Paramita or Guhyeswari, in or at the root, in the form of water. The
temple of Guhyeswari has been appropriated by the Brahinans, who woiship this godBut it may
dess as the Sakti of Pasupati NAth, whose symbol is the four-faced Lingam.
be that the Buddhists are wrong in identifying Guhyeswari with Prajna, and that
Guhyeswari, the Sakti of Pa-upati NAth, is really one of the deities or Nathism
half orthodox (Goraksha nath) and half heterodox ^Matsyendra nath) divinity.
*
That
Sakti of
is
the mystic
Swayambhu
||
or
1 1
bent stalk, and called the structure, which rose into a considerable elevation as
it
neared the flower of the
constructed for that purpose a small
Parvata, (the western half of the

desiccated valley, Nepdld
yamhhii, and paid
was Swayambhii
since very
many
Sri, for the
'
'
place of
residence,
and
at length
which he gave the name of Manju Sri

and
of Sambhii Nath,)
hill
little
the sender
(to paradise,)
'
called the
who
Swa-
is
implying that the protecting genius of the valley
;
'
Thus the valley got the name
Adi-Buddha.
or
fit
to
hill,
Xe signifying
cherished
This work completed, Manju Sri
Satya Giri,
lotos,
began to look about him in search of a
persons had come from
Mount Sirsha
of Nepala
(or China)
and,
with Manju
Dharmakar Raja and his suite, Manju constructed a

way between Mount Swayambhii and Guhyeswari,]
himself, Manju Pattana, and established therein Dharmakar
residence of
large place of abode [half
and named
it
after
Maka China]
[of
as Raja, subjecting the
came from Sirsha Parvata
whole of the
Dharmakar'a
to
Manju Pattana.
[Thus was Nepaul peopled, the
rule,
inferior sort of people
and providing abodes
for
who
them
in
the city of
Sirsha,
and
its
which
is
in
Maha
first
came
inhabitants of which
China, and thus the valley got the
inhabitants, that
of
Nepali,
whose primitive
from Moimt
all
name
Nepala,
of
language was Chinese.*
much altered by the immigration of

Madhya Desa, and by the necessary progress of corruption and
change in a new country, till a new language arose in Nepaul by the natural
course of things. The primitive inhabitants of Nepaul were all of one caste, or
This language in course of time came to be
people from
had no
many
But
caste.
these, such as
became divided into
their descendants, in the course of time
castes, according to the trades
and professions which they followed
abandoned the world and shaved their heads became
Sramana, Chailaka, and Arhana, and took up their abode in

teries.
all
These four orders
all
monastic
and in
worldly commerce. But should any of them,
become worldly men, such

names.]
Manju
in Nepaul,
Sri,
still
monas-
excluded from
retaining the custom of tonsure,
having by such deeds as these acquired the highest celebrity
[ostensibly,
two Devis, and
forests or in
strictness absolutely
and of
are called Sravaka, etc. to a great extent of diverse
and
for the instruction of
mortal form and became nirvdn

his
Bhikshu,
in due course arrived at
after the disappearance of
Manju
the people] relinquished his
[but in truth departed for
Sri,
Mount
Pancha Sirsha Parvata.]
Karkut Sand Buddha came
some Bhikshukas, Dkarniapala Raja, and

from Kshemavatinagar, of Madhya Desa.
a multitude of
The beauty
the
Sirsha with
Some time
to Nepaul,
common
with
people,
of the country delighted
* Manju Sri or -Manju Ghosha (sweet voice) and Dharmakar are pure Sanskrit
words, which fact makes against the alleged location of Mount Sirsha (also Sans-'
krit)in China, and there are grounds for supposing that mount Sirsha was in Assam.
In the NTepaulese Vansavalis the first race of kings are apparently GwaHas and Saivas,
or rather Pasupatas, who worshipped Pasupati and received the throne from a Rishi called
Neyam. But this dynasty is open to doubt in all ways. The next dynasty is clearly
It is of the Kiranti tribe now locabarbarian and utterly alien to Sanskrit and India,
What says the
This evidence is indecisive.
ted in all the eastern part of Nepaul.
Skand Parana, and what is its age compared with that of the Sambhu Parana ? Physiognomy and speech decisively refer the Newars to the Tibetan stock.
Ql
Il8
him, and he remarked that in such a land the cultivator must be sure to reap
as
He
he sowed.
paid his devotions to Swayainbhii, and then launched out in
of the merits of
praise
Manju
Afterwards he per-
Nepaulese patriarch.
Sri, the
formed pujd to Guhyeswari, and then ascended Sankhocha mountain (Siva Pura :)
the prospect of that valley from that mount filled him with fresh delight, and he
Gunadhvaja, a brahman, and Abha-
again celebrated the excellence of the country.
yandada, a kshetriya, and others of
Kurkut Sand, here
followers of
Bhikshukas, in
order that
the four castes (chatiir varna,) respectful
solicited at his
hands the favour of being made
they might remain in this happy land, and by the
worship of Swayambhii attain to high merit and honour.

plied,
Kurkut cheerfully com-
and agreed to make a great many of the company Bhikshukas
and since
the mountain top afforded no water for that ceremony, he by his divine power
caused a spring to issue from the rock, and with
He
the requisite Abhisheka or baptism.

this spring
Vangmati
and then related
history of the valley watered

in Nepaul,
waters gave to his followers
its
the river that originated with
called
to his followers
by the Vangmati.
both the past and future
Then, having
Raja Dharmapal and some Bhikshus and common
left
folks,
behind him
who had come
with him, and desired to stay, Kurkut Sand departed with the rest of them to his
native city of Kshemavati.
were the
first
Many
paul.
[These companions of Kurkut Sand, or Krakucckand,
natives of the plains of India
(Madhya
l)esa)
who remained
of them, addicting themselves to the business of the world,
householders, and the founders of several towns and villages in Nepaul

others,
who adopted
When
these Madhyadesiyas had
in
Ne-
became
;
whilst
the ascetical profession, dwelt in the forests and Vihars.
become numerous
in Nepaul, they
and their
descendants were confounded with the former or northern colonists under the com-
mon
appellation of Nepali and
Newari
being
only separated and contradistin-
guished by the several trades and professions which they hereditarily practised.
Thus, in the early ages, Nepaul had four classes of secular people, as Brahman,
Kshetriya, Vaisya, and Sudra, and four ascetical classes, namely, Bhikshu, Sra-
mana,t Chailaka, and Arhanta, dwelling in
forests
and monasteries, and
all
were
Buddha-mdrgi. ]
ACCOUNT OF DHARMAKAR EAJA AND DHARMAPAL RAJA.

Dharmakar, the before noted [Chinese] prince of Nepaul, being disgusted with
the world, abandoned his sovereign power, and placed Dharmapal, the Raja of
Gaur-des, already
jects
mentioned, upon his throne.
with perfect justice and clemency, and made
Dharmakar, and regarded with equal favour
Dharmapdl governed
piija at -the
his subjects that
his sub-
Chaitya erected by
came from Mount
Malm China,] and those who immigrated from Madhya-desa.

account of prachanda deva. Prachanda Deva, a Raja of
Sirsha [or
which
is
of hia age and country.
*From
Gaur-dos,
adjacent to Madhya-des, and of the Kshatriya tribe, was the wise
At
man
length, being inspired with the ambition of becoming
Vach, 'speech.'
f Snlvaka and Sramana are equivalent.
9
;
BUDDniST
nirvdna, he abandoned
began
and
to
sway
his princely
wander over various
PHILOSOPHY.
I 1
and taking with him a few
and having made pujd to the Tri Ratna, or
devatd,
Swayambhii, and there performed

Parbat, and offered his prayers to
lighted
Sri,
Manju
Gunakar with the display of
a Bhikshuka
triad,
his
who accompanied Prachanda
Bhikshus
at the
to
he went to the temple of

then ascended Manju Sri
Some
others of those that
panions returned to Gaur-des.]
many Brahmans and
great
came with Prachanda
them
to
Nepaul pre-
where
in Nepaul,
third portion of Prachanda's
After a time, Santa Sri represented to his
com-
Guru
the sacred flame of Swayambhii with a covering

Gunakar was charmed with the proposition and proposer, and having
his desire to protect
structure.
the
becoming a Bhikshu,
after
[A
Nepaul received the tonsure, and became
they also remained and became Buddhists.
purified
disciple
One day Prachanda Deva eo deexcellent qualities, that Gunakar made
ferring the pursuits of the world, continued to exercise
him
and
pith,
same time with Prachanda, and took up their abode in the monas-
teries of Nepaul.
Gunakar
delighted
and
Sri.
and the said Raja Prachanda
tirtha,
and finished by becoming a
obtained the titular appellation of Santa Sri.

others
He
his devotions.
Manju
of Gunakar Bhikshu, a follower of
him
He was
the course of his peregrinations arrived at Nepaul.
in
with the beauty of the country, and having visited every
he
sages,
and pilgrimages,
countries, visiting all the shrines
him with
title
thirteen sprinklings of
sacred water (trayodasdbhisheka,) gave
of Dikshita Santikar Vajra Acharya.
dated the arrival of
the
people of
[From
these transactions
is
Gaur-des in Nepaul, and their becoming
Buddhists.]
account of kanaka muni. Once on a time, from Subhavatfnagar of MadhyaKanaka Muni Buddha, with many disciples, some illustrious persons, and a
countless multitude of common people, arrived at Nepaul, in the course of his
des,
religious peregrinations,
and spent some months in the worship of Swayambhii,
and the Tri Ratna, and then departed with most of
mained
in Nepaul,
[and these too, like

desiyas,
who became Buddha-margi and

all
his attendants.
few
re-
worshippers of Swayambhii
the preceding, soon lost their name and character as
and were blended with the Nepali or Newari
Madhya-
race.]
account of kasyapa buddha. Once on a time in Mrigadaba-vana, near BeKasyapa Buddha was born. He visited Nepaul in pilgrimage, and made
nares,
his devotions to
in Nepaul,
Sambhunath.
[Most of the people
account of sakya sinha buddha.

Stigara,* in the sthan of
Some
Kapila Muni,
staid
time
who
afterwards became a
after
Kasyapa's
visit at
Gauga
and city of Kapila-vastu, and reign of
Suddhodana Raja, of the Saka-vansa, was born

Siddha,
who came with him
and soon became confounded with the aborigines.]
Buddha with
(as the son of that
the
name
of
Raja) Sarvartha
Sakya Sinha.
Sakya,
with 1,350 Bhikskukas, and the Raja of Benares, several counsellors of
state,
* Ganga, Sagara, says Wilson, has no necessary connection with the ocean.
For the
But I doubt it' the site were so far from
of Kapila-pur see Laidlay's Fahian.
Timur, in his annals, says that he took it and speaks of it as though it were
the hills.
actually in the hills, a mountain fastness in fact.
site
120
and a crowd of peasantry of that kingdom, set out on the pilgrimage to Nepaul.
his devotions to the self-existent, in the form of flame, he went to
Having paid
the Chaitya or Puchhagra Hill,t and repeated to his disciples the past history of
Nepaul, as well as
Bodbisatwa
these that of Nepaul
history,
with many praises of Manju Sri
the world are twenty-four Piths, and of
Having
the best."
is
all
all
His companions,
he departed.
so said,
of the Chatur varna, or four castes, [Brahman, Kshatriya, Yaisya, and
who were
to the four orders, [Bhikshu,
and belonged
Siidra,]
whole future
its
he then observed, " In
Arhant,] being
much
and Sramana, and Chailaka, and
pleased with Nepal-des continued to dwell in
it
[and in
course of time were blended with the aboriginal Nepali's, and became divided
several castes, according to the avocations
into
Some time
after the date of the
which they hereditarily pursued.]
above transaction, Raja Gunakama Deva, prince of
Katkniaiidu, [a principal city of Nepaul,]
became the
disciple
of
above-
the
Guna Kama Deva, with the aid derived

mentioned Santikar Vajra Acharya.
the Nag Raja KarkotakaJ out of the
brought
Santikar,
of
merits
from the divine
lake or tank of Adhar, and conveyed him to Santipiir with much ceremony and
many religious rites. The cause of this act was that for many previous years there
had been a deficiency of
famine
with
and
its
rain,
whereby the people had been grievously distressed

was an ample supply of rain, and the return
consequence
of the usual fertility of the earth
Subsequently, Sri
and plenty of food.
Narendra Deva became Raja of Bhagatpattan, (or Bhatgaon
;)
he was the disciple of Bandudatta Acharya, and brought Aryavalokiteswara*

(Padma Pani) from Putalakaparvat (in Assam) to the city of Lalita pattan in
Nepaul.
The reason
years duration, and

like
happy
was a drought of twelve

The measure was attended with
of inviting this divinity to Nepaul

of the greatest severity.
results, as in the case of
conveying the
Nag Raja with
so
much honour
to Santipiir.
NOTE ON THE PRIMARY LANGUAGE OF THE BUDDHIST WRITINGS.

I
have read
With
article
n.
regard to the language in which the religion
and spread among the
is
of Sakya,
people,' I perceive nothing opposed to
in the fact that that language
There
||
of the 6Gth No. of your Journal with great interest.

'
was preached
my own
opinions
was the vernacular.
merely in your case, as priorly in that of Mr. Tumour, some misappre-
hension of the sense in
which
I spoke to that point.
t Part of Mount Sambhu, west of the great Chaitya also called Go-pucch.
And in the annals of Cashmir he figures
X Karkotaka is named in the SwnMtd.
The Nagas and Indra maintain still in Nepaul a deal
as conspicuously as in Nepaul.
of their pristine authority, and in connection one with the other for the Nagas are
;
invoked
for rain.
rains are deficient, in

The Nagas are still worshipped in Santipiir whenever the
conformity with this legend and with the original one of the lake as being the N&gvasa.
* Is Avalokeswara the same as Matsyendra Nath, whose arrival in Nepaul is referred
to the fifth century of Christ by well known memorial verses? The identification with
Padma Pani vests on Sastras of Nepaul and of China. SeeJ.R.A.S., new series, vol.
part
ii.,
|l
i.,
p. 137.
Printed from the Bengal Asiatic Journal, No. 68, A. d. 1837.
The preaching and spreading
-
of the
religion
is
elaboration of those speculative principles from
In the one case, the appeal would be to the

wkilst I
am
to the people,
religion
which formed the
eschewed the Prakrits
was deduced.
think that those
basis of the popular creed,
were enounced,
I never alleged that the
Buddhists had
I only denied the allegation that they
had eschewed the
and I endeavoured, at the same time, to reconcile their use of
And
in the other, to the few.
and as propagandists used the vulgar tongue,
defended and systematised in Sanskrit.
Sanskrit
Buddhists as practical reformers addressed themselves
satisfied that the
philosophical dogmata
a very different thing from the
which the
many
drawing a distinction between the means employed by their philosophers
both,
by
to establish
the principles of this religion, and the means employed by their missionaries to
propagate the religion

Joinville
itself.
had argued that Buddhism was an original creed, older than Brahman-
ism, because of the grossness of
its
leading tenets which savour so
much
of
'
flat
atheism.'
I answered that
Buddhism was an innovation on the
existing creed, and that all
the peculiarities of the religion of Sakya could be best and only explained by
religions sanction, whence arose the
Bauddha aversion to gods and priests, and that enthusiastic selftaught by Buddhism in express opposition to the servile extant reference
advertence to shameful prior abuse of the

characteristic
reliance
of
all
Jones, again, had argued that the
things to heavenly and earthly mediation.
Buddhists used only the Prakrit,
i. e.,
Pali, because the
books of Ceylon and Ava,
(the only ones then forthcoming,*) were solely in that language or dialect.
answered by producing a whole library of Sanskrit works in which the principles

of
Buddhism
are
more
fully
expounded than
in all the legendary
tomes of Ceylon
and Ava; I answered, further, by pointing to the abstruse philosophy of Buddhism, to
admitted
the
With
preeminence, as scholars, of
most central and
their location in the
the Sanskrit at
expounders
its
command, I asked and ask
again,
and to
(Behar and Aiidh).
literary part of India
why men
so placed
and
gifted,
and having to defend their principles in the schools against ripe scholars from
all
parts of India (for those were days of high debate and of perpetual formal dis-
putation in palaces and in cloisters)

limited and feebler organ
available ?
is,
in
The presumption
my judgment,
backed
slabs,
as
discovered here.
of
Buddhism.
should be supposed to have resorted to a
when they had
the universal and
worth a score of any inferences deduceable from monumental
this
presumption
is
And,
if
the principles of this creed were not expounded and syste-.
Sanskrit
originals
and of
the
sophic founders of
Buddhism used
we
avowed Tibetan
judgment the extent and character of these works
to
make
of the
translations
In
Ne-
my
settle the question that the philo-
Sanskrit and Sanskrit only, to expound, defend
W. Jones had, however, in his possession a Sanskrit copy of the Lalita Vtsand had noticed the personification of Diva Natura under tin style of Arya Tara,
* Sir
tara,
Buddhism
by the Sanskrit records of
Those records came direct from the proximate head quarters
matised in the schools of India in Sanskrit, what are

paulese
more powerful one equally
that they did not thus postpone Sanskrit to Prakrit
122
and record the speculative principles of
their system, principles without
vulgar creed would be (for us,) mere leather and prunella
Nor
is
which the
this opinion in
the least opposed to your notion (mine too) that the practical system of
duced from those
was spread among the people
principles,
de-
belief,
of the spot, as well as
propagated to remoter spots, by means of the vernacular.

admitted that Buddhism was long taught in Ceylon without the aid of
It is
Books
and that the
book reached that island nearly 300 years
first
after the intro-
duction of the creed.
Here
is
a distinct admission of
Sakya
racter of the religion of
ultimate
imperfect
which regulated
I long since inferred
From
authorities of the sect
were transferred
and immediately to the proximate
directly
books of Ceylon have
now
in a
the authorities
metropolis
this
Nepaul, where and where only, I believe, they are

lations, the
from the general cha-
the protracted total want, and
and practice in Magadha, in Kosala and Hdjayriha,
word, in the Metropolis of Buddhism.

in question
viz.,
those standard written
supply, of
belief
what
in that island,
hills
of
If not trans-
to be found.
the appearance of being ritual collectanea,
all
legendary hearsays, and loose comments on received texts
To
rally be written in the vulgar tongue.*
all
which would natu-
however, we must add some
these,
very important historical annals, detailing the spread and diffusion of Buddhism.
Similar annals are yet found in Tibet, but, as far as I know, not in Nepaul, for what
reason
it is difficult
to divine.
But
these annals,
however valuable
written standard of faith
and until
mas\ produced from Ceylon,

of that island
drew
to us, for historical uses, are not the original
I see the
Prajnd Pdramitd and the nine Dhar-
must continue of the opinion that the Buddhists
their faith from secondary, not primary sources
the former were in Ceylon as elsewhere, vernacular
and Kosala, as they are
still
and that whilst
the latter were in MayadJia
in Nepaid, classical or Sanskrit
Certainly Buddhism, considered in the practical view of a religious system,
always appealed to the

sacred
texts (Sanskrit
common
sense and interest of the
many, inscribing
and Prakrit) on temple walls and on
pillars,
its
most
placed in
market, highroad and cross-road.
This material fact (so opposite to the genius of Brahmanism,) I long since
called attention to
and thence argued that the inscriptions on the
lata
would be
probably found to be of scriptural character.
The tendency
of
your
researches
to prove that the elaborate forms of the
Devanagari were constructed from simpler elements, more or

the popular Bkashas,
who
those
is
very curious
less
appropriated to
and seems to strengthen the opinion of
hold Hindi to be indigenous, older than Sanskrit in India, and not (as
Colebrooke supposed) deduced from Sanskrit.

letters before the
If
Buddhism used
these primitive
Devanagari existed, the date of this creed would seem to be
in the vulgar tongue are common in Nepaid, and frequently we

Sanskrit text with a vernacular running commentary.
f-They have one of the nine, mz., the Lalita Vistara; but M. Burnouf assures me, in
Now, as this work is forthcoming iu a faultless state in
a miserably corrupted state.
Sanskrit, I say the Pali version must be a translation.
*
Such works written
have
J
:
BUDDHIST
thrown back
remote
to a
asra,
PHILOSOPHY.
23
the Sanskrit letters and language must be
or,
comparatively recent.
Buddhism into far ages and realms but I am

Buddhism which has come down to us in the Sanskrit, Pali and
Tibetan books of the sect, and which alone therefore we- do or can know, is
neither old nor exotic.
That Buddhism (the doctrines of the so called sect nth
Buddha) arose in the middle of India, in comparatively recent times, and expressly
I can trace something very like
sure that that
out of those prior abominations which
had long held the people of India
in
cruel vassalage to a bloated priesthood.
The race
Sdkya Sinha (by the way, the Sinha proves
of Sdka, or progenitors of
that the princely style
was given
to
him
until he
have been Scythians or Northmen, in one sense
mans
in that
nomen
same
sense,
assumed the
with reference to their original
viz.,
gentis diffusissimce, cu/us
maxima pars
in
ascetic habit)
may
and so probably were the Brah-
montibus degit
(Brachmanes
seat.
reliqui circa
Gan-
gem.)
If one's purpose
and object were
to search
backwards
the original
to
hive
of
nations, one might, as in consistency one should,
draw Brahmanism and Buddhism,
Yyasa and Sakya, from Tartary. *
that quoad the
ded
man and
thing
All I say
Sakya Sinha and
is,
his tenets
they
known and
recor-
are indisputably Indian
and recent.
I incline to the
opinion that Hindi
independent, originally, of Sanskrit.
may
be older in India than Sanskrit, and
But were
this so,
and were
the Buddhists used the best dialect of Hindi {that however

Sanskrit, whateveritsprimal independence), such admissions
is
it
also true that
saturated with
would rather strengthen
than weaken the argument from language against the exotic origin of Buddhism.
According to this hypothesis, Hindi is not less, but more, Indian than Sanskrit
and, a fortiori, so
But, in
is
the religion assumed to have committed
very truth, the extant records of
its
records to Hindi.
Buddhism, whether
Prakrit, exhibit both languages in a high state of refinement
Sanskrit or
and though one or
both tongues came originally from Tartary, they received that refinement in India,
where, certainly, what we know as Buddhism, (by means of these records) had
its origin, long after Brahmanism had flourished there in all its mischievous rnio-ht.
P. S.
You
hope, excuse my having adverted to some other controverted

which your paper immediately suggested. These questions are
will, I
topics besides that
a good deal linked together
dence throughout
its
for instance, if
Buddhism
most authentic records that
it
is
furnishes internal evi-
the express antithesis of
That is from a country to the north-west of Hindostan a country beyond the Indus
in the widest sense, but not Turan orTartary as we call it, for nons of the Tartar races were literary, and even to this hour
the Turks only have some poor and borrowed pretensions to literature.
The ITighours got their alphabet from the Nestorians, and the Mongols theirs from the Uighours.
f According bo all Bauddha authorities tin- lineage of the whole seven mortal Buddhaa
is expressly stated to he Brahmanical or Kshatriya! What is the answer to this ?
+ Our own distinguished Wilson has too easily followed the continental European
writers in identifying the Saka vansa with the classical Sacse or Scythians, and Buddhism with Samanism. The Tartars of our day avow that thry got all their knowledge
from India; teste Kahgyvr ct Stangyur.
and no doubt the country called Ariana or Iran,
124
Brahmanism,
its posteriority of date to the latter is decided, as well as its jealousy
Nee
of priestly pretensions.
clericis infinita
out libera potestas,
only very precise and weighty evidence will
suffice
And
none such yet from Ceylon or from Ava.
be
a deduction which
is
set aside
to
I have seen
observed, I here advert
it
to authentic scriptural tenets, and not to popular corruptions resulting' from the
facile confusion of
We
the monastic with the clerical character.
by no means prepared to enter into a controversy on a subject

and accidental acquaintance nor will we arrogate to ourselves the distinction of having entered the lists already occupied by
such champions as Mr. Hodgson and Mr. Tumour, who have both very strong
Note.
on which
we
are
profess but a slight
As
arguments to bring forward, in support of their opposite views.
far as the
Dharmalipi could be taken as evidence the vernacularists had the right to

on the other hand there can be no doubt, as Mr. Hodgson says, that
disputation with the existing Brahmanical schools
and overcame, must have been conducted

tion
it
but
all scholastic
which Sakya personally
visited
The only ques-
in the classical language.
whether any of these early disquisitions have been preserved, and whether,
by Professor Wil-
is,
for example, the Life of Sakya, called the Lalita Vistara, found
son to agree verbatim with the Tibetan translation examined simultaneously by Mr.
Csoma, has a greater antiquity than the Pitakattayan of Ceylon ? We happen

moment two letters bearing upon the point in
fortuitously to have received at this
dispute from
which we gladly
alluding to the notice of the
Csoma
avail ourselves of an extract or
life
of
two
Mr. Tumour,
Sakya from the Tibetan authorities by Mr.
in the As. Res. vol. xx. writes
" The
Tibetan
life
is
apparently a very
meagre performance, containing scarcely anything valuable in the department of

history
whereas had the materials whence
was taken been genuine, the
it
would have been able to bring forward and

mation on the pilgrimages and the acts of Sakya
illustrate
lator
much
trans-
valuable infor-
in various parts of India during
Even the superstitious facts recorded are much

represented in the Pitakattayan. Thus the dream of
the forty-five years he was Buddha.
more absurd than they
Maya Devi
nancy,
is
are
of having been rubbed
having entered by the right side
Devi
!
'
'
by a Chhadanta elephant, during her preg-
converted into a matter of
Chhadanta
books Chhadanta
is
'
is
the
taken
name
fact,
.into
of Sakya,
the
literally as
womb
in the
form of an elephant
body of Maya
a six-tusked elephant, whereas
of a lake beyond the
the elephants are of a superior breed.*
'
or cavity of the
It is
by our
Himalaya mountains where
mentioned twice in the Mahdwanso;
chaps, v. and xxii."

If the rationality of a story be a fair test of its
deny, the Pali record will here bear

that
"
we have
life "
away
the
palm
genuineness, which few will
but
it is
much
to be regretted
not a complete translation of the Sanskrit and of the Ceylonese
to place side
by
side.
It is impossible that instruction
should not be gained
* Let zoologists say what they think of the rationality of this story.
I would add
that refilling of the sense of old legends is a common practise of later times.
125
by such an impartial examination.

But to return to the subject under discusmy friend Mr. Csoma writes from Titalya in the Purniya district
sion
||
" In reference to your and Mr. Tumour's opinion that the original records of the
Buddhists in ancient India, were written in the Mdgadhi dialect, I beg leave to
add
in support of
is
it
it,
that in the index or register, (dkar-chhag)
stated that the Sutras in general
i. e.,
all
of the Kahgyur,
the works in the Kahgyur, except
the twenty-one volumes of the Sher-chhin* and the twenty-two volumes of the
rGyud
class,
after the
death of Sakya, were
first
and the Sher-chhin and rGyud in the Sanskrit

several other corrupt dialects.
It is probable that in the seventh century
wards, the ancient Buddhistic religion was

Sanskrit, before the Tibetans
own
written in the Sindhu language,
but part of the i-Gyud also in
commenced
its
and
after-
remodelled and generally written in

introduction by translation into their
country."
This explanation, so simple and so authentic, ought to set the matter at rest,
in the manner that the advocates of either view should most desire,
and that
shews that both are right

It is generally allowed that the Pali and the
Zend are derivatives of nearly the same grade from the Sanskrit stock
and the
modern dialect of Sindh as well as the Bhdshd of upper and western India present
for it
more striking analogies
to the Pali, in the
removal particularly of the
and the
r,
modification of the auxiliary verbs, than any of the dialects of Bengal, Behdr, or
Ceylon.
Plausible grounds for the existence of
\\
heart of Magadha, and the preference given
this
western dialect in the
may be
found in the origin of the ruling dynasty of that province, which had confessedly proceeded from the north-west. At any rate those of the Sdkya race, which
it
in writings of the period,
had emigrated from Sinde to Kapilavastu (somewhere
in the
Gangetic valley)
may
As an example of the information already obtained from Mr. Csoma's translated

sketch, we may adduce the origin of the custom seemingly so universal among the Buddhists of preserving pictorial or sculptured representations of the facts of his life.
After his death the priests and minister at Rdjagriha are afraid of telling the king Ajata
Satru thereof lest he should faint from the shock, and it is suggested by Mahakasyapa
by way of breaking the intelligence to him, that the Mahdmantra or chief priest should
"go speedily into the king's garden, and cause to be represented in painting, how Chomdandas ( Bhagavdn) was in Tushita : how in the shape of an elephant he entered his
mother's womb how at the foot of the holy fig-tree he attained supreme perfection
how at Vdrdnasl he turned the wheel of the law of twelve kinds, (taught his doctrines :') how he at Srdvasti displayed great miracles
how at the city of Ghachen he
descended from the Trayastrhisa heaven, whither he had gone to instruct his mother
and lastly, how having accomplished his acts in civilizing and instructing men in
his doctrine at several places, he went to his last repose in the city of Kusha in Assam." Now whether the book in question was written sooner or later, it explains the
practice equally and teaches us how we may successfully analyze the events depicted.
in the drawings of Ajanta, perchance, or the sculptures of Bhilsa, with a full volume of the life of Sdkya in our hand. Similar paintings are common in Ava, and an
amusing, but rather aprocryphal, series may be seen in Upham's folio history of
||
Buddhism.
*This exception embraces the whole speculative tenets or philosophy of Buddhism.
This
is
a daring hypothesis,
Where were
contrary, I think, to all legitimate presumptions.

the books remodelled, and why in Sanskrit if their prototypes were
Sanskrit.
||
also
See the Rev. Dr. Mill's note on this subject in the Jour. B. As. Soc. vol.
Professor Wilson's remarks, vol. i. p. 8.
Rl
v., p.
30
126
have preserved the idiom of
this native province
and have caused
with the religion which was promulgated through
We
by no means
are
it
to prevail along
means.*
its
of opinion that the Hindi, Sindhi, or Pali had an indepen-
dent origin prior to the Sanskrit.
The more the first of these, which is the most

modern form and the farthest removed from the classical language, is examined
and analyzed the more evidently is its modification and corruption from the ancient
stock found to follow systematic rules, and to evince rather provincial dialectism
may
(if I
use the word) than the
existent and written language.
mere engraftment of foreign words upon a pre-
The aboriginal terms
rather sought in the hills and in the peninsula
of Indian speech
must be
and populous
in the plains
dis-
of the north the evidences of their existence are necessarily smothered
tricts
by
the predominance of the refined and durable languages of the court, of religion
and of the educated
classes.
writer in the Foreign Quarterly has lately been bold
enough to revive the theory of Sanskrit being merely a derivative from the Greek
through the intervention of the Zend, and subsequent to the Macedonian invas
ion
The Agathocles'
that day alone with
coin ought to answer all such speculations.
appropriate
its
find
is
the Sanskrit as
precise derivative relation to
which we argue
symbols
proved
it
now
does
are not modern, but of that very period.
then in use
afforded
for writing Sanskrit
for
All
soma graven Brahmanical record of the same period
The Pali
of
have held the same
to
to
we
the records on
want
still
is
to
shew the character
and to add ocular demonstration to the proofs
by the profound researches
of philologists as to the genuine antiquity of the
venerable depository of the Vedas.
A DISPUTATION RESPECTING CASTE BY A BUDDHIST.
my
One day
krit,
what
Bauddha
learned old
friend brought
with such an evident air of pride and pleasure, that

it
my
" Oh,
contained.
friend !"
was
me
I
Sans-
little tract in
immediately asked him
his reply, " I have long been trying to
procure for you this work, in the assurance that you must highly approve the wit
and wisdom contained in
it
length obtained the loan of
nor even a copy of

1
it.'
I
it,
These words of
it
and, after
my
old friend stimulated
a task which
we
But
cannot let you have
full
my curiosity, and with a few
me and my pandit
his aid in
my
pandit (a
Brahman
fair
making a
accomplished within the limited period of
sion of the original, although
co-operation with us,
applications to the owner, I have at

it,
such being the conditions on which I procured you a sight of
engaged the old gentleman to lend
lation of it
many
for three or four days.
my
words
trans-
posses-
of Benares) soon declined
of indignation at the author and his
work
Notwith-
* This is Csoma in No. 14 of Jour. Bengal As. Soc.

But Wilson in the Hindu Drama
{ATotes on the Mrichhakatl) derives the Bihar dynasty from Andhra or Telingana.
If the Sanskrit literature be so old as alleged (tenth to fourteenth century b. c.) it
is most strange that we have no Brahmanical monument or inscription nearly so old as
The Rigveda Sanhita suggests at once that this cannot be
the Buddhist Pali ones.
referred to ignorance, and may be referred to the Sabtean genius of primitive Hinduism, which was averse to idols and temples.
PHILOSOPHY.
BUDDHIST
may
standing, however, the loss of the pandit's aid, I think I
the translation gives a fair representation of the matter of the original, and
altogether without some traces of
It consists of a
its
is
not
manner.
shrewd and argumentative attack, by a Bauddha, upon the Brah-
manical doctrine of caste
and what adds
the truth of the Brahmanical writings
is
to its
To an English reader
that, throughout,
the author's proofs
drawn from those
writings.
circumstance gives a puerile character to a
this
owing
all
is,
and turns their own guns against
lie possesses himself of the enemy's battery,
large portion of the treatise,
pungency
assumed, and that
of the erroneousness of the doctrine of caste are
them.
27
venture to say that
enormous absurdity of the data from
to the
His inferences, however, are almost always shrewdly
which the author argues.
drawn, and we must remember that not he but his antagonists must be answerable
To judge by
for the character of the data.

2>andit
a wise man
is
my Brahman
by this little treatise, it would seem that

no method of assailing Brahmanism comparable to that of "judging it out
the examination of Bauddha literature

there
the effect produced upon
in his generation, and accustomed for the last four years to
own mouth :" and the resolution of the Committee

make a thorough knowledge of Hindu learning the
Serampore College
of its
of the
to
basis of the education of
young apostles of Christianity
their destined
We
in India,
would thence appear
But to return to my little treatise.

all know that the Brahmans scorn to consider the Siidras as
most wise and
to be
politic.
of the
same nature
with themselves, in tbis respect resembling the bigoted Christians of the dark ages,
who deemed
in like
an European mind.
is,
to.
The Bauddha
it
treats
bears the closest resemblance to the style of argu-
European prejudice
need not point more particularly to the glorious passage

u
:
fed with the

treatise
which our author
in
admirable, and altogether worthy of
in covertly assailing the analogous
in the Merchant of Venice

senses, passions
my judgment,
in
Indeed
ment used by Shakespeare

already adverted
The manner
manner of the Jews.
this part of his subject
Hath not
same
commences
Jew
food, hurt
eyes, hands, organs, dimensions,
by the same diseases
in the sober
manner
? " etc.
of a title page to a book
but immediately after the author has announced himself with due pomp, he rushes
H in medias res," and to the end of his work maintains the animated style of viva
voce disputation.
Who Ashu
where, I cannot ascertain.
Mahd pandit,
or great sage,
Ghosha, the author, was, when he flourished, and
All that
is
known
of
him
and wrote, besides the
two larger Bauddha works of high
repute, the
in
little
Nepaul
treatise
names of which
is,
that he
now
was
translated,
are mentioned in a
uote.*
I,
my
*
Ashu Ghosha,
soul
and
all
my
first
invoking Manju Ghosha, the Guru of the world, with
strength, proceed to compose the book called
The Buddha Charitra Kdvya, and the Nandi-Mukhasughoslia
all
Vajra Suchi,f in
A vaddn-a,
and other
works.
t Burnouf has
said that the very term
Vajra proves this to be a very recent work.
28
accordance with the Shastras (Hindu or Brahmanical Sdstras).

Allow then that your Vedas and Smritis, and works involving both
and Artha, are good and

still
what you
valid,
Brahman
say, that the
Dharma
and that discourses at variance with them are invalid,

is
the highest of the four castes, cannot he
proved from those hooks.

Tell me, first of
all,
what
Brahmanhood
is
or wisdom, or the ritual (dchdrd), or acts,
you say
If
were
at
first
became gods
Vedas that u the sun and the moon, Indra, and other
quadrupeds
even the
and some other deities were
vilest of the vile
(jiva),
clear that
it is
first
deities,
animals and afterwards
(Swdpaka) have become gods."
Brahmanhood is not life

proved from these words of the Mahdbhdrata
words
morality {karma) or the Vedas?-
such an assertion cannot be reconciled with the Vedas
it is life (jiva),
for it is written in the
body,
Is it life, or parentage, or
i.e.,
From these
a position which
is
further
"
Seven hunters and ten deer,

of the hill of Kalinjal, a goose of the lake Manasarovara, and a chakwa of Saradwipa, all these were born as Brahmans, in the Ktiruksketra (near Dehli), and
became very learned in the Vedas." It is also said by Manu, in his Dharma Sdstra,
"
Whatever Brahman learned
take chanty from a Sudra,
in the four Vedas,
life
for if it were,
with their anga and iipanga,
shall for twelve births be
hog, and seventy births a dog."
not
how
From
these
words
could such things be
an
it is
ass,
and
shall
for sixty births a
clear that
Brahmanhood
is
you say that Brahmanhood depends on parentage or birth (jdti); that

Brahman one must be born of Brahman parents, this notion is at
variance with the known passage of the Smriti, that Achala Muni was born of an
elephant, and Kesa Pingala of an owl, and Agastya Muni from the Agasti flower, and
If,
is,
again,
that to be a
Kausika Muni from the Kusa
grass;
and Kapila from a monkey, and Gotama Rishi
from creeper that entwined a saul-tree, and Drona Acharya from an earthern pot,
and Taittiri Kishi from a partridge, and Parasu Rama from dust, and Sringa Rishi
from a deer, and Vyasa Muni from a fisherwoman, and Kausika Muni from a
female Sudra, and Viswamitra from a Chdnddlini, and Vasishtha Muni from a
Not one of them had a Brahman mother, and yet all were notoriously
Brahmans whence I infer, that the title is a distinction of popular origin,
strumpet.
called
and cannot be traced to parentage from Written authorities.

Should you again say, that whoever is born of a Brahman father or mother
is
Brahman, then the child of a slave even may become a Brahman a consequence
to which I have no objection, but which will not consort with your notions, I fancy.
;
Do you
I
say, that
he
who
object that, since you
is
sprung of Brahman parents
must mean pure and
true
is
Brahman
Still
Brahmans, in such case the
in his new printed edition of it (original and translation) lias shewn that
the Vujra Suchi is at least a thousand years old, for in a work of Sankara acharya not
only is the term Vajra used, but strange to say, the first paragraph of his work is identical with one in the work before us, though of course differently intended as to scope
and purpose, Sankara only proposing to exalt his ideal of Brahmanhood by contrasting
But this shews what I have elsewhere reit with the ordinary and actual types.
marked, viz. that Saintism by its very genius and character (above ordinances) tends
to obliterate the distinctive marks of Brahmanism and Buddhism.
But Weber
BUDDUIST PHILOSOPHY.
breed of Brahraans must be at an end
129
since the fathers of the present race of
are not, any of them, free from the suspicion of having wives,
Brahmans
who
notoriously commit adultery with Sudras. Now, if the real father he a Siidra,
the son cannot be a Brahman, notwithstanding the Brahmanhood of his mother.
From
and
which
all
draw
Brahmanhood is not truly derivable from birth

from the Mdnava Dharma, which affirms that the
I infer, that
fresh proofs of this
Brahman who
eats flesh loses instantly his rank; and also, that
becomes a Sddra
in three days
or milk, he
man
as can fly like a bird, directly ceases to be a
by
selling
wax, qx
and further, that even such a Brah-
salt,
Brahman by meddling with
the
fleshpots.
From
all this is it
not clear that
that were the case,
if
it
Brahmanhood
is
not the same with birth
since,
could not be lost by any acts however degrading.
ever of a flying horse that by alighting on earth was turned into a pig
Knew you
Tis impossible.
!
Say you that body (Sarira) is the Brahman? this too is false; for, if body be
the Brahman, then fire, when the Brahman's corpse is consumed by it, will be the
murderer of a Brahmin and such also will be every one of the Brahman's rela;
who
tives
follow, that every one born of a
Vaisya,
would be a Brahman
his father
not
Brahman, though
being
less will this
his
performing
sacrifice,
bone of the bone, and
and causing others to perform
and giving charity, and other holy
other absurdity
mother were a Kshatriya or

flesh of the flesh of
a monstrosity, you will allow, that was never heard
read, receiving
the
Nor
consigned his body to the flames.
acts,
it,
Again, are
of.
reading and causing to
sprung from the body of
Brahman?
Is then the virtue of all these destroyed by the destruction

Brahman ? Surely not, according to your own principles and,
manhood cannot consist in body.
Say you that wisdom* constitutes the Brahman ? This too is
;
Because,
great
if
it
were
wisdom they
of the
body of a
if not,
then Brah-
Why ?
incorrect.
many Sudras must have become Brahmans from the

acquired. I myself know many Sudras who are masters of
true,
the four Vedas, and of philology, and of the M'undnsd, and Sdnk/iya, and
J aises/a'Jca
them is or ever was called a BrahmanBrahmanhood consists not in wisdom or learning.

Then do ycu affirm that the Achdra is Brahmanhood ? This too is false; for if
since many Xats and JBhats,
it were true, man)' Sudras would become Brahmans
and Jyotishilca philosophies
yet not one of
It is clearly proved, then, that
and Kaicartas, and Bhands, and others, are everywhere to be seen performing the
severest and most laborious acts of piety.
Yet not one
eminent in their Achdra,
Brahman
is
ever called a
of these,
who
from which
are all so pre-
it is
clear that
Achdra does not constitute the Brahman.
Say you that Karma makes the Brahman
I answer,
no
for
the argument
qsed above applies here -with even greater force, altogether annihilating the notion
that acts constitute the Brahman.

*
Perhaps
it
Do you
declare that
should rather be translated learning.

8
The word
by reading the Vedas a

in the original
is
jndna.
13O
man becomes
Brahman ?
Tln3
is
palpably false
for it is notorious that
the
Rdkshasa Ravan was deeply versed
in all the four
Vedas:
the Pdkshasas studied the Vedas in
Ravan 's time
yet you do not say that one
them thereby became

Brahman by reading the
of
What
then
Brahman.
that, indeed, all
It is therefore
proved that no one becomes a
Brahman ?
If neither reading the Vedas,
Vedas.
this creature
is
and
called a
nor Sanskdra, nor parentage, nor race (Kula), nor acts (Karma), confers Brahman-
To my mind Brahmanhood
snowy whiteness of the Kund flower.
hood, what does or can?

quality, like the
is
Brahmanhood.
It consists of Vrata,
Dana, and Dama, and S/iama,

gods hold that
man
to be a
anil
merely an immaculate
is
That which removes
Sanyama.
Brahman who
It is written in the Vtdas that the
from intemperance and egotism
free
is
and from Sanga, and Parigraha, and Rdya, and Dwssha.

in all the Sdslras that the signs of a
mand
of the organs of sense, and
Brahman
mercy
it is
wiilten
these, truth, penance, the
are
as those
Moreover,
com-
a Chanddla are the vices
of
Another mark of the Brahman
opposed to those virtues.
sin
and Tapas, and Ntyama, and Upavdsa, and
a scrupulous absti-
is
nence from sexual commerce, whether he be born a god, or a man, or a beast.
Yet further, Sukra Acharya has said, that the gods take no heed of caste, but deem
him to be the Brahman who is a good man, although he belong to the vilest class.
From all which I infer, that birth, and life, and body, and wisdom, and observance
of religious rites (dchdra), and acts (karma) are all of no avail towards becoming a
Brahman.
Then
again, that opinion of your sect, that Pravrajyd
and that
lor
because,
him
service and obedience paid to
is
out
to be the
therefore the vilest,
Pdni Sutra
is
absurd; for
lowest and meanest of
after the dog, thus
" Shva,
if
were
to the
is
lips,
affect
last,
being mentioned in the
In truth, the order in
the relative rank and dignity
or are the teeth
we find the latter postponed to the

some grammar sentence ? Are the teeth
because
superior in dignity
former, for the mere sake

older than the lips
does your creed teach you to postpone Siva to his spouse?

is it
mentioned
of.
Parvati greater than Mahesa
of euphony, in
is
Indra would be made
correct,
Indra
beings,
are instead of pravrajyd,
Hiva, Mayhava."
which they are mentioned or written, cannot

of the beings spoken
prohibited to the Siidra
Sudra
forsooth, in speaking of the four castes, the
and
What
is
Brahmans
true that the Sudra
is vile,
used to repeat the Chatur
or
No; nor any more
and the Brahman high and mighty, because we are
Varna
be untenable, your deduction from
in a particular order.
it, viz.,
And
if this
proposition
that the vile Sudra must be co.tent to
regard his service and obedience to Brahmans as his onlv pravrajyd,
falls
likewise
to the ground.
Know further, that it

man who has drank the
is
written in the
Dharma
Sudrdni, or has been born of such a female,

yaschitta.
Sdstra of
Manu,
that the Brah-
milk of a Sudrdni, or has been even breathed upon by a
In the same work
it
is
is
not restored to his rank by prd-
further asserted, that if any
drink from the hands of a Sudrdni, he becomes in
life
Brahman
eat
and
a Sudra, and after death a
;;
BUDDHIST
Manu
dog.
PHILOSOPHY.
Brahman who
further says, that a
l$[
associates with female Sudras, or
keeps a Siidra concubine, shall be rejected by gods and ancestors, and after death
shall
go to
From,
hell.
Brahmanhood
all
these assertions of the
Mdnava Dharma,
a quality of good men.
Further,
who was born of

Brahman by dint
the sacrificial flame produced by the friction of wood, became a
and Vasishtha Muni, born of the courtezan Urvasi
Tapas;
of
and Visvamitra, born of a Chdnddlni;
a female spirit-seller
it
who
a Tapasyi
has conquered himself
and that he
then that he whose
and Rishyasringa Muni,
and Narada Muni, born of
all these became Brahmans by virtue

Brahmanhood depends not on birth ?
not clear then that
that he
who
life is
a Yati;
is
observes the
who
that he
Brahma
lineage
pure, and his temper cheerful,
is
the true
ba wanting to
and other
'
it, it
is
Brahman
and
There are these slukaa
contemptible and useless."
all
If the race be royal and virtue
Kathina Muni and Vyasa Muni,
though born of Sudras, are famous among men
sages,
is
It is clear
Goodness of disposition and purity are the best of
not alone deserving of respect.
is
Is
performs penance
Brahman.
is
Mdnava Dharma,
in the
of their Tapas.
It is also notorious
charya
that lineage (Kula) has nothing to do with the matter.
things
many
example, Kathina Muni,
for
and Vyasa Muni, born of a female of the fisherman's caste

;
merely
is
written in the Sdstra of Manu, that
it is
Sudras became Brahmans by force of their piety
born of a doe
clear that
it is
nothing indefeasibly attached to any race or breed, but
is
Brahmans
as
and many persons born in the lowest ranks have attained heaven by the practice
of uniform good conduct
particular race
Your
is idle
and
doctrine, that the
(sila).
To say
therefore that the
Brahman
Brahman was produced from
the mouth, the Kshatriya
from the arms, the Vaisya from the thighs, and the Sudra from the
be supported.
Brahmans
of one
is
false.
are
not of one particular race.
Many
feet,
cannot
persons have
who belonged to the Kaicarta Kid, and the Rajaka Kid, and the Chanddla
and yet, while they existed in this world, performed the Chiidd Koran, and
Munja-bandhan, and Dant-kdshtha, and other acts appropriated to Brahmans, and
lived
Kill,
after their deaths
became, and
still
famous under the name of Brahmans,
are,
All that I have said about Brahmans you must
know
Kshatriyas; and that the doctrine of the four castes
is
is
equally applicable to
altogether false.
men
All
are of one caste.
Wonderful!
You
affirm that all
men proceeded from one, i.e., Brahma; how

among them ? If I have four
then can there be a fourfold insuperable diversity
sons by one wife, the four sons, having one father and mother,
alike.
Know
too that distinctions of race
ferences of conformation and organization

different
among beings
:
must be all
are broadly
essentially
marked by
dif-
thus, the foot of the elephant is very-
from that of the horse; that of the tiger unlike that of the deer; and so
and by that single diagnosis we learn those animals belong to very dif-
of the rest
ferent races.
But
I never heard that the foot of a Kshatriya
that of a Brahman, or that of a Siidra.

of one race.
All
men
was
different
from
are formed alike, and are clearly
Further, the generative organs, the colour, the figure, the ordure,
the urine, the odour, and utterance, of the ox, the buffalo, the horse, the elephant,
132
the as9, the monkey, the goat, the sheep,
etc.,
separate these various races of animals:
but in
sembles the Kshatriya, and

I have instanced
I
now
ia
all
the diversities
known
are
among
figure,
Asoka,
How
we
then can
Tamdl, and Naykesar, and Shirish, and Champa, and
and
and bark?, and timber, and

and
their diversities
say they
Again, among trees the Jlata, and Bakula, and Palds, and
seeds,
and
juices,
and
the rest, are alike in flesh,
and excrements, and mode of
fruits,
and odours; but Brahmans, and Ksha-
skin,
and blood, and bones, and
figure,
they are of one
It is surely then clear that
birth.
are
others,
by their stems, and leaves, and flowers, and
clearly contradis'inguished
triyas,
by
but the Brahman, Kshatriya,
Vaisya, and Sudra are alike without and within.

are essentially distinct
Thus, the goose,
birds.
to be different
and colour, and plumage, and beak
to
re-
which separate diverse genera.
proceed to give some more instances from

etc.,
whereby
Brahman
those respects the
same race or species with him.
therefore of the
among quadrupeds
the dove, the parrot, the peacock,

of
furnish clear diagnostics
species or race.
Again,
tell
a Kshatriya
the
me,
is
a Brahman's sense of pleasure and pain different from that of
Does not the one sustain
same causes
as the other
Do
actions, or the objects of thoê actions
in the
life
they
in the
same way, and
differ in
find death
from
intellectual faculties, in their
manner
of their birth, or in their sub-
Not a whit. It is therefore clear that they are essenIn the Udumbara and Panasa trees the fruit is produced from
jection to fear and hope ?

tially
the same.
the branches, the stem, the joints, and the roots.
from another, so that we
may
Is one fruit therefore different
that produced from the top of the stem the
call
Brahman fruit, and that from the roots the Siidra fruit? Surely not. Nor can
men be of four distinct races, because they sprang from four different parts of one
whence was
bodv. You say that the Brahman was produced from the mouth
the Brahmani produced? From the mouth likewise? Grant it and then you
;
must marry the brother

have place
in this
to the sister
world of ours,
all
a pretty business indeed
if
such incest
is
to
wrong must be ob-
distinctions of right and
literated.
Brahman
This consequence, flowing inevitably from your doctrine that the
The
proceeded from the mouth, proves the falsity of that doctrine.
between Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras,

servance of divers
rites,
and what are the signs of Brahmanhood
Brahman
is
is,
are founded merely
and the practice of different professions
proved by the conversation of Vaishampayana,

?
'
Whom
do you
Yaishani answered,
'
distinctions
'
call
The
on the
as
it
oK
clearly
Brahman
first
sign of a
that he possesses long-suffering and the rest of the virtues, and never
guilty of violence and
a sentient thing.
wrong doing
The second
sign
is,
that he never eats flesh
that he never takes that
another without the owner's consent, even though he find

third sign, that he masters
all
it
and never hurts
which belongs to
in the road.
worldly affections and desires, and
indifferent to earthly considerations.
The
fourth, that
a god, or a beast, he never yields to sexual desires.

following five pure qualities, truth, mercy,
whether he
The
command
fifth,
is
is
The
absolutely
born a man, or
that he possesses the
of tho senses, universal bene-
volence, and penance.*
acknowledge to be a
Whoever
Brahman
;
Brahmanhood depends not on

mance of certain ceremonies.
above noted, he
is
was but one
there
and
of rites
of
All are subject
The
otherwise he
is
to give
caste
him
is
women
in like
manner.
is
The
Brahman
and
if
be
it
who, on the other
Siidra
a Brahman.'
If a Siidra be superior to the allurements of the five senses,
charity
uniformly good
is
of
and have the same organs and
necessities,
aye, lower than a Siidra.
hand, possesses these virtues
Oh, Yudhisthira
Yudhisthira, formerly in this world of oure
same physical
on the perfor-
(Jdti), nor
virtuous, and possesses the signs
is
men were born
All
avocations.
to the
a Siidra
a Siidra.
is
division into four castes originated with diversity
But he whose conduct
senses.
'
If a Chdnddl
Oh
Brahmanhood
he possess them not, he
if
race (KtdaJ, or birth
Brahman.
caste.
and,
33
possesses these five signs of
is
a virtue that will be rewarded in heaven.
but only mark his qualities.
Whoever
Heed not
his
and
ever
in this life ever does well,
ready to benefit others, spending his days and nights in good
acts,
is
such an one
is
a Brahman; and whoever, relinquishing worldly ways, employs himself solely in the
Moksha, such an one
acquisition of
destruction of
also
and from worldly
life,
is
Brahman
affections,
passion and backbiting, such an one also
is
and
and whoever
refrains
and
evil acts
Brahman and whoso

;
free
is
from
from
possesses Kshe-
ma, and Dayd, and Dama, and Dan, and Safya, and Sauchana, and Smriti, and
Ghrind, and Vidyd, and
J'lj'ndn, etc., is
perform the Brahmacharya
thousand
all
sacrifices (yajna).
the Th-thas, and observed
an one
is
Brahman
Brahman.
Oh, Yudhisthira
one night, the merit of
for
And whoso
all
the
has read
all
if
a person
it is
greater than that of a
the
Vedas, and performed
commands and prohibitions
of the Sdstra, such
and whoso has never injured a sentient thing by
act,
word,
or thought, such a person shall instantly be absorbed (at his death) in Brahma.'
Such were
discourse
studying
and
if
the words of Vaishampayana.
that
is,
it,
all
my
friend,
Let them,
and take to the right way.
they approve
Oh,
my
design in the above
ignorant Brahmans and others should acquire
it not,
let
them neglect
its
if
they approve
wisdom by
it,
heed
it
admonitions.
OH THE EXTREME RESEMBLANCE THAT PREVAILS BETWEEN MANY OF THE

SYMBOLS OF BUDDHISM AND SATVTSM.
It is the purpose of the following
and inclination
that
prevails
resided myself
ties of
to follow
them
out, a
paper to furnish to those
who have means
few hints relative to the extreme resemblance
between many of the symbols of Buddhism and Saivism. Having
some few years
in a
Bauddha country,
have had ample opportuni-
noting this resemblance, and a perusal of the works of Crawfurd, of Raffles,
nd of the Bombay Literary Society, has
satisfied
me
that this curious similitude

'
* The word in the original is Tapas, which we are accustomed to translate

peance," and I have followed the usage, though "ascetism" would be a better word.
'
-The proud Tapasyl,

d repentance.
whom
the very gods regard with dread, never dreams of contrition
si
34
not peculiar to the country wherein I abide.
is
I observe that
my
countrymen,
to
whom
as
Saivism and Buddhism, never seems to have occurred, have in their examina-
any degree of identity between
monuments
tions of the
tion of
of India and
faiths in general so opposite to
its
Islands, proceeded
each other
upon the assump-
an absolute incommunity between the types of the two religions as well as
between the things
typified.
This assumption has puzzled them not a
as the evidence of their eyes has forced
little
the closest juxta-position which their previous ideas nevertheless obliged
sunder as far apart as Brahmanism and Buddhism
When
in the country in
which
I reside, I
incongruity
me
no satisfaction
Saugata temples
very penetralia of
and
access to the conversation, and buoks of the
was at
own
inclined to consider
my
obser-
these images often occupied the
in the
sequel I obtained sufficient
Bauddhas
Bauddhas contemptuously rejected the notion
being Saiva, and in the books of their
first
but upon multiplying
cause of the difficulty lay deeper than I had supposed.*

the
to
convince
The
me
that the
best informed of
of the images in question
faith they pointed out the
Bauddha
legends justifying and explaining their use of such, to me, doubtful symbols.
sides,
me
to
my
European works of which
access to the
in
to
out of an ignorant confusion of
arising
the two creeds by the people of this country

vations such a resolution gave
them
observed images the most apparently
Saiva placed in the precincts of Saugata temples,

the circumstance as an
so often
upon them the observation of images
Be-
have already spoken exhibited
the very same apparent anomaly existing in regions the most remote from
one another, and from that wherein I dwell.
monuments, sculptural
or architectural,
Indeed, whencesoever
Bauddha
had been drawn by European curiosity the
same dubious symbols were exhibited nor could my curiosity be at all appeased
by the assumption which I found employed to explain them. I shewed these monuments to a well informed old Bauddha, and asked him what he thought of them,
;
famous Tri-Murti image of the Cave temple of the West.
particularly of the
He
recognised
it
Bauddha image
As he did many many others
Of these matters you may perchance
as a genuine
declared by our writers to be Saiva!
hear hereafter,
suffice it at
present to say that I continued to interrogate
as to whether he had ever visited the plains of India, and had
remains of his
in
my
tell
youth
me.
He
my
friend
there found any
Yes, was the prompt reply, I made a pilgrimage to Gayah,
faith.
I then asked
replied
that
him
if
he remembered what he had seen, and could
he had, at the time, put a few remarks on paper
which he had preserved, and would give me a copy of, if I desired it. I bade him
do so, and was presented with a paper of which the enclosed is a translation. Let
me add that never having veiled Gayah, I cannot say anything relative to the
accuracy of
my
friend's details,
and that in regard to the topographical ones, there
are probably a few slight mistakes.

* Causes are not at present
the
common
origin of
Bud
my game
ilrism
am aware
that an accurate explanation
but consider the easy temper of superstition

and Brahmanism in India; the common tendency of
asceticism, etc. Even Christianity adopted many of the
both Saivaism and Buddhism to

rites and emblems of classic paganism.
BUDDUIST PHILOSOPHY.
from the Bauddha books of the drawings that accompany
my
35
would he
paper,
of more value than that
paper.
But, Sir, non omnia possumus omnes, and I
hope that a Bauddha comment on Brahmanical ignorance will he found to possess
some value, as a curiosity and some utility, for the hints it furnishes rela;
tive to the topic adverted to in this letter.
P.S.
Captain
Dangerfield's five images in the cave at Bag, and
Brahmans
told
Dhyani;"
as is the Captain's
of
Sakya Sinha;
him were the

or that of
five
Pandits, are doubtless the "
which the
Fancha Buddha
"Charan," said to be that of Vishnu, the Charan
Manju Ghosha.
engraved in the centre of each foot;
If it be the latter,
the former,
if
has the
it
it
has an eye
ashtmangal and
tahasra chakra.
Buddh Gayah, according

In Buddh Gayah there
is
to
to a
is
who visited it.

Maha Buddha in the interior
Nepaulese Bauddha
a temple* of
enshrined the image of Sakya Sinha
before the image
which are the images of three Lokeswaras, viz.,
hari
is
Haiti hala Lokeswara, Ilari hari
vahana Lokeswara, and Amogha pasa Lokeswara.f
Buddha, the Brahmans

Sinha they denominate
call
ple of
Maha Buddha
:
and near
is
to
This temple of
Maha
the temple of Jagat Natha, and the image of Sakya
Maha Muni; J
of the three
a small stone temple in
them on tbe
left
Lok Natha, one they
call
Ma-
On
the south side of the tem-
which
are the images of the seven
ha Deva, one Parvati, and the third their son.
Buddhas
of which
a Chaitya of stone, close
three other images, of
Hala hala Lokes-
The Brahmans call six of

but know not what to make of the
wara, Maitreya Bodhisatwa, and Dipankara Buddha.

the seven Buddhas, the Pandiis and their bride,
seventh Buddha, or of the remaining three images.

* The word in the original
Buddha in the city of Patan,
Kiitagar, and I understand that the temple of Maha

in this valley, is built after the model of the. Gayah
is
If so, the latter is of the same general form with the Orissan Jagannath.
The
Patau temple is divided in the interior into five stories. Sakya Sinha, the genius
loci, is enshrined in the centre of the first story
Amitabha, the fourth Dhyani Buddha,
a small stone Chaitya, the third
occupies the second story
the Dharma Dhatu
mandal, the fourth and the Vajra Dhatu mandal, the fifth and highest story, and
the whole structure is crowned, on the outside, by a Chura Mani Chaitya.
t Hala hala Lokeswara, a form of Padma P;'uii, the fourth Dhyani Bodhisatwa,
and active creator and governor of the present system of nature. Three Dhyani Bodhisatwas preceded him in that office, and one remains to follow him.
+ This name is equivocal: the Brahmans mean 1 suppose, to designate by it the chief
The Bauddhas recognise it as just, since the Tri-Kund Sesh, and
of their own Munis.
temple.
many of their scriptures give this name to Sakya Sinha.

The Bauddha scriptures say that one form is common to all the seven great ManThe figure I have given of Sakya has the Bhumisparsa Mudra, or
ushi Buddhas.
The Gayah image of him is said to have the Dhyan
right hand touching the earth.
That is, the two hands open and laid one onMudra for the position of the hands.
the other and
both resting on the doubled thighs, the figure, sitting tailor-wise.

nothing improper in giving that Mudra to Sakya or other Manushi Buddhas,
and almost all the images of Sakya that I
but usually it is appropriated to Amitabha
have seen are characterised by the Bhumi-sparsa Mudra, Sakya's image is generally
supported by lions, sometimes however by elephants, Sakya's appropriate colour is yellow or golden, which colour, like the other characteristics, belongs also to the remaining
six <n eat Minushis.
There
is
I36
Upon
the wall of the small temple containing the Sapta Buddha, and immediately
above their images
is
an image of Vajra Satwa,t one head, two hands, in the right

left a bell, with the lock on the crown of the head,
hand a Vajra, and in the

twisted into a turban
the
Brahmans
call this
image of Vajra Satwa Maha Brahtemple of Maha
of fifteen yards, perhaps, east of the great
ma. At the distance

Buddha is another small temple
which
in
of the feet of Sakya Sinha graven on
is
placed a circular slab having the print
The
it.
feet are
known
to be those of Sakya,
because the stone has the eight mangals, and the thousand-fold chakra upon it.
The Brahmans of Gayah call this Charan, the Charan of Vishnu, but they
are silent
when the mangals and
chakras are pointed out to them as decisive proofs
of their error.
Somewhat
further (perhaps 150 yards) from the great temple of
dha towards the
east, is a
Kund
called
Maha Bud-
Pani Hata, and at the eastern corner of
the well is the image of Maitreya Bodhisatwa.
Pani Hata because Sakya produced the spring of water

by striking his hand on the ground there. That water has eight peculiar qualiThe Brahmans say that the Kund is Saraswati's, and insist that Maitreya's
ties.
The Kund
image
is
is called
the image of Saraswati.
Maha Buddha
temple are
many
At
little
distance to the north of the great
small Chaityas,|| which the Brahmans call Siva
Lingas, and as such worship them, having broken off the Ckura
Much
astonished
was
I to find the great temple of
Brahman worship, and Brahmans
ignorantly falling
my
down
Mani from each.*
religion consecrated to
before the
Gods
of
my
fathers.
The purpose
of
my
paper
is
to
show that very many symbols, the most appaand purely Bauddha; and that, there-
rently Saiva, are notwithstanding strictly

fore, in
the examination of the antiquities of India and
ourselves, because on the sites
its islands,
we need
not vex
of old Saugata temples we find the very genius
loci
far less need we

arrayed with many of the apparent attributes of a Saiva God
infer from the presence, on such sites, of seemingly Saiva images and types, the
;
presence of actual Sivaism.
t Vajra Satwa is a Dhyani or celestial Buddha. There is a series of five celestial

Buddhas, to whom are assigned the five elements of matter, the five organs of human
There is also a series of six Dhyani
sense, and the five respective objects of sensation.
Buddhas, which is composed of the above five, with the addition of Vajra Satwa, and
to him are ascribed intellectual force and the discrimination of good and evil.
are portions of the eight Bodhisatwas.
These are symbols of the Vitaragas, which
See N aipaiya Kalyana, in Jour. Ben. As. Society.
The Chaitya is the only proper temple of Buddhism, though many other temples have
been adopted by the Saugatas for enshrining their Dii Minores. In Nepaul, the Chaitya
is exclusively appropriated to five Dhyani Buddhas, whose images are placed in niches
around the base of the solid hemisphere which forms the most essential part of the
Almost every Nepaul Chaitya has its hemisphere surmounted by a cone or
Chaitya.
The small and unadorned Chaitya might easily be taken
pyramid called Chura Mani.
It was so mistaken by Mr. Crawfurd, etc.
for a Linga.
* The like metamorphosis of the Chaitya into a Lingam and its worship as the latter,
may now be seen in numerous instances in Nepaul, e.g., at Kali's temple on the road
side near Tnndi Kh^l.
_
||
37
Crawfurd, standing in the midst of hundreds of images of -Buddhas, on the plat-
form of a temple, the general form and structure of which

strated that
it
was consecrated
of Sivaism to conduct
him
was Hara himself!
place
conclusion, that the presiding Deity of the
to the
Nay, further, though he was persuaded that the an-
cient religion of the Javanese
was Buddhism, yet having always found what he con-
ceived to be the unequivocal indices of the presidency of the

in
demon-
irresistibly
to Saugatism, could yet allow certain appearances
Hindu
destroyer,
the great Saugata temples, he came to the general conclusion, that " genuine
all
Buddhism
" is
I thought
no other than Sivaism.
when
had shewn no
reliance
could be placed upon the inference from seemingly Saiva symbols to actual Siva-
had smoothed the way
ism, I
Bauddha
fine
edifices at Java,
whereat the majority of
number and weight prove Buddhism,
indications both for

sively
admission that those cave-temples of the
for the
west of India, as well as those
are
Bauddha and
exclu-
notwithstanding the presence of symbols and images occupying
the post of honour, which, strongly to the eye, but in fact, erroneously in these
seem
cases,
to
imply Sivaism, or at least a coalition of the two
For such
faiths.
a coalition at any time and in any place, I have not seen one plausible argument adduced; and as for the one ordinarily derived from the existence of supposed Saiva
images and emblems in and around Bauddha temples,
these
dhism
gy
it
is
both erroneous in
However probably borrowed from Sivaism,

images and symbols became genuinely Bauddha by their adoption into Bud-
and
fact,
insufficient
were
it
true.
just as the statue of a Capitoline
of
Jupiter became the very orthodox
Paul, because the Ilomanists chose to adopt the
St.
orthodox sense.
And were
this explanation of the
in sites
which were beyond doubt consecrated
than
is,
it
would
still
say
it is
are
effi-
idol in
an
existence of seeming Sivaism
Buddhism,
far less satisfactory
a thousand times more reasonable than the sup-
position of an identity or coalition*
which
to
Pagan
between two
creeds, the speculative tenets of
wide asunder as heaven and earth, and the followers of which are
pretty well
known
to
have been, so soon as Buddhism became important, furiously
opposed to each other.
Upon
the whole, therefore, I
deem
it
certain, as well that the types of
and Buddhism are very frequently the same, as that
more or
less,
and generally
Of the aptness
Sivaism
the things typified are, always
radically, different.
of our writers to infer Sivaism from apparently Saiva images
and emblems, I shall adduce a few striking instances from Crawfurd's second
volume, chap,
i.,
on the ancient religion of the Islanders
and
avoid odium, I speak rather to his engravings, than to his text;

state matters,
Let
me
He had
to save time
and
shall
and
merely
without arguing them.
add, too, that Crawfurd's mistakes could not well have been avoided.
no access to the dead or living oracles of Buddhism, and reasoning only
* In regard to those cave-temples of the Western Continent of India, called mixed

Saiva and Bauddha, the best suggested solution is successive possession but I believe
them to have been wholly Buddhist.
I38
from what he saw, reasonably inferred that images, the most apparently Saiva, were
what they seemed
really
be
to
and that Saiva images and emblems proved a
Saiva place of worship.
In his chapter already alluded

to be " a figure of
wara.
Plate 28
Bkagawan
Maha Deva
Pani
is
(the
feigned by the
Bauddha
Dhyan
is
in fact,
is,
It
is
said
Sinha-Natha-Lokes-
is,
in fact,
Lokeswara
it for
to
be.
car.''
It
Sakya meditating, and the
sition
of
force to force.
in truth, Nainuchi Mara,
proceeding to interrupt the
and plate 22 gives a continuation of
biting
frustration of
this exploit, exhi-
Namuchi's attempt by the oppo-
The whole legend
||
know, since
Again, the principal peris,
personification of the evil principle,)

;
Siva, I do not
Amitabha Buddha, whose son Padma
Bauddha mythologists,
said to be "Siva in his
Sakya Sinha
of
Mr. Crawfurd could take
placed a tiny image of
is
sonage in plate 21
It
Pani, in his character of creator and ruler of the present
How
system of nature.
in the forehead
No. 27
there are several engravings.
" a representation of Siva."
called
is
Padma
or
to,
as a devotee."
is
to be
found in the
Sambhu
purana.
The same work contains likewise the elucidation of

could
make
which Mr. C.
plate 24, of
nothing.
Of the remaining
subjects, very able
plates,
work,
and of the text of
would be
it
this chapter of
easy, but
it
would
to
Mr.
me
C.'s,
on other
be wearisome,
to furnish the true explanation from the books or oral communications of the
dhas of Nepaul, to the more learned of

C's book are perfectly familiar.
At
p.
209, vol.
to the
ii.,
he observes
images of Buddha,
temples as
the
in
Baud-
the subjects of the plates in Mr,
One quotation from Mr. C.'s text, and I have done.

" The fact most worthy of attention, in respect
that they never appear in any of the great central
primary objects of worship, but in the smaller surrounding ones,
seeming themselves
but always
is
whom
to represent votaries.
numbers together,* seeming,
They
in
are not found as single images,
a word, to represent, not Deities
themselves, but sages worshipping Siva."
The whole
secret of this marvel
is,
that the temples seen by Mr. C. were not gen-
uine Chaityas, but either composite Chaityas, or structures
appropriated to the Dii majores of Buddhism.

structure exclusively appropriated to the
in niches
round the base of
its
still
less exclusively
The genuine Chaitya
is a solid
Dhyani Buddhas, whose images are placed

Manushi Buddhas and Dhyani and
hemisphere.
Manushi Bodhisatwas and Lokeswaras, with
their Saktis, are placed in
various hollow temples, less sacred than the Chaityas.l
and around
These Bodhisatwas and
At Kurnagush (the ruins near Bhagulpur) there is a fine and perfect image of FadAmitabha in the forehead.
The Pujari to me called it a Krishna,
and was astounded when he heard my explanation and whence derived.
See Jour. Amer. Ori. Soc, vol. ii., part ii, pp. 31-35, for another version of this
ma
Pani, with
||
story.
* And
why not ? for Buddha is a mere title and though there are but six Dhyani
Buddhas, there are hundreds of M&nushis, which latter are constantly placed about
temples in vast numbers always as objects, though not, when so placed, special ones,
:
of worship.
39
Lokeswaras never have the peculiar hair of the Budclhas, but, instead thereof, longbraided locks like Siva; often also the sacred thread and other indications apt to be
set
down
Such
"strong as holy writ," of their being Brahmanical Deities.
as proofs,
indications, however, are
and the instances of plates 27 and 28,
delusive,
shew how Mr. 0. was misled by them.
By
the way, Mr. C.
biassed by his theory to discover Sivaism, where
is
we have an odd
not and could not exist, of which propensity
be an oversight or misprint) in
may add
Vishnu, not Siva, and I

the Hindoo Pantheon, the
219
p.
by any means,
not,
it
is
Gods of
that in adopting as Dii minores the
Bauddhas have
did
no one needs be told that Hari
for
it
instance (unless
entirely confined
themselves to the Sectarian Deities of the Saivas.
P.S.
paul,
theistic sect
it is
great haste
of
Buddhas having been announced
presently inferred that this

:
Mr. Crawfurd's book
an image of Akshobhya, the

I
first
is
as discovered
(loco citato) affords a
in
Let us not be
a local peculiarity.
very
fine
Xe-
in too
engraving of
Dhyani, or Celestial Buddha, (see plate 29,) and
have remarked generally that our engravings of Bauddha architecture and sculp-
ture,
drawn from the Indian cave temples, from Java,
nutest particulars, to the existing Saugata
ments prove here,
monuments
(as at Java,) the Foreign
etc.,
conform, in the mi-
of Nepaul
and Indian
origin of
which
monu-
Buddhism, ani-
mals, implements, vehicles, dresses, being alien to Nepaul, and proper to India.
THE PRAVRAJYA VBATA OR INITIATORY RITES OF THE BUDDHISTS

ACCORDING TO THE PUJA KAND.
If
any one desires to become a Bandya (monastic or proper Buddhist) he must
give notice
whom
give
thereof, not
him
full
The Guru,
the Pravrajya Vrata.
and perform the Kalasi

sel
more than a month or
less
than four days, to his Guru, to
he must present paun, supdri, dakshind, and akshat, requesting the Guru to
ptijd,
which
of water and puts into
live confections,
and
five
it
flowers,
is
a lotos
and
he assent, must accept the offerings
if
as follows
made
The Guru
takes a kalasi or ves-
of gold or other precious metal, and
five trees
(small branches), and five drugs,
fragrant things, and five Brihi, and five Amrita, and five
and
five
five
threads of as
many
then makes pvjd to
diverse colours.
lie next seats
it.
Above the
vessel he
Ratna, and
places rice, and
the aspirant before the vessel
in
the
Vqjra dsan fashion and draws on the ground before the aspirant four mcmdafa or
which are devoted to the Tri Ratna, and the fourth

Then the aspirant repeats the following text 'I salute
circular diagrams, three of

to the officiating
Guru.
Buddhanath, Dharma, and Sangha, and entreat them to bestow the

Vrata on me, wherefore I perform this
rite to
them and
to
my
Pravrajija.
Guru, and present
X As for example, Sakya Sinha in the great temple of Gya, which is a Kutagar, and
wherein Sakya appears as the genius loci.
j See also pp. -J-J1--J, for a singular error into which apparently Mr. C's pursuit of his
Flowers not offered by Hindoos to their Gods,
theory could alone have led him.
and therefore Buddha was a sage merely, and not a God!!
140
Reciting this text and
these offerings.'
the aspirant, with
This ceremony
his means.
above related
Gwdl Dan
is
is
is
called
this day's
On
Gwdl Dan.
the Kalasi pujd and
Demi pujd
are performed, so here again
former
ceremony
Sustaka dsan
is
\0^
all kits is
as-
made Niranja-
is
is,
dled and
?m^
spread
a light is kin-
shown
to
him,
and some mantras repeated to him.
two unbaked bricks,

and above them the Su-
the
it,
Vajra
Then
Rdkshd
performed, that
stakaismscvihed, thus is
Then the
seated.
pirant
na, that
on the ground, and above
head a Vijra
in the
in
thus
is
As
but the as-
upon which the aspirant
The
the Sustaka dsan.
mony
The
the next day the ceremony
seated in the
Vajra dsan manner, in
of
each hand,
in
a Bandya.
repeated, with the under-mentioned variations only.
on the
occasion
first
five supdris
make him
to
above mentioned he gives to the Guru, and dakshind proportioned to
offerings
pirant
holding
Guru
joined hands, begs the
is
is,
upon the aspirant's
placed and the
Guru
reads some mantras.
Next comes the
cere-
Loha Rakska, that is, the Guru takes three iron padlocks, and places
one on the belly and the two others on the shoulders of the neophyte, repeating
some more mantras, the purport of which is an invocation of divine protection
from ill, on the head of the aspirant. This rite is followed by the Agni Rakof the
sh4, that
and
is,
utters
Next
Kalasi
is
the
Guru puts
a cup of wine (surd-pdtra) on the head of the Chela
some prayers over him.

performed the Kalasi-Abhisheka or baptism
that
is,
holy water from the
Guru on the Chela's head and prayers repeated over

him after which, the Ndyaka Bandya or head of the Vihar (Abbot or Prior,)
comes and puts a silver ring on the finger of the aspirant. The Nayaka, or superior
is
sprinkled by the
aforesaid, then takes four seers of rice
and milk mixed with flowers, and sprinkles
Next the Nayaka performs

Guru Mandal before mentioned,
the wbole, at three times, on the aspirant's head.
the Vajra Raksha, and then makes pujd to the
which ceremony completed, he rings a
bell,
and then sprinkles
rice
on the aspirant
and on the images of the Gods.
Then the
aspirant, rising, pays his devotions to his
a small present and a plate of rice to him, and

departs.
The
This second day's ceremony
third day's
is
is
called Ddsala.
denominated Pravra Vrata,* and
Early in the morning the following things,

of the Tri
Ratna
or
Guru, and having presented
having received his blessing,
viz.,
is
as follows
the image of a Chaitya, those
Triad, the Prajna Paramita scripture, and other sacred
scriptures, a kalas, or water-pot filled
with the
ter of curds, four other water-pots filled
The monastic vows properly
so called.
articles before
enumerated, a plat-
with water only, a Chivara and Newas, a
;;
I4I
Pinda patra and a Khikshari, a pair of wooden sandals,! a small mixed metal
pounded sandal wood,
plate spread over with

is
inscribed, a golden razor
and a
and
silver one,
in
which the image of the moon
lastly, a plate of dressed rice, are
is seated in the Siistak Asan and made to perform worGuru Mandala, and the Ckaitya, and the Tri Ratna and the Prajna
Paramita Sastra. Then the aspirant, kneeling with one knee on the ground with
collected,
and the aspirant
ship to the
Guru
joined hands, entreats the

soever
needful for
it is
him
to
make him a Bandya, and to teach him whatThe Guru answers, O disciple
if you
to
know.
'
desire to perform the Pravrajya Vrata,
of the Chaitya and of the Tri
Ratna
you must observe the
cha Siksha, the fastings and the vows prescribed

nor amass property of any kind
nor go near
nor touch any intoxicating liquors or drugs
of all devote yourself to the worship
first
women
Pan-
five precepts or
you must hurt no
living thing
nor speak or think evilly
nor be proud of heart in consequence
of your observance of your religious and moral duties.'
Then the aspirant pledges himself thrice to observe the whole of the above
upon which the Guru tells him, If while you live you will keep the
above rules, then will I make you a Bandya.' He assents, when the Guru, having
precepts
'
again given the three Rakshas above mentioned to the Chela, delivers a cloth
for the
loins to
him
to
put on.
Then the Guru brings the
aspirant out into
the court yard, and having seated him, touches his hair with rice and
oil,
and
The Guru next puts on the ground a little pulse

Then the Guru gives the
and desires the Chela to apply it to his own feet.
Chela a cloth of four fingers' breadth and one cubit in length, woven with threads
gives those articles to a barber.
of five colours,
his head.
makes
and which
is
Then he causes
piijd to
especially manufactured for this purpose, to bind
the aspirant to perform his ablutions
name
the hands of the barber in the
the barber to shave
all
of
after
round
which he
Viswakarma, and then causes
the hair, save the forelock, off the aspirant's head.
Then
the paternal or maternal aunt of the aspirant takes the vessel of mixed metal above
noted and collects the hair into

nails
pared
when
The
it.
aspirant
is
now bathed
again and his
the above party puts the parings into the pot with the hair.
follows, after which the aspirant
Then the Guru causes him to eat, and also
Another ablution of the aspirant

within, and seated.
is
taken again
upon
him the Pancha Garbha, and says to him, Heretofore you have lived a householder; have you a real desire to abandon that state and assume the state of a monk ?
The aspirant answers in the affirmative, when the Guru or Nayaka,* or maternal
sprinkles
'
uncle, cuts off with his
own
hand, the aspirant's forelock.
a tiara adorned with the images of the
five
Buddhas on
his
Then the Guru puts
own
head, and taking
+ These, with the. water-pot or Gahdhar and an umbrella constitute the equipments
The chivar and nivds are the upper and lower garments.
of a Bauddha ascetic.
The pinda patra is the begging platter khikshari, the appropriate baton or distinctive
staff (carried in the hand and surmounted by a model of a Chaitya).
The Mani or
prayer-cylinder, which is so univei'sally in the hands of the Tibetan monks, is not in
The chivar andnivds are of a deep red color.
use in Nepaul.
* Nayaka is Abbot, that is, head of the Religious House into which the neophyte
:
purposes to enter.
Tl
142
the kalas or water-pot, sprinkles the aspirant with holy water, repeating prayers
same time over him.

The neophyte is then again brought below, when
at the
four
Nayakas
or superiors of
proximate Viharas and the aspirant's Guru perform the Pancha Abhisheka,
Guru
the
takes water from the kalas and pours
into a conch
it
i.e.,
and then, ringing
a bell and repeating prayers, sprinkles the water from the conch on the aspirant's
head
Nayakas, taking water from the other four water-pots
whilst the four
named above, severally baptize the aspirant.

up, when the Nayakas and Guru invoke the
'
May you
be happy as he
man, the lord of
all,
the
The musicians present then
strike
following blessing on the neophyte
who dwells in the hearts of all, who is the universal AtBuddha called Ratna Sambhava.' The aspirant is next
by the Nayakas and Guru above stairs, and seated as before. He is then made
perform pujd to the Guru Mandal and to sprinkle rice on the images of the Dei-
led
to
ties.
The Guru next gives him the Chivara, andNivasa, and golden
the aspirant thrice says to the Guru,
state of a householder for this
abandoned the
Upon which
'
the aspirant's
former name
who am
Guru,
I,
whole
birth,
is
earrings,
when
such an one, have
and have become a monk.'
relinquished and a
new
one given
him, such as Ananda Shali Putra, Kasyapa, Dharma Sri Mitra, Paramita Sagar.
Then the Guru

a golden
tiara,
causes
him
to perform pujd to the Tri Ratna, after having given
and repeated some prayers over him.
following praises of the Tri Ratna: 'I salute that

the three worlds,
whom Gods
and
men
alike worship,
who
is
apart from the world,
long-suffering, profound as the ocean, the quintessence of all good, the
Raja and Munmdra, the destroyer of
who
is
placing
'
void of avarice and lust,
my
head on his
I salute that
who
desire
is
the mother of
all
Dharma
and vice and darkness
I ever invoke him,
feet.'
Dharma, who
who, by the testimony of
is
affection,
the ikon of wisdom.
is
the Prajna Paramita, pointing out the
them
perfect tranquillity to all mortals, leading
is
and
him
The Guru then repeats the

Buddha who is the lord of
all
into the paths of perfect
the sages, produced or created
the Bodhisatwas and Sravakas.
I salute
way
of
wisdom
who
that Sangha, who
all
things
Avalokiteswara and Maitreya, and Gagan Ganja, and Samanta Bhadra, and Vajra
Manju Ghosha, and Sarvani varana Viskambhi, and Kshiti Garbha and
The aspirant then says to the Guru, I will devote my whole life
Then the Guru gives him the Das
to the Tri Ratna, nor ever desert them.'
Siksha or ten precepts observed by all the Buddhas and Bhikshukas; and commands his observance of them. They are 1 Thou shalt not destroy life 2. Thou
4. Thou shalt not lie
3. Thou shalt not follow strange faiths
shalt not steal
Pani, and
Kha
Garbha. 't
'
t These are nine Bodhisatwas, whereof the first, or Padma Pani, is now lord of the
ascendant, and as such constitutes the Sangha of the present cycle, and is therefore
But there
associated to Buddha and Dharma of the triad as the third member of it.
is confusion of celestial and mortal Bodhisatwas, and so also in the general enumeration.
The Padma Pani here spoken of is probably Ava(See and compare pp. 95 and 96.)
a mortal clearly, and
lokiteswara, who seems to be the same with Matsyendra Nath
Of the rest all but four
therefore improperly identified with Padma Pani, a celestial.
or five are mortal Sanghas.
5.
Thou
of heart
slialt
Thou
7.
not touch intoxicating liquors or drugs
shalt not be
shalt avoid music, dancing, and all such idle toys
shalt not dress in fine clothes, nor use perfumes or ornaments

sleep in lowly places
Thou
10.
43
Thou
6.
9.
Thou
8.
proud
Thou
and
shalt sit
shalt not eat out of the prescribed hours.
The Guru then says, All these things the Buddhas avoided. You are now become a Bhiksku and you must avoid them too ;' which said, the Guru obliterates
the Tri Ratna Mandala. Next, the aspirant asks from the Guru the Chi vara and
'
Nivasa, the Pinda Patra and Khikshari and Gandhar, equipments of a

cetic
Bauddha
as-
they are an upper and lower garb of special form, a begging platter, a
short staff surmounted
by a Chaitya and a waterpot.
and sandals
it.
to complete
The
Add
make
thereto an umbrella
Mandala and places

Uruba-Kund, and some khil, and some rice, and assuming the Utkutak Asan, and joining his hands, he repeats the praises of the Tri
Ratna above cited, and then again requests his Guru to give him three suits of
in it five flowers,
and
aspirant proceeds to
five
the Chi vara and the like
number
of the Nivasa
as attending the palace, another for
He
nary wear.
also requests
cups, of Pinda Patra,
one for
occasions of ceremony,
wearing at meals, and the third for ordi-
from his Guru the
One
and of Khikshari.
like
number
of
Gandhar
or drinking
entire suit of these the aspirant then
assumes, receiving them from the hands of the Guru, who, previously to giving
them, consecrates them by prayers.
ved the Pravrajya Vrata,
The aspirant then
says,
'
Now
I have recei-
I will religiously observe the Sila-skandha the
Samddhi-
skandha, the Prajnd-skcmdha, and the Vimuktiskandha.'
Then the Guru
gives
him
him
a pair of
and near
to
wooden
him with
him once again and gives
four sprinklings of holy water and presents
an umbrella having thirty-two

sandals
radii.
Next he
sprinkles
after which the Guru draws on
the ground linearly,
each other, seven images of the lotos flower, upon each of which he
puts a swpdri, and then
each as he proceeds.
commands the
When
cha Raksha Sastra on
aspirant to traverse them, placing a foot on
the Chela has done
his head, sends
image of Sakya Sinha, to
offer to it
him
so,
the
Guru
into the sanctum,
Pan-
placing the
where stands the
pdn, and supdri, and dakshind.
All this the
Chela does, and likewise performs the Pancha Upacharya puja; when, having
cumambulated the image, he returns to the Guru.

Then the Guru performs the ceremony called Shik Adhivasan, which
The
ball of five-coloured thread
deposited in the kalas,
is
like
it is
Guru and
clue in his hands, repeats prayers

it
He
in the kalas.
to the Khikshari
gives
it
thus
being
twisted thrice
then unrolled and carried on to the Chela and
manner round the Khikshari he holds
tinued unbroken to the
is
in the first day's proceedings as
taken out of the kalas and one end of
round the neck of the kalas

twined in
mentioned
cir-
and then
rolls
whence it is conThe Guru holding the
in his hands,
delivered into his hands.
up the thread and then redeposits
next performs the Pancha Upacharya puja to the kalas and
next he gives flowers and a blessing to the aspirant
him the Abhisheka,
invests his neck with a cord
the thread just adverted to;
places the
next he
composed of a piece of
Pancha Raksha Sastra on
his head,
and
144
repeats over
is
made
him some
The Mandal
prayers.
to perform the
Maha
is
In a large earthen vessel four seers of dressed
Bhatmas, and a noose and a mask faced
tity of
tity of flesh in the
presenting to the
mouth of it, are placed

mask the Naived and a
he holds in his hands so that
it
when the
then obliterated,
Bali ceremony, which
like
is
rice,
thus
aspirant
and a quarter of the quan-
Bhairava,* having a small quan-
and the aspirant makes puja to Bhairava,

light,
shall fall
and pouring out water from a conch
The Guru
into the vessel.
repeats
mantras, and invoking the Devatas and Nagas, and Yakshas, and Rakshasas, and
Gandharvas, and Mahoragas, and mortals, and immortals (Amanushas), and Pretas,
gas,
and Pisachas, and Dakas, and Dakinis, and Matrika Grahas, and Apas Marand all motionless and moving things, he says, Accept this Bali and be
'
propitious to this aspirant, since the sacrifice has been performed according to the
directions of
the Balis of
Vajra Sahva.
Maha
Such
is
In like manner
the Sarva Bhuta Bali.
Kala, and of the Graha, and of the Pancha Raksha, and of the
Graha Matrika, and
of
Ohand Maha Rakshana, and
of the guardians of the four
and of Ekavinsati, and of Basundhara, and of the Chaitya, and of Pindi Karma, and of Amoghpasa, and of Sarak Dhara, and of Tara, and of He vajra,
and of Kurkulla, and of Vajra Krodha, and of Marichi, and of Ushnisha, and of
quarters,
Hariti, are performed.
kha
Next the
which are poured as
Balis denominated the
In the conch are put
Bali, are thus performed.
Tyaga
flesh,
Bali,
and the San-
and blood and
spirits,
before, into the great vessel, whilst the Deities of all the six
Then the Pancha Upachara puja is made

is commanded to perform the Chakra puja,
which completed, he returns to his seat. The Chakra puja is that which is made
The Guru then
to all the images in the Vihara by going round to them all.
causes the aspirant to perform the Guru Mandal puja and afterwards to sprinkle
quarters are invoked with prayers.
in the vessel, after
rice
on
all
which the aspirant
the images, which done, the aspirant gives Dakshina to the Guru, and
the Guru, in return, gives the aspirant a small quantity of rice and a
Then the Guru
ney.
causes
him
trifle
perform the Des-Bali-Yatra, which
to
aspirant removes the great earthen vessel with
its
contents,
and distributes the contents in small quantities to

evil spirits throughout the
and Pisachas, and other
all
city
them, returns with the empty vessel.

Then the Guru and ten Nayakas take the aspirant
by means
of
is,
mothe
of carriers,
the shrines of Daityas,

;
to
and having distributed
make
the circuit of
all
the shrines in the neighbourhood and to present at each, offerings of rice, and
pan, and supdri, and flowers after which tbey go to the Chela's home, when
his relatives come out and give him four seers of rice, and then conduct the aspi;
rant and the rest within and feed
them with Mil
or rice and milk.
then returns to the Vihara, and the Chela remains at home.
The Guru
Then the
aspi-
Thus far all is conducted according to the Tauranik exoteric and purely Buddhist
what follows is derived from the Tantrik esoteric, and not purely Buddhist ritual.
what follows rests on customary authority only,
Here end the scriptural injunctions
and has reference to the fact that in Nepaul the Buddhists have long since abandoned
Tonsure is the only mark of the old monastic habits still rethe monastic restraints.
*
ritual
145
rant must, at
for four
days
events, practise mendicity
all
but
at the
if
monastic profession he must
dhyaya,
(the latter
and the other rules of his order,
end of that time, he

go
to his
Guru
at
feel
no serious
'O Guru
say,
I cannot
pray take back the Chivara and other ensigns of monachism
me from
vered
replies,
me
the Sravaka Charya, teach
the
Maha Yan
remain an
Maha Yan
But
Charya.
cannot be relieved from observing the following commandments:
Not
life.
Not
to steal.
to
commit
adultery.
To be clement
tuous liquors and drugs.
The Guru
Vrataishard;
you abandon the Pravrajya,
if
Not
Not
to speak evilly.
The
returns to his seat,
yon
to take spiri-
The observance
to all living beings.
you
shall
aspirant then washes the Guru's feet, and having done so,
when
the
in the first day's ceremonies,
Guru having prepared the materials of piijd noted

makes piijd to the Kalas, after which he makes piijd
to the vessel, holding the aspirant's
shorn locks.
He
then draws Mandals for the
Tri Ratna and for himself, and makes the aspirant offer pujd to
he obliterates the whole and says,

adopted the
still
Not to destroy
of the above rules shall be a pravrajya to you, and if you obey them,
attain to Mukti.'
Puja
ascetic,
and, having deli-
Charya.'
'Truly, in these degenerate days to keep the Pravrajya
adopt then the
Upa-
his instructor in the forms of pii/i, according to the
is
Kand) and addressing the Guru, must
the
call to
the Vihara and to his
Maha Yan Charya;
'
You have abandoned
all
four
the Bhiksku
when
Charya and
attend to the obligations to the latter, as just ex-
plained to you.'
The badges of monachism are then taken from the aspirant by the Guru, who
him the Pancha Rakska as before related, and then sends him to make the
Chakra puja, which done, he causes him to perform the Guru Mandal puja, and
then to sprinkle rice on the Deities. Then the Guru Mandal is erased, the aspiraut
makes an offering to the Guru, and the Guru gives him his blessing. The Guru
gives
then sends the aspirant to throw into the river the hair shaven from his head
and on his return makes the
Agam
puja and Kuinarf puja
when
the whole
is
con-
cluded by a feast.*
P.S.
in the
Since the above
papers were written, I have perused Mr. Tumour's essays
Bengal Asiatic Journal, and I
fully
admit (as anticipated by Mr. Prinsep
that the honours of Ceylonese literature and of the Pali language are no longer
disputable.
may add
in regard to the latter point, that recent research has esta-
blished the following very curious fact,w'z., that the Sanskrit Buddhist
covered by
me
in Nepaul, are
sages in various Prakrits
Hindoo Drama wherein
Pali
this
now found to
among the rest
mixture of
works
dis-
be copiously interspersed with pas-
pretty much in the manner of the
less finished dialects
with the Sanskrit
is
of
common occurrence.
tainedby the Nepalese Bandyas, who are now divided into Vajra Acharyas, Bhikshukas,
Sakyavansikas, and Chivaha Bares.
* In the above Snivakcharya and Bhikshucharya are made equivalents, equally representing the strict rule opposed to Maha Yan charya as the designation of the lax rule
or that of the non-monastic many. This sense of the latter term is contrary to some authorities. The Triyana are elsewhere speciiied as Pratyeka, Sravaka and Maha, but
in another sense a scripture of the highest class or that treats of transcendental
topics
is
called a
Mahayana
Sutra.
Comparative Vocabulary of the several Languages or Dialects of the Eastern Sub-Him&layas, from the Kdli or Gh6tjra,
written
Buffalo
and spoken Tibetan for comparison, by B. H. Hodgson, Esq.
to the
Dhansri, tvith the
Tibetan, written.
Lepcha,
BhtUdni or
LhOpa.
Tibetan, tpoker
Plantain
(InalS
Kardiing
La
River
Changp5
Hyung
Ohhu kyong
Ongkyong
Chua. Wo-hong
Laum
Lam
Chhd
Chhd
Chha
Vom
Yiim
Pig-pa
Kop-pa
Pdko.
Nam
Nam
Nam
Lam
Road
Tahi
Pngspa
Nam khah
Salt
.Skin
Sky
Kompo
Beu
Sah6r
Sun
Karma
Dob
Nimo
T.,r
Jik
iBnii
Star
Karma
rDo
Shingdong
Shing
YOlteho
Thdnjr
Kyong
Water
Chhri
Chhu
Thomd
GnyS
Khd
Chhii
fjonshing
Dova
Na
Khyod
Khyod chag
Khocbag
Khenio
Khonjo
Nahi. Nayi
Klivodkyi
El
'7:-
Ehah:
VJadbtmA
K liynd cliaggi
Khochaggi
fOblg
yNyia
Moko
Hadosa
Heusa
Kheno
Am
Khiine in
M6so
Kayii pongsa
Hayii pongsa
IToyii pongsa
Anigen
A'in ko
Kit"
Thit. Thi-t
Nyet
Nyetsh
Pha IP
Pha gndn
Li ah
Tiiksh
Oyd
Tarok'
kyok'
Kakeii
Ouh
Ka
Gnd
lyud
Thdmbd
inrtr.
Sum
ehii
chii
Hip chii
Gimp chii
hchii'
drOva thdmbd
Simd
Ang
in
in
chi
ko
ko
Ai
Thd
Them
GnS
Id
Khiinchi
Ektai. Tai'
Uaaat
Nyi
shii
Slim elm
Hip
Thi"
Gni
ping
Phunglu
Wo
Thi"
ping
mha
gu
mo
Gni IS
Kdnld
Chhang gu
Wily'll
Hos
Kan kiirik
Ndng kiirlll
Hos kiirik
Gnou
mo
Kdn mo
Ndwo
Ho chii
Thild
Gni molo
Kerne molo
Thnmdla
LTll
Wuping gu
Ghrik. ^Ri-k Chhi'

Gni. j>Ni
*Ri
Kri.
Hari
Gov
ki
Gaiv ki
Hurdv ki
Ilun-d kr. Mt'rok.i
Kan kiirikiim
Nang kiiiikum
kiirikiini
Kdt"
Ni
Gndsh
chii
Onap
Qyd.GyathdmbMlyd
chii
Gnd
Tiikya
Nush
Yet sh'
Phdng sh
kyot
Hi
in).'.
ReyS
/Tibet
Phdngyd
Thibong. Gip Kip
1
Gi.
Yd
L<S
Ld
child
Sa
Le. In
Kd. Rem
Nan. Liang4
Mo. Nin
Nu. Manii
[10+10
d.
Khii
Prd
brlib,
Kiih
Chiwai
Ld
Ba-gnd Ond
Bu-li'
Pi"
Nvi eho. Khechik Khakdt

Ni bong
Khe phddani
Khakdtsa kati Slim hong, 3 tens
Kha nydt
Li gip_, 4 tens
Khe pheddngeiim KhanvetsakdtiGna gip, 5 tens
Khd gnd
Khd pha gndn Thi bong gip, one
Nald.
Kyis. Ois. S.
Ndmi
Gnd
Ndng
Chha ping
Jiping "giS
Ch Imping g
Myaucho. Moyo soThennd
ir
Di
Taya
Wo
Ji
Aild
Thd IS
Soru
Stiniiigi
Ndm khdn
Kyii
Chha
Bhiiga
Lhiing
Ndsa
Gnd
Kdn
Ji
Kiisyul
Sindd
Ld
Lau.
Klienih' in
Kati
Chiih
Chiih
Nyi
shii
Naa. Las.
By,
Khiind
Ki
Ka
Kyi.Oi. Hi. Yi.

La.Tu^Dii.Ka.Sii
To
Swd
Chdn
Sak"
Chdla
Sarang
Bui
Sdn
Zhyi
Tiik
Una
Bundled
Khiinchi
Ingd in
Kayii.
chi
cha
Chik
Nvi
Dun
Qvd
Ouh
oZhibchii
Fifty
in
Khdnd
Khananin
Qua
Sumchu
Forty
A'nka
Khand
Moko
Ankan
Thii
Nvi
Dhini
Tdmd
Gnd
Khdnih'
linik. r/Ru-k
oClni.
Dili
Dhong
Ingd
Tdrgya
PfrS.
Kfwd
Anigd
Una
rfGii
Thirty
Yiimbd
td
Hiyii
Hdyti
Kaseusu
Kh6
Qnd
Khi
Chik
Nvi
Zhvi
(Dun
Ten
Twenty
Lung
Sum
IZhi
/>H
Bhiigiiri
Sdngyen
Pukuri
Karcbin
Hobo
Go
Hau
Heu
Gndnjo yi
Khenjo yi
KhoDjo yi
../S,
Seven
Eight
Nino
Tundi. Miin
Khd
Khworing Khong
Gniti
Khyo ti
Ohhdgi
Kbwoti
Kheugi
Gnu chdgi
Nirdtf
Kliyeriti
Khou cbdgi
Khworiti Khong gi
Gndyi
Khd yi
Kl^yi
Mil
cho
Dd. Gang, S.
Chhii
Khu
Kho
Na chag
Ohd
Nam
Chdgii
Kvrf'
Kyu
Gni
Gni
Khyo
Khold
Chdchd
Dhi
Nam
Keh'va
Ar;hd
Kling
Village
Troo
Mocha
Khwdng
Kydn
Chdchd
Dfbhf
si
Pachdm
OsSk
Khdsdvi
Sachak
Sathdng
Sob
Tooth
Eala
GhySm
Yiim
U'hdk bd
Hong-kii
Saho
Athiin. Kdnibd Horik.

Ta liang
Dnil
Snake.
Gnak
seh
Riik
Nhe
Nis.
Limbu,
Cbyd
Pv.
Rd
Giin
Kuh
Sdnho
Chuh
Chan
Yoh
Glib
Nhi
ehii
Kuti
Sang sdnho. Nief
Bokal cha shii Ni sdnho. Siiyd
tartt
Bokal nhi
Su sdnho. Pi-yd
Bokal ni shii chii Pi sdnho. Gnidye
Bokal gnd
Gun sdnho. Sat chi caret
Ld
Yd. Ld. B6
Yd
(
c
c
c
c
1
Klidk ndshi
Khdk
lnshisasika
Swaikd
Kwd. Kyd
Wdjd
{ElmcLLlloi
vowol
Chu =
and so of 20, 30, 40, which also give the radicals of the decimal scale, and show how
scrvili'S lire always drupt ill eolnjiouuds.
See and compare all.
I'omi.iire ^1-^-11, lluniii-se To, with the neuter sign f.-u ~ Ne.wari ept, G vet K, final of Tibetan
Serpa and
So also is initial ka of Leneha 7 to 10.
In Newdri the numeral adjuncts
variable. Hie ft heec, hma ; hoc, /fit, sufftxed as in the other iiualitivi
The varied position and optional
use of these luMendu rente iimeh Isise semblance of diversity.
Pfta pre-lixed here, like sh post-fixed in the Linibii columns, is not radical.
Pha is equal to the silent b of
mitten Tibetan. B*KB&, in the Magar column, are equivalent to the Lepcha Pha, that is, pre-fixed
" '1 the Gurung columns. The mutation throughout is very instructive:
"A.Vi/ft
5 tens,
Limbu gip = Kiranti hip, got from 40, jnst as Gyarungp^ for four got from plisi 40. Bong equals Oip.
Corruption merely of Suryi.
mas. et foem. ; f?u neuter. Jihma, myself Jigu, my goods. Hma and gii are affixed to every quali*
tive whatever.
See note voce long.
Anuswar merely, and for instr. and abb alike
also yaken, whieh likewise expresses, with, or sulh of
Urdu ; the Latin c
Sma
'
Chinese ^ll tau, equals
first,
a verb to
second a prep, to (going to.)
Comparative Vocabulary of the languages of Hor Sokyeul and Sifdn, by B. H. Hodgson, Esq.
SSipa.
salki
khord-khwd
w?
li
me
tliii-k.il
pvd-pyd
khoro-gwd
tabrii,
sakorsu
phyli
ripat
si-m(
gwaA
("bull
Crow
zyah) sa-lo
khdrd
|lr.y
nh6khw
Dog
khikhd
V.
OUTO-ll
chitun
1.1. [iliun!
llidbochd
Eyo
Illltil
I'cliild
Father
kwil
kbdld
chiehlik
kkdil
jiikd
tsall
hompa
kachu
BTODfl
of head
lipa/i
liar
tholfr-gwd
kbu-krU)
yd-bour
Hog
1
[.
Bono
Homo
pa-syiiug
Iron
tlniniar
Loaf
Man
Kluin
nidehi
Monkey
MmIIht
Mountain
Mouth
Mo
ikbi,
spvaA
,l/'i, Mi
vkhi
tavli
khd-khwd
rliito
'maA
Night
aaliil
Oil
ehingyii
snrnii
caret
clu.braA
griA
wnssii, um'i
choA
Skill
Sl.v
1',,
rapl
niuhto
tkdug-grd
brigi
thold
ghada
small
Thorhu.
"-''
t'Hinc-
Will,-. ill, uutHiili-khiii

ki'ki
Within, inside-
gachi
zyangkii
khd kho
lig-di
pneu-80
ka
neng
d'rithu
tir tbii
thang-ti
riDffblS
bratliii
uu
kou-ti
jh
ti.-ri
ohhin yftbi
in
k thatba
tameh
r.
syu
to"
trinini
TllMH. DOM,
cbou
Howf
Whyf
nikanjii
caret
tharichhiii
mka-
hi
mangwa, mftng
hi ni
lull,
puthi kd
pichhd
Thifl
el
Thai
tl
llllll
Gold
Hot
fii
Ripe
thusu, tmisit,
thi
ma
ban us moh
igwan edng-
Wake
pyang-di [-di zhirdo

liou-ti (good) kwipau
Byou-ti(8mall)kwicbem
sphwa leu
disduk
khang-ti
taskom'
wii-ti
dridra
lira lira
dridra
yd
kah kah
wiiA
w&h
tiip-zlii
drazo
gyiik pa
dnehuA
kaiLirhrtiig
toiuos
ta-zo
ta-uiot
kari
na brfda
nanijongsi
id
gnajeu
wtitbi
giirgyuu
tarven
friron (g
liikou
hiidi
Weep
hi nid
caret
caret
lie silent
Speak
kwor,
Come
hai
la
m6
syacha, hima
thii
hiong
tenzi, tizzi
hou
1
1,
ti
myii
hi Ion
bfil ckhen
the"
lang(get up)dougwAA
gaye"
che
kiich-chur
kuch-cbe*A
kurn-chur
la-ti
Handaomo
Ugly
Iniuked
Black
payokh
chhagan
Move, walk dakan
ting-di
ting-di
khidi
myu
pi-di
Take
demami
debi
the
Mm*
jadjh
da-gatcb
Strike
Kill
Bring
"nesne*
khak-bd
kam-syiir
lihiimi. gnouiiind phyiin phii
lihiimani.
dzi-la
da-kha
gnoma mam phyu
yabii?+t
kbanj^h
i
tashin
td-khyii (cuivifl)
gwrmkbe. tdahthit
rabwo
zbi
tu-khong unihi)
I.ll'l
lip
'
sam tenchd
ta-yiu. uap-e
kaprom'
kherii
dallii
dangn
dati-tlifi
kokshust
khabd n(
thai-ilyu
But ka is aho used with rerba, e.g. t Jong = it is,

is, in Bodo (Du of Newari and Tibetan du-g) is ku-m-dong in Gyiiniug.
Ka prefix becomes pa, according to that alliterative principle which prevails so greatly, though invgularly.
Give to me: take from me. Bin, Ling, a general tense.
One solicit* the
g Be, Ya, have a special sense.
tier commands.
the Persian hast, nest, exactly.
and medial.
by the Latin appendage.
verbs the analogous prefix ta vel da
is
usually added.
||
terra, indicated
(See note at
Wfl-khi, taVj h'mga
ta-chi
Tell, relate kiirr
numerals
y:i.
I'ut du\
diina
to the
tachimoyu
w
w
la-chhd
Understand akhchan
added
ga
ps
na-sya
trulhd
la-le
Hear
as that
thadyu
t.i-.-lu
kho kbo
*" Initial
thathadyii
syo
kyok po
nak po
dangwA
thdinft
uap-shdA, tayin
ka-piin. papii||
yeyen, da-chii
ire"
tamgyo
dag-h(cuivis.)
kwdgah (mihi;
ia
yA-giiz)
caret [chili
trang bo [-mano chu chu
J Horizontal and perpendicular hetweenity.

In all these tongue* there is a special and general
H-Qumret In* hu, come not, in Kalmak.
bo worde
h..p- qufipotbo
ka-kas'lo
These are the positive and negative forms of the substantive verb
t Bi, an in-fix, medial ma, pre-tix.
pre-fix o( all th*
ma
ma-kas'to
ka-nak'
'
(il
Run
gus-go
[(goodjkhu-ti
chang bend houti (good)
imUivii" (hml)hunti inyu(bad)ma-kumchhur
Straight
deundaA
gromo
choso
Bitter
gnor
che"
nnmalum; machoso
thu-thu
nyok-pa
i-sman
the* th<5
ammahalon
tfika
ki
>iakal)ni
Bbiihrin
>gii*tan
depart dakan
Stand up toron
Sit down
ajon
gaye" nytSr
liavandriijtaraisbta kiirkd
reT-di
uyiiphtl
arzan
(in,
ohki, hiong
eii
hhfing bejio botikhou. houti kasne*
I.I:
am
*t L
eang-di.yaiiL'kalarlarlt
5
haniild
kn
thtfnbo
hirhi
chuginda
shAsha
kho khd
chink
Whito
Round
khwa
st
kuht
thye", khyfi
thei
n.
mei
thft:
Whlch.whojkoirf
ta
Wbfttf kya
n
Anything
Anybody
cliiingbo. pru
Ti-ti.
Which, who, jon

Which, wlio, ton
Bad
ti-ti
S-juave
thi
sugnng
nig tlniiig
tha
pwi tha
thuzyo [mob
[chat yenichhin
gnowa, goo
Or
diir
brfttai
Cg
etibj
eomli
changii
pingbo
tlionypo
wongchitha
ah men
Caret
Ah, rel
bdt ka, 1
phil
thungbii
6H
brobo
How muobP
kvuku
nang
lithii
Img4
Much
(i
tlul
kfaolfl
Little
So,
dd
total
Fur
Near
leu
shidxi
t6io
k51
Below
Between
" ten.")
To
With, cum. latin

Snth in Hindi
find
Chi
Da. Chdro So. Tyol
Yiken. Nipo
Urdu
Menne
Without,
I.a.
Ka
La
Mo. khep mo.

kiithung tho
Now
Dengtsi'>.lla.l-I>:ng
Then
Detail
WhunP
Qang
T..-ilav
During
Sang. Tbolv
To-
tat.
Nam.
Thiriug
Sing
Taring
Dharing
Thoraug
Nabah
Khachd
Liili
DIM
Alim. Aba
Dang
Ilena
Whero P
Above
Below
Khem
pha
A'pbi
fe
1*5
Denrkke
Ain
Ai
Tandik
Mang koleng
Akhomang
Tili
lyase
Mebma
Kdtuii
Wada
Hacko
Phate-
Pil.
Ni
Miyanu
Kh/icho
Kaui
Tong. Ch6. Yogi Tying
Wfj. Syd. Magi
Wag
Kind
Saba. Sabi
Atfing
Kh&d&nii
Atiin. Tal.
ApldngTknng
Madhani
Mdyuni
Hndma
Hero
There
Hande
Khwomlo
Alo
Thindi
Thi dwi
Kha dwi
t<5
Ten kha. Ting
Wdh
Woba
Achtim
Md
Cheul.Sadain
Abik. Ackdk
Toying
Moyang
Jll [WITH
Without, ou
Bar, du
Phyi, rohua
Bhar
Chi
Within
Far
Near
N6. Nt6
Tharing
Thani
Par
P.ini
Ning
Ring
l.iltlo
Nydng
Much
Mang. Tunio.
How much P
Tsatn. T-.'iniv
HadiStaug
Niguva
Ma gda
Kbit ebwe
Khindi
Thendi
Dinda
KhachO.Khinda
Kulnm
Phi
Rinrbo
Thak ninibo
Chayak chik
A'li
Bahar
Ning
Thi ring
ThA ni
Nvdng bo
Mang bu
Sarong
Kiisi gang.
Maram
MSnkio
Neng dang
Miaa
Athol
Ag yap
Satet
Kindd
Kijeu
KatC
PhindiS
O'M
Olom
Kajd
A'khen
Aphi dong ba
Khem pha ib tug ba
Kon pha dong ba
A*pha
Salom
0'de\ Do
DindS
Kaudo. Kdnda Kite bt5
Salom
|
Why P
Kha
in
King
Shii
mat
Tup. In
M<5 tup.
I'd
In
Men
Men
Mil
Ma
Yang
Dang.
Mo
This
That
Di
Diraug
Phi-di
I'lii
ivl.
Thiuda?
corr
Which?
WhatP
Who?
Auy
thing
Any body
ang
Thd yambdkle
Gungari
Mang gyer
Ukung
Tiin^ gycr
yil
Nekti
Tharing
Jyat na
Chichi
U'clit
Badho
Lhini
Gade
Khiju
Do
m<5ye
Kbain siiko
Khoin suko
Worn
auko
A'inedko
Chdapi
Khatpa
Kharnso
O'k
Men
Men. Ni
Thi
Mo
Yang.
Ang
Yen. Den.
Bi
Wi
Di. Didi
Kon
Phe. Pbedi
Khen
Swin?
Kadi
A'tiP
The
Thi dang
U'di
Ware
Khen
Kho
Kkangi
Swin
Kbing
Kadi
Kang cbi. Kan
Sare
Th<S
Kha.
Khi chui?
Shii
Tigi
Ka
To
ThS
Hat
ThJ
Hat
Di.
Sii
Di
Dimin
Khang
Kha.
Chizhig
Sii/liiu'. Kbachig
Sii.
dinniL'
Khai nang
Sui nang
Eat!
S."..
S,i
Ktindochi
Kaye".
Ka
Shdri.
imclii
Tham
Tola
Tha
Thong
Sah
Thdng
Z6.
Chun
Ho
re
Tigi
lii
Cho
Thing
Thiing
Sleep
NyiS
Nyol
NyS
Lhdng
D4
Imsac
Si
caret.
Gwet
G&
Then
I'ya. Iaa
Wake
chui
Khi
Khi
lo
OhiS
Thung
chan
Khi chui?
Ho
Ko
De
I) rink!
tO ad
Waapa
Mi
Ang
Or
Which,
Which,
'l'lv?
n'h.'- joknia
|
Yea
Hong
Udiiug yi
Gniing
Poka.
Nyet
Tilaan,
Enjflitl.
Wool)
Be silent
Bpeak
Khrog
Mod, Hmr6n
Como
Stand up
tonny
corrf
Lap
V/Iiiin. rll.-g
I'bin.
Obdng
BS.
Bak
Hon Len. Yd
Dung
KhigSod. /.liiitn s,i

Bring
iKbydrg, -h v b B -v, five-come
Biik wing, give-go
Talr. .away
AKIiiir. AKhvcr
l
Uftup,ral*Dl ADege.81on.
Kh r
Bear, carry ( *N v"b
(
Nyon
Nynn. r/Son
Qui
Som
Undonrnsd
Some. Go,
,.,
(.Shod. /ilMihud
Good
Baiang-po
llinl
Nong-po
iIimii:]..,
Hot
Tnha-jiM. Hi.; -|i,,Siniiibi.
"
Hyumbo
"**
ThAng bo
NAng
R^r
zlii
ltiri
Gfrmo
Tbdxi
TdpcbJ
,,i,v
Libub
p6
Nhyam
Itfm
bo
Arhen. Khenbo
bii
Thiiin bu
A'tAn. Tiinbo
Thhubo. Tho
Ath6.Th.ibo
Duzbi yeupo
op
!K
oab them
1
;!
Qyamo
TbiStbombo
Utto
GvA m6
Nenma
Brfiko
\.-.\u'
Tilting clih5
Kliiilu'uu
KhAkum
Kb.i
Tok
To
To
kiing
kom
ki
imiM-i
.illv
ili-
in !
i.'iuf.
.it,.
Ton kyongphali
Ai".p'i|'
Asap. SApbo
\-viim. Syiimbo
;
I
Aebim. Chimbo
IV
O'ngnd
Tidok. Kridoi
the rerbftl radical,
KK
Mi.J
nosUutd.
Tin' latttt ibowt plainly tha Tflwtao

'!
i.t
i
r(5rbo
tin- mlji'i tiviil
iirirly
-,miiiu..ii,
Chimbo
Mini- Timbo'
it ia hot,
Imin i>f u.'i.U l>y humus l-I |>iv- .m-l ]i"-.t-h\i-., nuit>- liihiIuTht prft>ftZM an- oflt'll omittutl, as Ke-goba, Qoba, good, in l.iintu.
Mil, cM, AiW*, through the columns. The roat of thsoiflerencca b< long-
inB of
throughout 01 v.ry
1>'
Aryiim.
Mfl
Achiin.
i.
tin-
Le md
BoDibo
Gonto yeupo
)hho*npoBombo llombo
i;.ptii
Klinkn
Ldmo. Simbu
Chung bo
;,f.
'M)i'iilili-
Klial.ti
Arhiiiii. Ithumho
Azeu. Zeubo
Amyen. Myenbo
Akbam. Kiiambo
Krop
Akrini. Krimbo
Tippi5
Oirbii
I'lnin rliung
in . is
A/yen. Zyenabo
Ahyiim. flyiimbo
Mh&mteiii Mh<.>ur Anniu. MAubo
K.i.i
Ohing
Hun
Aryum.Ryiimbo
MArao
Thombo
MAbo
win
mo
mo
Khyii
jiuS
li\:il,
in
1'
MA bo
'
Mb
lomu
Noh
Mdvyo
Ntimmo
[Umbo
Thimuo
Thenbo
Srobbo. Rldpo
Ma
Nyen
tang.
U&po
Grub
Uml
GnS mo
.llmngii
Lap
Tek po
Hunger
Som
Lomu
cant
Bimbo
Tbdn riling
'
Mm
Nyon
Lap
Chochopo
\N
Nyon
Syea
give-cune
non, give-go
ifuliuf
Fnt
TbJn
CMn
lift
An.'ik. N'ukbn
A'diim. Dumbo
A'heur. Heurbo
Phfing phiing
Lmnpo
Bu
TM
Khiir hyup,
Kfi
Ohhtfug. i'lim
I'
liak song, five-go
Kh(ir
N&kpo
Lovol
Oyap
B.i di,
TyokW
"ui
Squaro
Sot
BSsyu.give-come
Karpa
......
ni
Bak
Seh
tfakjK)
/..li.ngl.hi.
mud
Lyo
Len.
Diing
Niikjipi
T(i
!i.
Nang
Ling
Diing
Syet
Kfikpo
EUngpo
It.
X.m. Hi
.Karpo
Tliuiunw.
Bin
Bo. Bi
Nngpn
Long
Small
rfKurpo
tfukpo
Bhort
Short
TAngo
K6k [6k
iGdrbo. Tuflpo
ll
Deung
Ndng. B4. Bak
/..iil.t
TMngbo
Dnnpo
Straight
r.'.-ti
Deu
Dyu
Pan kyap
Chobo
Gnormo
"""^"'
jiffi-?
Red
or
move
GnSn
Dong
Chdng
(li.i.ib..
Khiiko
wiiitu
Luk. Ding
Zieinbo
Dsolmo. *Ttigpo Jobd
Orooknd
Mark,
di, corns,
Mil cho bo
'in' P".
caret
Bitter
Wy
aba
Nfa
Teu
Gniinii.i
Bwoot
s..iir
ll.nl
S6ng
Long
Xhyangmo
Tenmo
Haw
<
Ohwe
l.-ip.
leppo
Dukpo
Cold
l.'i,,.
Syd
Gyok
Kill
'I'll], ril.il.-
H4M'
Sakmi
Li
Syok
Long
Det
Del
'
''''"" } """-
from em
Strike
Lepche,.
Rhiop
chiim
Di=move
Oyd
1>bul
*%
Tong
'""'
(livo I'
cord
Oyiige.
i-Gvug
Itun
T " "'
Gnu
Khd
here
JOro
walk
M.,i..,
Khdrd
'
ADdg
down
Sit
Gniini
Chum
Syd
Hong. Byon
Ono
S6ng. Oro. Oyu. Oyd. Song

Long
ACIihar
Go
BhMnior Lhipa
Strpa.
Tibetan, tpoktn.
torittin.
Shum
Ngii.
Bunwaj
>iffiinitii - of the Li pcha tongoe.

ir-Hmmfad, with the ponti?e form eophoni
;'
PART
II.
ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA.*
clear
of the
outline, illustrated
Himalaya ,
is,
many
graphy, which derives so

in return to render
tion of its
own
by a sketch map of the principal natural divisions
and long has been, a great desideratum;
for physical geo-
from the other physical sciences,
aids
is
expected
back to them, without unnecessary delay, a distinct demarca-
by that alone researchers in so many departments

phsenomena they are conversant with to their
provinces, since
are enabled to refer the respective
appropriate
manner that
local habitations, in
shall be readily intelligible
causally significant, and wholly independent of the shifting and
unmeaning arron-
dissements of politics.
our knowledge of the large portion of these mountains, lying
It is true, that
beyond the
limits of British dominion, is far
ledge any thing like complete of our
own
from complete.
hill-possessions ?
But
and,
if
is
our know-
we
are
to
wait until Nepal, Sikim, and Bhutan become thoroughly accessible to science,
must we
may
indefinitely postpone
not
(I think) be
The
a work, the most material part of which
performed with such information as
we now
possess ?
of geography, ordinarily so called, are wearisomely insignificant
details
but the grand features of physical geography have a pregnant value, as being alike
suggestive of
new knowledge, and
ready retention of old.

exhibit
men
I
them
facilitative
of the orderly distribution and
purpose to adhere to those grand features, and to
in that causal connexion
which gives them
their high interest
with
of cultivated minds.
had been
for several years a traveller in the
of that tyranny of the senses,
which
the conviction that the mighty
of this stupendous scenery with
without a plan.
My
first
step
Himalaya, before
I could get rid
so strongly impresses almost all beholders
maze
is
quite
towards freedom from this overpowering obtru-
*ExtracteJ from the Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal, No,
(Reprinted from the Jour. As. Soc. Bengal for 1849.)
The compound is Himalaya, not Himalaya as
place of.
Hima 'snow,' Alaya
The synonymes Himaehala and Himodaya (whence the Classic
usually pronounced.
JEmoolus) mean, respectively, 'snowy mountain' and 'place of appearance of snow (udaya).
xxvii, Calcutta 1857.
'
'
GEOGEAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA.
was obtained by steady attention
siveness of impressions of sense
Himalayan waters flows more or
vast volume of the
the
Himalaya, but so that the numberless streams of
to the general direction of the
the mountains are
to the fact, that
less at right angles
directed into a few grand rivers of the plains, either at or near
My next step
the confines of the two regions.
was due to the singular significance

whose " Sapt Gandaki " and
of the topographic nomenclature of the Nepalese,
" Sapt Kausika

"J
rivetted
me
the Himalayas, urging
operated this marked
my
attention
upon the peculiar aqueous system of
thenceforward to discover,
if possible,
them into a limited series of distinct main rivers.

was achieved when I discovered that the transcendant
My
so as to bring
last step
what cause
convergence of innumerable transverse parallel streams,

third and
elevation
and
forward position, at right angles to the line of ghats, of the great snowy peaks,
presented that causal agency I was in search of;
the remotest radiating points
of the feeders of each great river being coincident with the successive loftiest masses*
belonging to the entire extent of the Himalaya.
It
was
in
Nepal that
tion of these problems occurred to me, and so uniformly did the
this solu-
numerous routes
I possessed represent the points of extreme divergence of the great rivers
feeders as syntopical with the
have
satisfied
myself upon the subject,
had not so decidedly
insisted
by their
highest peaks, that I should probably long ago

if
my
then correspondent, Captain Herbert,
on the very opposite doctrine
to
wit, that
the
great peaks intersect instead of bounding the principal alpine river basins.
Captain Herbert's extensive personal conversancy with the Western Himalaya,
added
of
to his
my own
high professional
views.
But the
made me
for a long time diffident
progress of events, and
increasing knowledge of
attainments,
other parts of the chain, seeming to confirm the accuracy of those views,
to
me more
were
not,
officer's
carefully to investigate
whether the
facts
it
occurred
and the reason of the case
upon the whole, demonstrative of the inaccuracy of that able and lamented
dogma.
Doubtless the Western Hirualaya presents appearances calculated
to sustain Captain Herbert's opinion, whilst such persons only as are
to deal with the classifications of science, will
expect
by point with those natural phenomena, which
it
is
them
to
unaccustomed
correspond point
at least one chief merit of
such arrangements, merely to enable us readily to grasp and retain.

the entire body of facts
now within
our ken
is
H.'s doctrine,t and that that doctrine suits
Geology and Geography,
is,
I think, certain
ceed to attempt the proof of
upon the whole opposed

ill
and
But that
to Captain
with the recognized axioms of

I shall with diffidence
now
pro-
it.
JSee Journal Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, No. 198, for December 1848, p. 646 &c.
*This expression is used advisedly, fr every pre-eminent elevation of the Himais not so much a peak as a cluster of peaks springing from a huge sustaining and
connected base. But observe, some of the peaks are not advanced before the ghatline, but thrown back behind it, as Chumalari and Devadhunga or Nyanam.
These
do not influence the aqueous system of the Indian slope of Himalaya see on, to
remark on Chumalari. This is a new inference from new facts in part.
The Western Himalaya, as it approaches the Belur, is in many respects anomalous,
owing, as I conceive, to the crossing of that meridional chain.
The true and normal
laya
Himalaya
is parallelic or runs west and east.

t Journal No. 126, extra pp. 20 and 22.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA.
may
question than
readers
it
is,
tyro in geology, I shall not dwell further on the" theoretical side of the
but the
be requisite to
facts,
facilitate
quoad Nepal
and the following obseiwations,
always remembered
lish the general
and complete the apprehension of
at least, I trust, that
may
my
render sufficiently indisputable
it
being
that I deal with generals, not particulars, aiming to estab-
accuracy of
my main proposition,
viz.,
that the great peaks, bound
instead of intersecting the alpine river basins, and that, in truth, the peaks
bounding
my
sketch map, rude as
create the basins,
whereas their
The whole Himalaya extends from 78
intersection
deg. to
by
so
would destroy them.
94 deg. of longitude, comprising
peak of Jamnoutri peak of Nanda-devi (A),

peak of Dhoula-giri (B), peak of Gosain-than (C), peak of KangchanJ (D), peak
of Chumalhari (E), peak of the Gemini
which peaks include and constitute
the following peaks and basins:
(a),
(e)
the following alpine river basins,

that of the
viz.,
that of the Ganges, that of the Karnali,
Gandak, that of the Cosi, that of the Tishta, that of the Monas, and
that of the Subhansri (pars).

position of these
The subjoined
table exhibits the elevation
dominant peaks, with the authority
for both.
and the
Gnari, extending (from the Belur) easterly to the Gangri boundary range
or
of
Lake Mapharn
Utsang, thence stretching to the Gakbo River beyond Lhasa
and Kharn, which reaches from the Gakbo River

range of China and Tibet.
we
leading into Tibet,
westward
with their casual distribution,
1st,
Yiinling, or limitary
to the
to the regions south of the line of ghats
clearly defined, the several
have,
divisions of the Himalaya,
from the
Thus reverting
||
the
alpine basin of the
natural provinces or
as follows,
peak of Jamnoutri to the peak of Nanda-devi (Juwar or Juwahir),

words, from east long. 78 12' to 79 50'
commencing
Ganges, extended from the

other
or, in
2nd, the alpine basin of the Karnali,
reaching from the peak of Nanda-devi to that of Dhoula-giri, or from 79 50' to

83
3rd, the alpine basin of the
to that of Gosain-than, or
Gandak, stretching from the peak of Dhoula-giri
from 83 to 86
4th, the alpine basin of the Cosi, ex-
tending from the peak of Gosain-than to that of Kangchan, or from 80 to 88

10'
5th, the alpine basin of the Tishta, reaching from
that of Chumalhari. or from 88 10' to 89 18'

nas, stretching
to
92
50'
the peak of
6th, the
from the peak of Chumalhari
Kangchan
alpine basin of the
to that of Gemini, or
to
M6-
from 89
18'
and, lastly, the alpine basin of the Subhansri, of which the western
limit is the Gemini, but the eastern peak
somewhere about 94
50',
is
unascertained.
It
should be sought
between which point and the extreme eastern limits
Himalaya must be the basin of the Dihong. That the above distribution
Himalaya into natural districts is, upon the whole, as consistent with the
as it is eminently commodious and highly suggestive, I have no hesitation
of the
of the
facts
upon the
trench
men who
are
my present essay to undue limits, or

Waugh and the other able professional
Lest, however, I should extend
of asserting.
province of Colonel
now engaged upon
alpine valley of the
the western
say nothing further of the
hills, I shall
Ganges and those west of
it,
nor upon those lying east of
Sikim.*
If
and
my
main assumption be
valid, it will
better furnished ones than
expositions will be
mine
be easily worked out by abler hands
wherefore the
following
chiefly confined to the three great
Karnali, the Gandak, and the Cosi.

sively
In the
first
central
of these basins
more detailed
basins
we have
of
the
(succes-
from west to east) the Sarju, the Gori, the Kali, the Sweti-ganga, the Karnali
proper, the Bheri, and
the Jhingrak or Rapti.f
And
it is
certain that,
whereas
See Routes from Kathmandu to Peking in sequel and paper on Horsok and Sifan.
Sifan is the eastern boundary of Kham, which commences, on the line of route from
Nepal at Sangwa, the 51st stage, and extends to Tachindo, the 104th and political
boundary of Tibet and China. The Yiinliiig chain seems to run along the western
||
verge, of Sifan.
* In the sequel I shall give the river basins of the Western Himalaya upon the
authority of Dr. Thomson, in order to complete the enumeration of Himalayan disDr. T. 's river distribution proceeds
tricts, but simply as results, and without discussion.
on the same principle as mine, which was published three years prior to his. I think
he has needlessly increased the number of basins and thereby almost marred the effect
of the causal connection of them with the geological structure of the mountains.
+ This identification is probably erroneous, though adopted by Buchanan.
The
Jhingrak with a higher source is turned into the Karnali by the Dhoula-giri ridge
the proximate Raputi is not so influenced, owing to its lower source, and hence
has an independent course through the plains to the Ganges, like the Gumti, etc., as
enumerated in the sequel.
;
these streams drain the whole alpine valley of the Karnali, so their most westerly source
and course
most easterly
confined on the west hy the Nanda-devi peak, as their
is
wholly unite within the

they are
known by one name, even
nominated by the
collective
lowers into Kenar).
These rivers do not
of Dhoula-giri.
though their tendency to union
hills,
Sarju or Kali or Ghdgra.
is
hy that
limited on the east
is
in the plains,
In the
name
Karnali
is
where
is so
decided, that
their collective appellation
the whole of them are universally de-
hills
of Karnali (corrupted by Tlennell and his fol-
the proper nanie of this noble river, the Karnali
branch being by far the largest, the central, and most remote of origin.
It rises
in Tibet, not far from one of the sources of the Sutlej, and has a considerable Trans-
Himalayan course
No
westward of the Taklakhar
to the
more
natural district can be
above defined.
Britain,
Baisi, or
''
where
quits Tibet.
it
Kali-Kumaun, belonging
to
twenty-two Bajes of Nepal, with Yiimila or Jiimla,
we
In the second basin, or that of the Gandak,
have, succes-
from the west, as before, the Barigar, the Narayani, the Sweti-gandaki, the
These are the " Sapt Gan-
Marsyangdi, the Daramdi, the Gandi, and the Trisul.

daki
pass,
than the alpine basin of the Karnali, as
It includes the political divisions of
and of the
Ddti, and Sallyan.

sively
distinct
or seven
Gandaks
of the mountains at
of the Nepalese, and they unite on the plainward verge
They
Tirbeni above Saran.
drain the whole hills between
Dhoula-giri and Gosain-than, the Berigar, and one head of the Narayani, rising
from the former

its affluents
barrier,
from the
and the
Trisul,
Nor does
latter.
with every drop of water supplied by
a single streamlet of the Trisul arise east of
the peak of Gosain-than, nor one driblet of the Berigar deduce itself from the
We have thus in the
westward of Dhoula-giri.
alpine basin of the
Gandak another
admirably defined natural division comprised within two great proximate HimaThis division
layan peaks.
named, vernacularly, the Sapt Gandaki.
is
cludes the old Choubisi or twenty-four Bajes, and belongs to the
It
in-
modern kingdom
of Nepal.
Our
third sample of
Himalayan natural province, conterminous with the
utmost spread of the feeders of a large
snowy peak,
is
feeders These are as follows
the Likhu, the
Dud
Cosi, the
the
is
and bounded on either hand by a prime
Gandak
,has seven principal
Milamchi, the Bhotia Cosi, the
Arun, and the Tamor.*
rising from Gosain-than, is the
gchan,
river,
the basin of the Cosi, which, like the
Of
most westerly, and the Tamor,
And
the most easterly feeder.f
those
Tamba
Cosi,
these, the Milamchi,

rising
from Kan-
two great peaks, with the pre-
eminent ridges they send forth southwards, include every drop of water that reaches
the great Cosi of the plains through
its
as in the case of the Gandak, unite at
the
hills, so
peaks and
seven alpine branches.
All these branches,
(Varaha Kshetra above Nathpiir) within
that the unity of this alpine basin also
is
as clear, as are its limitary
its extent.
Tamor, Hindi equivalent to Tamvar, Sanskrit. So Dhoula-giri for Dhawala-giri,

I have throughout adopted the vernacular forms of
for Jamnavatari.
words as being more familiar and quite as correct.
t See J. A. S. No. 189. Route from Kathmandii to Daijeeling.
*
and Jamnoutri
b
The
alpine basin of the Cosi
is
denominated by the Nepalese the Sapt Kausika,
or country of the seven Cosis.
It comprises the
Limbiis, and Kala Makwanis, and
is
modern kingdom
old Rajes'of the Kinintis,*
included, like the
two
prior basins, in the
of Nepal.
The country drained by the above three
rivers
(Karnali, Gandak, and Cosi)
includes the whole of Nepal and the proximate part of Kiiinaun, or, in other
words, 800 miles of the central and most characteristic portion of the Himalaya.
Wherefore
it
legitimately presumable that, whatever
is
divisions, is true of
is
true of
its
natural
those of the residue, quoad ruling principle and geological
causation.
Now
if
the above facts relative to these
(and that they are
why
to inquire
three rivers be justly represented
in the main, I confidently assert),
so,
we
are led irresistibly
the numerous large feeders of the rivers, instead of urging their
impetuous way from the snows to the plains by independent courses, are brought
together upon or near the verge of the plains ? how unity is effected among them,
maze of ridges they traverse, and despite the straightdownward impulse given them at their sources ? I answer, it is because of
despite the interminable
the superior elevation of the lateral barriers of these river basins, between which
there are synclinal slopes of such decided preponderance, that they over-rule the
how
effect of all other inequalities of surface,
vast soever the latter
may some-
times be.
These lateral barriers of the river basins are crowned by the pre-eminent
Himalayan peaks, that the peaks themselves have a forward position in respect
to the ghat-line or great longitudinal
watershed between Tibet and India, and that

from these stupendous peaks, ridges are sent forth southwards proportionably immense. Thus from the peak of Kangchan is sent forth the ridge of Singilela, which
towers as
loftily
Western Sikim,
over
all
as does
This Singilelan
the other sub-Himalayan ridges of Eastern Nepal and
Kangchan
prolongation
over
itself
the waters. of the Cosi and of the Tishta.

stretching south from the great peak of
waters of the Cosi and of the Gandak.

as effectually sunders the waters of the
all
the other Himalayan peaks.
speak) of
(so to
Kangchan
entirely
similar ridge, that of
separates
Dayabkang,f
Gosain-than, as entirely divorces the
Another
like ridge rising
Gandak and
from Dhoula-giri
Another startmanner wholly separates the proximate feeders of

the Karnali and of the Ganges whilst yet another originating with Jamnoutri
of the Karnali.
ing from Nanda-devi in like
wholly separates the Ganges from the Jumna.

Equally
ridges,
the
effective
which run
with the divergent power of each of these supremely peaked

and at right angles to the ghat-line of
parallel to each other
snowy range, upon two
river-basins, as just noticed, is of course the convergent
* The classical Cirrhatce, and a' once dominant and powerful race, though
they have
long since succumbed to the political supremacy of other races first the Makwanis
and then the Gorkluilis.
t Hence the name Dhailn'mg, erroneously applied by Colonel Crawfurd to the peak
Dayahhang, 'the destroyer of pity,' from the severity of the ascent.

power of two ridges upon the
single contained river-basin.
The
synclinal lines
from the inner laces of the two adjacent ridges draw the waters together;
because these ridged peaks are the
of
all their
the snows,
loftiest
and,
masses of the entire mountains, the effect
other masses, even that of the spine of Himachal or the ghat-line of
is
over-ruled or modified, so that in the most rugged region on earth
a very limited series of distinct main rivers appears in the plains from innumerable
independent alpine feeders, in the manner which

of referring to
its
all
behold, but few indeed think
cause.*
with
It is inconsistent
all
we know
of the action of those hypogene forces
raise mountains, to suppose that the points of greatest
which
intensity in the pristine
marked by the loftiest peaks, should not be surrounded

by a proportionate circumjacent intumescence of the general mass and, if there be
action of such forces, as
such an intumescence of the general surface around each pre-eminent Himalayan

peak,
it
will follow, as clearly in logical sequence as in plain fact it is apparent,
that these grand peak-crowned ridges will determine the essential character of the
aqueous distribution of the very extended mountainous chain (1,800 miles) along
which they occur at

tributed into a small
Now,
that
in fact, pretty regularly
dis-
certain palpable and tolerably regular intervals.
the infinite volume of the Himalayan waters
number
thoroughly explicable upon
of large rivers,
my
of intersecting, the river-basins,
we
is,
all see
and, whereas the fact
is
assumption, that the great peaks bound, instead

it is
wholly inexplicable upon Captain Herbert's
assumption that the said peaks intersect the basins.
The above
are
normal samples
very observable that, whereas
all
of
Himalayan water-distribution, and
it is
those principal streams which exhibit the uniti-
zing principle so decidedly, take their origine in the alpine region, at or near the
snows, so the inferior streams, which rise from the middle region only, show no
such tendency to union, but pursue their solitary routes to the Ganges
example, the Mahanada, the Konki, the
(
Willa, and the
Ramganga.
Here
is
as for
Bagmatti, the Guniti, the Raputi, the
both positive and negative evidence in favour
of the doctrine I advocate, as furnishing the key to the aqueous system and natural
divisions of the
Himalaya;
for the
upper rivers do, and the lower rivers do not,
stand exposed to the influence of the great peaks.
The petty streams
of the lower region, or that next the plains,
which water
the Dhiins or Maris, traverse those valleys lengthwise; and as the valleys themselves
run usually parallel to the ghat-line of the snows, such

these petty streams.
In the central, as in the western,*
bogue into the rivers of the
is
hills,
also the
direction of
they usually disem-
first class.
* Since this was written a new peak of transcendant height has been determined,
which yet does not influence the river basins of the Indian slope. The reason is that
this peak is thrown back behind tbe ghat-line like Chumalhari, as to which see on.
Such facts need not affect the justice of what is written above, but must be regarded
as exceptional, at least for the present.

* J. A.S. No. 126, p. xxxiii.
I have observed that the three great river basins of the
Cosi extend throughout Nepal, and truly so

space drained
which the
by
But
feeders.
its
deltic basins of the
the most conspicuous in Nepal
Gandak.
many
Karnali, Gandak, and
for a river basin includes the widest
results
Himalayan
between the plainward
intervals
it
necessarily from the
manner
in
rivers are formed, that there should be
Of
apices of these deltic basins.
these intervals
that which intervenes between the Cosi and
is
This tract, watered by the Bagmatti, deserves separate mention on
accounts, and
it
may
be conveniently styled the valley region, since
tains not only the great valley of
Nepal proper, but
it
con-
also the subordinate vales of
Chitlong, Banepa, and Panouti.

It has
been already remarked, that the classifications of physical geography, as of
the other sciences, do not constitute a perfect " open sesame " to the mysteries of
nature, but only a material help to their study.
This observation I will illustrate
by a few comments on the basin of the Tishta,

tend
for;
but contend
for,
somewhat anomalous
impugn the doctrine I con-
lest the
instance of that basin should be captiously quoted to
not as exhibiting in every instance an absolute confor-
mity with natural arrangements, but as doing
all
that can be reasonably expected
way, and as furnishing, upon the whole, a generally
in that
significant,
and practically
I have stated above, that the basin of the Tishta extends
Kangchan
miners
Between
to that of Chumalhari.
call " a fault "
truthful, causally
useful, indication of those arrangements.
in the ghat-line of
from the
peak of
two peaks there occurs what

the snows, which line, after proceeding
these
Easterly from the Lachen pass to Powhanry,J dips suddenly to the south for
N.
nearly forty miles, and then returns to Chumalhari.
Chunibi
is
of the Tishta
which
that
is
cuts off the Chiimbi district from the
the Machii of Campbell, which
may
and the basin
thus narrowed on the east by this salient angle of the snows,

Tishtan basin, instead of allowing
basin to stretch easterly to the base of Chumalhari.
but which
triangular space called
thus detached from the Himalaya and attached to Tibet
is
Chiimbi
is
drained by
doubtfully referred to the Torsha of the plains,
possibly be identical with the
Hachu of Turner and Griffiths, and

But besides that these points
feeders of the Tishta rounds Pow-
consequently with the Gaddada of the plains.

are
still
unsettled, one of the
transnivean
Waugh's outline of the snowy range of Sikim, J. A. S. loc. cit.

Embassy to Tibet and J. A. S. Nos. 87 and 88, with sketch maps annexed.
X Vide
Rennell is not easily reconAlso Pemberton's large map of the Eastern frontier.
I had identified the lakes of Cholanni, which give rise to the Tishcilable with them.
lakes.
I
Turner's
But
now
learn
from
Hooker,
that
the latter lie a good deal
ta, with
east of the former, and I am satisfied that Campbell's Machii is distinct from Turner's
Hachu. We need, and shall thus find, space in the hills, correspondent to that in the
plains watered by Rennell's Torsha and Saradingoh and Gaddada and Suncosi.
The
The Machii, (Maha tchieu of Turner) rises from the west flank of Chumalhari
Hachu of Turner is a feeder joining his Tehin chii from the west the Chaan chu of
Turner is the Sunc6si (the Eastern Suncosi, for there are two there, besides that of Nepal, ) of Rangpur, his Tehin chu is the Gaddada, and his Maha chu the Torsha.
The
Aran has its rise in the broken country of Tibet lying north-east and west of the
sources of the Tishta and south of the Kambala, or great range forming the southern
boundary of the valley of the Yaru
this broken country Dr. Hooker estimates at
from sixteen to eighteen thousand feet above the sea.
It is a good deal terraced near
;
Hirndchal.

haniy and
way
or another, the Tishta
from Kangchan
Chiimbi and
singular as
is
from a lake (Cholarnii) approximating to Chunialhari
rises
to
all
may
much
be said, without
tract,
so that, one
violence, to spread
basin
its
Chumalhari.
the adjacent parts of the plateau of Tibet constitute a region as
the access to
it
from Sikim by the Lachen
pass.
mounted, you at once find yourself, without descent, upon
swardy
That pass
sur-
an open undulated
through which the eastern transnivean feeders of the Tishta and
of the Arvin sluggishly and tortuously creep, as though loath to pass the Ilinia
laya, towards
which indeed
it
how
not easy to perceive
is
they are impelled
the plateau of Tibet generally sloping on their right to Digarchi, and seeming to
invite the streams that
way. This is however of course a water-shed, though by no

means a palpable one and we know by the signal instances of the vast rivers of
South America and those of North-eastern Europe, how inconspicuous some;
times are the most important water-sheds of the globe.
The sources and courses

by Dr. Hooker, my
of the feeders of the Tishta will shortly be fully illustrated
whom
enterprizing and accomplished guest, to
Lachen pass and
tion relative to the
Sikim, which state
is
am indebted for the above informaand whose promised map of
its vicinity,
the political equivalent
for the basin of the
Tishta, will
leave nothing to be desired further on that head.*
But the Himalaya must

its
length
necessarily be contemplated in its breadth as well as
and we have therefore
still
to consider
what
regional divisions belong
to these mountains in relation to their breadth, or the distance
The Himalayan mountains extend from the great bend

bend of the Brahmaputra, or from Gilgit
length
is
1,800 miles.
maximum, about
ninety miles
which
sions
may
to
Their mean breadth
purposely omitting the questions

the
between the ghat-
snows and the plains of India.
line of the
(reckoning from the ghats and
is
of axis and count erslope) about ninety miles;
minimum, seventy
110, and the
miles.
The mean breadth of
be most conveniently divided into three equal portions, each of
These transverse climatic divi-
will therefore have thirty miles of extent.
must
of the Indus to the great
Brahmakiind, between which their
be, of course,
more or
less arbitrary,
and a microscopic vision would
be disposed to increase them considerably beyond three, with reference to geological, to
botanical, or
to zoological,
tain Herbert's distribution of geological
and Dr. Hooker's of botanical, I

regions I
have
am
alreadyf denominated
phenomena.
But upon comparing Cap-
phenomena with my own

satisfied
of zoological,
that three are enough.
the lower, the
These
middle, and the upper.
They extend from the external margin of the Tarai to the ghat-line of the snows.
The lower region may be conveniently divided into
I. the sand-stone range
with its contained Dhuns or Maris II. the Bhaver or Saul forest III. the Tarai.
The other two regions require no sub-divisions.
The following appear to be
those demarcations by height which most
*The
fitly
indicate the three regions
reader will observe that this paper was written in 1846.

S. for December 1847 and June 1848.
i J. A.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALATA.
to
Name.
Lower
Elevational limits.
Level of the plains to 4,003
region
Central region
measured
is
sea.
10,000 to 16,000f feet above the sea: highest peak
Upper region
It
above the
f -et
4,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea.
needless to remind those
who
is
23,002
feet.
are conversant with physical geography,
f
that in passing in a tropical country, by a long and gradual ascen , from near the
sea level to several (4-6) miles above
it,
one iumt necessarily meet with regions
equivalent, quoad organic phsenomena, to the three great zones of the earth, or the
tropical, the temperate,
and the
arctic; and, in fact,
our three regions above indicated
Correspond in the main with those zones, and might be

desirable to avoid terms involving theory,
it is
But
will suffice.
to be
more
to resume.
It is
named
after
them, but that
those designating mere facts
thus made apparent that the Himalaya, or,
precise, the Indian slope of the
of natural and
when
Himalaya, admits of a double
series
convenient divisions, those of length being coincident with the
basins of the main livers, and those of breadth with a triple division on the scale of
elevations, from that of the plains to that of the perpetual snow,
which
latter tallies
pretty nearly with the
mean
teen thousand
But, as the plains are customaiily divided into the upper,
central,
feet.
height of the passes into Tibet, or sixteen to seven-
and lower provinces, so the Himalaya, in reference to
when
Conveniently divided,
may
length,
its
be
larger divisions than those of the river basins need
to be spoken of, into the western, embracing the basins of the Jhilum, Chinab,
Bias, Ravi, Satluj,

tral,
Jamna, Ganges, Ghagra, within the British
territories
the cen-
including the basins of the Karnali, the Gandak, and the Cosi, within those of
Nepal; and the eastern, embracing the basins of the Tishta, Monas, Subhansri,
and Dihong, which include Sikim, (now half British), Bhutan, and the
And
of the disunited lawless tribes lying east of Bhutan.

that, in respect of climate, the
and mountains correspond,
it
is
territories
very observable
above suggested analogous divisions of the plains
for the
more you go westward
in plains or mountains,
the greater becomes the dryness of the air and the extremes of heat and cold.
But the grand determiner

Himalaya,
is
elevation,
which
of climate, as dependent on heat, in

acts so powerfully
and uniformly, that
all
parts of the
for every thou-
sand feet of height gained, you have a diminution of temperature equal to 3 3 or

3|
of Fahrenheit:
consequently the transverse regions, notwithstanding their
proximity, show, upon the whole, a

incident to the
than
is
they
may
is
be.
somewhat
But
much more
palpable
lengthwise divisions of the chain,
variety of
how remote
climate
soever
in reference to moisture, the next element of climate, the case
altered, for every
movement towards the west (N.W.) along the
lengthwise development of the Himalaya, carries you further and further out of
It is
% This is aliout the average height of the ghats and of the perpetual snow.
also nearly the limit of possible investigation, and of the existence of organic phseno-But the upward limit need not lie rigorously assigned
mena.
4,000 is the limit
of snow-fall to the south, well tested in thirty years
4,000 is also that point which
best indicates the distinction of healthful and malarious sites.
GEOGRAPHY OP THE HIMALAYA.

which
the line of the rainy monsoon,
The
II
the grand source of supply of moisture.
is
third determining and very active cause of climate operates throughout the
chain, determining chiefly the specific differences.
It consists in
height, and direction of the ridges interposed between

direction of the S.
W.
monsoon
or rainy
for,
the number,
any given position and the
each of these ridges, crossing more
or less directly the course of the vapour from the ocean, has a most
marked
effect
in diminishing the quantity of rain and moisture behind such covering ridge, so
that,
inasmuch as by receding from the plains towards the snows, you interpose
ridges, you find not only temperature falling with eleva-
more and more of these

tion
gained (as a general rule,) but also greater dryness of
sunshine, (and so far
more heat)
air, less
moisture,
more
and, as a general consequence, a gradual diminu-
tion of that excessive natural vegetation, arboreal
versal characteristic of these mountains; yet
still
and other, which
is
the uni-
with greater power in the
cli-
mate of these remoter districts of ripening grains and fruits of artificial growth,
owing to the diminished rain and increased sunshine of summer, and in spite of
the general decrease of the temperature of the
heat and moisture to which
we owe
air.
That combination of
tropical
the generally " gorgeous garniture " of
moun-
tains so stupendous has, at low elevations, the bad effect of generating a malaria
it, and
fatal to all but the peculiar tribes, whom ages untold have been inured to
whose power of dwelling with impunity in such an atmosphere is a physiological fact
of very great interest.
The
tribes adverted to are called
name of malaria.
The whole of what I have denominated
Awalias, from
dival,
the
the "lower-region," as well as
all
the deep
beds of the larger rivers of the "central region," lying much below what I have
given as the elevational demarcation of the two regions, or four thousand feet, are
subject to the dioal.
After what has been stated,

rain-fall,
and moisture, could,
if
it
will be seen at once, that tables of temperature,
given, only hold true of the exact spots where
they were registered.
The
latitude in a small
degree, but in a far greater, the longitude, or posi-
the number of intertion with reference to the course of the rainy monsoon
posed ridges crossing that course and the elevation, are the circumstances determining the heat and moisture, that is, the climate, of any given spot of the Eastern,
Central, or
Western Himalaya.
There are amazing differences of climate in
very proximate places of equal elevation, caused

ridges,
and
also, as
by
their relative position to covering
has been proved experimentally, by the effects of clearance of
the forest and undergrowth, and letting in the sun upon the
The general
course of the seasons
is
soil.
the tropical, with cold and dry weather, from
October to March, and wet and hot weather from April to September, correspondent
The springs and autumns, howto the duration of the N.E. and S.W. monsoons.
ever, are
more
clearly
marked than the
latitude
would promise, and from the middle
of September to the
of March to the middle of May, and again, from the middle
From the middle of December
middle of December, the weather is delightful.
12
to the end of February
is
the least agreeable portion of the year, being cloudy and
make the wet tell disagreeably, which it does

The general character of the climate
rainy or snowy, with cold enough to
not do in the genial season of the rains.

is
from
derived
combined
its
For
day and night, and that about " tempe-
and great equability and temperateness.
months the thermometer hardly ranges
rate" of Fahrenheit, or the perfection of temperature

is
The wind
enjoyable in the world.

the "
Phagwa "
of electricity
unknown
must be
of the
is,
in and close
N.W.
and altogether, the climate
so that
would be
it
Epidemics are very rare
difficult to cite
endemics almost
a Himalayan, disease, unless such
Goitre is more or less prevalent, but not

The general character of the surface in all
a perpetual succession of vast
is
very narrow interposed glens.

in fact, only
ridges,
also are small
or three in
But
it
accom-
parts of the
highly sloped, and having
Gilgit to
There
are,
Brahmakimd, or those
latter only sixteen miles in either
and very infrequent.
Western Nepal (Pokra),
whole nearly.
often
Valleys properly so called are most rare.
two throughout the great extent from
Cashmere and Nepal, the

Lakes
The quantity
on the whole, small, and storms are nearly confined to the setting
called dyspepsia.
Himalaya
when
generally moderate, except in March,
is
plains reach us, but shorn of its fervour.
of the rainy season.
panied by cretanism.
of
one of the safest (I here speak of the central and normal region) and most
Three or four
diameter.
in Kiimaiin,
and two
in both cases juxta-posed, constitute the
seems certain that lakes were more frequent in some prior
geological era, and that the present valleys of
Cashmere and Nepal once existed in
a lacastrine state.
The Himalayan
remarkable for the absence of chasm and rupture,
ridges are
and their interminable uniform
lines,
with the similarity of tone in the verdure of
the ceaseless forests, (owing to the rarity of deciduous trees), detract
from those impressions of grandeur and beauty, which mountains
and so magnificently clothed are calculated

division of the Himalaya,
shall
The
transverse or climatic
though of course most noticeable and important in
reference to organic phsenomena,

ones.
to convey.
however say
is
little
worth attention,
also
the
of
geology
in regard to inorganic
or of the botany
Himalaya, abler pens than mine having now treated the subject.
space
may
somewhat
so stupendous
of
A little
the
more
be given to the ethnology and zoology, both as matters I myself am
more conversant with, and which
still
have a deal of novelty in reference to geo-
graphical distributions particularly.
Every part of the chain abounds

zinc, sulphur,
and
plumbago, in
insipid, are generally diffused,
flame issuing in the fashion
which
superstition
mineral
is
snows.
has
and I
and copper
consecrated.
:
salt is
also the precious metals.
lead,
Mineral springs, both hot and cold, sapid
am aware
of other instances of lambent
the well-known Jwalamukhi
of
very rare as a deposit
So
in minerals, particularly iron
less degree.
There
is
of the Punjab,
no lime-formation,
unknown, though
it
and the
abounds across the
Minerals and mineral springs are most
frequent in the central region, so likewise the iron and copper veins: organic
fossil
remains and the small traces of coal, almost or quite peculiar to the lower region,

arid far
may
more abundant
N.W. than
to the
may be added
It
that granite
is
much more
extensively developed
had been supposed, and that igneous rocks are by no
in the upper region than
means
the middle region that of
the lower region that of the sandstone formation and of
gneisses and schists;

diluvial debris.
to the S.E.
granites and gneisses
be called the locale of
13
In geology the upper region
so entirely wanting:
indeed, igneous action
displayed to a stupendous
is
extent in the hypogene rocks, both stratified and unstratified, of the upper and
Slight earthquakes
There are no volcanos, active or extinct.
central regions.
are very frequent
severe ones, rare
In botany the upper region
is
very severe ones, unknown.
that of Junipers, Cypresses, Cedars, Larches,
Yews, Poplars, Boxes, Dwarf Rhododendrons,
Hollies, Willows, Walnuts, Birches,
and, in general, of the superior Conifers, particularly to the S.E., for to the
N.W.
they descend into the middle region, even the stately Cedar, which however
unknown
east of Kiimaun.
and Willows
It is the region of Oaks, Chesnuts,
recur.
is
In the second or central region* Birches, Hollies,
Horse Chesnuts, Magnolias,
Laurels, Alders, Tree Rhododendrons, Cherry and Pear Trees
(large
and wild),
Oleas (forest trees), Maples or Sycamores, Thorns, Ashes, Elms, Horn-beams,

Elders, Taper and
Wax Trees,
which has succeeded
Tea Allies, (Eurya and Thea
and peculiar Palms (Chamoerops,
The
also,t as
an importation
to perfection, but chiefly below 4,000, Tree Ferns,
third or lower region
is
etc.),
and the inferior
that of Sauls (Shorea)
some few
sorts of Pines.
Sissus (Dalbergia), Acacias
and Mimosas, Tunds (Cedrela), Cotton Trees (Bombax), Tree Figs (Elasticus, Indicus, Religiosos, etc.),
common Palms
more
Buteas, Dillenias, Duabangas, Erythrinas, Premnas,
(Phoenix),
etc.,
rarely than above perhaps, though the Tree and
and small bamboos, may
some
but rare and poor, with recurring Tree Ferns, but
common
Ferns, like the great
be said to be borderers, denoting by their point of
contact the transition from the lower to the central region.
Pinus longifolia
recurs in the lower region, descending to the plains nearly in Nepal, but most of
the other Conebearers in Nepal, and
still
more, east of
region, abundant as they are therein in the
it,
eschew even the central
Western Himalaya.
So likewise the
Tree Rhododendrons in the Eastern Himalaya are apt to retire to the northern
region,
though
Himalaya they abound
in the Central
In zoology, again, to
habitat of the Bhotiaa (Cis-Himalavan,
Kathbhotia,
whole
etc.,)
line of the
in the central region.
begin with man, the northern region
who with
called
their allies the
is
the exclusive
Palusen, Rongbo, Serpa, Siena,
Thakoras and Palrias extend along the
ghats, and who, with the name, have retained unchanged the
lingual and physical characteristics, and even the manners, customs,

their transnivean brethren.
each in their
own
province
Bors and Abors, the
To
and
dress, of
tbe central region are similarly confined, but
from east to west, the Mishmis and Mirris, the
Kapachors, the Akas, the Daphlas, (east of Bhutan), the
* X.B.
Central in length is called, central only, or central Himalaya; central of
breadth, central region.
+ Both tea and coffee plantations are now well advanced in the Eastern Himalaya,
with the surest prospect of success. In the Western Himalaya that success is now a fact
accomplished.
14
Lhopas
(in
Bhutan), the Lepshas or Deunjongmaro (in Sikim), the Limbusor Yak-
tkumbas, the Yakhas, the Khorahos or Kirantis, the Miirmia or Taniars, the Pahi
Newars, the Sunwars, the Chepangs, the Kusundas, the Vaj*us
or Padhi, the
Kayus, the Giirungs, the Migars. the Khas or Khasias
or
(in Nepal), the Kohlis,
the Doms, the R.ijhis, the Haris, the Garhwalis, the Kanets, the Dogras,* the Kakkas, the
Bambas, the Gakars, the Dardus, the Dunghars (west from Nepal).
To
the lower region again, and to similarly malarious sites of the middle region, are
exclusively confined, the
it),
Kocches, the
Bodos, the Dhimals, (Sikim and east of
the Kichaks, the Pallas, the Tharus, the Denwars, the Kiimhas, the Bhramus,
the Dahis or Daris, the Kuswars, the Thamis, the Botias (not Bhotia) (in Nepal),
the Boksas (in Kiimaun), the Khatirs, the Awaus, the Janjohs, the Chibs, and
the Bahoas (west of Kiimaun to the Indus).
The Himalayan population

fold division of
is
intensely tribe-ish, and
the aboriginal Indian and
Indo-Chinese populations,
or unbroken tribes, such as the Khas, Magar,
Bodpa,
etc.
viz.,
first, into the
Chepang, Kusunda, and Ilayu
dominant
Gurung, Newar, Murmi, Lepsha,
second, into the broken tribes, such as nearly all those
as well as the
men
susceptible of a three-
is
pregnant significance, and quite analagous to what holds true of
termed Awalias,t
third, into the tribes of helot crafts-
Of the mountains
Chun ha,
Of the valley of Nepal.
of Nepal.
carpenters.
P6, executioners and workers in bamboo.
Kulu,
Sarki, curriers.
curriers.
Kami, blacksmiths.
Nay, butchers.
Sunar, gold and silver smiths. Chamakhala, scavengers.
Gain, musicians.
Bong, Jugi, musicians.
Bhanr, ditto, but prostitute
Kou, blacksmiths.
their women.
Dhusi, metallurgists.
Awa, architects.
Damai, tailors.
Agri, miners.
Kumhal
or
Kiuari,
Bali, agriculturists.
tters '
Nou, barbers.
Kuma,
poLters.
Sangat, washermen.
makers of shrouds.
Tatti,
Gatha, gardineis.
Sawo, bleeders
&
suppliers of leeches.
Chliipi, dyers.
Sikami, carpenters.
Dakami, house builders.
Lohongkami, stone
*
Cunningham
cutters.
Dardurs (Darada) and the Donghers to the upper region, as also the Kauets, who extend northward, beyond the HimaThey are of mixed
laya, wheie they even form "the mass" on either side the Satluj.
origin, like the Khas of Nepal, the Dogras of Punjab, and the Gadhi of Chamba.
t A list of Awalias 1 Kocch, 2 Bodo, 3 Dhimal, 4 Garo, 5 Dolkhali, 6 Batar or
Bor, 7 Kudi, 8 Hajong, 9 Dhanuk, lOMaraha, 11 Ain't, 12 Kebrat, 13Kichak, 14Palla,
15 Tharuh (not own name in Sallyan), 16 Boksa (Kumaon), 17 Dahi or Darhi (allied
to Bhramu), 18 Thami, 19 Pahi or Pahri (allied to Newar and Murmi), 20 Kumha (not
own name), 21 Botia (allied to Kuswar), 22 Kuswar, 23 Denwar (allied to two last),
24 Bhramu (allied to Dahi), 25 Vayu (not Awalias but broken tribe), 26 Chepang, and
The
late Captain
27
Kusunda
(ditto).
(in epist.
refers the
15
The position and affinities of the List are still (o me an enigma, as they were
when I adverted to them in my work on the Koceh, Bodo, and Dhimal. As blacksmiths,* carpenters, curriers,
their services are,
etc.,
and ever have been, invaluaTheir manners have
ble; yet they are degraded to the extent of being outcasts.
and their tongues nothing, and their physical attributes not much,
little,
Of
and lineage.
their race
more recent immigrants from the north, and
tribes are clearly the
are distinguished
to
d note
the other two masses of the population, the unbroken

in general they
by languages of the simpler Turanian type, whereas the languages
of the other or broken tribes are of the complex or pionornenalized type, tending,
their physical attributes, towards a -simulation with
like
monstrated by their relative position to be of
the Dravirian or
These broken
Ho, Sontal or Munda, sub-families of the tons of Tur.
far older date in the
the
tribes are de-
Himalaya
as in
Indo-China, and perhaps also in India, than the unbroken; and altogether, the
phsenoinena of ethnology in the Himalaya warrant the conclusions, that the
swarms from the great Turanian
layas were peopled by successive

its tribes
are
several others of the
Munda
shown
have
May
1833.)
In reference to
the north and

The Khas, Kanets and Dogras, and
of the south.}
Western Himalaya, are
Tartars by the mother's side, but Aiians

as I
in
my memoir
mixed breed; aboriginal
on the military tribes of Nepal.
European
those
clearly of
(Brahman and Kshetriya) by the
may remark
gration,
and
father's,
(J.A.S.B.
speculations touching the peopling of the
Indian continent which have been lately raised, chiefly on the basis of
bularies, I
Hima-
and that
traceably akin alike to the Altaic branch of
still
the Dravirian and
to
hive,
my
generally, that very remotely sundered peiiods of
voca-
immi-
from the north by no means involve totally different routes of immigration,

races so trenchantly
still less
demarked from
all
the priorly recognized ones
as have been lately assumed and denominated Gangetic, Lohitic, Taic, &c.
day multiplies the proofs of
affinity
Every
between the Himalayans and the recognized
sub-families of Altaia, Indo-China, and Draviria
whilst, abating the single fact
of the Brahoi tribe having lingual affinities with the Turanians, I see no safe
ground
assuming that the sons of Tur entered India generally or exclusively
for
by the well-known route of the immigrant Arians, or by any yet more southerly
The hundred gates of the Himalaya and of its off-shoots have stood open
route.
in all ages
beyond them, in
all
ages,
have dwelt the diversely tongued and fea-
tured tribes of the vastest, and most erratic, and most anciently widespread, but
still
and
single branch of the
human
feature, characterising that
countries,
so
believe
that
race
and, as I find similar diversities of tongue
branch alike
the
former
in
the Cis and Trans-Himalayan
have been peopled from the
by successive incursions along the whole Himalayan ghat
which there
is
line, of races
yet no sufficient ground for contra-distinguishing from
all
latti r
and tribes
the here-
the unbroken tribes, the Magar alone have their own miners and smiths.
See also a note
See and compare what is told of the old mines and miners of the, Altai.
work
on the Kocch Bodoand Diurnal.
in my
Nilgirians,
essays
on
the
on
also
two
Vayu
See
J.A.S.B.,
and
and Balling
paper
J
tribes, iu the same Journal ^1857).
*
Of
all
tofore recognized ones of the north.*
any
route, appears to
of the sons of
earliest
is
African immigration at any time, and by
a sheer assumption.
Tur entered by the Arian
route,
But
it
may
well be, that some
and that these were among the
immigrants, whose more westerly abode and point of entrance into India
indicated
still
me
by the higher structured tongues of
But we must not
their
complex tongues
forget that there are
presumed descendants.
at the eastern as well as
at the western extremity of the Altaic region (in its wide sense)
known
these tongues are most imperfectly
that
many
of
that Sifan and Central Himalaya and
Indo-China are now known to be tenanted by races speaking tongues of the complex type, some even more complex than the Dravirian, and more allied to the
Gond,
Ho and
differences
Sontaltype
and, above
that the essential character (including
all,
and resemblances) of the above adverted to several sub-types of lan-
guage, embracing the true
affiliation of
the races using them,
is
yet to be deter-
So that we can only now safely say that the general relationship of all the
sons of Tur in and beyond India is as certain as their more special and close
mined.
affinities are
But
uncertain.!
to proceed
sively belong,
with our zoological enumerations.
among
To
the upper region exclu-
the ruminants, the bisons (poephagus) and musks, the wild
goats (ibex, hemitragus) and wild sheep (pseudois, caprovis)
the marmots and
pikas (lagomys)
among
replace its
among
the rodents,
take the place of the bisons of the
In the middle region, true bovines (bos)

upper legion
plantigrades, the bears proper (ursus).
bovine and caprine antelopes (budorcas, capricornis, nemorhedus)
musks and wild goats and sheep common rats and mice, and hares and
and sun bears (helarctos) its
its marmots and pikas
;
porcupines and hedgehogs
true bears; whilst the deer family,
sented onlyj
ox-family
is
family, here
unknown
to the upper region,
is
here repre-
by the anomalous stilt-horns (stylocerus). In the lower region the

the deer
represented by bibos and bubalus (splendid wild types)
;
abundant, by rusas, rucervi, axises, and stilt-horns to boot
the
more particularly to the writings of Prof. Max Midler and Dr. Logan
one can more freely than myself admit the scholastic attainments and skill in the
science of grammar of the former, or the immense and skilful industry of the latter.
But I demur to their inductions, nor can I see the advantage of multiplying nominal,
We must have first
that is to say, undefined or crudely defined ethnological groups.
a just definition of the family, and thereafter, by and bye, definitions of the several
* I allude
No
sub-families already recognized, when the definition of the rest may follow.
See the essays on the Yayu and Balling now published in the Jour. As. Soc. Bengal,
[a.d. 1857].
"tin my papers on the Nilgirians and in those on the Vayu and Bailing, above alluded
to, I have classed the Himalayans under the two great divisions, of such as use pronomenalized and complex and such as use non-pronomenalized and simple tongues. In the
memoirs on the Vayu and Bailing, I have analysed their languages as exemplars of
The double pronomenalization of those
the complex type of speech in Himalaya.
two tongues, indicates their close affinity to the Ho-Sontal group of languages of the
plains.
1 1 am fully aware that Rusas (samber) are found in the western hills, but a careful
consideration of the facts in that part of the Himalaya, with due advertence to the
known habits of the group, satisfies me that these Deer have been driven into the westFor some remarks on this subject,
ern hills by the clearance of the Tarai and Bhaver.
see J.A.S. of Bengal No. 211, for January 1850, page 37.

antelopes by tetracerus, or the four-horned kind
and spiny hares (caprolagus)
rats (rizomys)
bears (melursus)
all
add to
all
which that
the
bambu
rodents by the
and the bear family by the honey-
to this region are exclusively confined
the large pachydernies, such as the elephant and rhinoceros
also (semnopithecus et inacacus),
though not
so
and the monkeys
The
exclusively in their case.
by ounces, by foxes of a
weasels proper, and by the ailuri or catlories
carnivora, again, are represented in the upper region
large sort (montanus),
by the
in the middle region,
by the wild dogs (cyon), the marten-weasels, leopards,
thick-tailed leopards (macroceloides), wild cats (murmensis, pardochrous, ogilbii),
chances or Lybian lynxes (Lybicus), zibets, screwtails (paradoxurus), and priono-
dons; and in the lower region by
hyenas, wolves,
tigers, leopards,
jackals,*
insectivorous foxes (kokri), bear-badgers (ursitaxus), sand-bears (arctonyx), urvas,
mangooses, helictes or Oriental gluttons, small civets (viverrula), hirsute screwtails,
Zibets
and sharp-faced cats (celidogaster).
and chauses recur
region frequently, and one small species of mangoose (auropunctata)

in special spots of the central region.
The
otters in the
Among
indigitata
in the lower,
this
found
upper region are re-
presented by the small golden and brown species (aurobrunnea)
by monticola and
in
is
by the large Chinese
in the central,
species (Sinensis).
the squirrels, the great thick-tailed and large purple species (macruroides
the small lokries (locria et locroet purpureus) belong solely to the lower region
ides) to the central; and the Siberian, to the upper; whilst flying squirrels, a nu;
merous
group,
(magnificus,
senex,
central region, so far as appears.
pteropines,
all
chrysothrix, alboniger), are confined to the
In the bat group, the frugivorous species, or
are limited to the lower region, whilst the horse shoes (rhinolophince)
specially affect the central region;
and the bats proper
(vespertilionina?)
to be the chief representatives of the family in the northern region.

class of birds,
The
we may select,
seem
From
as characteristic of the three regions, the following
the
:
true pheasants [phasianus], the tetrougalli, the sanguine pheasants [itha-
"inisl, the
horned and crested pheasants
region, are replaced
[ceriornis,
by fowl-pheasants [galophasis]f
lophophorus] of the upper

in the mid-region, and
by
have made their way (like crows and sparrows) to the most populous spots
of the central region, but they are not proper to the region, nor Indian foxes, though
some of the latter turned out by me in 1827 in the great valley of Nepal have multiAb his disce alia. Tigers, for example, are someplied and settled their race there.
But ample experience justifies
times found in the central and even northern region.
my asserting that they are wandering and casual intruders there, whereas leopards are
As a sportsman during twenty years,
as decidedly fixed and permanent dwellers.
and cocks, fallen in with innumerable leopards,
1 have, whilst shooting pheasants
whose fixed abode in numberless locales was pressed on my attention involuntarily.
But I never fell in with a single tiger, and I know them to be wanderers and
* Jackals
intruders.
t The influence of longitude
on geographic distribution might be singularly illustrated,

thus, for exdid space permit, from numerous Himalayan groups, Galline and other
ample, a black-breasted Ceriornis is never seen east of tbe Kali, nor a red-breasted one
whilst a black-backed one
west of it. So of the black and white-crested Gallophasis
With reference to the
is never seen west of the Arvin, nor a white-back east of it.
more dominant influence of latitude, or what is the same thing, elevation, I may add
that the Rasores of the three transverse regions exhibit an exquisite sample of gradaPhasianus, Gallophasis and Gallus
tion from a Boreal or Alpine to a tropical type
:
cc
among the
In like manner,
fowls proper (gallus) in the lower.
partridges (perdi-
the grouse and snow-partridges (lerva and sacfa) belong exclusively to the
cinse),
upper region
central
the chakors (caccabis) and the tree partridges
(arborieola) to the
and the francolines (francolinus) to the lower, though the black species
of this last form are also found in the
(Hodgsoni) to the central
pigeon group
In the
mid-region.
blanched pigeons (leuconota) belong solely to the upper region
and the green, the golden, and the banded
chalcophaps, macropygia) almost as entirely to the lower
the
the vinous pigeons

(treron,
the trerons alone partially
entering the central tract from the lower.
The splendid Edolian shrikes (chibia, chaptia, edolius) belong exclusively to

lower region. They are replaced in the central tract by plain dicrurines,
The cotton-birds (campephaga) of the
and in the upper by plainer lauians.
the
south are replaced by gaudy ampelines (cochoa) and leiothricinians

pteruthius, cutia) in the middle region
Among
the north.
(leiothrix,
but both groups seem excluded from
the fly-catchers the gaudy or remarkable species and forms
wholly or chiefly to the lower region, as tchitrea, rhipidura, cryptolopha,
belong
myiagra, hemichelidon, chelidorhynx
whilst those which approach the warblers
(niltava, siphia, digenea) belong to the mid-region
European types
Among
tributed
and the plainer and more
are alone found in the northern.
goat-suckers and
the
fissirostres,
but
rollers, bee-eaters,
swallows are pretty generally dis-
eurylaimi, trogons,
and
all
such gaudy types
belong to the south, with only occasional alpine representatives, as bucia
merops.
The
tenuirostral birds belong distinctly to the
have representatives or summer visitants in
Upon
the whole, however,
belong to the south
may
it
all
is
of
lower region, yet they
three, even
among
the sun-birds.
be safely said that the sun-birds (nectarinia)
the honey-suckers (tneliphagidse) to the centre and south
the creepers, honey-guides, nut-hatches, and wrensj to the north and centre.
and
The
sylvians or warblers are too ubiquitarian, or too migratory for our present purpose
even Boreal types being

bills,
common
in the lower region in the cold weather.
barbets, parroquets (paheornis, psittacula) belong to the lower region,
they have a few representatives in the central

peckers abound in
the lower and
none in the upper.
central regions, but are rare
common and numerous
in the
Hornthough
Woodupper.
True cuckoos (cuculus)
are as
in the central region as
walking cuckoos (phsenicophaus, centropus, &c.) are in
(species and
individuals)
the southern, where also the golden (chrysococcyx) and dicrurine cuckoos (pseudornis) have their sole abode
region are
pies,
all allied to
whilst
what few of the group belong to the upper

Of the conirostral group, the ravens,
the European type.
choughs, nut-crackers, and conostomes of the upper region are replaced in
the central region by tree pies (cissa, dendrocitta), jays, rocket-birds (psilorhinus),
being thoroughly normal forms of their respective regions, and Gallophasis being as
intermediate in structure and habit as in locale.
Sacfa and Crosoptilon are more properly Tibetan.
J I have in this paper followed, without entirely approving Mr. Gray Junior's classiThe geographic distribution is now
fication of my collections in the printed catalogue.
But I will recur to the subject in a separate paper
attempted for the first time.
devoted to it.
and in the
pie-thrushes (garrulax), timalias, and hoopoe thrushes (pomatorhinus)

lower region by the common Indian crows (culminatus et splendens), grackles,
;
pastors,* stares, vagabond-pies and
dirt-birds
Thrushes proper,
(malococercus).
with rock-thrushes, ousels, myophones, zootheres, tesias, and hypsipetes are aa

abundant in the central and upper region as bulbuls, orioles, pittas are in the central
and lower.
and
finch family the haw-finches, bull-finches, gold-finches
In the
as
(loxia) are
cross-bills
corvine-cono-
are the
to the upper region as
strictly confined
The former are replaced in the central

and siskins; and in the lower
(montifringilla)
wood-finches
buntings,
the
by
regicra
The raptorial-birds are in general to cosmoregion, by the weavers and munias.
stomes, nut-crackers, choughs and ravens.
politan to subserve the purposes of geographic distribution.
marked
Still it
may
be re-
that the archibuteos and true eagles belong, quoad breeding at least, to
the crested eagles (circseetus,) the neopuses and hawk eagles
region
the upper
(spizsetus) to the central
Among
the lower.
and the pernes
(halicetus et panclion)
the vultures the distinction
is
and haliasturs to
more marked
for the
eagle
the large European

vultures (gypaetus) belong exclusively to the upper region
and the small
neophrons
vultures (fulcus et cinereus) to the central; and the
abounds
Himalaya
The
lower.
the
to
Indian vultures (Bengalensis et tenuirostris)
;
in falconidce, all the occidental types
and species being found
there,
and many more
deserves special remark that whereas the former

nisus, etc.) affect the upper
(imperial;*, c/in/seetos, lanarius, peregrinus. pahunbarius,
the oriental types (hypotrwrchis, hahastar, ierax, hyptiopus
peculiar and oriental ones
and
it
and central regions,

lower region.
velhaza, elanus, poliornisj are quite confined to the
regularly in
Those perfect cosmopolitans, the waders and swimmers, migrate
may
general,
in
and,
Tibet,
and
India
of
plains
the
April and October, between
in the Tarai.
abundant
most
though
mountains,
the
in
wanting
be said to be
purpurea,) and
herons (nubilis et cinereus ;) the great storks (nigra et
The great
the Tarai# are never seen in the
great cranes (the cyrus, culung, and damoiselle) of
green and the maroon-backed
little
the
mountains, where the egrets alone and
represent the
group.
first
But the
soft-billed smaller
waders
(scolopaciclce) are
which the woodcock^ abounds, breeding

sufficiently common
and rarely the lower region, from
central,
the
frequenting
and
region
upper
in the
Geese, ducks, and teals swarm in the Tarai, where every
till April.
in the mountains, in
October
may be seen from October till

occidental type, so to speak, for they are ubiquitous,
in the mountains the
whereas
types;
April; and* many oriental non-migratory
mergansers
(orientalis)
thatvery scantily
*
and the corvorants {Sinensis
with a few
rails,
ibisbills,
et
When Darjeeling was established, there was not a

Now there are a few crows and sparrows, but
seen
pygmmts) only are found, and
porphyries, hiaticulas, gallinules,
crow or pastor or sparrow to be

Enormously abunno pastors.
lower region, this sufficiently proves they are not native to the cen1855.
Sparrows first seen
of Nepal.
Crows soon made their appearance.
June at an elevation
Schlagintweit procured a woodcock with its nest and young
t
They are frequently got, and snipes also, in the scrub
of about 12,000 to 13,000 feet.
rhododendron thickets near the snows.
dant
as all are in the
tral tract,
though common in the great valley
m
,
20
and sandpipers, out of the vast host of the waders. J In the way of general remark
I may observe that the zoology of the Himalaya is much richer in the multitude
of its divers forms (genera and species) than in individuals of the same form, and
that
it is
remarkably
allied to the zoology of the
may be seen at
As you pass northwards,
tend much to approximation
Malayan
islands, as
once by a reference to the excellent work of Horsfield.
towards and across the snows, the forms and species
with those of our European home
But
must hasten from these
but the species are not often absolutely identical.
zoological details to
make some remarks on the

many ways interesting
sub-divisions of the lower region, a subject which, though in
and important,
is
so little understood, that
the celebrated
Mrs. Somerville, in
her excellent treatise of Physical Geography, has represented the Tarai as being
within, not only the Bhaver, but the Sandstone range.
All observant persons

into the
Himalaya
distinguished by
who have
proceeded from any part of the plains of India
are sensible of having passed through an intermediate region
many
peculiarities
and,
if their
route have lain to the north-
west, they can hardly have failed to notice successively the -verdant Tarai, so
unlike the arid plains of
way unique
range of
hills.
Upper India
and the Dhiins or
The
still
wont
the vast primaeval Saul forest, so every
from the
last tract
by a low
natives of the plains have in all ages recognized these several
distinct parts of the lower
are
valleys, separated
Himalayan
region,
which they have ever been, and
to frequent periodically, as strangers
and
foreigners, in order to graze
innumerable herds of cows and buffaloes in the Tarai, or to procure the indispensable timber
and elephants peculiar to the Bhaver, or to obtain the much-prized
drugs and dyes, horns and hides, (deer and rhinoceros,)

of Saul
and of Cheer), and timber of the Dhiins.
Nor
rals
is
and dhiinas
(resin
there a single tribe of
Highlanders between the Cdsi and the Sutlej which does not discriminate between
the Tarai or Tari, the Jhari or Bhaver, and
the Dhiins or
Maris.
Captain
Herbert has admirably described* the geological peculiarities and external aspect
His
of each of these well-known tracts.
between the Kali and the Sutlej
he affirms to be equally applicable to

Sutlej
details are, indeed, confined to the space
but the general characteristics of these tracts

all
the country between the Mechi and the
and Captain Parish, whilst confirming Herbert's statements, makes them
so likewise as far
westward
as the Beas.f
good from his own personal researches
mine
to Kali), I can confirm from
What
Captain Herbert states as holding
in regard to the
in regard
to
Western Himalaya
(Sutlej
the Nepalese portion (Kali to
Mechi), but with this reservation that no more in the Western than in the Ne For an ample enumeration of the mammals and birds of the Himalaya, (150 sp. of
the former, and 650 of the latter,) see separate catalogue printed by order of the TrusFor addiThe distribution is not there given.
tees of the British Museum in 1845.
of Natural History and Zoology Journal
tions to the catalogue since 1845 see A and
of London, and Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, and second catalogue of British
Museum, published in 1863.
Physical Geography, vol. i. p. 66.
* J. A. S.B., number 126, extra pp. 33 and 133, ct scq.
t J. A. S.B., numbers 190 and 202, for April 1848-49.

palese
Himalaya does the Sandstone range, with
21
Dhuns, prevail
contained
its
throughout or continuously, but only interruptedly or with intervals

the Sallyan-niari, the
and thus
Gongtali-mari, the Chitwan-mari, the Makwanpur-niari,
and the Bijaypur-rnari of Nepal (which are mostly separate), represent with perfect general accuracy the
westward.
Deyra, Kyarda, Pinjor, Patali, and other Dhuns to the
The accompanying
sectional outline will give a
more
distinct idea
than any words could do of the relations of the several parts of the lower IliniaDisposition of parts in the lower region of the Himalaya.
The
Sandstone
Tarai.
range
&,
Mountains of
central region.
Dhun.
the plains.
layan region to the plains on the one hand, and to the mountains on the other,
The continuous
according to Captain Herbert's views.

level of the plains
the dip on the
left,
basal line represents the
the Tarai; the ascending slope in the centre,
Dhuns
the Saul forest; the dip on the right, the
the Tarai sinks below the level of the plains
It is thus seen that
or Maris.
that the forest forms a gradual even
ascent above that level ; that the Dhiins continue the ascent to the base of the
true mountains, but troughwise, or with a concave dip
are contained between the
tains.
The Tarai
is
and, lastly, that the
an open waste, incumbered rather than clothed with grasses.
by
It is notorious for- a direful malaria, generated, it is said,
and swamps
bottom
attributes derived,
third,
Dhuns
low Sandstone range and the base of the true moun-
from innumerable
from
first,
rills
its
low
site
its
excessive moisture
second, from
its
clayey
percolating through the gravel and sand of
the Bhaver, and finding issue on the upper verge of the Tarai (where the gravelly
or sandy debris from the mountains thins out), without
channels for their waters into the plains.
The forest
the Tarai, though
is
it
be as dry as the Tarai
wet.
power
is
to form
onward
equally malarious with
The dryness
of the forest is
caused by the very porous nature of that vast mass of diluvian detritus on which
it rests,
and which
is
overlaid only
by
a thin but rich stratum of vegetable mould,
everywhere sustaining a splendid crop of the invaluable timber tree (shorea robustaj,
whence
this tract derives its
name.
siderable height, though rich in fossils.
hundred
feet
above
its
The Sand-dove range

It does not rise
immediate base, and
is
speak) in the vast mass of debris through which
in
it
is
of very incon-
more than three
some places half buried

penetrates.*
to six
(so to
The Dhuns are as
* The low range which separates the Dhun and Bhaver,

on the high-road to
Kathmandu, consists almost wholly of diluvium* rounded pebbles loosely set inocheroua
11
They
malarious and as dry as the Shaver.
are
from
five to
ten (often
less, in
one
instance more) miles wide, and twenty to forty long, sloping from either side towards
their centre, and traversed lengthwise
commonly
by a small stream which discharges itself

thus the Raputi of Chitwan-mari
into one of the great Alpine rivers
into the Gandak, and that of Bijaypiir-mari into the Cosi.
falls
Dhuns
of the Maris or
stratum
is
is
parallel to the ghat line of the snows,
The
direction
and their sub-
a very deep bed of debris, similar to that of the Bhaver, but deeper, and
similarly covered
by a rich but
superficial coating of vegetable
mould which,
if
not
cultivated, naturally produces a forest of Saul equal to that outside the Sandstone
then in like manner harbouring elephants, rhinoceroses, wild bulls
range, and
(bibos),
wild buffaloes, rusas, and other large deer (rucerw), with creeping things
(pythons)
gigantic as
as
the quadrupeds.
The height
Captain Herbert estimates at 3,000 feet above the

adjacent
sea,
and that of the Dhuns
and 1,500 above the
plains.
heights of the lower region, and

to 4,000 feet
above the sea
These measurements indicate

it is
above the
sufficiently the
observable that no elevation short of 3,000
suffices to rid the
have assigned 4,000
healthful and temperate mid-region
and that below
much
2,000 above the plains
(at least the great one), at 2,500
cursed bv that poisonous~atmosphere.
why
of the Sandstone range
atmosphere of the lower Himalaya
Thus, the Tarai, the Bhaver and the Dhuns are alike and universally
from malaria.
reasons*
sea, or
it,
And
this (by the
feet of elevation as
;
that above
the tropical region, though
it
it
way)
is
one among several
the southern limit of the
being the arctic or boreal,
must never be forgotten that
of the tropical characters, especially in the course of the seasons, pervades
the whole breadth
(and length likewise)
decrement of heat, and
also that,
of
the Himalaya, whatever be the
from the uncommon depth of the glens in which
the great rivers run, and which, in the central and even upper region often reduces
the height of those glens above the sea below the limit just assigned for salubrity,
such glens are in both these regions not unfrequently as malarious as
is
the whole
lower region.f
such as forms the great substratum of the Dhun and Bhaver. The sandstone
formation only shews itself where the rain torrents have worn deep gullies, and it
Crude coal,
there appears as white weeping sand, imperfectly indurated into rock.
shale, loam, are found in this quarter, but no organic fossils, such as abound to the
westward.
a
By "diluvium" I merely mean what Lyell expresses by "old alluvium." I advert
not to the deluge, but simply imply aqueous action other than recent, ordinary aud extant.
* That 4,000 feet of elevation form a good demarcation of the tropical and temperate
regions of the Himalaya, is well denoted by the fact, that this is the point where snow
ceases to fall, as I have ascertained in the Central and Eastern Himalaya by the obserWhat I mean is, that snow just reaches that limit and never
vations of thirty years.
It may be otherwise in the Western Himalaya, where
falls beyond it or below it.
snow is more abundant at equal elevations. The small or hill species of bamboo, which
prevail from 4,000 to 10,000 of elevation, mark with wonderful precision the limits
of the central healthful and normal region of the Himalaya. These most useful species
(there are several) would doubtless flourish in Europe.
t Thus the valleys of the Great Rangit and of the Tishta, near and above their
junction, are not more than 1,000 feet above the sea, at a distance nearly intermediate between the plains and the snows, and in the midst of the central region; and
clay,

But the above
how
noticeable soever to the west of the Mechi, are
of that river,
where a
sandstone formation
where the
23
characteristics of the sub-divisions of the lower
skilled eye alone
Himalayan
by no means
region,
so to the east
can painfully detect the traces of the
(without which there can be, of course, no Dhuns,) and
Tarai, considered as a trough running parallel to the mountains, form
no marked feature of the country,

all.
is
And
as,
if indeed in that sense it can be said to exist at

even to the westward, the Sandstone range, with its contained Dhuns,
by no means constant,
it
may
be desirable to attempt to characterise the lower
region considered as a whole, without reference to local peculiarities or too rigidly

defined sub-divisions. Now I conceive that the lower region owes its distinctive
character, as a whole, to the vast mass of diluvial detritus,
which was shot from
the mountains upon the plains, like gravel from a cart, at some great geological
epoch, and which has been, since
its
deposit, variously
and often abraded both
degree and direction, by oceanic, and, in a far less degree, by ordinary floods.
there was, at the epoch in question, no sandstone range to intercept the
.spread of the debris, this debris
of less thickness
would
in
Where
downward
necessarily be carried further south, and be
where there was such a
barrier, it
would be
carried less far
southward and be accumulated in greater thickness, especially within the barrier

and, in like manner, where no sandstone range existed, but only spurs, sent forth,
like bent arms,
still
upon the plains from the mountains, the embayed detritus would
be deeply piled and lofty within such spurs,* and thinly and unequally spread
without them, by reason of the action of the spurs on the currents.

as from
Gowhatty
to Saddia, there
was not room upon the plains
and deposit of the descending Himalayan
detritus,
owing
to other chains, both parallel and proximate to the
Again, where,
for the free spread
to large rapid rivers
and
Himalaya, the pha?nomena
created elsewhere by the more or less unrestricted spread of the Himalayan detritus
over the plains would necessarily be faintly,
if
at
all,
traceable.
Lastly, if at the
time of the descent of the debris, there existed a great dip in the Gangetic plains
those valleys are consequently as malarious as the Tarai.
So also the valleys of the

of theTrisul below Nayakot, and many others well known to me.
In my recent expedition in the Tarai east of the Mechi, with Dr. Hooker, that
accomplished traveller first detected traces of the sandstone formation, with imperfect
coal, shale, etc., in a gully below the Pankabari Bungalow, as well as at Lohagarh.
The
sandstone rock barely peeped out at the bottom of the gully lying in close proximity with
the mountains, so that nothing could be more inconspicuous than it was as a feature
in the physiognomy of the country.
* There is a signal example of this on the road to Darjeeling vid Pankabari, where
the debris, embayed by a curving spur, is accumulated to several hundred feet, and
where, moreover, there is outside the spur a conspicuous succession of terraces, all due
to oceanic forest, and clearly shewing that the subsidence of the sea b was by intervals,
and not at once. Constant observation has caused the people of the Tarai to distinguish three principal tiers of terraces, from the prevalent growth of trees upon
each.
The highest is the Saul level, the middle the Khair level, and the. lowest the
Sunkosi
at
Damja and
Sissu level ; Shorea, Acacia and

levels as above enumerated.
b I do not imply by this phrase
Dalbergia being abundantly developed on the three
any reference to the theory that the sea has sunk and
not the land risen. 1 think the latter much the preferable hypothe is, but desire merely
to infer a change in the relative level of the two, and to link my fains upon the string
of an intelligible system.
24
from north-west to south-east, the lithologic character, as well as the distribution,

of the debris, would be materially affected thereby; for the subsiding oceanic current
would have a
from the former to the
set
and here
to lash the gravel into sand,
latter quarter,
and would continue
to deposit both in a series of terraces, there
perhaps utterly to displace both, in the latter quarter long after the former had
Now,
emerged from the waves.

great part submerged
that the Himalaya really was, at one time, in
that the vast mass of detritus from the Himalaya at pre-
sent spread over the plains in its vicinity
founts of the deep were broken up
forthcoming,
is
comminution
now found
was
proportion and distribution and state of
in unequal
as for example, deeper piled within than without the Sandstone
range and the embaying spurs, and
also,
more gravelly and abundant
west, more sandy and scant to the south-east

plain really
now
much bent
all
these are
facts suggesting
presumptions relative to the
them
are incontrovertible
but to observe how, at the grand epoch adverted
ral causes
was
to the north-
and, lastly, that the Gangetic
the Himalayan feeders of the Ganges are in the
over to the eastward
past, as legitimate as the extant
we have
has a great oblique dipt from the Sutlej at Buper to the Brahma-
putra at Gwalpara, whereby

plains so
by the ocean when the
so spread
that this huge bed of detritus, every where
necessarily modified
indicated, in order to
come
lower Himalayan region,
by the peculiar
to,
and
features of the scene, as above
at a just conception of the aspect
all
the action of gene-
along the line of the mountains.
and character of the
Thus the
longitudi-
nal trough parallel to the mountains, and exclusively denominated the Tarai by
Captain Herbert,
may
to the north-west
have been caused by the
set of the
sub-
but however caused,
siding oceanic current from north-west
to south-east;
exists as a palpable definite creature, only
beneath the Thakorain and Kumaun,
faintly traceable beneath Nepal,
But the great bed
of debris
is
than those pointed out, whether

stone range, as
is
and
is
wholly
lost
beneath
Siliiin
and Bhutan.
everywhere present, and with no other distinctions

it
be divided into Bhaver and Dhiin, by the Sand-
usually the case west of the Me"ehi, or be not so divided
to the absence of that range, as
it
is
is
always the
fact east of the
owing
Mechi. Again, every
* Captain Herbert has given statements of its depth to the westward, where there is
To the eastward, where there is none, I fount] it on the right bank
a Sandstone range.
at fifteen miles lower down, 60 to 70
of the Tishta, under the mountains, 120 feet
There was here no
at fifteen miles still further off the mountains, 40 to 50 feet.
feet
interruption to the free spread of the detritus, and I followed one continuous slope and
i
The country exhibited, near the rivers especially, two or
eve l the main high one.
three other and subordinate levels or terraces, some marking the effect at unusual floods
of extant fluviatile action, but others unmistakeably that of pristine and oceanic forces.
I could not test the sub-surface depth of the bed.
I measured heights from the river.
There was everywhere much more sand than gravel, and boulders were rare.
+ Saharunpiir is 1,000 feet above the sea; Miiradabad 600 Gorakpur 400 Dumdanga
My authorities are As. Res. vol. xii., J.A.S. B.
Gwalpara 112.
312; Rangpur 200
The oblique
No. 126, Koyle's Him. Bot., Griffith's Journals, and J. Prinsep in epist.
dip to the plains towards the east seems to be increasing, for all the Himalayan rivers
descending into the plains, as they quit their old channels, do so towards the east only.
I would propose, as an interesting subject of research, the formal investigation of this
fact, grounding on Rennell's maps and noting the deviations which have occurred since
he wrote. The Tishta which fell into the Ganges now falls into the Brahmaputra.
;

tohere there
is,
at that point
where
bed,
and
whether
bed of gravel and sand thins out, a
it
of hill-waters through the said
and that constantly moist tract
is
the Tarai,
runs regularly parallel to the line of mountains and be distinctly
it
troughed, as to the
or of
parallelism,
Why
beyond
their issue
this vast
by the percolation
constantly moist tract, caused
1%
Westward
is
the case, or whether there
troughing, as to the Eastward
is
be no such regularity,
the case.
porous debris, which every where
that vast mass of
constitutes
appropriated domain of the Saul forest, and that imporous trough outside of
which every where
constitutes its drain, should as far
Eastward
as the
the
it,
Mechi,
them developed parallclly to each other and to the line of the mounbeyond the Mechi Eastward to Assam (exclusive) they should exhibit
little or no such
parallellism, but should rather show themselves plainwards,
like an irregular series of high salient and low resalieiit angles resting on the mounbe both of
tains, whilst
tains, or like small insulated plateau,* or
both the latter cases by low
swampy
a volume to illustrate in detail.
For the
foot-notes.
rest, it
pearances of the Bhaver
and
plains,! surrounded in
it
would require
have given a few conspicuous instances in the
must
and
high undulated
land analogous to the Tarai,
suffice to
observe that such are the general ap-
Tarai to the
Westward and
to the
Eastward
the general causes of the differences have been pretty plainly indicated
that
above, where the necessary effects of the sandstone range, of the mountain spurs,
and of the Eastern dip of the plains upon those oceanic
forces, to
which
all
phaenoniena of the region owe their origin, have been suggested.
Throughout Assam, from Gwalpdra

neither Bhaver nor Tarai
is
and
if
to Saddia,
we
Major Jenkins assures me there
look to the narrowness of that valley
between the Himalaya and the mighty and impetuous Brahmaputra, and consider
moreover the turmoil and violence of the oceanic current from the N.W., when
progress
its
conceive
was
how
all
staid
by the locked-up valley of Assam, we
distinctive
no
loss to
marks of Bhaver and Tarai should here cease
to be
shall be
at
traceable .%
It will
f
be observed that, in the foregone descriptions of our Himalayan rivers,
have not adverted (save casually in one instance,
in
order to correct an error
Parbat Jowar, on the confines of Assam and Eangpur, is one of the most remarkabel
It is considerably elevated, quite insulated, remote from the
mountains, and covered with saul, which the low level around exhibits no trace of. Parbat Jowar is a fragmentary relic of the high level, or Bhaver, to which the saul tree
adheres with undeviating uniformity.
+ Conspicuous instances occur round Dinajpur and north-west and north-east of Siligori in ltangpur, where are found highly undulated clowns, here and there varied by
flat-topped detached hillocks, keeping the level of the loftiest part of the undulated
surface. Looking into the clear bed of the Tishta, it struck Dr. Hooker and myself at the,
same moment, how perfectly the bed of the river represented in miniature the conformation of these tracts, demonstrating to the eye their mode of origination under the sea.
* The climate of that portion of the Eastern Himalaya, which is screened from the
south-west monsoon by the mountains Sonth of Assam, is less humid than the rest,
The fact, that much
precisely as are the inner than the outer parts of the whole chain.
less snow falls at equal heights in the humid Eastern than in the dry Western
Himalaya,
depends on other causes. Darjeeling hasuot half as much snow as Simla.
*
of these small plateau.
26
as to the true
I confess
it
name
And
of the Kali) to their partial Trans-Himalayan sources.
seems to me, that perspicuity
on that feature of our
by no means served by undue insistency
is
Captain Herbert was thus led to travel beyond his
rivers.
proper limits with a result by no means favourable;
appears to me, that he
for, it
has confounded rather than cleared our conceptions of Central Asia as the Bam-i-
dunya (dome of the world) by attemptingistic part of it,
to detach
therefrom that most character-
the plateau of Tibet, because certain Indian rivers have (in part)
Tibetan sources
My
theory of water-sheds does not incline
far into regions too little
known,
me
to venture so
allow of the satisfactory settlement of the
to
question, and the less so, inasmuch as the rivers I have to speak of
afford so plausible an excuse for so doing
and Brahmaputra alias Sanpu. f

draw much water from Tibet, draw
line
and
all
as if I
had to
would not
treat of the Indus, Sut-
The Arun and the Karnali, though they

more from the "pente meridionale" of the
lej,*
Himalaya, or the ghat
far
South of
it
and
this is yet
more true of the
Ganges, the Monas and Tishta, though they also have partial Trans-Himalayan
To
sources.
rivers
The Monas.
It
wholly drained by
Yamdotso
the several Himalayan
those sources of
above treated
I will
of,
is
now summarily
by much the
It
it.
has
(it
is
vel Palte vel Yarbroyuni,
advert
largest river of Bhutan,
two Tibetan
said)
which
is
West
The Tishta
is
viz.,
that of Cholamu.
named, and they
the
vel Labnak-tchu, strangely
also a fine river, draining the
verging on the plains.
call
them)
which
state is almost
Lake
sources, one from
other, from considerably
These feeders I take to be identical with Klaproth's
of Palte.
Mon-tchu and Nai-tchii
must
a real lake, and not an island sur-
rounded by a ring of water as commonly alleged

to the
(so I
though he has dislocated them.
whole of Sikim, save the
The Tishta has one Tibetan
To speak more
lie close
under the Ni
precisely, there
W.
tracts
source, also, from a lake,

are several lakelets
so
shoulder of Powhanry, some thirty
miles AV. and forty S. of Turner's lakes.
The Arun
is
the largest of
all
the
Himalayan and three Trans-Himalayan

* Recte
Himalayan
feeders.
rivers,
with abundant Cis-
One, the Western,
rises
from
SaMj
vel Satrudra.
+ Dr. Gutzlaff, once read a paper before the Geographical Society of London, and
reverted to Klaproth's notion, that the Sanpu is not the Brahmaputra.
But Mr. Gutzlaff overlooked J. Prinsep's important, and 1 think decisive argument on the other side,
that the Brahmaputra discharges three times more water than the Ganges, which it
could not do if it arose on the north-east confines of Assam, notwithstanding the large
Y.'.rii or Yeru (Eru) is the proper name
quantity of water contributed by the Monas.
of the river we call Sanpu, which latter appellation is a corruption of the word Tsanga
po, referring either to the principal province (Tsang) watered by the Yarn, or to the
junction therewith, at Digarchi, of another river called the Tsang, which flows into
the Yam from the Nyenchhen chain or Northern boundary of Southern Tibet.
Eru
But words beginning with the vowels a and e, take
vel Aru is the proper spelling.
initial y in speech.
1 take this occasion to observe,
in reference to the Vanido lake
above mentioned, that it is not, as commonly described and delineatedin our maps, of a
round shape, but greatly elongated and veiy narrow. It is stated to me on good autlio
rity to be eighteen days' journey long (say 180 miles), and so narrow in parts as to be
budged. It is deeply frozen in winter, so as to be safely crossed on the ice, whereas
the Eru river is not so, owing to the great force of its current
a circumstance proving
the rapid declivity of the. country watered by this great river.
a
[Tsang po means simply 'river,' and should not be called Sanpu but Tsang po. J.S.]
viz.,
27
the " pente septentrionale" of the ETimalay a,in the district of Tingri or Pekku; another,
the Northern, from a place called Durre; and a third, the Eastern, from the undulated terraced and broken tract lying N. and a little W. of Cholainu and S. of Kambala, or the great range
which bounds the valley of the Yard* on the
S.
from
W.
of
Digarchi to E. of Lhasa.
The Kamdli
is
much
larger than the Alpine Ganges, and nearly equal to the
Ariin, perhaps quite so.
Nanda-devi
and
It drains
by
feeders the whole
its
Dhoula-giri peaks, and has itself
one
Himalaya between the

considerable
Tibetan
source deduced either from the north face of Ilimachal near Momonangli, or from
the east face of that crescented sweep, whereby Gangri nears Ilimachal, and whence
the Karnali flows eastward to the Taklakkar pass.
The Ganges also has of late been discovered to have one Tibetan feeder, viz.,
the Jahnavi, which after traversing a good deal of broken country in Gnari,
between the Sutlej and the Himalaya, passes that chain at the Nilang Ghat to join
the Bhagarathi.J
I will conclude this paper with
Andean and Himalayan
following amended comparative table of

Humboldt having apprised me that Pent-
the
peaks, Baron
measurements, as formerly given by me, have been proved to be quite

erroneous, and Colonel Waugh having recently fixed Kangchan and Chumalhari
land's
with unrivalled precision and accuracy

Chief peaks of Andes.
Feet.
Aconcagua
23,000
Chief peaks of Himalaya.
Jamnoutri
Feet.
25,669
Ckimbarazo
21,424
Nanda-devi
25,598
Sorato
21,286
Dhoula-giri
....27,600
Illimani
21,149
Gosain-than
Devadhiinga
24,700
29,002
Descabasado
21,100
Kangchan
28,176
Desya-cassada
19,570
Chumalhari
23,929
Devadhiinga vel Bhairavthan vel Nyanam, half way between Gosain-than

jy.2?.
'abounding in snow.'
and Kangchan, is 29,002, ft. determined in 1856. Kang-chan,
words; the other
Tibetan
are
These
Chuma.'
of
Chumalhari, 'holy mountain
equal
Jamnavatari
mode,
e.g.,
Prakritic
the
in
down
set
but
names are Sanskritic,
to Jamnoutri, etc.
Postscript. That sensible and agreeable writer, Major Madden, in a

(May 1840) to Dr. Hooker, notices " the disgraceful state of our maps
letter
of the
*
The valley of the Yard is about sixty linear miles from the Sikim Himalaya (LiDamsen, is so rugged,
chen and Donkia passes); but the intermediate country, called
Damsen is
terminus to the other.
that it is ten stages for loaded yaks from the one
whole
of Utsang or Centhe
stated to be one of the most rugged and barren tracts in
Hooker.
tral Tibet, a bowling wilderness.
JMoorcroft's Travels, J. A, S.B. No. 126, and I.J. S. Nos. 17-18.
Nature, has given some further corrections of those
Humboldt, in his Aspects of
There are three peaks superior to Chimbarazo, but inferior to Aconoagua.
heights
_
28
Himalaya, which insert ridges where none
and omit them where they
exist,
show an
utter ignorance of the
meaning of Indian words."
It is the express object of the
above essay to contri-
bute towards the removal
of the weightier of those blemishes of our maps,
do exist
and moreover,
without neglecting the
in regard "to all names,
lesser,
by exhibiting,
in their true
and causal connexion, the
Major Madden supposes
great elevations and the river basins of the Himalaya.

that the term Hyvindes,
applies to Tibet, points to that region as the
which he
pristine abode of the
Huns.
But
to the language of
Tibet.
It is the
guage*
for the Sanskrit
Parbatia tongue
lately (181G)
is
Hyun-des
this is a mistake.
Himyades, or land of snow.
Satliij to
a term
The Khas
term in the
race were
they are so
the Tishta:
unknown
or Parbatia lan-
Its co-relative
Khas-des, or land of the Khas.
dominant from the
is
Khas
in the
equivalent
still
till
from the
Hence the general prevalence of geographic terms derived

By Hyun-des the Parbatias mean all the tracts covered
Kali to the Mechi.
from their language.

ordinarily with
line
snow on both
and by Khas-des,
all
sides of the crest or spine of
Hemachal, or the ghat
the unsnowed regions south of the former, as far as
the Sandstone range.
The Brahmans and those who
use Sanskrit call the Hyun-des, Blnitant or
appendage of Bhot, and hence our maps exhibit a Bhutant in what Traill denominates (A. R. vol. 1G) the Bhote perganahs of Kiimaun. But Bhutant is not
restricted
by the Brahmans
one spot within them.
We
Himalaya.
entire line of the
extended meaning of the word, since
to the
Deb Rajah's
Western Tibet
is
territory,
told him, lie
continently gives this term as a

call their
distinctive affixes, as
alias
Bhutan
it
the
name
if I
were
Gyannak
east,
some
or Chinese, and thereupon he in-
of place.
neighbours by the generic name Gya, to which they add
Gya-nak, black Gyas,
alias
Chinese; Gya-ver, yellow Gyas,
With
in search of them in Tibet, I should look for
that country, as I would for the Scythians
among
or Sogland was, I conceive, the original Zakeia, the
the Indian Sakas and Tibetan Sog vel Sok.

in Tibetan such being
Moorcroft's Giannak
Far to the
Russians; and Gya-gar, white~f Gyas, alias Hindus.
Huns,
any
has long been restricted by us
(recte Blnitant).
the ne pins ultra of abuse of words.
Bhotia must have
The Tibetans
or
far less to
situated along the
might create confusion however by recurring
to his
in
Kiimaun merely,
to such perganahs in
It includes all the districts similarly
still
the
Sog
first
reference to the
them among the Hor

vel Sok.
known
of
Sogdiana
historic seat of
Horsok, as one term, means Xomade,
the condition of those
two
tribes in Tibet.
For a sample of this tongue, which has a primitive base, but overlaid by Pracrit,
No. 191, June 1848.
of men, but only to that
% Observe that these epithets do not refer to the colour
the Chinese are fond of black clothes and the Indians universally
of their dress
almost wear white ones. The like is probably equally true of similar designations of
Turanian tribes in various other parts of the vast Tartaric area {e.g. Red Karens),
though Ethnic theories have been spun out of the other interpretation of thes^ dis*
see J. A. S. B.
tinctive terms.
ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA.
29
ON THE ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA.
2.
The following paper was written

Society of Bengal, as a
in 1847.
summary view
It
was then presented
to the Asiatic
of the affinities of these tribes as deduced
from a tolerably copious comparison of their languages or
dialects.
Accordingly, I submitted a comparative vocabulary of twelve of the dialects found

in the Central* sub-Himalayas, inclusive; for comparison's sake, of the written as
well as spoken language of Tibet,
guage
unuttered
to be
it
in both forms; first, because
is
and second, because
letters,
compared
being of
it
exist only (with
much importance
employed
all
to give this lan-
in the former state
with many
the dialects or tongues with which
two exceptions)
it is
in the latter or unwritten
and
primitive state.
With
regard to the English vocables selected, I have adopted those of Mr. Brown,
in order to facilitate comparisons
him
with the Indo-Chinese tongues, as exemplified by
but, to his nouns substantive, I have
and
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
added some pronouns, numerals, verbs,

adjectives, under
the impression that
nothing short of such a sample of each of the parts of speech could at

for the attainment of the
end in view.
all suffice
Geographically or topically, I have confined
myself to the East of the river Kali or Ghagra, as well because the dialects prevailing to the
Westward
of that river are for the most part extremely mixed,
and indeed almost merged in the ordinary tongues of the plains of Hindusthan,
as also because I have
is
no immediate access to the people of the West.
The case
very different in the Eastern sub-Himalayas, where I was domiciled, and where,
as will be seen, the Indian Prakrits have hardly been able to
zable impression
sole exception of the
I have omitted.
make
a single cog-ni-
upon any of the numerous vernaculars of the people, with the

I
Khas
or Parbattia Bhasha, which, as being a
have likewise,
for the present,
of a genuinely aboriginal character,
mongrel tongue
omitted some interesting tongues
which are spoken East of the Kali, either by
certain forest tribes existing in scanty numbers, nearly in a state of nature, such as
the Chepang and Kiisunda, or

as the
by certain other peculiar and broken
tribes,
such
Hayu, the Kiiswar, the Botia, the Denwar, Durre" or Dahri, Bhramu, Tkaru,
and Boksa,
who
cultivate those
low valleys from which malaria drives the ordinary
of the Himalaya, as divided lengthwise (north-west to southWestern and Eastern.

I now regard it as divided into Western (Indus
to Kali), Central (Kali to Tishta), and Eastern (Tishta to Brahmakund) portions.
The
present paper treats of the Central Himalaya. Breadthwise the chain is regarded as divided into the Northern, Middle, and Southern regions, the word region being always
added to contra-distiuguish'the latter demarcation. Himalaya properly speaking is the
perpetually snowed part of the chain.
I used to contra-distinguish the lower part or
But objections having been raised, I now
southern slope by the term sub-Himalayas.
acquiesce in the term Himalaya as applied to the whole.
The exceptions are the Ncwari and Lepsha, which form the topic of my second essay.
*I
formerly spoke
east) into
'
30
by several races of kelotic craftsmen* whose habitat is general"

That ordinary population, exclusive of the now dominant Khas or Parhattias Proper,! above alluded to, consists, between the Kali and the Dhansri, in Nepal,
population, or, lastly,
Sikim, and Bhutan of
Ois-Himalayan Bhotias vel Tibetans, called Piongbo,
1st.
Siena or Kath Bhotia, Palu Sen,J

4th.
Giirung,
Yak thumba
Magar
9th.
5th. Miirmi
Lepcha
Serpa or Sharpa
6th.
Newai
or Deiinjong-maro
Sunwar 3rd.
Limbu vel
Bhiitanese or Lhopa vel
etc.;
2nd.
7th. Kiranti
10th.
8th.
Dukpa.||
I have enumerated the races as they occur, in tolerably regular series, from
west to
my
named
east, of
though confined therein to the juxto-nivean
limits,
whilst the participation of the Gurungs and

recent
first
whole extent, west and
given and definite locations of old standing
east, in
are found pretty generally diffused throughout the
political
successes of
the
but the
tracts or
Cachar region
Magars, or military
now dominant Khas,
tribes, in the
has spread them
also, as
peaceful settlers, in no scanty numbers, easterly and westerly, from the Kali to the
Mechi.
The
have a more restricted fatherland or janam bhumi,

Magars and Gurungs, not a century back, or before
rest of the tribes
and indeed the
locale of the
the conquests of the House of Gorkha,
proper habitat of these two tribes
is
was
similarly circumscribed
to the west of the great valley,
again, (the valley), and its whole vicinity, is the region of the
wars
for the
tract
Murmis and Ne-
whilst the districts east of the great valley, as far as Sikim, are the abode
of the Kirantis and Limbiis, as Sikim

or
which
Bhutan that
of the
constitute, together
Lhopas
is
that of the Lepshas, and
or Diikpas, usually styled Bhiitanese
with the Siinwars,
who
Deva Dharma
by
us.
These
again are mostly found west of the
great valley and north of the Magars and Gurungs, near and
among
the cis-nivean
Bhotias, the principal alpine tribes of the sub-Himalayas between that western
point (the Kali) where the aboriginal tongues are merged in the Prakrits and that
eastern limit (the Dhansri) where they begin to pass into so-called monosyllabica
tongued races of presumed Indo-Chinese origin4 The sub-Himalayan races I have
just
enumerated inhabit
all
the central and temperate parts of these mountains, the
juxta-nivean or northernmost tracts being
left
to the
Rongbo
vel Serpa vel
Palu
See p. 14, part ii. of this volume, supra, and note.

Highlander,' but this general sense of the word is restricted by
+ Parbattia means
invariable, usage to the Khas.
The Newars of Nepal Proper call the cis-nivean Bhotias, Palu Sen, and the transThe Chinese call the Mongolian Tartars, Tha Tha.
nivean, Tha Sen.
Lhopa is a territorial designation, Dukpa a religious, that is, the country is called
Lho, and the sect of Lamaism prevailing in it, Dvik. Klaproth's Lokabadja, and BitThe postfix ba means of, or beter's Lokba, are both equivalent to Bhotan vel Lho.
longing to, so that Lokba, recte Lhopa, is a Bhiitanese man or native of Lho.
for the people who call
Bhotia is the Sanskrit, and Tibetan the Persian, name,
themselves Bodpa, or Bod, a corruption possibly of the Sanskrit word Bhot.
a
+ More recent researches induce me to demur entirely to a trenchantly demarked monosyllabic class of tongues, and to adopt the opinion that India (Dravirian) and the
countries around it on the north aud north-east were peopled by successive incursions of affiliated tribes of Northmen, among whom I see no sufficient reason to segregate from the rest, as is commonly done, the Bod pas of Tibet, the Eastern Himalayans,
nor even the proximate Indo-Chinese or people of Western Indo-China.
'
||
'
'
'
Sen, and the southernmost parts, as well as the low valleys of the interior and cen-
being abandoned to the Kiiswars, D6nwars, Burro's, and other malaria-
tral region,
The people
defying tribes, which, for the present, I do not purpose to notice.
occupy a highly healthful cliinate^but one

of exact temperatures as various as the several elevations (four to ten thousand
under review therefore may be said
to
and which, though nowhere troubled with excesby excessive moisture, and by the rank vegetation that moisture
generates, with the aid of a deep fat soil, save in the Cachar or juxta-nivean region, where the lower temperature and poorer scantier soil serve somewhat to break
feet) of the ever- varied surface;
sive heat,
is
so
the prodigious transition from the thrice luxuriant sub-Himalayas to the thrice
arid plains of Tibet.
That the sub-Himalayan races are

origin, are facts long ago indicated
all closely affiliated,
and are
by me,* and which seem
cient evidence from the comparative vocabularies
now
of northern
all
to result
furnished.
But
with
suffi-
to it lingual
evidence in a more ample form will however in due time be added, as well as
the evidence deducible from the physical attributes, and from the creeds
and legends of these
must suffice
It
races.
customs
at present to observe that the legends of
the dominant races indicate a transit of the Himalaya from thirty-five to forty-five
generations back
say 1,000 to 1,300 years, and that
because the transit was certainly
made
prefer the remoter period
before the Tibetans
had adopted from India
the religion and literature of Buddhism, in the seventh and eighth centuries of
our era.
This fact
is
religious tenetsj of the
as clearly impressed
upon tho crude
dialects
sub-Himalayans as their northern origin
is
and cruder
upon
their
peculiar forms and features, provided these points be investigated with the requisite care
for superficial attention is apt to rest solely
cently as imperfectly imported
among them, and upon
of their mixed and varying physiognomy.
upon the Lamaism re-
the merely exceptional traits
That physiognomy
exhibits, no doubt,
generally and normally, the Scythic or Mongolian type (Blumenbach) of

kind, but the type
is
often
much
human
softened and modified, and even frequently passes
into a near approach to the full Caucasian dignity of head
and
face, in the
same
perplexing manner that has been noticed in regard to the other branches of the
Allophylian tree, though
among the
Cis- or Trans-Himalayans there
is
never
seen any greater advance towards the Teutonic blond complexion than such as
consists in occasional
ruddy moustaches and grey eyes among the men, and a good
In the great valley of Nepal, which has a very central position aud a mean elevation of 4,500 ft., the maximum of Fahr. iu the shade is 80.
* Illustrations of the Languages &c. of Nepal and Tibet, and Res. A.S.B, Vol. XVI.
1827.
t Of these religious tenets, the full description given in my work on the Koech.Bodo,
The Bonpa faith of Tibet (the
and Dhimal, may be accepted as generally applicable.
old creed of that country) and the Shamanism of Siberia are both more or less cultivated types of the primitive creed, subsequently largely adopted into Br&hmanism and
Buddhism. The exorcist of the Murmi or Tamar tribe is still called Bonpa, aud every
tribe's chief priestly agent is an exorcist, variously named.
See Prichard, Vol. IV. pp. 323, 344, 356, and Humboldt's Asie Centralc 2.62
Who could suppose the following description refercd to a Scythic race ?
and 133.
l
Gcvs albo colore est atque pulchritudine ct forma insignc."
32
white skin
Hindus
is
unknown, and the
but
all
layas, whilst the
are of this pale
many
tint is not
brown
much
pure
less decided than in the high caste
or isabelline
in the plains of
women.
deal of occasional bloom upon the cheeks of the children and
hue
India are
and the sub-Hima-
in Tibet
much
The broken or
darker.
depressed tribes above alluded to passed the Himalaya at various periods, but
all
long antecedent to the immigration of the dominant tribes, and prior to the least
and the lingual and physical traits of these broken tribes,

might be expected, constitute several links of connexion between the Altaic
whisper of tradition
as
tribes
The general
on the north and the Dravirian on the south.
Himalayans, both of earlier and later immigration
is
as follows
description of the
:
head
and face
very broad, usually widest between the cheek-bones, sometimes as wide between
the angles of the jaws forehead broad, but often narrowing upwards chin defec;
tive
mouth
large and salient, but the teeth vertical
and the
lips
not tumid
gums,
especially the upper, thickened remarkably
eyes wide apart, flush with the cheek,
head
nose pyramidal, sufficiently long and
and more or
less obliquely set in the
where
elevated, save at the base,
it is
depressed so as often to let the eyes run to-
and furnished with
gether, coarsely formed and thick, especially towards the end,

large round nostrils
deficient
hair of head copious and straight
stature rather low,
and slow in
intellect
and
feeling,
but muscular and strong.
of the
and body
face
Character phlegmatic,
but good-humoured, cheerful and tractable, though
somewhat impatient of continuous toil. Polyandry yet exists partially, but is falling out of use. Female chastity is little heeded before marriage, and drunkenCrime is much
ness and dirtiness are much more frequent than in the plains.
rarer,
however, and truth more regarded, and the character on the whole amiable.
The customs and manners have nothing very remarkable, and the creed may be
best described
Indifferency is the only, but heretofore effective ob-
by negatives.
by Brahmanical, Buddhist, or Christian teachers, so that

the Scottish phrase " we cannot be fashed " seems best to describe the prevalent
The whole popufeeling of the Himalayans on this, as on many other matters.
stacle to indoctrination
lation
is
intensely tribual,
some races
still
bound together by a common
appellation,
as the Kirantis for example, being nevertheless divided into several septs, dis-
tinguised from each other
by strongly marked dialects, non-intermarriage, and difwhich bear distinct names are still more pal-
ferences of customs, whilst the tribes
pably separated in those respects.
But the
barrier of caste, in the true sense,
is
unknown, and on the other hand there exists not in any tribe, race or nation,
any notion of a common human progenitor, or eponymous deity.* The general
" Arva in annos
status of all the tribes and races is that of nomadic cultivators.
mutant
cestors
et
snperest ager "
when they
burst
is
as true
the
now
of the Himalayans as
barriers of the
such as the NtSwar, have long become stationary cultivators

are
still,
for the
most
part, pastoral.
it
Roman Empire.
;
was
of our an-
few
tribes,
and the Giirungs
There are no craftsmen, generally speaking,
* The instance of the Gorkhalis, who undoubtedly derive their appellation from
the demi-God Gorakh (Goraksha) Nath, isonly a seeming exception, recent and borrowed.
ABORIGINES OP THE HIMALAYA.
35
among them for ages unpotters, &c, and the women of
proper to these tribes, stranger and helot races, located

told,
being
their smiths, carpenters, curriers,
each tribe being
The Newiirs alone have
domestic weavers.
its
that wholly exotic
and they alone have made any attempts
which they have followed
and
arts, in
fine
chiefly Chinese, but also Indian, models.
Before concluding this notice of the Alpine Indian aborigines,
summarily the limits and physical
to define
a literature,
at the
it
may
be as well
characters of their original and
adopted abodes, or Tibet and the Sub-Himalayas.
is
a truncated triangular
plateau, stretching obliquely from south-east to north-west,
between 28 and 36
Tibet
of north latitude and 72 and 102 of east longitude.
extreme, owing to
the
its
enormous
vaster height of those
still
snowy
extreme rarification of
as a consequence of all these
ness of its vegetation.
It is
barriers
feet, to
which surround
atmosphere, to
its
on every
it
and sandy
saline
its
and a reciprocating cause
soil,
by the Yiinling
east
the most part perpetually snowclad, and of which the very passes on
low bare
hills,
and
partially divided in its length
proaching the elevation of
which ranges stand
Tibet
is,
for the
most
its
poses the province of
all
west of which, to the Belur, com-
a desert,
has formed in
all
the province of Khani, pro-
all east of it, to Sifan,
vinces extending respectively to Bukharia and
nowhere
parallel ranges ap-
and between the third and fourth of

of Lhasa and Digarchi.*
These capitals are
capitals
Nan, and
by several
and however secluded,
is
to China.
Tibet,
however
on every side accessible
ages the great overland route of trade, and
the grand ethnic, as well as commercial, highway of
may
mankind
aridity.
Llence
regard.
Its
480 miles
and since the historic
we
even be called
its
central posi-
from 35
snowy
girdle
and
it
its
such
bleak
length
is
about 1,800 miles, and
maximum
breadth about
the long sides of the triangle are towards India and Little Bukharia
Beliir,
to 36
ling, reaches
N.
the truncated apex towards
Great
Bukharia,
within the limits of Tibet, has an extent of only one degree, or

lat.
whereas the base towards China, along the
through 8 or from 28 to 36 N.
in the north-east corner of
its
learn the supreme importance of Tibet in every ethnological
maximum
the short one, towards China;
where the
sera, despite
arid,
and hence
tion between China, India, and Great Bukharia having really rendered
for ages, before
part,
much by
barriers,
its
both in the central province of the Utsang,
all
and
bounded on the south by the Hernachal, on the north
the south average 16,000 to 17,000 feet of elevation.
it
and
too, to the excessive scanti-
a plain and a single plain, but one extremely cut up by ravines, varied
is
side,
an uncommon absence of rain and cloud,
by the Kuenlun, on the west by the Belur, and on the

all for
and dry in the
elevation, averaging 12,000 feet above the sea, to
which on the south reach 29,000

to the
It is cold
the overland routes, and
Kharu,
which
is
lat.
line of the
Yun-
Just beyond the latter point,
Siling or Tangut, the converging point of
I should prefer to include ethnologically
De Koros from
within
native written authority apud J. A. S. B.

Iu the next plateau of High Asia, or that of Little Bukharia, the vast desert of Cobi or Gobi, which occupies the whole eastern half of that plateau, has ever formed,
and still does, a most formidable obstruction to transit aud traffic.
keI
34
Tibet, but for the high authority of Klaproth,

tinct* language
graphy,
Little
||
insists that
Siling or
Tangut being open to the plateau of Tibet
we have
here a dis-
line in physical geo-
as well as to those of
Bukharia and Songaria though demarked from China both on the north and
by the
east
who
and race, though certainly no such separating
K'i-lian
and Peling
respectively.
South of the whole of Tibet, as above defined,
lie
the Sub-Himalayas, stretching
from Gilgit to Brahmakund, with an average breadth of ninety miles, divided
cli-
matically into three pretty equal transversal regions, or the northern, the central,
and the southern, the
first
which commences
of
Hemackal, and
at the ghat line of
the last ends at the plains of Hindostan; the third lying between them, with
the great valley of Nepal in its centre.
sixteen miles
extreme length
in
and from 4,200
That valley
is
of a lozenge shape, about
and breadth, cultivated highly throughout,
The only other valley in the whole

which is smaller and higher,
to 4,700 feet above the sea.
eastern half of the Sub- Himalayas is that of Jurnla,
(Hordeum
yielding barley
celeste,) as the
great valley, rice.
the large but single vale of Cashmere and the Duns, both too well
The sub-Himalayas form a confused congeries of enorof which cross each other in every direction, but
quire further remark.
mous mountains,
still
To the west is
known to re-
the ranges
have a tendency
to diverge like ribs from the spine of the snows, or a

and north-west diagonal, between 28 and 35. These mountains are
south-east
exceedingly precipitous and have only narrow glens dividing their ridges, which
are remarkable for continuity or the absence of
chasm and rupture and,
also for
the deep bed of earth everywhere covering the rock and sustaining a matchless
luxuriance of tree and herb vegetation, which
numerable springs,
rills,
and
rivers,
gions of the tropical rains in

or four small
lakes in
all their
Kumaun
Pokra similarly juxtaposed.
in
dry tracts)
is
in such
profusion by in-
steadiness and intensity.
all
three re-
There are three
situated near each other, and three or four
But
in general the absence of lakes
more
(as of level
a remarkable feature of the Sub-Himalayas at present, for anciently
the great valleys of
were
is elicited
and by the prevalence throughout
Cashmere and Nepal, with several others of inferior size,

The great rivers descend from the snows in nume-
in a lacustrine state.
rous feeders, which
approach gradually and unite near the verge of the plains,
thus forming a succession of deltic basins, divided by the great snowy peaks as
water-sheds, thus
Basins.
1.
Alpine Gangetic basin.*
Peaks.
Nanda-de"vi.
Dhavalagiri.
2.
Gosain-than.
Kangchanjunga.
Chumalhari.
The Gemini, two unnamed peaks.

* Siling or
||
It
Tangut is in Sok-yul or the country of the Mongol tribe.

must be admitted, however, that the Pay am Khar of Klaproth seems
Kham from
*See the
Tangut.
Klaproth cites Chinese geographers.
on "Geography of the Himalaya.''
article
to divide

In the two
first
of these five regions, all of
which
distribution of the waters, the people are mongrel
35
are plainly indicated
by the
and mixed, save in the north-
west parts, where the Palu Sen or cis-nivean Bhotias, the Garhwalis, and the inhabitants of Kanaver and
Hangrang
The
are of Tibetan stock.
Gan-
third, or
dacean basin (Sapt Gandaki in native topography, from the seven chief feeders,)
is
The
the seat of the Sunwars, Gurungs, and the Magars.
sin,
fourth, or Cosian ba-
(Sapt Cousika in native topography, after the seven chief feeders,)
The
of the Kirantis and Limbiis.
fifth or
Tishtan basin, again,
is
is
the abode
the father-
land of the Deunjongmaro, and the sixth that of the Pru or Lhopa, that
Lepshas and Bhutanese, respectively.
And,
system of valleys around the great one, which
between the basins of the Gandak and Cdsi
But observe that the terms

tract, are
dictory of
as
is
And
the high and level space
nearly 5,000
and system of valleys, applied to
is
by a comparison with the skeleton of the human frame,**
at all events, their
close observance
people's
all
The ruggedness
inter-communication of a free kind, has multi-
the rank pasture, by

attention
from
with an irregularity
of the aqueous system can alone reveal.
of the surface, by preventing
above
less rectangularly
still
in
The
ribs.
parallel ridges, as
main ridges diverge more or
the ghat line, so as to unitise the several great streams, but
the
Sub-
generally, as to the whole
Sub-Himalayas therefore are transverse rather than
plied dialects
this last
such significant, nor meant to be contra-
former are analogous to the spine and the latter to the
the
which
above the sea)
here I should add that the best representation of the Himalayas
and Sub-Himalayas
stated, or,
ft.
is,
(a
the seat of the Newars and Murmis.
what has been above remarked, more
Himalayas.
which
level space
merely relative, though
is
lastly,
its ill effect
more exclusively than
on herds and
in Tibet
to
flocks,
has turned
agriculture,
though
even in Tibet the people are mostly non-nomadic,* heat and moisture, such as Tiof, have relaxed the tone of the muscles and deepened the hue
making the people grain-eaters and growers rather than carnivorous
tenders of flocks. Thus the Cis-Himalayans are smaller, less muscular, and less
but the differences are by no means so marked
fair than the Trans-Himalayans
bet
utterly void
is
of the skin,
as
might have been expected
and though there are noticeable shades of distinc-
tion in this respect between the several tribes of the Cis-Himalayans according
to their special affinities, as well as
between most of them and the North-men,
according to their earlier or later immigration, yet
if
they
all
be (as surely they
Pru is the Lepsha name of the Bhutanese, whom the Hindu Shastras designate
Plava, and themselves, Lhopa.
*a
Professor Miiller (apud Bunsen's Philosophy of Language), grounding on my
Essay on the Physical Geography of the Himalaya, has likened the whole to the human hand with the fingers pointing towards India. The ghat line with its great
and the
peaks is assimilated to the knuckles, the dips between being the passes
three transverse Sub-Himalayan regions, extending from the ghats to the plains,
are likened to the three joints of the fingers.
* Within the limits of Tibet are found abundance of nomades of Mongol and Turkish
race, called respectively Sokpo and Hor by the Tibetans, who themselves seem much
mixed with the latter race, which has long exercised a paramount influence in North
Tibet witness the facts that all its hill ranges are taghs, and all its lakes ntirs, both
Turki words.
;
36
are) of the
same Turanian
origin, it
must be allowed that very striking
of climate and of habits, operating through very
no obliterative
effects
in part, speculation,
above given,
my
Himalayas which
upon the
essential
and
and I will terminate
many
distinctive signs of race.
it
by remarking
investigations have been limited to

lies
But
this
is,
that, for the reasons
that portion of the Sub-
between the Kali and the Dhansri, or say 8O5
East longitude and 26 to 30 of North latitude.
differences
generations, can produce
to 92^ of
ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL.
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL.
3.
(Read before
the
Bengal Asiatic Society, 9th January, 1833 J
The great aboriginal stock of

river Kali, or in Nepal,
upon
fluous
3^
is
the inhabitants of these mountains, east of the
Turanian.
The
fact
their faces, forms, and languages, that
and vain attempt
trace
to
is
inscribed, in characters so plain,
we may well
historically
it
dispense with the super-
the meagre chronicles of
in
barbarians.
But from the twelfth century downwards, the
Mussulman conquest
tide of
sweep multitudes of the Brahmans of the plains from

Hindustan into the proximate hills, which now compose the western territories of
and bigotry continued
to
the kingdom of Nepal.
found the natives
There the Brahmans soon located themselves.

and without faith, but fierce and proud.
They
illiterate,
Their object was to
make them
converts to Hinduism, and so to confirm the
They saw
from their learning and politeness.
fleeting influence derived
that the
barbarians had vacant minds, ready to receive their doctrines, but spirits not apt
to stoop to degradation, and they acted accordingly.
To
the earliest and most
distinguished of their converts they communicated, in defiance of the creed they

taught, the lofty rank and honors of the Kshairiya order.
sensual passions to gratify, as well as ambition.
most
even the
distinguished
nothing loath, but
the males, prompt to repel indignities.
the polished
tised as the
Brahmans
still
to their embraces, but their offspring
eminence in the
To
their fathers.
of a temper, like that of
These females would indeed welcome
this
progeny
must not be stigma-
Brahman and a Mlechha must, on the connew order of things proposed to be introduced
infamous progeny of a
trary, be raised to
by
But the Brahmans had

They found the native females
the Brahmans, in
also, then,
still
greater defi-
ance of their creed, communicated the rank of the second order of Hinduism; and
from these two
roots, mainly,
sively ramified, tribe of the
creedless barbarians,
now
sprung the
Khas
the proud
now numerous, predominant, and extenthe name of a small clan of
originally
title
of the Kshatriya, or military order of
Khas females and of Brahmans,

with the honors and rank of the second order of Hinduism, got the patronymic
and hence the key to the anomalous nomenclature of
titles of the first order
The
the kingdom of Nepal.
offspring of original
so
many
stirpes of the military tribes of
of the sacred order.
It
may
Nepal
is
spirit of the Parbattias, that, in spite of
Brahmans
the abolition of a custom so radically opposed
Khas
still insist
nomenclature
the yearly increasing sway of Hinduism
in Nepal, and of the various attempts of the
profess, the
to be sought in the
be added, as remarkably illustrative of the lofty
that the fruit of
FF
in high office to procure
to the creed
both parties
commerce (marriage
is
now
out of the
38
question) between their females and males of the sacred order shall be ranked
wear the thread, and assume the patronymic
as Kshatriyas,
The
original Khas, thus favoured
The
the Brahmanical system.*
by
it,
title.
became soon and
entirely devoted to
progress of Islam below daily poured fresh refu-
among them.
They availed themselves of the
gees
superior knowledge of the strangers to subdue
the neighbouring tribes of aborigines, were successful beyond their hopes, and,
in such a career continued for ages, gradually
habits, ideas,
merged the greater part of
their
own
and language (but not physiognomy) in those of the Hindus.
The Khas language became
a corrupt dialect of Hindi, retaining not
many
palpable traces (except to curious eyes) of primitive barbarism.
An
me
authentic anecdote told
signed to the modern
Khas
at
Katkmandii confirms the origin above
tribe of Nepal.
In the reign of
Ram
as-
Sah of Gorkha,
an ancestor of the present dynasty of Nepal, an ambassador was sent from the
Durbar of Gorkha to that of Mewar, to exhibit the Gorkhali Rajah's pedigree and
The head
to claim recognition of alleged kindred.
somewhat staggered with the
when
was suggested
it
to
of the
renowned Sesodians,
pedigree, seemed inclined to admit the relationship,
him
to question the ambassador about his
own
caste as
a sort of test for the orthodoxy or otherwise of the notions of caste entertained
had always at Cbitor or Udaypur been supposed, barThe ambassador, a Khas, who had announced himself as
belonging to the martial tribe, or Kshatriya, thus pressed, was now obliged to
admit that he was nevertheless a Pande, which being the indubitable cognomen
in the far distant, and, as
Himalaya.
barous
of a tribe of the sacred order of Hinduism, his mission
was courteously dismissed
without further enquiry.
The Ehthdriahs
are the descendants
Kshatriyas of the plains,
who
more
or less pure of Rajputs and other
sought refuge in these mountains from the Mos-
lem, or merely military service as adventurers.
readier
means
in their bright
than had tbe Brahmans, they had

of the vile aborigines than the
less.
Hence, to
this hour,
With fewer aims
of policy, and
swords of requiting the protection afforded them,

less
motive to mix their proud blood with that
Brahmans
felt
the impulse
of,
and they did mix
it
they claim a vague superiority over the Khas, not-
withstanding that the pressure of the great tide of events around them has, long
since,
confounded the two races in
who were more
the plains,
lax,
all essentials.
and
allied
Those among the Kshatriyas of
themselves with the Khas females in
concubinage, were permitted to give to their children, so begotten, the patronymic

title only,
not the rank.
rations into the Khas,
But
two gene-
their children, again, if they married for
became pure Khas,
or real Kshatriyas in point of privilege
to have
they agreed to put away their old gods, and to take the new
Gurus ; and not to kill the cow for the rest they made, and still make,
gratification.
food
sexual
and
sufficiently light of the ceremonial law in whatever respects
Their active habits and vigorous character could not brook the restraints of the ritual
law, and they had the example of licentious Brahmans to warrant their neglect of it.
The few prejudices of the Khas are useful, rather than otherwise, inasmuch as they favour sobriety and cleanliness.
*
That
is,
Brahmans
for

and rank, though no longer
so in
name
39
They were Khas, not Kshatngas, and
yet they bore the proud cognoniina of the martial order of the Hindus, and were,
in the land of their nativity, entitled to every prerogative
which Kshdtriya birth
confers in Hindustan !
Such is the third and less fruitful root of the Khas race.
The EMhdriahs speak the Khas language, and they speak no other.
The Thakuris differ from the Ekthdriahs only by the accidental circumstance of
their lineage being royal.
At some former period, and in some little state or
other, their progenitors
were
princes.
The Sdhi or Sdh are the present royal

The remaining military tribes of the
family.
Magar and Gu rung,
Parbattias are the
who now supply the greater number of the soldiers of this state.
From lending themselves less early and heartily to Brahmanical
influence than
the Khas, they have retained, in vivid freshness, their original languages, physi-
ognomy, and,
To
their
other,
in a less degree, habits.
own untaught
and no doubt they
ears their languages differ entirely the one

differ materially,
though both belonging
minalized type of the Turanian tongues.

liarities
in both.
Their physiognomies,
from the
to the
too,
unprono-
have pecu-
proper to each, but with the general caste and character fully developed
The Gurungs
are less generally
and more recently redeemed from Lamd-
ism and primitive impurity than the Magars.
But though both the Gurungs and Magars
still
maintain their
own
vernacular
what with military service for

several generations under the predominant Khas, and what with the commerce
of Khas males with their females,* they have acquired the Khas language, though
not to the oblivion of their own, and the Khas habits and sentiments, but with
tongues, Tartar faces, and careless manners, yet,
sundry reservations in favor with pristine
liberty.
As they
have, however, with
such grace as they could muster, submitted themselves to the ceremonial law of
purity and to
owing
Brahman supremacy, they have been adopted
as Hindus.
But partly
and partly by reason of the necessity of

distinctions of caste to Hinduism, they have been denied the thread, and constituted
to the licenses
above glanced
a doubtful order below

to both the latter
it,
at,
and yet not Vaisya nor Sudra, but a something superior
what I fancy
it
might puzzle the Shastris
to explain
on Hindu
principles.
The Brahmans
of the plains;
of Nepal are
much
less generally addicted
to
arms than those
and they do not therefore properly belong to our present subject.
The enumeration
of the
Brahmans
is
nevertheless necessary, as serving to elu-
cidate the lineage and connexions of the military tribes, and especially of the Khas.
The martial
classes of
Nepal
are, then, the
Khas, Magar, and Giirung, each com-
* Here, as in the cases of the Brahman and Khas, and Kshatriya and Klias, there
can be no marriage. The offspring of a Khas with a Magarni or Gurungni is a titular
Khas and real Magar or Gurung. The descendants fall into the rank of their mothers
and
retain only the patronymic.
ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OP NEPAL.
40
prising a very
numerous
race, variously ramified
and sub-divided in the manner
exhibited in the following tabular statement.
The
original seat of the
Khas
ordinarily said to be
is
Gdrkhd* because
it
was
immediately that they issued, some years ago, under the guidance of
thence
Prithvi Narayan, to acquire the fame and dominion achieved by
him and
his suces-
sors of the Gdrkhdli dynasty.
But the Khas were long
previoiisly to the age of Prithvi
spread over the whole of the Chaubisya, and they are
Narayan extensively
now found
in every part of
the existing kingdom of Nepal, as well as in Kurnaun, which was part of Nepal
The Khas
until 1816.
more
as
liable to
are rather
Brahmanical
more devoted
prej udices
both accounts, are perhaps somewhat

the latter tribes.
I say
to the house of Gdrkhd, as well
than the Magars or Gurungs
less desirable as soldiers for
somewhat, because
it is
and, on
our service than
mere question of degree
the
Khas having, certainly, no religious prejudices, nor probably any national partialities, which would prevent their making excellent and faithful servants in arms
and they possess pre-eminently that masculine energy of character and love of
enterprize
The
which distinguish
original seat of the
so advantageously all the military races of Nepal.
Magars
Isma
the
is
Bhirkot, Dhor, Garahung, Bising,
or Satahung, Pdyung,
Bar a Mangrdnth,
G hiring
Gdlmi, Argha, Khdehi, Miisikdt, and
in other words, most of the central and lower parts of the mountains, between
The attachment
the Bheri and Marsydndi\\ Rivers.

of Gdrkhd
is
of the
Magars
to the house
but recent, and of no extraordinary or intimate nature.
Still less
Gurungs, whose native seats occupy a line of country parallel
so is that of
the
to that of the
Magars, to the north of
it,
and extending
to the
snows
in that
Modern events have spread the Magars and Gurungs over most part
of the present kingdom of Nepal. The Gurungs and Magars are, in the main,
direction.
Hindus, only because

cal
it is
the fashion
and soldierly respects,
These highland
soldiers,
is free
who
and the Hinduism of the Khas, in
all
practi-
of disqualifying punctillios.
despatch their meal in half an hour, and satisfy
the ceremonial law by merely washing their hands and face, and taking off their
turbans before cooking, laugh at the pharisaical rigour of our Sipdhis,
who must
bathe from head to foot and m&ke pujd, ere they begin to dress their dinner, must
eat nearly naked in the coldest weather, and cannot be in
marching trim again
in less than three hours.
In war, the former readily carry several days' provisions on their backs
latter
would deem such an
service nothing but the prospect of

it
glory and spoil
nothing but pollution and peril from unclean
and
evil spirits.
in all,
The former
act intolerably degrading.
In masses, the former have
which grows out of national
integrity
men and
all
the
see in foreign
the latter can discover in

terrible wizards, goblins,
that indomitable confidence, each
and success
the latter can have no
* G6rkha, the town, lies about sixty miles W.N.W. of Xathmandu.

Gorkha, the
name, is derived from that of the eponymous deity of the royal family, viz. Gorakshanath or Gorkhanath, who likewise has given his name to our district of Gorakpur.
The Marichangdi of our maps.
||

idea of this sentiment, which
peril, better
tudes' in
roughly acquired,
is
than
41
of multiyet maintains the union and resolution

all
other
human bonds whatever;
by no means inseparable
and, once tho-
from service under the national
standard.
.
.
^ nn
Dakhreahs, of
in Jfetf no less than 30,000
I calculate that there are at this time
I am not
belonging to the above three tribes.
soldiers off the roll by rotation,
form or
one
obstacle to our obtaining, in
sure that there exists any insuperable
o
energy
their
are
these men; and such
other, the services of a large body of
the shackles of caste, unadulterated

character, love of enterprize, freedom from
am
a discipline such as ours, that 1
military habits and perfect subj ectibility to
well assured their services,
if
would soon come
obtained,
prized.*
In
my humble
opinion they are
by
far the best soldiers
to
be most highly
Asia; and
.
if
,,
they
arms, I conceive that their gallant

were made participators of our renown in
the plains,) and unadulterated miliemphatic contempt of Madhesias (people of
that oar good and regular pay and
and
fidelity
tary habits, might be relied on for
spirit,
perfectly to counterpoise the influence

noble pension establishment would serve
affect us.
injuriously
could
of nationality, so far as that
The following
tribes,
table exhibits a classified
view of the Brahnanical and military
with their various sub-divisions.
Tabular View of the Tribes.
42
GhartyaL
ON THE MILITARY TRICES OP NEPAL.

10^
Sub-division^ or
43
Ddni.
Powar.
Sijapati.
11th Sub-division, or Gharti*
Kalikotya.
12^
Sijapati.
Sub-division, or Khattri.
Pande.
Khuldl.
Lainichanya.
Tewari.
Dhakal.
Panth.
Poryal.
Phanyal.
Adhikari.
Sakhtyal.
Bural.
Arjal.
Sapkotya.
Silwal.
True Khds not yet
Suveri.
classified.
Bhongyal.
Sijal.
Satoitya.
Loyal.
Parsai.
Khatiwata.
Chouvala Gai.
Lamsal.
Am
Chalatani.
Bhatt Rai.
Naopanya.
Gai.
Rupakheti.
Khukriyal.
Baj Gai.
Kilatkoni.
Dangal.
Dahal.
Satya Gai.
Mini
Sikkmiyal.
Deakota.
Alphaltopi.
Soti.
Bhiryal.
Garhtola.
Osti.
Parij ai
Pouryal.
Seora.
Bhatt Ojka.
Bainankotya.
Bikral.
Balya.
Tewari.
Kadariah.
Kanhal.
Gilal.
Porseni.
Kala Khattri.
Batyal.
Ckonial.
Iloinya Gai.
Dkungana.
Ganjal.
Res'ini
Tunirakot.
Pungyal.
ekthaeya,
Bkiis.
Kawala,
or insulated Tribes ranking with Khds.
Biirathoki.
Chohan.
Bohara.
Kutal.
Raya.
Boghati.
Chiloti.
Dikshit.
Ravat.
Khatit.
Dangi.
Pandit.
Katwal.
Bavan.
Raimanjhi.
Parsai.
Khati.
Mahat.
Bhukhandi.
Chokhal
Maghati.
Barwal,
Bhusal.
Chohara.
Durrah.
thaktjri, or Royal Lineages, ranking with Khds.

Sahi.
Singh.
Hamal.
Rakhsya.
Chand.
Jiva.
Sena.
Malla.
Chohan.
Maun.
Ruchal.
MAGAKS.
I.
Sub-division of the Magars, called
Rdnd,
Bhusal.
Gyangmi.
Byangnasi.
Kyapchaki.
Aslami.
Pulanii.
Phyuyali.
Durra Land.
Yahayo.
Gacha.
Lainichanya.
Maski.
Sara.
Pusal.
Gandharma,
Charnii.
Arghounle.
Thada.
Dutt.
* Manumitted slaves are called Pargharti, if of Khas lineage.

They form a separata
and rather numerous class, and so also do the Khawas or manumitted slaves of royalty.
ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OP NEPAL.
44
II.
Granja.
Sub-division of Maffars, called Thdpa.
ON THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES OF NEPAL.
4.
(See Journal Asiatic Society Bengal, 1857. )
Amid
the dense forests of the central region of Nepal, to the westward of
the great valley, dwell, in scanty numbers, and nearly in a state of nature,
broken
tribes,
and seeming
"
They
having no apparent
fragments of an earlier population.
like the
toil not,
neither do they spin :" they pay no taxes, acknowledge no alle-
upon wild
giance, but, living entirely

to say that the
Rajah
fruits
and the produce of the chase, are wont
Lord of the cultivated country,
is
as
They have bows and arrows, of which the
unredeemed waste.
are procured
they are of the

iron arrow-heads
from their neighbours, but almost no other implement of
in the very skilful snaring of the beasts of the field
and
it is
air
that all their
two
with the civilized races of that country,
affinity
little
Boughs torn from
intelligence
trees
and
is
civilization,
and the fowls of the
manifested.
laid dexterously together constitute
their only
houses, the sites of which they are perpetually shifting according to the exigencies
or fancies of the hour.
In short, they are altogether as near to what
called the state of nature as anything in
Kusundas,
tor the
human
is
usually
shape can well be, especially the
Chepangs are a few degrees above their
confreres,
and are begin-
ning to hold some slight intercourse with civilized beings and to adopt the most
simple of their arts and habits.
that,
It is due,
however, to these rude foresters
though they stand wholly aloof from
against
it,
society,
to say,
they are not actively offensive
and that neither the Government nor individuals tax them with any
aggressions against the wealth they despise, or the comforts and conveniences they
have no conception of the value
They
and
are, in fact, not
intellectually, so that
conscious inaptitude.
of.
noxious but helpless, not vicious but aimless, both morally
no one could, without
It is interesting to
distress,
behold their careless un-
have opportunity to observe a tribe so
circumstanced and characterized as the Chepangs, and

that their wretched condition, physical and moral,
is
am
decidedly of opinion
the result, not of inherent
but of that savage ferocity of stronger races which broke to pieces and
outlawed both the Chepang and the Kusiinda tribes during the ferocious ethnic
defect,
struggles of days long gone by,
when
tribe
tending for the possession of that soil they
met
tribe in internecine strife, con-
knew
not
how
to fructify
Nor
is
there any lack of reasonable presumptions in favour of this idea, in reference to the
Chepangs
at least;
soon see), not
less
for
the
still
traceable affiliation of this people
than the extant
state of
(as
we
shall
their language, demonstrates their
a condition far superior to their present one, or to any that has
once having
known
been theirs
for ages.
THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES.
46
That the primitive man was a savage has already appeared to me an unfounded
whereas that broken tribes deteriorate lamentably, we have several
assumption
well-founded instances in Africa.* Quitting, however, these speculations, I proceed

with my narrative. During a long residence in Nepal, I never could gain the
least access to the Kusiindas,
though aided by
all
the authority of the Durbar
but, so aided, I once, in the course of an ostensible shooting excursion, persuaded
some Chepangs
me
to let
and converse with them
see
On
were doling forth the words to
interpreters, I
was enabled
whom they are found, the
deformed race, though their large

precarious
amount and
Chepangs are a
gated (fore and
aft)
slight
in colour
strongly the
In height they are
innutritious quality of their food.
but
but not actually
and thin legs indicate
bellies
scarcely below the standard of the tribes around them||
ously short of stature
to study and to
Compared with the
sketch the characteristic traits of their forms and faces.
mountaineers among
that occasion I
and, whilst they
obtained the accompanying ample specimen of their language;
my
or four days
for three
through the medium of some Gurungs of their acquaintance.
who however are notoriThey have elon-
they are decidedly darker.
heads, protuberant large
large cheek-bones, flat faces, and small eyes.
mouths,
low narrow foreheads,
But the protuberance
of the
mouth
does not amount to prognathous deformity,} nor has the small suspicious eye much,
if
anything, of the Mongolian obliqueness of direction or
frequently questioned the Durbar, whilst resident at
and
origin of the
Chepangs and Kusiindas,
set in
the head.
Kathmandu,
Having
as to the relations
was invariably answered,
that no one
could give the least account of them, but that they were generally supposed to be
autochthones, or primitive inhabitants of the country.
was
my own
opinion, based chiefly
noted, and upon the absence of
around them
all
For a long time such
also
upon their physical characteristics as above
traceable lingual or other affinity with the tribes
so that I took the Chepangs, the Kusiindas,
and
also the
Hai-
remarkably resembling the two former in position and appeary US

ance to be fragments of an original hill population prior to the present dominant races of inhabitants of these mountains, and to be of Tamulian extraction,
a third tribe,
from their great resemblance of form and colour to the aborigines of the plains,
It did not for
particularly the Kols or Uraons, the Mundas, and the Males.
several years occur to
nor was
I,
me
to look for lingual affinities
save by dint of observation,
mankind belongs not only

*Prich. Phys. Hist. Vol.
made
to the races of
II.
passim.
fully
beyond the proximate
tribes,
aware that the Turanian type of
known Northern
pedigree, such as the
Scott's exquisite novels throw
much
light on
this subject.
||
Magar, Murmi, Khas, Gurung, Newar.
and the tendency is yet more strongly marked in some

% It tends that way, however
of the broken Turanian tribes of Central India; so that the general effect upon the Northmen of their descent into the least healthy and malarious jungles and swamps of the
tropics, would seem to be to cause the Turanian type of human kind to assimilate with
the African type, hut with a long interval: degradation and hardship may in these
broken tribes facilitate the effects of hail climate.
See full treatise on this people in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal.
S Ilaivu, Havu vel Vayu.
:
Also vocabularies
ot
the Chepung and Kusiinda tongues.
THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TKIBES.

mass of the sub-Himalayan population, but equally so
tbe plains, at least to
come domiciled much

for systematic
those of Central India.
all
to the
to
47
the aborigines of
all
Having-, of late, however, be-
eastward of Kathmandii, and having had more leisure
and extended researches, those attributes of the general subject,
which had previously perplexed me, were no longer hindrances

vestigation of any particular race or people.
of the Ohepangs a
mark equally
in their dark colour
now saw
reconcileable with
me
to
in the in-
in the Turanian features
Tamulian or Tibetan
and slender frame, characteristics at
first sight,
affinities
indeed, rather
Tamulian than Tibetan, but such as might, even in a Tibetan race, be accounted
by the extreme privations to which the Ohepangs had for ages been subject
and in their physical attributes taken together, I perceived that I had to deal with
for
a test of affinity too nice and dubious to afford a solution of

origin.*
I therefore turned to the other or lingual test
of the enquiry, I found
the question of
and, pursuing this branch
with the Southern aborigines, there was not a
that,
vestige of connection, whilst to
my
surprise I confess, I discovered in the lusty
Lhopas of Bhutan the unquestionable origin and stock of the

physically very differently characterized, Ohepangs
far
of identity of origin, I have, for the reader's convenience, selected

as an appendix to the vocabulary of tbe
all
removed, and
This lingual demonstration
Chepang language
and
and
set apart
apprehend that
persons conversant with ethnological enquiries will see in the not mere resem-
blance, but identity, of thirty
words of prime use and necessity extracted from

was available for me to glean from, a sufficient
so limited a field of comparison as
prcof of the asserted connextion and derivation of the Ohepangs, notwithstandobjections deducible from distance, dissolution of intercourse, and phy-
ing
all
sical
non-conformity.
mated,
But
observe, the last item of difference
essential, but
not
contingent,
for
is,
as already inti-
both Lhopas and Ohepangs are of
the same, essentially Turanian stamp, whilst the deteriorations of vigour and of
colour in the Ohepangs, though striking, are no
more than
natural, nay inevitable,
consequences of the miserable condition of dispersion and outlawry to which the
Ohepangs have been subject
for ages anterior to all record or tradition.
with regard to local disseveration,

* See
it
should be well noted, in the
first
And, again,
place, that
addendum on Bhutan.
satisfied that the source of my perplexity lay in the common Turanian

origin of all the tribes adverted to, which differ physically or lingually only in degree
physically, according to their earlier or later immigration and more or less healthful and temperate new abodes ; lingually, also, according to their more special affinity
with the less or with the more simple-tongued tribes or sub-families of the North.
The oldest tribes of Himalaya, as sufficiently proved by their relative condition and
location, are the broken tribes driven to the inclement summits or malarious glens of
and these in general have languages of the pronomenalized or complex
the Himalaya
sub-type, so that Miiller is wholly wrong in assuming that Himalaya has no lingual traits
wrong also, 1 think, in the importance assigned to these contiadistincof Draviria*
tive marksof race. In proof see Poole on Egyptian language Jour. Royal As. Society, Vol.
xx., part 34, p.p 313, el seq : the two dialects of the one tongue have a different
arrangement of the pronom. adjunct of nouns and verbs. It must be, after this, almost
needless to add that the relationship of the Chepangs to the Lhopas is general, not
am now
special.
8
Neither Tamil nor Telugu nor Kannadi possesses in like perfection this diagnostic
pronomenalization of noun and of verb (viz., prefixed to noun, and suffixed to verb.)
THE CI1EPANG AXD KUSUNDA TRIBES.
48
by how much the Chepangs

so
and have long been, removed from Bhutan, by
are,
exactly do conformities of language demonstrate identity of origin, because
much
those conformities cannot be explained by that necessary contact with neighbours

to
which the Chepang language, owes, of
war terms
lect,
as the vocabulary exhibits
that though
seat of the
it
course, such Hindi, Parbattia,
and, in the second place,
recol-
be true that 300 miles of very inaccessible country divide the
Chepangs from Bhutan, and moreover, that no intercourse therewith
has been held by the Chepangs for time out of mind,

tribes
and Ne-
we must
and nations were,
still
when
known that
in those days
so to speak, in their transitional state, it is well
the tides of mankind flowed and ebbed with a force and intensity comparable
more extraordinary phae-
to nothing in recent times, and capable of explaining far
nomena than
the disruption of the Chepangs, and their being hurried away, like
one of the erratic boulders of geologists, far from the seat of the bulk of their
and people. Indeed, the geological agents of dislocation in the days of pris-
race
tine physical
commotion may throw some
light, in the
ethnological ones during the formative eras of society
way
of analogy,
upon the
and though we have no
cord or tradition of a Lhopa conquest or incursion extending westward, so far
even towards, the great valley of Nepal,

special clan or sept of the Bhiitanese
we may
re-
as,
or
reasonably presume that some
was ejected by an ethnic cataclysm from
the bosom of that nation and driven westward under the ban of its own community alike, and of those with which it came in contact in its miserable migra-
wins not fellowship.

few generations will probably see the total extinction of the Chepangs and Kusiindas, and therefore I apprehend that the traces now saved from
oblivion of these singularly circumstanced and characterized tribes, now for the
tion,
The
first
for misfortune
lapse of a
time named to
dents of ethnology.
Europeans, will
how
high value, as proving
facts of
be deemed very precious by
Their origin, condition and character

tribes
may
all real
are, in truth,
stu-
ethnic
be dislocated and deteriorated
during the great transitional eras of society.
ADDENDUM ON BHUTAN.
Lho
is
the native
are native
names
name
for
Bhutan, and Lhopa and Dukpa (written Briikpa)
for an inhabitant of
Bhutan
the latter, the religious, designation.

the country of Bhutan, and a
Lamaism which
Bhutan
is
a Sanskrit word, and
is
is
the territorial,
one belonging to
Briikpa), a follower of that form of
which has become equally
distinctive
inhabitant of the country, since the people of
for an
Tibet were converted
or
(recti
prevails in Bhutan, and
with the local designation
Bhot
Dukpa
whereof the former
In other words, a Lhopa
to
is
the
new
or
Gehikpa
correctly Bhiitant, or
'
form of that
the end of
Bhot
faith.
'
(in-
clusively), the Brahmans, like the natives, deeming the cisnivean region an integral part of Tibet, which it is ethnographically, though by no means geographically.
Had
Klaproth and Bitter been aware that Lho
is
Bhutan, and Lhopa
THE CIIEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES.

an inhabitant of Bhutan,
we
should not
variety of imaginary regions placed east of
Bhutan and termed Lokabadja,
a sheer variorum series of lingual error, resting on the
and
its
them.
Lok
ing
derivatives of a personal kind, as correctly

Originally,
49
have had their maps disfigured by a
single local
etc.,
name Lho
and incorrectly gathered by
some Bengali rendered Lho by the
to
him
familiar
word
(regio); and then, being unaware that the Tibetan affix bd velpd means 'belongto,'
'inhabitant
of,'
own equivalent
he subjoined to the bd his
and thus was deduced Klaproth's furthest error

one) of Lokabadja.
To
trace an error to its source
an aphorism I add,
repetition,
(I
lest
is
omit
whose mistakes
was possibly misled by Hastings'
letters to
have pointed out.
and from Teshiilungba. *
Bitter are fairly chargeable with constant creation of
synonyma
short of this
way to prevent its

suppose me wanting in
the best
any person should
respect for the eminent persons
of jd (born of),
others
new
regions
I could give a dozen of instances from their splendid maps.
VOCABULARY OF THE LANGUAGE
Klaproth
But he and
out of mere
THE CHEPAN<
THE
52
English.
English.
Chepdng.
Chcp&ng.
Four
Phoi-zho
Piima-zho
A storm
Marhii
A road
LiamT
Five
Mayo
Six
Krvik-zho
Seven
Chana-zho
path
liana
A spring (water)
Tishakwo
Trade
Yinlang
Eight
Prap-zho
Capital
Has
Nine
Taku-zho
Interest
Ten
Gyib-zho
Coin
Cho
Tanka
Half
Robbery
Latilang
The whole
Bakh
Yagur
Theft
Ditto
Some, any
Murder
Jensatang
Many
Kiityalang
None
Blu
Near
Loko
City or town
Berang
Far
Dyangto
Village
Desi
Blind
Horn
RongT
Lame
Mikchangna
Domtonga
Nosa chiil
Nosa mal
Cultivated field
Dumb
Jho
Domanalo
Ivory
Laik
Stupid
Waiva
Honest
Waha pina
Wada pilo
Clean
Bhangto
Dirty
Galto
Strong
Jokto
Dishonest
Great
Bronto
Small
Maito,
Heavy
Lito
Deaf
chul
mayo
Light, (levis)
Weak
Joklo
Good
Bad
Pito
Pilo
Pilo
Tasting
Youngsang*
Ugly
Hunger
Rung
Thirst
Dyangto
Dyting mai
Burha H
Chimo
Kiop
Handsome
Young
Disease
RogH
Old
Medicine
OsaN
Clever
Fever
Aimang
Chingsa
Dysentery
Boarlang
Small-pox
Broni
To stand up
To sleep
To wake
Fear
Rai
Biiisa
Hope
Aphro
Love
Hate
Mharlang
Grief, sorrow
Manbkaning
Yang nang
To give
To take
To lend
To borrow
To buy
Joy
Ghrim nang
Ydmsa
Tyoksa
Lisa
Biiisa
Lisa
Yingsa
Black
Galto
One
Ya-zho**
White
Pkamto
Two
Nhi-zho
T
Sinn-zho T
Green
Phelto
Blue
Galto
Three
and
the participial
Sa I think is the infinitive sign, and
Sa the sign of neuter verbs,
should appear uniformly here. Query
[Zho is evidently the sho number, of the Chinese. J.S.]
*
:
T
T
ting,
'
'
or
other
THE CHEPANG AND

English.
54
List of Chepdng
and
English,
Words
derived
specially the
from
the Tibetan
Bhutanese Dialect of
Language,
it.
5.
A CURSORY NOTICE OP NAYAKOTE
AND OF THE REMARKABLE TRIBES INHABITING
Nayakote, or the Hither Nayakote, as
Nayakote of theChoubisi,
is
the
name
it
often called, to distinguish
is
of a petty
town and
W., seventeen miles from Kathmandii, by the high road

to
speak)
is
IT.
district lying
from
W.
The town
to Gorkha.
N.
(so
upon a spur
the northern extremity of the district,
situated at
it
descending south-westerly from Mount Dhaibung, or Jibjibia, at about a mile distant from the River Trisool on the west, and the same from the River Tadi, or
The town
Surajmatti, on the south and east.
pakka three-storied houses, in the Chinese
consists of
style of
from sixty to a hundred
Kathmandii, chiefly owned by
the court and chiefs; of a durbar, called the upper, to distinguish
one on the banks of the Tc4di
The town forms only
of architecture.
the crest of the ridge, and
is
from the lower
it
to Bhairavi, all in the like style
and of a temple
a single street, lying in an indentation on
consequently not visible from below on any
though
the winter residence of the present dynasty
to the late
war with the English, was
of Nepal
but as the situation of the town
side,
Nayakote, up
the durbar and temple, from being placed higher, are so partially.
bleak and uncomfortable at that
is
and chiefs then usually resided in mansions still standing at

the base of the hill towards the Tadi, but now a good deal dilapidated, like the
town residences, owing to the court having been stationary at Kathmandii since
season, the court
1813.
The district, like the edifices of the great, bears marks of neglect, which
more palpable, by reason of a considerable portion of it being devoted
are the
to gardens and orchards, the property in a great

edifices.
800
The
elevation of the
to 1,000 feet,
and the
side towards the Tadi

vity.
On
town above the
effect of this
by a
fine
measure of the owners of those
level of the
forest of saul-trees
must be from
Trisool
elevation in concealing
it
is
aided on the
occupying the whole decli-
other aspects, the said-trees, inherent to the whole
site,
are reduced to
scrubby brushwood, by perpetual injudicious cutting and defoliation, the leaves

being used as plates to eat from, and being perpetually carried to Kathmandii
for sale there.
This ridge has a
rounded, but broken by deep
soil
ruts
of a deep red clay and its general
and ravines
in
most
directions.
form
is
Towards the
Trisool west, and towards the Tadi south and east, the declivity of the ridge of
Nayakote is precipitous; but towards the junction of the two streams, in a south
westerlv direction, the hill
falls off more
gently, and about 1| mile
below the town
spreads into an undulating plain, which occupies almost the whole space between
the rivers to their junction and the ridge on which the town stands. This tract
may be
represented as a nearly equilateral triangle,
two
of the sides of
which
are
NAYAKOTE AND
56
formed by the
rivers,
ITS TRIBES.
and the third by the

and
clusive of the declining spur of the ridge,
This triangle
ridge.
a plain, ex-
is
an elevated plain, exclusive of that
is
north-easterly angle lying on either side the Tadi, towards and to
with the Sindhu
at the base of
level of the rivers
above that level
Bhalu Danra.
the other parts
junction
on the
is
from one to four hundred feet
are variously
and together they
its
This north-east corner
and body,
constitute the chief part
as it
were, of the valley of Nayakote, the rest or legs (so to speak with some aptness) of
the district being the glens of the Tadi and of the Sindhu as far upwards, res-
tain ridges enclosing the district of Nayakote, as above
with
the
Nayakote ridge
Mandal Nerja (north

(dividing the
The moun-
Likhu and the base of Burmandi.
pectively, as the confluence of the
defined, are, beginning
and circling east back again to \t
itself,
Maha
Bhalu
Burmandi Madanpore, and
of Tadi,) Kabilas (dividing the Tadi and the Likhu),
Likhu and the Sindhu), Dang-mai
or
Ghoor (enclosing the glen of the Sindhu on the south), Belkote (carrying on
the same southern barrier
Ghat but
still
the north
of,
down the Tadi
on the south of the
and
across, the
river),
Devi Ghat), Jhiltoong (below the
to
Jhiltoong on
Thirkiab (opposite to
and Gowri and Samari-bhanjang (running
river),
northerly up the Trisool to the Sanga, or bridge at Khinchat), where
we complete
the circuit by linking the last to the Nayakote ridge, the two in that spot pressing
close
on either bank of a
whole,
in regard to the
level, that fxoin
length
river.
With
regard to
is
body of the
size, if
and
will not be easy to be at once precise
it
district, inclusive of
we
speak of this tract as a
distinct
but
Devi Ghat direct up the Trisool to the Sanga
four miles,
Nayakote from four
by the road
to five miles,
miles
five
we may
observe
the north-east corner on the low

at
Khinchat the
from Devi Ghat to the town of
through the middle of the elevated portion of
the district; from Devi Ghat up the Tadi to
its
junction with the Sindhu, four
miles and the same from the latter point to Khinchat across the base of the
triangle,
trict,
miles
from the Tadi
to [the Trisool
again,
and from the same point up the Tadi to
The maximum breadth
eight miles.
angle just adverted
Khinchat
is
three miles
to,
and here
The mean maximum
four miles.
we
which have been
called the legs
of
is
then, from the base of
Burmandi
to the
merges in the larger one of the Tadi,

;
is
of breadth, however,
should distinguish
at
is
of the district,
Choughora,
we may)
two
miles.
between those
the legs being
The former of these,

the Bhalu ridge, where this glen
apex of
only from two hundred to four hundred
whilst the width of the vale of the Tadi in
is
to
not above
of the Tadi.
which extends lengthwise from the apex of the Bhalu ridge

well
six
at the base of the tri-
by the road from Bhalu Danra
and the body
the Sindhu and
dis-
is
junction with the Likhu,
that of the plateau alone, between the principal river,
the subsidiary vales
yards wide
its
of the entire district
the distance
But, in speaking of breadths especially,

parts
and inclusively of the legs of the
from Devi Ghat to Burmandi, up the glens of the Tadi and the Sindu,
from half to three-quarters of a mile
and, if
that portion of
it
to that of Kabilas
we
distinguish (as
the low tract lying on both banks of the Tadi, between the western
extremity of the two last-named divisions, and the point where the Tadi gets
NAYAKOTE AND
compressed into
ITS TRIBES.
we have
north-east corner just spoken of inclusively,)
some 1,200 yards
in
Nayakote
divisions of
57
mere gully on the upper confines of Belkote (forming the
medium
is
The
breadth.
is,
is
of the sub-
first
two miles; of the second, four miles; of the
All these three are tracts of the same character, that
which
third tract,
length, again, of the
one mile.
third,
they are hot,
swampy
on the level of the streams that water thein, except in the instance
of the glen of the T;idi, which, upon the right bank of the river, possesses a
rice beds
widish strip
of land considerably raised
Maha Mandal and Nayakote
the
where the
to
above the stream, and running under
ridges (where the court
and
chiefs
have houses)
latter spreads into the chief elevated plain of the district
above spoken
That plain cannot be watered from the Trisool or
of.
elevation
and
as the
Nayakote
springs of water, the plain
such plain or plateau
is,
whence
ridge,
condemned
is
it
dependance on
to exclusive
in the language of Nepal, a
of
streamlet, the
its
third, either
The
Sindhu
Tadi Biasi
and Tadi within
it.
first
Sanguni
Every
are, in
the same lan-
the Sindhu Biasi, from the
is
the next the Tadi Biasi, from
also, or
The
of the three
rain.
Tar; whereas the lower and
perpetually waterable tracts, above contra-distinguished,
guage, called Biasi.
Tadi by reason of its
derived, yields no efficient
is
its
river
name
and the
from the conflueuce of the Sindhu
Biasi,
Tar, or chief tract,
is
numerously sub-appellated, as
Pullo Tar, next Devi Ghat; then Manjki Tar; then Bur Tar, next the Nayakote
hill
with various others parallel to these and nearer the
Trisool,
towards which
the plateau in general has a tendency to sink step-wise, though never nearer the
narrow bed of that river than several
deep
are rather
feet,
more wholesome and habitable than the
twenty or more.
Biasis,
These Tars
and capable of more
various culture, though chiefly of trees, since trees alone can flourish deprived of
except
water,
from rain
and
thus
is,
in
dominance of mangoe and other groves over

Tars of Nayakote, which, however lovely at
part,
all
seasons, boast
crops, despite of the high temperature of the place
wet
Biasis too
for spring crops,
valley of Nepal Proper.
The
Nayakote and of Nepal Proper

the
explained the great
no winter or spring
the Tars are too dry, and the
though they be common in the much colder

between the valleys of
difference of temperature
is
occasioned by the difference of elevation above
This difference amounts to 2,250* feet; and the same cause affords
sea.
us also the only apparent, but far from satisfactory, explanation of the
whilst Nayakote
per
is
ley.
free
pre-
of agriculture in the Tar or
fields
from
is
this scourge, all
from March
fact,
that
November, Nepal Proother circumstances being the same in each val-
pestilently malarious
The lowlands of Nayakote, consequently,
to
are but very thinly peopled, the
only permanent dwellers therein being several singular and affined races of men,
called
more
Dahi or Dari, Kumha, Kuswar, Botia, Bhrainu, and Denwar, of whom

and some few Parbattias and Newars. The NeVars build and
hereafter,
dwell solely
on the Tars.
The Parbattias
will not adventure even so far, but
usually have their houses on the hills around, and

* See
Dr.
Campbell's excellent paper, cqnid
hhI
J.
never suffer themselves to
H. and A.
S.
NAYAKOTE AND
58
any part of the lowlands
sleep in
In the Biasis, then, are
houses
Tars, those of the above people,
ITS TRIBES.
night between April and November.

Denwars and their compeers only in the
and of some few Parbattias and Newars also,
for a single
of
but in neither do the clusters of cottages hardly ever reach the
and the dwellings stand
most part
for the
said to contain 700 houses, but I doubt
is
the
town
The
the
even allowing 100 or 150 houses to
it,
of Nayakote contains a juster proportion of clay to silex
soil
the greater valley of Nepal Proper, which
debris of granitic formations
heights around Nayakote
is
more
for the
The
surely, of its celebrated potteries.
are of inferior size, consisting
especially, mostly of iron clay, of very deep red tint

is
and calx than
derived principally from the
and hence we obtain an explanation of the reputed
fertility of the former, and,
the Tars
whole^district
and half the number in either case would probably be nearer the mark.
soil of
eminent
a village
of
size
The
and scanty.
single
on the northern side
and the
superficial soil of
most part the same, the substratum being, however, usually
whence the dryness of their soil is increased.

The soil of the Biasis also is clayey, but untinted luteous white, and where unmixed with silex or other ingredients, even more tenacious than the red clay.
The pottery clays are exclusively of the former sort. Mica, so common in the
gravel,
great valley of Nepal,
admits of most of the
The high temperature
here never witnessed.
is
trees, forest
and
fruit, as
of Nayakote
well as of the superior Cerealia,
of North Behar and the Tarai, being cultivated with success, though they cannot
be raised in the great valley.
Nayakote
has, besides, distinguished products of
own, which are not found, or not found so good, in the plains of Behar
its
these are the orange and the pine-apple.

trict,
The
forest trees peculiar to the dis-
not found in the great valley, and identifying this of Nayakote with the
Tarai and plains, are the Saul (Shorea robusta), Burr and Pipal (Ficus Indica
Religiosa),
lia,
Semal
or Cottontree, Pras,
and other mountain-growths, are
et
Neem, and Mohwa. The Pinus longifofrequently found mixed with these on the
declivities around.
The
chief of the fruit-trees is the
ling into
fruit or
Mangoe
undue
bel,
and
dropsical
dimensions;
the tamarind,
word,
all
following exotics
or
its
many
exotic and
flavour
by swel-
the abir, the jack-
the ordinary fruit-trees of India, none of which,
To
should be added, flourish in the larger valley.
naril
apt to lose
is
the kathur, the badhur, the pukri, the guava, the custard-apple or
sharifa, and, in a
of various sorts,
though the celebrated Bombay mangoe
superior,
grown
we must
in the gardens of Khinchat, belonging to the
cocoanut, supari or
plums of many kinds.
the above
betel, vine, pear,
All but the two
first
it
subjoin the
Government
apple, apricot (native),
and
of these, however, flourish as well,
or better, in the greater valley, being European products.
The smaller
plantains of
horticultural products of
many kinds and
nor peaches.
Nayakote are
pine-apples (excellent),
good, jamans of four sorts, melons, but no grapes
Pines, platains and jamans are denied to the greater valley,
however the orange
that
boast of
Nayakote
flourishes.
The
where
better kinds of
the Nayakote oranges are equal to any in the world, so that our horticulturists in
NAYAKOTE AND
ITS TRIBES.
of
Nayakote resemble
59
The
India should endeavour to procure and propagate them.
agricultural products
in general those of the greater valley of
Nepal Proper; and
as the latter have been fully described in print,* I shall on the present occasion specify only the peculiarities of
annum
Nayakote produce, resulting from
already been observed,
more
its
tropical
that whereas there are
two crops per
in the greater valley, there is only one in the lesser, because
of the excess
It has
climate.
of moisture and want of drainage in the Biasis, and of the total absence of means
of artificial irrigation in the
The
Tars.
which
Biasis yield only rice,
is
not
planted nor reaped at the early periods prevalent in the greater valley, but at the
later ones usual in the
which
is
grown on the
rice has disappeared
middle of October
plains of
Behar
and the
like is true of the
by the beginning of November, and half the crop by the
the untransplanted sorts of Ghaiya even sooner.
the rice-harvest lasts
till
The
rices
In Nayakote
the beginning of December, nay to the middle of that
month, and there are then no means of desiccating the

spring crop.
sugar-cane
In the great valley every blade of
skirts of the Biasis.
grown
enough
fields rapidly
for a
from those grown in
in the Biasis are different
the greater valley, with the exception of Malsi and Touli, and even of these two
sorts there is but
little.
Munsera
the staple crop of Nayakote, and of its
is
several kinds, as Doodia, Gouria, &c.

grain,
It
and longer in the stalk than our
Among
quality.
of a bright golden hue, straw and
is
rices, to
the best of which
the seventeen to twenty sorts of rice
grown
equal in
it is
at Nayakote, are
the Mal-bhog, Krishen-bhog, and other fine descriptions, for which Pillibheet is
None of these last can be raised in the greater valley. The follow-
so famous.
ing are the names of the Nayakote rices
Malsi,
Krishen-bhog,
Touli,
Bairini,
Anandi,
Doodraj,
Charinagari,
Roodra,
Mansera,
Jarasari,
Katonja,
Gouria,
Mal-bhog,
Tharia,
Kala Gouria,
Jhagri,
&c., &c.
The Ook,
or sugar-cane of Nayakote,
is
Isegoon,
incomparably superior
greater valley, and indeed to that of most parts of India.

cipal sorts, fonr of
which are yellowish, and the
dark red.
fifth,
send specimens of these to Calcutta for examination,
Ook
to that of the
There are
is
grown on the
of the Biasis, as well as on the declivities of the hills near them.
On
prin-
five
purpose to
skirts
the Tars, or
plateaux or upper levels, are grown, besides the ordinary rain's produce of similar
sites in the greater valley, the superior sorts
inferior quality, neither of
which can be
of Dall, such as Arher, and cotton of
raised at all in the greater valley.
whole surface of the Tars of Nayakote, a half probably

orchard
a quarter to fields of dry produce
the remaining eighth

* See Dr.
may
an eighth to
is
rice or
be barren.
Campbell's excellent paper, apud.
J.
H. and A.
Of the
devoted to gardens and
S.
wet produce
and
NAYAKOTE AND
60
The genera
mammals and
of
ITS TRIBES.
observed during a hurried
birds
visit,
under
disadvantageous circumstances, were Nemorhedus (Ghoral), Stylocerus (Ratwa),
Martes (Flavigula), Sciuropterus (Magnificus), Sciurus (Locria),
common
all
to
the greater valley; Corvus, Pastor, Coracias, Alauda, Anthus, Motacilla, Budytes,
Pyrgita, Phoenicura, Saxicola, Phcenicornis,
Dicrurus,
Muscicapa,
Tichodroma
(Muraria), Picus, Palceornis, Clorhynchus,* Totanus Tringa, EgTetta, Ana?, Querquedula, Carbo, Mergus,
Turtur,
Euplocomus, Gallus, (Jungle-cock, Bankiva,)
Of
Choetopus, Perdix, Coturnix, Hemipodius.

ornis,
unknown
yakote
rest,
Carbo and Mergus,
as
also
unknown
the species, as well as genera, are those
there,
common
creeper of Europe, supposed to be confined thereto,
The commerce and manufactures of Nayakote

specific notice
but in the cold season, in
ber
who
March
to
by
exchanging grain
its
The wall-
to both districts.
is
Na-
For the
larger rivers.
frequent in both.
are too inconsiderable to claim
traders and craftsmen from the
reside there for the four coldest
inclusive),
do
as in all other smaller valleys of
this,
are erected on the riverside
Nepal, booths
great valley,
and Palce-
these, Gallus, Coracias,
to the greater valley, proclaim the qtiasi-Indmn climate of
and salubrious months (Decem-
rock salt with the Bhotias, both
for
Cis and Trans-Himalayan, dyeing the home-spun cloths of the neighbouring hill
with the madder supplied by them and the indigo of Tirhoot, and tinker-
tribes
ing and pedlaring, and huckstering, for the
assembly collected at
this petty
sort of fair.
It has been already observed, that the inhabitants of Nayakote consist of several
Both the
peculiar races, besides the ordinary Parbattia tribes and the Newar.
latter
have been described elsewhere,
to a short notice of the former, or
Kumha.
the
little
Denwar, Dari, Kuswar, Botia, Bhramu, and
wit they have in cunning evasion of

affecting to be
tending
to
tively
myself in this place
These tribes are exceedingly ignorant, and moreover are disposed to use
history,
faces,
I shall therefore confine
all
enquiry into their origin and
hill-men, employing the Parbattia language,
have forgotten their father-land and speech.
with reference
to the Tartaric type)
and pre-
In their (compara-
dark-hued skins, slender forms, oval
elevated features, and peculiar dialect, barbarous jjatois as the last
may perhaps be
certainly do not
traced the apparent signs of a Southern origin.
all, if
now is
men
These
any, belong to the ordinary or dominant Tartaric stock of
the mountaineers of Nepal, but either to the ordinary stock of the Indian population (Indo-Germanic) or to
some of those fragmentous branches of
and there represent a preceding Turanian race or

Urauns, Gonds, Bhils across the
races, as
it,
which still here
the lids,
Mundas,
Ganges, and the Tharus and Boksas of the
Nepalese Tarai. Between the last-mentioned and the Denwars in particular, a distinct affinity
Tharu
may
be traced
but to verify and illustrate this affinity through
helps, is as little feasible, as to
do
it
through Denwar ones ; and I shall
only therefore venture to say at present, that whether the Tharus of the Tarai,
and the Denwars and their compeer cultivators of Nayakote, and of other simi* lbidorhynchus.
Gould.
NAYAKOTE AND
lar
low and malarious
tracts within
ITS TRIBES.
the
hills
many
(for in
they are
others
found), belong to the aboriginal or to the ordinary stock of Indian population,
they are closely connected among themselves, separate from the dominant Tartar
breeds of the mountains, and possibly emigants from the plains countless generations back.*
The K us war, Botia, Kumha (not own name), Bhramu, Denwar, and Dari or
Dahi inhabit with impunity the lowest and hottest valleys of Nepal, just as the
Tharus,
etc.
do the Tarai, and
Miindas and Uraons of Chota Nagpore,
the
also,
but as recent servants and settlers merely, in the case of the
who are chiefly

now before us, in
not known to be the
last
two,
mentioned here, because of their participating with the races

that singular immunity from malarious affection, which
is
attribute of any other people whatever.
Wherever malaria rages from March

hills, there the Den wars,
within the
to
November, beyond the Said
dwell, and dwell exclusively, sometimes collected in small villages,
scattered cottages, comfortably built of
unhewn
more usually
stone, or wattles laid over
plaister,
and furnished with a pent and overhung roof of grass or
which
verandahed towards the
turists,
is
They
the second, they are very expert
ticular being
renowned
for their
able craftsmen in that kind,
These races of men
it
may
and of settlement within the
all
straw,
avocations of agricul-
these crafts, and
more
es-
in the vicinity of
the very
the great valley produces.
among
themselves,
which
is
apt to
make a
possibly indicate different periods of immioTation

hills,
or immigrations from different places.
general, the five tribes or races will not intermarry
among
any of the races around them; and they allege that their
were, and customs are, distinct.
rice
in
with
the Kiimhas of Nayakote in par-
workmanship even
whom
affect a distinctness
stranger smile, though
follow the
and ferrymen, and at
potters, fishermen,
pecially at
east.
and
forest
and Man) his
Daris, Bhramiis, Kiimhas,
But they
uage, and call themselves Hindus,
all
now commonly
In
themselves, nor with
languages
use the
(dialects)
Khas lang-
though they neither believe in the
sacred
* I have, since this was written (sixteen years back), obtained samples of the languages
of most of the above named tribes, which I am thus enabled to class with the broken
Turanian tribes of the Himalaya, inclusive of its Tarai. These tribes, by their com] dex
languages and altered physical type, form most interesting links between the Himalayan
normal or unbroken tribes, as well as their confreres beyond the snows, and the
broken and unbroken tribes of the Turanian stock in Central and Southern India,
viz. the Dravirians or Tamulians and the Miindas, Hos, and Sontals.
I cannot subscribe to Midler's or Logan's doctrine of a separate Gangetic sub-family of Turanians,
nor to that of a separate Lohitic sub-family. Very remotely divided times of Turanian immigration may be conceded, but not totally sundered routes, and still less such
broad distinctions of race among the immigrants as seem to be contended for.
The
hundred gates of Himalaya were ever open to admit immigrants, and the population
beyond the snows has been in all time one and the same, or Turanian with subordinate distinctions equally found beyond and within the Himalaya.
It may be that
the Ugric stock of the immigrants found their way into India by rounding the N.W.
But there are closely allied Turkic tribes in Central Himaextremity of the Himalaya.
laya, which certainly entered by the Himalayan Ghats, e.g. the Kuswar and Botia.
(not Bhdtia).
This is a Khas term and includes with the tribes of which the proper and separate
names are Kuswar and Botia ^not Bhotia or Tibetan).
'
NAYAKOTE AND
62
nor accept the sacerdotal
scriptures of the Hindus,
With
ITS TE1BES.
a general remembrance
of the Brahnians.
offices
manners and customs, they have some
of
trivial
diversities of usage, as follows.
Mdnjhis*
Their
priests are
the old
men
of the tribe
making burnt and
in
other offerings to their deities, they use no sacred or other words or prayers.
On
account of births, they are impure for four days: they cut the navel on the day
of birth, and four days afterwards make a feast.
forteen days, but under
lasts
stress of business,
On account of deatbs, the
impurity
one day's observance will suffice
the moment, so that the other nine are observed afterwards.
at
Denwdrs.
They allege that
they came
from the Western
are their daughters' husbands and sisters' sons.
ten
but
clays,
and the same
rice, if it
service.
sing.
it
lasts for
they will not eat pulse dressed by Brahmans,
but they will not eat
last;
it
rice dressed
or not, but will eat other things of
by Brahmans,
Brahman's dres-
of the five races has any written language or characters
investigation of their
common
ginal races inhabiting other

of India,t might
their
their priests
They sometimes enter into trade and

it, they will.
Kumhd, Bhrdmu, have a general resemblance of manners
have ghee in
None
have ghee in
DaJii vel Dari,
and customs with the

whether
at deaths
hills
Impurity at births
still
but the
connection, and of their affinity with other abori-
more or
less
secluded localities thronghout the plains
be managed, through their speech, their physical attributes,
manners and customs,
by any means be charmed
if
the Argus jealousy of the Nepal
into a
Government could
more discriminating use of Chinese maxims of
foreign policy.
RIVERS FALLING- WITHIN THE ABOVE LIMITS.

1.
The
Sindhu\\ rises
from Sindubhanjung, an
off-set
from Mount Manichur,
or the most eastern part of Sivapoor, the northern barrier of the greater valley.
a course of about fifteen miles almost due west behind, or to
The Sindhu has
* Divided in Kuswar and Botia, which are the proper tribe names.
Manjhi refers
only to tbeir profession as fishermen, and is a name imposed by the Khas.
These purely arbitrary customs may serve hereafter as helps in tracing the affinity of
these and other semi-barbarous races throughout the mountains and hills of the Indian
Continent, the disjecta membra of its original population.
The Dadhi or Dahi, Kumha (not own name), Kuswar, Botia (not Bhotia), Denwar,
Boksa, Tharu, have tongues which are now almost merged in Hindi, though still retain
ingsome structural traits of Turanian origin, .g., the Kuswar with its conjunct pronoun suffixed to uonn and verb in the Turkic way. The Bhramu (who are allied to
the Dadhi) like the Hayu, the Chepang, and the Kusunda of the hills, have tongues of
purely Turanian character still.
a
Kuswar supra
Thatha-im-ik-an 'I strike.'
Bdba-im 'my father.'
Thatha-ir-ik-an 'thou strike.'
Baba-ir thy father.'
ThatM ik-an 'he strike.'
Baba-ik his father.
Ik, the transitive verb sign.
It is the conjunct form of the third pronoun.
t See a paper on the Nilgirians, in a recent number of the Asiatic Society's Journal.
Sindhu, a petty feeder only of Upper Likhu, rises at a village of Sindhu, soon merged in Likhu. The Sindhuria is separate and rises from eastern end of Bhalu
Danra, where it links on to Burmandi. Tbwrakhola, from Kahulia, joins at base of Burmandi, and botrf flow about four miles to the Tadi. The stream spoken of as No. 1
The Likhu and Sindhu are one in all
is therefore the Sindhuria as now defined.
the limits noted, or rather the Sindhu is nothing.
3,
'
'
||
NAYAKOTE AND
the north
ITS TRIBES.
63
Sivapoor and Burniandi, through a narrow
of,
which
fertile glen,
is
somewhat interrupted by the projection of the base of Burniandi, where the

main road from Kathmandii runs. Above this point the glen often bears the name
of Tansen
the river is a mere streamlet, drawing half its water moreover from
;
Powah
the west aspect of Burniandi, below the Resident's
Ghur Ghat, being
into the Tadi at Narain, or
or bungalow.
It falls
divided from the Likhu by Bhalu
Danra, or the Bear's Ridge.

2.
The Likhu,
somewhat
larger stream than the Sindhu, parallel
the north, and separated from
it
the Kabilas ridge, which divides
Likhu, though
it
still
The Likhu
more.
ghora, four miles above the lower Durbar of
is
The
into the Tadi at
Nayakote.
its
lower part.
It is
not
Tadi, classically styled Suryavati, from its taking its rise at Suryakiind,
Gosain-than,
Fount which,
is
thrown
off
towards the west, by the
and which
is
most easterly of the twenty-two
in the
towards the
loftiest of
east, as is the Trisool
snowy peaks
the
lakes of
little
from the same point
in the region of Nepal Pro-
consequently the point of divergency of the nearest seven Gan-
daks on the one hand, and of the seven Cosis on the other.
at first put off in
though
Chou-
Its glen is cultivated
the Tadi.
size of
or the Sun's
per,
of the
about double the size of
it falls
throughout, and has an average width of 300 yards in
3.
on
to it
from above
that of the Sindhu, yet radiates towards
Sindhu, and has a course of perhaps twenty miles;
a third the
rises
The course
from the Tadi on the north.
in general parallel to
the north, as the Tadi does
The Likhu
by Bhalu Danra.
an easterly direction,
The
Tadi, however,
drawn round westerly
is
to
mingle
with the seven Gandaks, instead of joining the proximate Milamchi and Indhani,
or
first
feeders of the
Sun
by a
Cosi,
large ridge running south from Gosain-than
nearly to Sivapoor, and putting off laterally towards the west the inferior ridges
of Kabilas and Nerja, which separate the rivers Likhu and Tadi in
and
The Tadi proceeding
parallel courses.
the west by the great ridge just mentioned.
Ghat, where
and the
on the
Nerja.
rest
left
it
merges iu the
W. S. W.
In
its
The whole course
may be
Trisool,
all
their lower
at first easterly is gradually bent to
of the river to
thirty miles, ten east
lower course, before reaching Nayakote,
Devi
and south,
bounded
it is
bank by the narrow ridge of Kabilas, and on the right by that of
It receives the
Likhu
at
Choughora, four
Durbar of Nayakote, and the Sindhu,

In the rest of
its
at
miles'
above, or east
Narain Ghat, opposite
course of about four miles
W.S.W.
of,
the lower
Durbar.
to that
to Devi Ghat, it confines the
great Tar or plateau of Nayakote on the south, just as the Trisool does no the
north.
two
is
At Narain Ghat^the Tadi
feet deep.
It is
but
little
in
December
is
wide and
thirty to forty yards
wider or deeper at Devi Ghat, and consequently
not a tenth of the size of the Trisool, which at the Sunga of Khinchat
six yards broad and
cultivated
twenty-two and a half
throughout
nearly,
and
in
its
feet deep.
The glen
uppermost parts
is
is
thirty-
of the Tadi
said
not to
is
be
malarious.
4.
The
Trisool,
or
most easterly of the seven Gandaks of Nepal,
rises
the principal uf the twenty-two Kunds, or lakelets (pools) of Gosainthan.
from
These
NAYAKOTE AND
64
occupy a
lakelets
fiat
10,000 feet high, and
summit
lies
of considerable extent, that cannot be less than
immediately below the unrivalled peak variously called
The
Nilkant, Gosain-than, and Dkawalagiri.*

sain-than,
probably a mile in
is
snow, issues by three principal

or Trisool Gandaki.
Trisool,
fifteen miles,
ITS TRIBES.
name
the
it,
from the perennial
Trisoolt), tha
due west almost
Its course is at first
Go-
especially called
close behind
(hence
clefts
more
lake,
and
circuit,
for
River
perhaps
but then turns S.S.W., running in that direction for twenty miles,
and more, to Devi Ghat.
It is a
deep blue, arrowy, beautiful stream, conducting
not only the pilgrim to Gosain-than, but the trader and traveller to Tibet; the
road to Kerung in Tibet striking off from the river where
it
bends (as yon as-
cend) to the east, and the town itself of Kerung being visible from Gosain-than
in clear weather,
at the distance
of perhaps thirty
miles.
The
Trisool, four
miles above Nayakote, receives the Betravati at Dhaibung, from the N.E.
is
It
a petty stream, not having a course above fifteen miles from one of the re-
silient
angles or bosoms of
Mount Dhaibung
or Jibjibia, the continuation of
ridge towards the west, and across the Trisool,
is
Latter ridge conducts another feeder into the Trisool
Salankhu, of about the same
Salima ridge
is
size
into the
from the
with the Betravati.
N.W.
This
called the
Considerably south of the
the ridge called Samribhanjang, whence flows a third and
Trisool from the
north-west,
Sunga or suspension bridge of Khinchat.
The
a deep
bed.
rills for
occasional cultivation,
heights, however, on one
which
Dhaibung (Dayabhang), a considerable
is
or
it-
a mile to a mile below the
half
valley of the Trisool
row, and without any Biasi or plain on the level of
The
still
named the Samri Khola, which disembogues
smaller feeder of the Trisool,

self
which
called Sdlima Bhdrsia.
its
both
is
nar-
waters, which flow in

sides,
supply numerous
maintained as far up as ten miles above
where the ordinary Parbattia popuCis-Himalayan Bhopassed by a ferry most jealousy guarded;
village,
lation begins to yield to the race called Kachar-Bhotias, or
At Devi Ghat
tias.
nor
is
the River Trisool
is
the river thence to Devi Ghat permitted to be used for any sort of trans-
port, nor
may help
even
for the floating of timber,
the prohibition.
into the Trisool
though the rapids (there are no cataracts)
few miles below Devi Ghat, the streamlets poured
by the glen of Dhiinibyasi,
afford
much
better access to the
great valley of Nepal, by the route of Trisool, than that which follows that river
to
Nayakote and thence leads over Burmandi.
These
latter routes issue into
the
great valley at Thankoto and at Ichangu Narain.
* Nilkant and Gosain-than may be called proper names of this great snow mass.
Dhoulagiri is rather a descriptive epithet, equivalent to Mont Blanc and Lebanon,
and its application to this peak is up advisable, because it has now become the settled
name of the next great peak to the west of Gosain-than.
+ The legend of the place states that Maha Deva went to the snow to cool his throat,
which had been burnt by swallowing the kalkut poison, which appearing at the churning of the ocean, threatened to consume the world.
Maha Deva is called "blue throat,'*
from the injury he sustained. He produced the river by striking his Trisool into the
snows.
5.
(HORYEUL AND SOKYEUL)
ON THE TRIBES OP NORTHERN TIBET.

AND OF SIFAN.
now submit my promised Sifan and Horsok vocabularies, with such geomay tend to render them more easily and fully appre-
graphic illustrations as
ciable.
have retained these vocabularies
I intended to
my
had completed
till I
ending investigation of the grammar of the Gyaning and Horpa tongues.
But
the high interest attaching to the discovery of another surprising instance
made
the wide-spreading relations of these tongues,

gation,
and which discovery
sufficiently
is
of
in the course of that investi-
verifiable
even by the vocabularies,
though by no means limited to their evidence, together with the bearings of these
vocabularies upon
my two
sending of them.
them up, by and bye, by the proposed grammatimeanwhile

there is abundant matter for the present
In the
cal
last
communications, induces
me
not to
postpone the
I can follow
elucidations.
communication in such a statement
as I
now
propose giving of the present dis-
covery, in some general remarks on the characteristics of the vast group of tongues
to
which the vocabularies, now and
now
Nor do
in question.
and in some des-
priorly submitted, belong,
criptions of the physical attributes of the almost
unknown
races
more immediately
apprehend that the want of the grammatical details
adverted to will materially impair the interest of the present communication,

since I have anticipated so
tion
by samples
ciable without those details,
of tongues, I have
much on
make the
as to
way
of practical exposi-
discovery I announce perfectly appre-
which, moreover, speaking generally of this vast group
shown reasons
to be held both pkilologically
This series of vocabularies

ing and untrodden.
that head in the
special
is
for
deeming
less
important than they are wont
and ethnologically.
entirely
my own work
in a region equally interest-
It consists of seven languages, viz., the
Trochu, the Sokpa, the
Gyami, the Gyaning, the Horpa, the Takpa, and the Manyak
and so novel
is
a deal of the matter, that it will be necessary to explain at once what these
terms mean, and to shew where the races of men are to be found speaking these
tongues.
Horsok
is
designate the noinades
compound Tibetan word, by which the people
who occupy
of Tibet
the whole northern part of their country, or
that lying beyond the Nyenckhen-thangla* range of mountains, and between
it
* This important feature of the geography of Tibet is indicated by the Nian-tsinI have, following native
tangla of Hitter's Hoch Asien and by the Tank of Hue.
authority, used in a wide sense a name which those writers use in a contracted *ense;
and reasonably, because the extension, continuity, and haight of the chain are indubitable. Nevertheless, Bitter and Guyon have no warrant for cutting off from Tibet
the country beyond it up to the Kuenlun, nor are Katche and Khor, the names they
Khor, equal
give to the country beyond, admissible or recognized geographic terms.
Kor, is purely ethnic, aiid Katche is a corruption of Khachhen or Mahomedan, liter-
ally Big-mouth.
Ill
TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET.
66
and the Kwanleun or Kuenlun chain.

of the Ilor or
means
to
Horpa and the Sok
learn, is led
general, to
Horsok designates the two
whom,
name at
or Sokpa, neither of
by the possession
of a native
of Little Bukharia
will soon be
it
The Horpa occupy
fail not.
or Northern Tibet
the western half of the region above defined,
have
once familiar and
eschew the Tibetan appellations as foreign; though
seen that they are really so, if our identifications
distinct races
far as I
so
and
also a deal
and of Songaria, where they are denominated Kao-tse by the
Chinese, and Ighiirs (as would seem) by themselves.
The Sokpa occupy the
eastern half of Northern Tibet as above defined, and also
by Europeans
the wide adjacent country usually called Kkokkoniir and TaDgiit
bur by the Tibetans, Sokyeul or Sok-land.

In Southern Tibet, or
Tibet south of the Nyenchhen-thangla chain, there are
numerous scattered Horpas and Sokpas,

Northern Tibet
as there are
of the Himalaya and the Kuenlun,
many
mountain
but, in general, that great
may be
scattered Bodpas in
worthy
chain, the
said to divide the
rival
nomadic Horpas
Though the major

among the Horpas and
and Sokpas from the non-nomadic Bodpas or Tibetans proper.

part be Buddhists, yet are there some followers of Islam
Sokpas of Tibet
more beyond the Tibetan
by the Tibetans, of which word
The
Islamites are also called Godkar, of
are all styled
Chinese Kao-tse
Cunningham's ingenious interpretation
despite
They
limits.
I think the
is
Khachhen
a mere corruption,
of Kao-tse.
which term again Klaproth's Thogar
seems to be metamorphosis.
Between the Horpa and Sokpa,
also,
numerous "Kazzfik"
vel Jagpa,
races,
who
in the
central
part of Northern Tibet, are
Brogpa whose vocables I have as yet
the Drokpa* vel
or
mounted robber bands,
styled
recruit their formidable association from
failed to obtain;
and
by the Tibetans Chakpa

any of the neighbouring
but especially from the Bodpa (Tibetans proper), the Horpa, the Sokpa,
and the Drokpa.
The language
also
of the
Chakpa
mixed
of their very
is
the ordinary Tibetan, and therefore, and because
lineage, they are of little ethnic importance,
though
always cited by the Tibetans, with fear and trembling, as a separate element of
their population.
their
own
limits,
The predatory
habits of the
Chakpa
them beyond
often carry
and they and the erratic Drokpa are often seen in Nari, where
Gerrard and Cunningham speak of them under the designations of Dzakpa and of
Dokpa.
I doubt the ethnic independence of both,
associations,
composed of people of the above
and believe them
specified races,
to be
mixed
from among which
the Horpa or Turks contribute an element even to the Himalayan population of

Kanawer, as is proved by the infinitives in " mak " of the Taburskad tongue.
From Khokhonur
to
Yunnan, the conterminous
frontier of
China and Tibet,
successively and continuously occupied (going from north to south)
above spoken of; by the Amdoans,
who
for the
most part now speak Tibetan
* Quite distinct from the Diikpa vel Brukpa of Bhutan.

tinction of the written from the spoken word.
The
'
vel
'
is
by the Sokpa
;
by
indicates the dis-

the Thochii
subjoined
by the Gyariing
6j
and by the Manyak, whose vocabularies are
all
whilst returning back westward, along the " pente septentrionale" of
we
the Himalaya,
have, after passing through the
Kham
districts of
Chyarung
and Kwonibo, the region of the Takpas, or Takyeul, styledf Dakpo by Bitter,
who, however, places it east of Kwombo, whereas it lies west of that district,
Combo by him. The Brahmaputra or Yard quits Tibet in the district of

Kwombo, as he states.
Takyeul, the Towang Raj of the English, is a dependency of Lhasa. Its civil
administrator is the Ckonajiing-peun
its ecclesiastic head, the Tamba Lama,
written
whence our Towang.
The people
Amdo,
of Sokyeul, of
of Thochii, of Gyariing, and of
are under chiefs of their own, styled
the Chinese the
common
of the special tribe of Gyariing,
tial
or King, Siniee
them Gyariingbo, from the
which reckons eighteen
Manyak, who
Wang,
designation of Sifan or Western aliens
frequently denominate the whole of
sufficient, in
Gyabo
among
bear
and the Tibetans
superior importance
chiefs or banners, of
power
days of yore, often to have successfully resisted or assailed the Celes-
Empire, though
for some time past quietly submitting to a mere nominal depenThe word Gya, in the language of Tibet, is equivalent to that of
dency on China.
Fan
language of China;
(alienus,* barbaros) in the
and, as rung means, in the
former tongue, proper or special, Gyariing signifies alien par
excellence,
name
of
peculiar usefulness in designating the whole of these Eastern borderers, in order

to discriminate
Kham.
them from the
rung the same
as tiing in
Chinese, though
the
and approximate, but yet
affined
Bodpa
distinct,
of
Others affirm that Gyariing means wild, rude, primitive Gyaa, making
the
Myamma
latter
be
and that the typical Gyas (Gyaini) are

usually designated
specially black
Gyas
(Gya-nak).
The Gyariings themselves have no general name

very
common
case.
When
country or people, a
for their
submit the interesting itinerary
I possess of
journey from Kathmandii to Pekin, I shall more particularly notice the topo-
graphy of Sifan.
At
present
it
will be sufficient to add that this country,
extends from the Blue Sea to Yunnan, with a
very unequal
from several days' march to only two or three, forms a rugged mountainous
vity from the lofty plateau of
Kham
to the
which
width, varying
decli-
low plain of Szchuen, and which
is
by those who well know both, to the Indian declivity of the Himathe mountains being for the most part free from snow, and the climate
assimilated
laya,
much more temperate than

of Sifan are
Gyaini,
laries
who
the
Takpa,
that of Tibet.
who
are
Within
this
are consequently Chinese, as will be seen
vocabularies, not
of languages well
mountainous belt or barrier
consequently Tibetans
witJiout
the less valuable for being dialects merely
known, because the
it
are the
by their respective vocabu-
dialectic differences of the
(if
no more)
Chinese and the
should add that Ritter's Gakpo and Gangpo, and Dakpo, are not three separate
but merely various utterances of the single word Takpa, and no more admissible
therefore than his Katehc and Khor before explained.
This great geographer is rather
too prone to give a "local habitation" to the airy nothings of the polyglottic region, as 1 have formerly had occasion to point out, though no one can more admire than
1 do his immense learning ana the talent that guides and animates it.
places,
68
Tibetan tongues are
understood, at the same time that they are very im-
little
the alleged distinctness of the great groups of
portant for enabling us to test
people nearest allied to these divisions.
apprehend that the true characteristics of the Chinese and Tibetan

languages have been a good deal obscured by bookmen,* native and European
and, though it be somewhat premature to venture an opinion before I have com-
For
my part
pleted
my
pending investigation of the Gyariing and Horpa tongues, I still

T suspect few competent judges will rise from the attentive study
must say that

of this and
my two
prior series of vocabularies, with out feeling a conviction that
the Indo-Chinese, the Chinese, the Tibetans, and
broadly contra-distinguished, and

family,
that
they form
which moreover includes what are usually
and the Kol and
Munda
the Altaians, have

fact
in
called the
been too
but one great ethnic
Tamulian or Dravidian
elements! of Indian population, as well as nearly every
element of the population of Oceania.

* Hence Gya, philing, or Frankish stranger.
European foreigner is the name for
Europeans in Tibet. Philing = Frank, Indice Feringi, not as interpreted by M. Hue.
Others hold that there
Leyden reckoned ten Chinese tongues (As. Res., X. 266).
Again, Remusat (Rccherchcs sur les langues Tartares) insisted that there
is but one.
must be several tongues in Tibet, whereas Csoma de Koros (Journal No. 4) considers
This comes in part of the want of a standard of ethnic unity,
that there is but one.
whether lingual or physical, and in part of the mixture of distinct races by regarding
them under a large geographic and political unity, thus the Horsok belong undoubtedly
I have given, I believe, all the lanto Tibet, but do not belong to the Bodpa race.
guages of Tibet, that is, the languages of all the races now and long settled in Tibet.
My Gyami vocables exhibit a vast difference from the Kong one of Leyden, tit supra.
,But I do not rely on mine, nor have I means to test it.
* A deal of Csoma's abundant grammatical apparatus of the Tibetan tongue is positively repudiated by the people of Tibet, whilst the learned and sage Remusat teaches
us to question the over-strained aud unintelligible assertions about the monosyllabisna
and
of the Chinese tongue, as if there were no dissyllables, no adjuncts to the roots
For some valuas if the roots of Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Arabic were not monosyllables.
les
langues
Tartares,
i.
351-4, and
able remarks on mouosyllabisin, see Eecherches sur
compare wdiat occurs in the sequel as to the monosyllabic polysyllabism (different asGyarung
Thus
in
the
xo
and
root
becomes
ring
Tagala.
pects of the case) of Gya
Masazangti by mere cumulation of particles, ma, sa, za, ang, and ti.
+ For some proofs of the reality of this element, see a paper on the Nilgirians in a
Adverting to recent denials, it may be worth
recent number of the A static Society.
while to give here a Himalayan sample of Dravirianism from the Kiranti language
!
>
Wa popo, my
J'popo, thy
A' popo, his
Pog-u, I
Pog-i, thou
Pog-d, he
Wd
uncle.
'
my
gu,
I'gu, thy
A'gu, his
Teub-tl, I
Teub-i, thou
beget.
Teub-d, he
'
hand.
'
>
strike.
'
of the verb, for which the Ho and Sontal tongues

shall shortly have to produce some still more perfect samples from
In the paper referred to, I have demonstrated the lorthcomingthe Central Himalaya.
ness also of the Turkic, viz., Kuswar tongue which has conjunct contracted prououn
suffixed to noun and to verb, and Mantehuric elements in the languages of Himalaya.
Of that complex pronomenalization

are so remarkable,
X The elder oceanic element, or Alforian, = our Tamulian aud the analogous dispersed
and .subdued tribes of the Himalaya, Indo-China, and China: the younger oceanic
element, or Malayo-polynesian, =-the now dominant tribes of Indo-China, China, Tibet,
and Himalaya. I must content myself, at present, with pointing to the special illustration of the latter part of this reunion of the continental and insular races in the sequel,
though every proof of the wide common domain of the continentals is also an illustration, inferential, yet clear, of
both parts of
it.
My
allied
former vocabularies showed
how
with the Himalayan and Tibetan by identity of
and even of entire words,
as the integral results of
former, provided only that the comparison be
roots, of servile particles,
the combination of the two
drawn from a
field large
secondary parts of words, in use for ages
How
extremely segregated, races.
among widely
sundered, and often also
large that range of admitted mutation
have illustrated by examples in the note appended to the present

laries,
enough
the necessary range of admitted mutation, both in the primary and
exhibit
to
69
intimately the Indo-Chinese tongues are
series of
is,
vocabu-
and I recommend those who would properly appreciate the great apparent
which is, as I suppose, one and the same, to
deviations from a type of language,
take good heed of
what
there instanced.
is
In the meanwhile, without fatiguing
the reader with more analyses at present, I proceed to remark that the analogies
and
affinities indicated by the last series of vocabularies between the Himalayan

and Tibetan tongues on one hand, and the Indo-Chinese on the other, are carried
on and confirmed by some of the present series, whilst others extend the links to
the Altaic group of languages; the Gyariing, Takpa, and
transmitting
Manyak
carrying the chain
onwards from the south-east, and the Tkoehii, Horpa, and Sokpa,
of connexion
it
over the
Kwanleun
to the north
and west; the Gyariing by
its
grammatical structure exhibiting also marvellous correspondencies with remoter

regions; with Caucasus, as has been separately
shown
now submitted may
languages
am
already, and with Oceania,
How
as will appear in the sequel of this communication.
participate these express
far precisely the
other
and peculiar features of
But the whole
them
cer-
tainly exhibit a great general resemblance in the broader traits of syntactic,*
and
grammatical
affinity, I
not yet prepared to say.
In a word, they are evidently
yet a greater in those of etymological, construction.
members
of
vastness of
that single and vast family of languages, the singleness and
which
3/y7.
the
I conceive to be justly inferrible even from its vocables
because of the similarity of the roots;

viles
of
1st,
2nd. because of the similarity of ser-
because of the similar principles governing the uses and the mutations
of both, and the consequent composition and the character of the integral words,
which exhibit an
essential identity in
due allowance
synonymous changes
for
ential changes in their serviles within
numberless terms of prime necessity, after

in their roots
known
and
limits
for
euphonic and
differ-
and upon a demonstrably
single plan.
I
infer that
ever striking at
the differences characterizing this vast family of languages,

first sight,
are subordinate, because
amined upon a broad enough

sensible gradations.
Such
when
scale, these differences are seen to pass
as they are, they arise
from
how-
the languages are ex-
1st,
away by
in-
a greater or lesser
use of the pre-fixed, in-fixed, and post-fixed particles, amounting to nearly con* I may instance the universal substitution of continuative gerunds and participles
in lieu of conjunctions and of conjunctive (relative) pronouns, because this feature has
been supposed to he specially characteristic of the Altaic group. It is no more so than
the vocalic harmony of Turki, or than the inverted style and tonic system of the IndoChinese tongues. These appear to me to be blending differences of degree only, not absolute differences of kind,
and
to have been used to sever
jj
unduly the several groups.
JO
employment of some or all of them in some tongues, and to nearly total

some or all of them in others [The disuse or non-use is often only
stant
disuse of
apparent, for the surplus " silent " letters are really pre-fixes, with a blended, in-
That
stead of a separate utterance.
by identity of function
utterance makes
all
may
this is so
two
(differential) in the
be proved to demonstration
and yet the blended or separate
the difference between monosyllabism and
its opposite,
besides
causing other differences that are apt to conceal the essential identity of words.]
2nd, from a preference by one tongue of the pre-fixes, of the in-fixes by another,
and of the
suffixes
by a third
3rd,
from that transposed position and function of
the primary and secondary part of words (root
and
particle),
these languages eminently obscurative of identities in
pare 'overleap' and 'leap over
fresh evidence of the
with
my
[com-
chiefly as to our verbs, holds
good
faintly distinguishable, or not at all so.

Abundant
law may be found by comparing Leyden's Indo-Chinese
words are but
of
classes
a law of
is
operation
and nouns of these tongues, wherein indeed the two
as to the verbs
equally
what holds good
;'
which
its partial
Tibeto-Himalayan vocabularies
compare
mimma
and sa-mi, Burmese,
with mi-ad, Newari, root mi; and ma-nek, Burmese, with nyi-md, Tibetan, root
nyi,
'Day, sun, and morning,'
the substitution of
words,
position of
when compared,
reiterated
when
root, for
speak for themselves.] 4th, from
the various meanings of
transcend the differencing power of the particles,
demand
the
is
for
and
a root
an unusually broad distinction
or,
[in
particle in
at all events, not satisfy
Gyaning, the root pye
'bird,'
by the
appli-
so near to the root pe 'father,' that they have been segregated
cation to one of the usual prefix, to the other
root repeated,
might add,
whence
ta-pe 'a father,'
of the iterative
and pye pye 'a
as a fifth cause of difference
the com-
might otherwise
the root
principle, or
san
bird,' for
between these tongues, the
et
pe pe.
different de-
grees in which each employs the tonic or accentual variant, which principle has
be exclusively Chinese and Indo-Chinese,
been most erroneously supposed to
whereas
it
prevails
most in use
that
liarities,
and wide, only more or
and so-called
servile particles
are
far
is,
so that the differential
of
upon one of the
developed
most where the
"empty words"
and equivalent function of
(see Chinese
tones, is placed in a clear light, such as
and of
less
silent letters are least in use; least,
three, viewing
it
separately.*]
Grammar),
all
where they
three pecu-
of "silent letters,"
Reinusat vainly strove to throw

5th,
from the disjunct or con-
junct (elided vowel) method of using the pre-fixed serviles, whence results at
once
all
The
the difference of soft polysyllabism or harsh monosyllabism.
resulting disparities of the vocables are certainly often very marked, as in
the Wa-tii and U-i instance of
by the Malay and Tagala

plained,
itu
Gyaning and
'
and show how congruous
that
all
')
Circassian, (so singularly confirmed
\_I-tii,
Wa-tu, and
U-i
these tongues are at bottom.
are
easily ex-
Few
of
them
* See Eecherchcs sur lee langucs Tartares, p. 355-7, vol. i.

Csoma de Koros strangely
enough says nothing about tones or servile particles, and hence his remarks on the silent
letters want point and significance. The language of Nepal Proper is remarkable for its
numerous tones and its scanty serviles, whether literal or syllabic.

have any proper third pronoun, they use
are
tang,
near or far demonstrative, and repeating

i-ta
Lepcha and Tamil
wrong
Uraon, a son,
for a
as
etc.,
in citing the crude
Arian pa-ter and ma-ter.
woman,
samples of
prefixed
its
Miiller
use.
is,
I think,
normal samples to be opposed to the
as
The
case
the present series of vocabularies, so that
similar
is
it is
with those given
many groups
as virtually to fall under different families.
And,
only because, as far as
end of
at the
no great wonder that the Mongolidan
or Turanian tongues have been referred to
it is
we have
Turanian tongues use the crude forms, and many
use the identical root and servile.]
the family,
Burmese, wa-thi
Lepcha and tandri Tamil, a man, and
ta-gri
pa and ma
Few
equal to
is
i-thi
mere combination of
The
personal.
third
the
is
of Latin ejus to nouns, and thus
ta is prefixed or suffixed, in the sense
tctngkos
vowel thus,
its
and u-ta Khas, wa-tu Circassian, whose u-i
the two demonstratives, either of which
ta-yii
demonstratives, which
as equivalents the
ta, tan,
, or u or w, or wa=u,
a synonym (Ti, di Tibetan, Thi Burmese, etc.) constantly added to the
is
Hayu,
Ta, with or without the nasal ending,
and
so trenchantly separated
strongly to unitise
if I incline so
my investigations
have gone,
able to discern nothing absolute and invariable in the distinctions
have been
which
though
no doubt distinctions proper to the vocables only, and not effecting structural
diagnostics (in the usual narrow sense, for composition of words is structure),
are yet unusually,
inartificial
and
as I conceive decisively important,
grammar
character which belongs to the
owing
to the extremely
some
Not that the
of these tongues, with
apparently borrowed exceptions, such as tbat of the Turkish verbs.
grammatical or the physical evidence of this assumed family identity
with that of the vocables
much
the contrary, as
the latter has unusual relative value.
[I
we
may mention
of this identity, derived from the substantive verb.

in Malay, da in Horpa,
gdnh in Tibetan, dan
in Sontal and mn-a in Tibetan
and Garo, du
in
speak plainlv,
we
words and
by
should say that
more
is
So
also
it
a-da
menu
is
dug in Tibetan, dong in Bodo
is
sentences,
and that the former
sort of putting
always equally, and often more, important than the
so in the
Mongolidan tongues, which are
as
latter.
much distinguished
immensity of nicely discriminated terms, most of them
necessarilg
comsim-
plicity of the contrivances

r See
Myamma,
da in
kam dong in Gyariing.] And, would we

grammar relates equally to the construction of
to the construction of
it is
It is
in Uraon, etc.
it
that
here an interesting sample
and compounds of no unskilful contrivance as by the scantiness and
their
pounds
and again,
conflicts
but
Newari, dong and
together, or syntax,
Certainly,
shall soon see
vocab. voce
by which those terms are held together in sentences.
'give' and 'take.'
Tartar cannot endure that confusion of
the precative, optative, and imperative, which our imperative
mood
exhibits.
But
he remedies the defect not by the multiplication of grammatical forms but by

the use of distinct words or distinct modifications of the same word, thus
1
commands and Davong
toe,
'
so
common
in these
do
'solicits,'
et sic
tongues.
Davo means
Daw
Compare the disjunctive

give him,' Davong give to me,
ceeteris.
'
by the annexed pronouns, and just so in Limbu

Hato, and Hasing, Lepcha, and Newari, which eschew
'
Fire and Pirang, and in

suffixed pronouns,
Vayu
have
72
Bo and
Byn and
Bi,
Ti, for
root, the other using
pi (of pi-re,
pi-rang.*)'}
done in one's
new
that the
two
own day
lights
the respective senses, the former modifying the one
Observe the identity of
distinct roots.
Nay,
we
if
own
for the elucidation of our
bi/u, bo, bi
what has been
look carefully to
we
language,
and
so well
shall discern
have been principally etymological, borrowed from,
thrown
as
upon, the construction and composition of words, not of sentences.
Perhaps
will be urged that, after
it
all,
the structural analogy I have established
between the Gyariing and Circassian tongues belongs rather

Let
than to the syntactic department of languages.

then ask whether the analogy be therefore
lar
less
to the etymological
be granted, and
important
And
is it
would
not singu-
and a proof wherein resides the essential genius and character of these ton-
gues, and
where therefore we
are to seek for their true
my scanty knowledge of the Himalayan and

enable me unhesitatingly to analyse the words of
know
Dini
to
and
closest
relations,
Tibetan group of them should
that
it
the Caucasian group, of
which
nothing, and to pronounce, for instance, Di-di to be a re-duplicate root, and
be a root and servile prefix, with perfect confidence, and, as I doubt not,
with equal accuracy
That will, at
the result be such as I look
for,
all
events, be
known by and
bye, and should
the consequent affinity of the Caucasian and
Mongolian tongues will take an unquestionable shape and stand on the unassailable basis of words similarly constructed in all their parts and similarly employed throughout.
I must,
however, whilst thus insisting on the pre-eminent importance of Mongo-
lidan vocables, freely admit that those of all

entitled to equal confidence,*
pa and Gyaini words

as I hold by,
tion.
am
my
in particular
much
in
want
are, as
of
upon the strength of
who
means
furnished the Sok-
my
informants, moreover, not beyond ques-
of adequate original information respecting the
Altaic group, and of the books that might supply

safely affirm
present series are by no
having been deficient for such analytic dissection
and the competence of
likewise
my
access to the individuals
my
it.
Nevertheless, I think, I
vocabularies, that the
has been already assumed in this paper, no other than the Oelet and
Remusat and Klaproth,t whilst
their confreres, the
may
Sokpo of the Tibetans
Kalmak
Horpa, are almost as
evidently Turkish, the Turkish affinity of the latter being inferred, not only from
the vocables, but from the complex structure of
Horpa verbs and from the
quasi-
* Unfair use has been made of this admission.

The vocabularies, such as they are,
are exceedingly valuable, though perhaps without analysis incapable of supporting such
a towering superstructure of theory as has been raised on them by their impugners.
I I might now add, having just laid
hand on M. Hue's book, the synonym of
Turgot to those of Kalmak and Oelet, but that Turgot, like Durbet, designates only a
tribe of this race, and a tribe whose tribunal denomination, as well as its migration to
the Volga and back to the Hi, had been already stated by Remusat.
M. Hue's
amusing work, in fact, adds nothing to our stores of accurate ethnological knowledge,
his mere assertion, for instance, that the Hiongnu were Huns throwing no fresh light
upon a long debated point, and the nullity of the absolute identity of names in reference to the Sog, teaching us yet more to doubt vaguer identifications of this sort. Let
me add that M. Hue's account of the habits, manners and characters of the several
peoples is capital, and most evidently, accurately, as vividly, delineated.
my
TRIBES OP NORTHERN TJBET.
73
Avian physiognomy of the samples I have seen of the Horpa race.f And thus,
quoad Sokpo, is dissipated the dream of twenty years, during all which time I
have been in vain endeavouring to get access to the Sokpo, assured from the
identity of
names (Sok pronounced Sog), that in the much talked-of people of
Eastern Tibet, I should discover that famous race which gave their appellations
to the Sogdiana
tity
and Sogdorum regio
(or the Indus) of the classics,
and whose iden-
with the Sacte of Indian and Grecian story, whose genuine Arianism and
plendent renown
better assurance
of, I
shall next note a fact as extraordinary almost as that
formed the subject of
my
res-
Reverting to what I have
never permitted myself to doubt.
which
communication to the Society, to wit, that some of
last
Humboldt's characteristics of the Malayo-Polynesian tongues hold good as to the

Gyariing language even more strangely than Rosen's of the Circassian so that we
;
may have
possibly, in the unsophisticated tongue of this primitive race of
taineers, situated centrally
moun-
between the Chinese, the Indo-Chinese, the Tibetans,
and the Altaians, and protected from absorption, assimilation or conquest by their
fastnesses, the main and middle link of that vast chain which unites the insular
and continental nations of the East and the most dispersed scions of the immensely diffused family of the Mongolidoe*
Those who are acquainted with
!
the famous Kavi Sprache (known to
what
when
I mean,
lary, as bearing
me
alas
on the face of
it
know
only at second hand) will
I solicit their attention to the
accompanying Gyariing vocabu-
evidence, that in the Gyariing tongue almost
all
the words in their ordinary! state are dissyllables, whilst I can assert positively
from
my own
knowledge of the language, that the two
into a monosyllabic root
and
its affix,
these features (which by the

accessible to
me
characteristics of
of the
way
may
be resolved
Now
are very noticeable even in the small samples
Circassian tongue)
Humboldt has denoted
the Malayo-Polynesian languages
conspicuous attributes of the
syllables
or into a repeated monosyllabic root.
Gyariing
tongue.
as
special
and they are certainly most
Thus, in the
first
column
of
the Gyariing vocables, there are thirty-five words, whereof not less than thirty-
one are dissyllables and only four monosyllables, and the dissyllables are
all
re-
+ Miiller doubts, but the Tibetans cannot mistake, and with them Hor = Turk
and Sok = Mongol. 1 have failed to get fresh access to these people, which I the
more regret, inasmuch as the name Hor, even to the guttural h and to the omissible
r. tallies exactly with the appellation given by themselves to the
so-called Lerka
See Tickell's narrative and vocabulary.
tribe of Singbkum;
I have elsewhere pointed
out the Turkic affinity of one Himalayan tribe (Kuswar) and the Mantchuric of another
(Vayu or Hayu). See paper on the Nilgirians. (J.A.S.B.) Tibet has been absurdly
isolated by philologers and geographers. The northern half of it actually belongs rather
to the Altaic than to the Bodpa tribes, and hence is called by the latter Horyeul and
I am indebted to the Mundas for the knowledge that Ho is pronounced Klio
Sokyeul.
and Khor, just as it is to the North.
* It may reconcile some of my readers to this startling announcement to hear that there
are historical or traditional grounds for supposing this very region to be the common
nest and original seat of the Chinese and Tibetan races.
See Klaproth's Tail. Histor.
and Mimoires relatifs a VAsie, and Kemusat's Recherches sur les In injurs Tartares.
fl say ordinary state, because, when all the apparatus of composition attaches, they
become polysyllabic. See the sequel, and mark the consequence as to the monosyllabic test.
j.jl
74
solvable into a monosyllabic root and its customary pre-flx (Ta, mutable into
Ka,) save those (Pyepye, Nyenye) that are formed by re-duplication of the radical.
That Pye
by turning
'bird,'
and Nye cow,' are

(
tongue the root
word
or integral
repeated
in these instances
is
is
may
any one
roots,
and Chinese equivalents
to their Tibetan
is
mutable into Ka, both
is
in the
Gyarung
current term
constitute the
to
That, again, in Gyarung, Ta
self-apparent.
almost indespensible prefix, and
prove for himself
and that
the
common and
euphonic
liable to
changes of the vowel, to suit that of the radical, the vocabulary also demonstrates,
any extent by
testably to
urged, as in truth
belongs in essence to
it
did to
that
which
trait,
"
constitution
of
the
if
it
be.
vocables
is
exclusively Gyarung, I have
Few
still
to produce another
what has been deemed the most primitive

shall do so by the following quotation from*
shares with
it
Malayo-Polynesian type; and I

:
above
the
the continental tongues, as Humboldt's sagacity divined
all
dissyllabism being all that
Leyden
And
predecessors of the allied tongues.
be,
the insular ones, the more frequent use of the prefix and consequent
all
Gyarung
its
may
it
languages
present
greater appearance
of
than
originality
Though a multitude of its terms agree precisely with those of the

languages just enumerated (the Western Pobynesian), yet the simple terms are so
metamorphosed by a variety of the most simple contrivances, that it becomes
the Ta-gala.
B.II.H.) for
impossible (difficult
who
a person
understands
all
the original
them individually, or to comprehend the

meaning of the whole. The artifices which it employs are chiefly the pre-fixing
or post-fixing (or in-fixing B.H.H.) to the simple vocables (roots) of certain
words in a
to recognize
sentence
particles (serviles)
which
are again
combined with others; and the complete or
partial repetition of terms in this re-duplication
other particles."
verbs,
is
such
only
among the
among the
when compared with
as,
what
other
however pre-eminently,
may
be again combined with
follows (pp. 211-12)
allied
Yaching,
Next we have
meaning, 'one
who
From
na and
the
root
significant
C/iiny,
ta pre-fix that
vel
Matachm, according
if
etc.
who
* Researches,
slept not,
B.A.S.,
Leyden's
we have
in a past sense,
with
need here be particu-
any other,
The negatives
Matachinti
So from Many,
thou
who
sleepest,
vol. x., p, 209.
he
who
are
of negation displacing the

'to sleep,'
many, Tatarmdny, Matarmdngti, Tatarmeti, MatarmSsi,

slept, I
as
go,'
one's self; and, if
to the person, the particle
indifferently.
of the pre-fixes
'to
Yatachinti, Katachinti, Datachinti, Tatachinti, Natachinti,
goes or went, or the goer,'
then the series becomes Yatachisi, Katachisi,
first
the
Kaching, Docking, Naching, in a present sense,
speciality of sense as to the
larized.
show that
tongues, to
by no means exclusively, Gyaning
[Here are some samples as
of the Ta-gala verbs.
indifferently
are
and Yataching, Kat aching, Dataching, Tataching, Nataching,
some
upon Ta-gala
tongues, any more than they are exclusively Ta-gala
continental
insular ones.
illustrations
as well as
remarkably coincident with Gyaning, the differences being
in general
characteristics,
almost
The above,
'
Carmdng,
Mar-
I sleep, I sleep not, I
slept not,' or 'the sleepless,'

From
(other than one's self).

TasazSsi,
'
who
he
Masazdngti,
feeds,'
analysis of the last as a sample,
Ma,
'
who
feed
Of
not.'
negative pre-fix
from the root Zd with suffixed pronoun.
'I eat,'
75
who
Tasazangti, 'I
Zo, 'eat,' Tasazo 'feed,'
I give
these
Sa, causative in-flx.
Ti mutable with
feed/
Si,
the
Zdng,
the partici-
pial attributive suffix.
These are the simplest verbal forms and the most usual,
whence the prevalent
dissyllabic
character of the verbs,
whilst
demonstrates
it
as
more complex forms, put rather too
also the
this, indicates
as of the nouns,
But the vocabulary,
seen in the vocabulary, consisting of a root and one pre-fix.
prominently forward by Leyden in his Ta-gala samples. Thus, in our Gyaning

vocabulary,
the words, cry,
be
laugh,
silent, run, or four
and even a
verbs, instead of a single prefix, have a double
simple imperative form there used
out of twenty-four
treble supply in the
Da-ka-kru from the root Kid
as
Kmui-rc
from the root Me; Na-ka-chdm from the root Chum; Da-na-ra-ggdk from the
Hence compounding
root Gi/dL:
Danarasagyungit
who
is
who
'I
Mada
as the
usual
as
Matamzdiigti, as Masazdngti, time and
and
the suffix
suffixes,
is
yet
verbs of root repeated and yet
retaining
none
such
its
pre-fix;
as
Kalarlar,
its
the
whilst
the roots,
repeated,
But there
pre-fix retained,
which
'round,'
is
though
a root
adjectives of the vocabulary,
instances of the doubly and trebly
the substantives, also afford several
uulike
much less to
and when the root is
dropt, as has been explained as to substantive.
the vocabulary affords
repeated
Repetition and
tense notwithstanding.
in the prefixes belong
whether in verbs or nouns,
commonly
are instances in the
Matarmdng
Marmdng, and Matsazangti for
I believe also that the reiterative form

substitutive form
other changes above illustrated

infixes
cited simple
the last
narasagyuk, 'do not cause to run';
cause to run'; Manarasagydti or Madanara-sdgyuti, 'he
does not cause to run.'
quite
we have from
as before,
term, Danarasagyuk, 'cause to run';
Ka-ma-gnar from the root gndr, and

Kavandro, 'cold,' Ka-va-na-dro from the root dro. The elided forms, however, and
particularly Kamgnarj show that leaning towards dissyllabism, which has been
reiterated pre-fix, as
Kamgnar,
'sweet,'
dwelt on, perhaps, too strongly, though

this tongue,
shows
it
assuredly be a most
be preeminently proper to Ta-gala;
to
radical form of the word, as he assumes, but a
tomary
pre-fix, fa,
fixes are
marked
feature of
and one too which Leyden's mistake as to his own sample verb
" tolog, to sleep," is not
for
compound
with the vowel harmonised to that of the root.
the great variants, and besides being so
transposed and
and
of the root
interchanged
much
its
the
cus-
The pre-
repeated, they can be
almost at pleasure, owing to their synonymous
character, and these variations of the pre-fixes, with the elisions consequent on
much
reiteration of
Levden emphasizes
cessive
suppose.
(I
still
them, constitute the greatest part
though
it
speak of Gyaning) than his
In the above
without the added
samples of
Gyaning
Humboldt
create
considers that
enigma which
much
sample would lead

I
have given
wonderment than
less ex-
any one
to
the verbs alone,
pronouns of Leydens' Ta-galan instances
complication being rather suited to
knowledge.]
of that
be in the actual u-e of the speech
such
to
the Ta-gala (a specimen
additional
promote sound
by the way of
?6
the inseparable pre-fix) preserves the primitive type of the whole group
that that
type
is
revealed in the Gyariing
however forgetting that

insisting
so
much upon
interesting feature of a
aptotic
to
me
my
investigation
am
the primitiveness of this type as upon
connecting bond
between
and the so-called polysyllabic* non-aptotic

to
from complete, and without
far
is
have no very deep or
solid foundation,
and
to assert, without
inclined
the
classes
much
its
much more
monosyllabic
so-called
classes which appear

have been insisted
as they
on to the obscuration of the higher branches of philology and ethnology, rather

than to their illustration (as I venture to think), and but for which obscuration
our Leydens and our Joneses, our Bopps and our Humboldts, could never have
been found at such extreme apparent diversity of opinion.

ference to the disputed primitiveness of Ta-gala,
above
cited, that
owing
throughout the Himalaya and Tibet
it is
most primitive tongues that are distinguished by useless

interminable pronouns, and
them, with their duals and

person of both.
many
add, with re-
precisely the rudest or
intricacies,
such as the
means of
the perplexity caused by conjugation by
plurals,
and, as
and inclusive and exclusive forms of the
many
are there of the gerunds
great interest.
may
first
In this way, Kirauti,* for instance, has thirty-three personal
forms for each tense

so
all
to its use of the "artifices"
tense-forms as there are thus constituted,
and of the
The more advanced
tribes,
participles
Manchuric
trait of
whether of the continent or of the
islands, have, generally speaking, long since
cast
away
all
or
most
of
these
" artifices."
I
have thus, in the present and two former communications, shown what a
strange conformity in the essential components of their speech
still
unites the long
and widely sundered races inhabiting now the Himalaya, Tibet, Indo-China,
Sifan, Altaia, Caucasus and Oceanica; and, as a
no
less strange
conformity of
physical conformation, unites (with one alleged exception) these races,
much
longer be doubted that they
cal attributes it shall next be
the heretofore
tion
unknown
and examination.
must add that
all
all
cannot
it
belong to one ethnic family, whose physi-
my
people,
business to help the illustration of by describing

whose languages have been submitted to inspec-
Before, however, I turn to the physical characteristics, I
the languages, whose vocables are herewith submitted to the
Society, are, and always have been, devoid of letters and of literature
what
* Compare the monosyllabic roots and dissyllabic simple vocables of Gyariing with
The comparison is pregnant with hints, especially as
the sesquipedalians just given.
Thus, Kona re, 'laugh,'
there are in the cognate tongues all grades of approximation.
in Gyariing, with its double pre-fix, is Yere in Linibu with one, and Re in J\lagar
without any ; and thus Talidng, 'air,' in Lepcha, with its pre-fix and suffix, is Tali in
Gyariing, with pre-fix only, and Li or Le in Burmese, without either.
Innumerable
instances like this make me conclude that the Gyariing differs only in degree, not in
kii d, notwithstanding that its verb, like that of the Ta-gala, certainly presents an
extraordinary and seemingly unique spectacle in some aspects, but not in all for, in
the sentence tize-kaze papun, 'he called them to feast,' though the root za, 'to eat,' be
repeated, and each time with a differently vowelled servile attached
yet the combination is not grotesque, nor the root smothered.
* See a memoir on this tongue and another on the Hayu vcl Vayu tongue in the
(Printed in 1857 very
forthcoming Kos. of the Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal.
incorrectly.
Corrected copies sent to Pott, Lassen, Schieiher, etc.
;

writing there
whose
is
among
JJ
these races being confined to the Tibet-trained monks,
religious ministry they all accept,
and who (the monks) use the Tibetan
system of writing applied solely to the Tibetan language, and never

flocks, the several races
now
in question, or
to that of their
any of them.
Sokpo or the Horpa ever employ any system
I cannot learn that in Tibet the
of writing of their own, though I need not add (assuming their identification to
be just) that the Mongols and the Eastern Turks have each their
distinct
from the Tibetan.
race quite as important as
the other, I have not failed to use the opportunity of
whose vocables are now submitted
The following
ths
are
chief
results
Length of head, from crown

Girth of head
fore
and
aft,
to
the people
of
that investigation:
Amdoan.
Horpa.
Gyarung.
I.
II.
III.
5.8.|
6.7.|
Manyak.
IV.
5.3.0
5.4.0
0.8.^
0.8.|
0.9.0
0.9.
1.10.0
1.9.J
l.lO.f
l.lO.f
0.7.f
0.7.|
0.8.0
0.8.0
0.6.|
0.6.0
0.6.
0.6.|
2.4.
2.4.0
2.3.
2.3.0
3.3.|
3.3.
2.11.J
3.1.0
1.1.
or
forehead to occiput
Width of head, between parietes

Crown of head to hip
Hip to heel
Width between the shoulders
1.4.0
1.1.0
Girth of chest
3.1.0
2.9.0
Length of arm and hand
2.6.|
2.6.0
2.4.J
2.4.0
1.0.0
1.0.0
0.11.4
0J1.J
Ditto of
arm
Ditto of fore-arm
2.11.J
1.4.0
2.11.|
0.11.0
0.10.0
0.9.^
0.9.3
Ditto of hand
0.8.0
0.7.|
0.7.|
0.7.
Ditto of thigh
1.8.0
1.7.0
1.6.
1.7.0
Ditto of leg to ankle
1.4J
1.5.0
1.3.0
1.5.0
0.11.0
0.10.0
0.9.4
0.9.
0.4. f
0.4.|
0.4.0
0.4.0
Ditto of foot
Width
of
hand
Ditto of foot
0.4.f
0.4.J
0.4.|
0.4.0
Girth of thigh
1.9.0
1.4.}
1.6.|
1.7.4
1.3.4
LLf
L2.0
1.1.J
0.11.0
0.9.|
0.10.0
0.9.|
Ditto of calf
Ditto of fore-arm
No.
access
to
(with calipers)
Length of head,
1.
native
of
quite
in order to note their physical traits.
Height without shoes
chin
own system
Having always considered the physical evidence* of

the lingual, and the one as the true complement of
Amdo, aged
thirty-five years, a finely
formed and very
strong man, capable of carrying three maunds or 250 pounds over these mountains,
which he has done several times,
in
order to turn a penny during his so-
* Some attempts have reeently been made (see last vol. of Brit. Assoc, and Journal
of Roy. As. Soc. ) to disparage the value of this evidence.
But no one well acquainted
with the Tartars in various remote locations could for a moment think of so doing. I
refer with confidence to Dr. Buchanan's remarks on the subject in vol. V. As. Res.
KK
78
journ here, though the
and not
idler,
now
lax
state of his muscles
in training for
such work, nor
shows that he
much
used to
usually an
is
it.
A
his
Gelling or monk of the mendicant class, and of course a shaveling, so that

head has been examined with unusual advantage. Five feet eight and a half
inches
tall,
and more than proportionably broad or bulky, with large bones and ample
muscle, not however showing any bold development, the surface on the contrary
being smooth and even, like the body of an idler; nor fat at
all,
but well fleshed.
Colour of the skin, a very pale clear brown, of isabelline hue, like dry earth, or
dirty linen, or unbleached paper
not yellow, nor ruddy at
on the cheeks, which are moderately

generally,
or arms.
legs
as
black, but
that of moustache,
Moustache
traceable, abundant,
spare.
strong
No
and
No
all.
trace of red
Colour of eyes, dark brown
full.
auburn.
No
beard nor whisker.
straight.
of hair,
hair on chest, nor on
Hair of head,
so far
Cranium not compressed nor de-
pressed; not raised pyramidally, yet brachycephalic rather than dolichocephalic,
and the
occiput truncated or flush with
the
thick neck, but
not
flattened.
Vertical view of the head, ovoid not oval, widest between the ears, and thence
narrowing equally to the forehead and to the occiput.

inconspicuous.
Contour of the
face (front
Facial angle good.
Profile
view) rather ovoid than angular or
lozenge-shaped, the cheek-bones having no conspicuous lateral saliency nor the
forehead and chin any noticeable attenuation.
Forehead
sufficiently
high and
broad, and not appearing otherwise from any unusual projection of the orbitar
periphery or of the zygomata.

lique,
Eyes
sufficiently large
and not noticeably ob-
but remote from each other, and flush with the cheek and the upper
drooping and constricted to the inner canthus, which

good, straight
is
and tumid.
large
lid,
Nose,
the bridge well raised between the eyes and the terminal part, nor
spread nor thickened, though the nostrils be shorter and rounder than in Europeans, and the saliency of the whole organ less than in them.
Ears large and
standing out from the head, but occupying the usual relative position.
good, but large, with fine vertical teeth, not showing the least
symptom
nathism in the jaws.
all
their tumidity.
Very
Chin not
full lips,
retiring,
but not gaping, nor at
Mouth
of prog-
Negro-like in
nor yet roundly salient, but level with the
gums, or in the same plane with the teeth, and square and strong, as well as
the jaws, which afford ample room in front for an uncrowded set of beautiful
teeth.
Body well-proportioned, but somewhat long (as
in the trunk
and
and in the arms, relatively
large, but rather as to breadth than length.
neck, and shoulders high.
good.
Chest, splendid, wide and deep, and general form
Expression Mongolian, (but not at
and placidly good-natured.
No.
Age
all
markedly
so as to features,)
Ears bored, but not distended
other disfigurement of the skin quite
once for
well as massive and square)
Hands and feet well made

Head well set on the short thick
to the legs.
unknown
and calm
and tattooing or
to all these races, as I
may
say
all.
II.
Horpa
of Tango, west of Gyfiriing, towards
thirty -eight years.
man
Amdo, named
Isaba.
of good height (five feet seven and a half inches)

and
figure,
but
Spare of
colour.
flesh,
yellow or red, like
hut not actually meagre.
No
the head, moustache and whisker, pure
Whisker rather ampler.
feeble.
Head
than wide, but scarcely dolichocephalic, though not
nor compressed, nor depressed, nor pyramidised.
end being the posteal or

Facial angle, good.
occipital,
Cheek bones not
tiring.
Ears large and
minent.
lid,
truncated occipitallv,
Vertical view, oval, the wider
face long
and
without any trace of the
oval,
Forehead^ narrow and rather low, but not re-
salient laterally nor the frontal sinuses or orbits pro-
Eyes of good
loose.
oblique, though the inner angle be tumid
of the upper
No
longer (fore and
and being wider there than between the ears
Contour of the
lozence breadth and angularity.
Hair of
Hair of head, long, straight,
black.
beard, nor a trace of hair on the chest, back or limbs.

aft)
the eye, of a dark
trace of ruddiness on cheek.
Moustache small and
strong, abundant.
Colour, a pale brown, without
the Himalayana and Tibetans, and
all
brown, as usual with them.
clear
79
than the Amdoan, and somewhat darker in
powerful
far less
size,
remote, but not noticeably
with the usual constriction thereto
which somewhat narrows the parting of the
lids.
Nose
straight,
not very salient, yet well raised between the eyes, and not dilated towards the
and the nares
tip,
elliptic
Mouth
tusely rounded.
and
long, but the bridge nevertheless broad
.good, but large
which, however, are not
lips,*
made and
well
inclined,
and ob-
and prominent from the fulness of the
gaping nor are the teeth at
vertically set, but not sound.
all
prognathously
Chin not pointed, nor
heavy, nor retiring, nor jaws unduly large and angular; whence, with the nonsaliency of the zygomata, the face takes a good and Arian contour.
Figure good,
almost elegant, but the arms rather long, and the legs rather short in comparison
Hands and
of the European form.

plaited into a
tail,
with small ear-rings.
feet well
made and well
proportioned.
Hair
Ears bored, but not dilated, and furnished
Chinoise.
la
Expression pleasing,
and
cast
of
features
but
faintly
Mongolian.
No.
III.
A Gyaning
age thirty-three years.

either of the above.
ment moderate,
fine
arms much
by name Maching, and by
of Tazar, north of Tachindo,
Height
five
feet
well-made smallish man.
especially the former.
Arms
less so.
much shorter than

Bony and muscular develop-
three inches, or
In moderate flesh, but thigh and calf very
longish.
Legs
shortish.
Colour of
skin, a pale
earthy brown or isabelline hue, without the least mixture of yellow or of red
like Chinese,
Colour of hair in
hazel.
strong,
but deeper toned.
on head
Cranium
all
No
ruddiness on the spare cheeks.
parts uniformly black
spare on upper lip
Eye dark
long, straight, abundant,
none on chin, nor on body, nor on limbs.
large, nor compressed, nor depressed, nor pj^ramidally raised
towards the
crown, though there be a semblance of that sort from the width of the zygomata
(but this feature belongs to the face).
occipital axis the longer
and
vertical
Occiput not truncated posteally.
Fronto-
view oval with the wide end backwards,
*It is not so much the fullness of the lips as a certain thickening of the gums,
particularly those of the upper incisive or trout teeth common to Cis- and Trans-
Himalayans.
80
maximum
and the
parietal,
wider than the frontal region, or
being conspicuously
the occiput
than the
occipital breadth lessening regularly forwards to the
Facial angle good, with a vertical, but inconspicuous profile.
forehead.
Contour
which
of the face (front view) lozenge-shaped, widest between the cheek-bones,
much
project
and are
laterally,
flattened to the front, causing great
below the eyes, whence there
of face just
Forehead
downwards.
sufficiently high
is
a regular narrowing upwards and
and not
but narrowed appa-
retiring,
rently upwards, owing to the salient zygomata and molars.
Eye
salient.
and upper
breadth
Frontal sinus not
smallish and not well opened nor hollowed out from the cheek,
lid
drooping and drawn to the inner, inclined
Eyes wide apart and
Nose long,
oblique.
straight, thick,
and tumid canthus.
with a broad base be-
tween the
eyes, where, however, th# bridge is not flat, but raised into a
low arch.
Width
with broad
tion,
good.
and
teeth
alse
and large round
nostrils.
Mouth
Lips moderate and closed, and teeth vertically
Chin pretty good, not
colour.
retiring,
set,
and well made hands and
feet.
neck
large and salient, yet
and very
fine in
sufficiently loug
Ears long and

;
figure,
Hair worn plaited into a pig
and belonging to one who
of the shrewdness tending to knavery that
The
I'drophiincho.
fession
Manyaker
tail.
Ears bored,
He
is
good-tempered
very
and bears the euphonious name of
a native of Rakho, six days south of Tachindo, and by pro-
a Gelung or mendicant friar;
one could wish to
has, in his character, a deal
marks the Chinaman.
forty years old,
is
loose.
chest deep and wide,
but declaredly contrary to the custom of his country, and not distended.
Chinese face and
shape
nor yet projecting, flush with the
and somewhat squared, as also the large jaws.
Figure good, with head well set on
No. IV.
wide
great there, and spreading into an expanded fleshy termina-
and a cross made ugly fellow he
with round shoulders and
see,
and moreover, accomplished
exceedingly;
is,
short neck, but stout

in reading,
as
and
writing,
most of the regular troops of Lamaism to which corps

he belongs, though to the heterodox branch of it, or Bonpa sect, called by
drawing and carving,
him Beunpo
like
or Peunpo,
and which he has enabled me to say
Tantrika Buddhism, or what
is
commonly
esting and important discovery I therefore
called
Shamanism.*
make no apology
is
no other than
This very inter-
for inserting here,
* In saying that Shamanism is nothing but Tantrika Buddhism, I speak most advisedly, and fully aware of the opinions I oppose.
That the Bonpa also are Buddhists,
there ean be no doubt, and
friend I'dro's statements and drawings show that his
sect follow the Gyiit or Tantras, which, though canonical, are in bad odour, and have
been so since the Gelukpa reform.
Bonpa and a Moslem are alike odious to the
orthodox in Tibet, though the Bonpas have many Vihars of high name and date all
over the country.
Since this was written, I have found some interesting traces of
the existence of the Bonpa sect in the Himalaya, where the Murmi tribe for instance
still call their exorcist Bonpa.
The probable general solution is, that both the Brahmanists and the Buddhists, of all the various divisions of those creeds, adopted
largely into their systems the prior superstitions of the country, whence in Java, in
Nepal, in Ava, as in India, Buddhist and Brahmanical remains exhibit so much of a
common character, sometimes wearing the aspect of Vaishnaism, more commonly than
of Saivaism.
Compare
remarks on the subject {apud volume on the Buddhism of
Nepal) with Leyden's Fabian and Yule on the Remains of Pagan (apud A. S. J. B.)
Yule describes exactly the Padmapani, Manjusri, ete., of Nepal, and I have myself
my
my
found them at Karnagurh on the Ganges.
TKTBES OF NORTHERN TIBET.

though
be somewhat out of place
it
that to confound the

is
Lamas with
a worse error than
India.
To return
to
would be
it
my
I proceed to note that
to confound the
is
Brahmans with the Pandits
man
No
Colour, a pale
fat.
though
trace of red in the spare cheeks, winter
Eye, dark rich brown, and hair throughout unmixed and pure black.
others,
he has none of the Esau characteristic, but on the contrary
scant of hair, having not a trace of
No
the face.
beard.
straight eyebrow.
is,
on the body or limbs, and not
it
No whisker.
races,
of moderate height (five feet four inches), but
strongly made, with large bones and plenty of muscle, but no
whitey pure brown.
in
whose shaven head has afforded me a second
examining the cranial characters of these
closely
he
am digressing, I may as well add

Hue and Gabet invariably do,
the Gelungs as
friend Idro,
excellent opportunity for
and as I
be.
it
Like the
as usual,
much on
very wretched lean moustache, and a spare
Cranium brachycephalic and
large.
Vertical view of the head
ovoid not oval, widest between the ears, as in the Amdoan.

equally narrowed to the frontal and occipital extremities.
Thence regularly and
No
compression, nor
depression of the cranium, but on the contrary a distinct pyramidal ascension from
a broad base, the point of crinal radiation being somewhat conically raised from
the interaureal and widest part of the
that
is,
scull.
Occiput truncate and flattened,
nor rounded posteally, like most heads.
not projecting beyond the neck,
Facial angle pretty good, but rather deficient in vertically of profile.
Contour
of the face lozenge shape owing to the large laterally salient cheek bones, though
the forehead be not very noticeably narrowed (except with reference to its bulg-
nor the chin pointed.
ing base),
Forehead
sufficiently good,
high but some
what compressed and retiring, and appearing more so by reason of the heavy frontal
sinuses and zygomata, which project beyond the temples towards the sides and
Ears big and salient. Eyes remote and oblique, with the inner angle down
front.
and tumid, and the upper lid drooping and drawn to the inner canthus. Nose
rather short, straight,
not level with the eyes, nor yet
much
raised to separate
Not clubbed at the end, but the alse spreading, and the
and round. Mouth large and forward, with very thick lips, but no
them, nor elsewhere.

nares large
prognathism, the teeth being vertical and the lips not gaping so as to expose
Teeth well
them.
formed
and well
set
in
an obtusely convex large arch,
those of the upper jaw, however, overhanging those of the lower.
and square.
retiring, or flat
sinuses are
nasal and
The
what mar the vertically
much
of oral projection.
Chin rather
and large frontal
partial retirement of the chin
of the profile, which moreover shows
little
of
Figure bad, with thick goitrous neck, high
forward shoulders, and somewhat bowed
Hands and
legs.
Muscular development of arms poor, of legs good.
feet well
made.
thoroughly Mongolian face,
but the ugliness in part redeemed by the good-natured, placid, yet somewhat
dull, expression.
Note.
The
sanctioned
by
orthography of the comparative vocabulary
the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, but
necessitated by the peculiar articulation of these races,

of incessant recurrence.
whose
I have represented the former sound
KKl
is
there are
in general" that
a few deviations
gallic
j and u
by zy and the
are
latter
TRIBES OP NORTHERN TJBET.
82
by
Both sounds
eu.
are found
or accents, so important
for
in the
French word
discriminating the
feu.
many
The system
of tones
otherwise-identical roota
But I
these tongues, there is no practicable method of doing justice to.
In
have marked the chief one, or abrupt final, y an underscored h, thus h.
Thochu and in Horpa, the h, kh, and gh, have often, nay generally, a harsh Arabic
utterance.
I use the short vague English a and e, as in cat, get, for their
common equivalents in these tongues, but u has always the oo sound, whether
short or long. It so occurs in English though rarely, as in put, pudding. The
continental (European) and Eastern system of the vowels is that pursued, and
the long sound of each is noted by accent superscribed. But there is a great
for the Tartar
evil attendant on this Jonesian use of accent as marking quantity
in
accent denotes the radical syllable or syllables, irrespective
altogether of
the
however, at present, remedy this evil,

though hereafter I shall use the accent to denote roots putting it over the end of
the radical syllable, whether ending in vowel or consonant. Quoad vowels, mine
is
is the common vocalic system, the English being wholly beside the mark.
always a consonant. It blends with many others to give them a sliding sound as
It gives S the sound of Sh, as in the Syan (Shan)
in the zy, above instanced.
long or short sound of vowels.
I cannot,
name.
tribe's
It
must never be made a vowel, a
makes mono-
Vanglaise, for that
and totally changes the proper sounds of words. The same

From 6, I make the
as to w, which we English are however more familiar with.
diphthong ai; from a that of au; from 6 that of on, sounded as in aye aye, hawfinch,
hoio; which, with the gallic eu (beurre), are invariably diphthongs, each with a
single blended sound. If two vowels come together and require separate utterance,
I have marked off the prethe latter is superscribed with two dots, as dai.
fixes (tir-mi, 'man,' see Gyarung column) to facilitate access to the root and
comparison on a large scale, such as that lately employed to illustrate ethnic
affinities. This and the like marking off of the suffixes will be a great aid to
those who wish to make such comparisons without knowledge of these languages.
But the procedure is hardly correct, since the root and its prefix in particular
are apt to be blended [in utterance by transfer of the accent (mi, \tir-mi), and
since the sense also of the roots is occasionally as dependant (though in a difierent
way) on that of their prefixes, as it is in regard to the prepositions of the Arian
tongues (tir-mi, 'man': ti-mi, 'fire'). Nevertheless these important particles are
liable to a large range of mutations, synonymous as well as differential, merely
euphonic, as well as essential, whilst some of the tongues use them very amply,
and others very rarely. Add to these features the infixes and the suffixes, with
the occasional change of place and function between all these, and you have
before you the causes of the differences of these languages, which are often so
operative as to merge their essential affinity and make it indiscernible, except by
those who, knowing the roots, can pursue them and the servile portions of the
vocables through their various metamorphoses and transpositions.*
syllables dissyllabic,
in Tibeto-Himalayan and Indo-Chinese series, as follows

Nyi'-ma, Ma-ni, Nye'-n-ti, Nhi-ti-ma, Sak-ni'. Root Nyi.
Ta-i-myek, Mye-t-si.
Root Mig.
-mile, Mi-do, Mi-kha,
Eye.
Dog. Khi-cha, Ko-chu, C'h6i-ma, Khive, Ta-kwi, Ka-zeu. Root Kliyi.
Compare
Day.
Kas-sman, Mhai-ti, Mhin, Min-bo. Root sMin.

Root sKyur.
Kuch-chur, Kyur-bo, Da-chu'.
Root She.
Kliep-che, Nap-aye, Ta-che-n.
Hear.
These are extreme cases, perhaps, of mutation but they are therefore all the better
adapted to illustrate my meaning and links enough will be found in the yoeabu"
Ripe.
Sour.
laries to
bind them surely together.
ON THE COLONIZATION OP THE HIMALAYA BY EUROPEANS.*
6.
As
zation
the interesting subject of the fitness of the
may
it
Himalaya
European coloni-
for
beginning to excite the attention of individuals and of the Government,
is
be worth while to state distinctly
may own
conviction on the subject,
together with the chief grounds of that conviction, because I have resided some
thirty years in the Central and Eastern parts of the range,
awhile in the Western, and

calculated to
make my
all
that time
and have
also served
attention has been directed to studies
observation and experience more effective.
I say, then, unhesitatingly, that the
for the
my
Himalaya generally
very well calculated
is
settlement of Europeans, and I feel more and more convinced that the
encouragement of colonization therein
is
one of the highest and most important
duties of the Government.
In the long, and throughout the globe quite unparalleled, gradation of heights,
from the plains to the snows, every variety of climate
is
found with correspondent
capabilities for the successful culture of various products suited to the
Europeans, for their
own consumption
or for profitable sale
and
wants of
in this extra-
ordinary gradation of heights, the high and the low are juxtaposed in a manner
alike favourable to the labours of the healthful
A
feet,
and to the
relief of the ailing.
healthy cultivator of our race could have his dwelling at four to six thousand
and
his farms, both there
close to his
abode
aud at various higher and lower elevations, yet
so that quasi-tropical and
be raised by him with the greatest
facility
and
still
quasi-European products might

in defect of health
and strength,
the colonist, like the visitor, would enjoy the vast advantage of entirely changing
his
climate without cost or fatigue of journey, besides having the additional
resource of easy access to medicinal waters of universal diffusion and of proved

efficacy in
many
kinds of ailments.
The
greatest variety of climate has
of
course relation to the transverse section of the Himalaya, or that from plains
to snows
presents as
but the longitudinal section, or the S. E. and N.
much and
the same variety of climate as
is
Bengal, Benares, and the north-western provinces; and
W.
one, likewise
proper to the plains in

it is
quite a mistake to
allege of the South-East Himalayas, or of Bengal, that their climate differs only
for the worse
*
from the drier climate of the
Written in 1856.
hills or plains
further west and north.
COLONIZATION OF THE HIMALAYA.
84
Undoubtedly, the South-East Himalaya has
much
But
moisture* than the North-West Himalaya.
less
sun and
much more
who have
those Europeans,
experienced the effects of the climate of both, frequently prefer that of the former,
and
it is
Himalaya
quite certain that, in the past twenty years, the South-East
much
has suffered
less
from epidemics, and has
exemption
also enjoyed a complete
from those severe dysenteries and fevers which have afflicted the denizens
It is as certain that the obscured sun of the
of the North-West Himalaya.
South-East Himalaya is the cause of the difference, and that, though our clouds
and mists
may
hurt our popular reputation with strangers, they are welcome to
Cloudy and misty
ourselves from their experienced and admitted beneficialness.

as
is
our climate for five to six months, rheumatism and pulmonary affections are
the Himalaya, generally speaking
That
unknown.
healthful, can be doubted
by no competent judge, and
is
is
a region eminently
demonstrable at once, and
by pointing to the finely developed muscles,pure skins, cheerful countenances,

and universally well-formed strong-boned bodies of the native inhabitants, whose
health and strength, and capacity of enduring toil and carrying heavy burdens, are
readily,
as notorious, as are their
exemption from bodily malformations and from most of
the direst diseases to which flesh
Europe
latitudes of
results
is
owing
heir, as
to the
well in
the tropics as in the high
preeminent equability and temperateness
of the climate ,t added to the simple active habits of the people.
The
fearful epidemics of the
plains seldom penetrate the
Himalayas, which,
moreover, seem to have a positive exemption from endemic diseases, or those proper
to any given country.
almost.
But
scarcely at
For forty years cholera has ravaged the
in all that period

all.
plains
continually
Nepal has been visited only twice and Darjeeling
In the same forty years at Kathniandu, only two. deaths (Mr.
Stuart and Lieutenant Young) have occurred
among Europeans, and both
those
were occasioned by diseases wholly apart from local influences and in the escort
of the Resident, the salubrity in my time was so great, that promotion came hardly
;
to be# calculated on at
all,
and a Sepahee would be a Sepahee
still,
after fifteen
to
twenty years' service. J
The
Civil medical statistics of Nepal,
same story and

;
if
as of Darjeeling,
have always told the
the Military statistics of the latter place have been,
till
lately,
* The fall of rain is no accurate test of mean moisture, but the following facts have
Mean annual fall of rain at Darjeeling 130 inches at Kathmandu, in the
their value
It must always be rememat Cherrapmiji 500.
Valley of Nepal, 60 at Simla 70
bered, that the amount, of rain and moisture at any given spot in the Himalaya depends
greatly on the number of covering ridges intervening between such spot and the
The
course of the great column of vapour borne by the monsoon from the ocean.
fact, that the fall of rain in the Concan is five-fold what it is in the Deccan, owing
to the intervention of the Ghat range, will make this more intelligible.
Very imperfect sanitary arrangements to the north-west, where large multitudes are
assembled yearly such as are unknown to the Sanitaria of the south-east, must be added
in explanation of the dysenteries and fevers noted.
t In my sitting-room, which is freely ventilated, the thermometer ranges only from
In
60 to 65, day and night, between the end of June and the end of September.
December, January, and February, the range is about the same, or but slightly greater.
men
it
now
consists
consisted
of
200
of
formerly
;
J The Escort or Honorary Guard
:
100.
85
le3S favourable, the reasons of this had nothing- to do with the hill climate, bnt
resulted wholly from the senseless selection of cases sent up; the absurd neglect of
seasons in sending up and taking-
down
of the invalids
and
the shameful
lastly,
and supervision of the men on the way up and down.

The appearance of the European children at Darjeeling might alone suffice to
prove the suitableness of the climate of the Himalaya at six to eight thousand feet
abandonment of
all
care
European colonization, confirmed, as such evidence is, by that of the aspect

and health of such adult Europeans as came here with uninjured constitutions,
and have led an active life since their arrival. Finer specimens of manly vigour
for
the world could not show

lately toiled all
day
;%
in the
and though none of the individuals I allude to have

open
with perfect impunity;
their
yet I
air at agricultural labours,
formed that some of them did
for several years after
agricultural
reasons quite apart from either injured
pursuits
health
am
and
having been abandoned for

support them-
inability to
or
credibly in-
arrival here,
their
and families comfortably by such labours.

That Europeans would sustain injury from exposure during agricultural labours
selves
at any period of the year, seems
therefore
refuted
remembered that such persons would be working
by
fact
here, as at
hollies, chesnuts,
birches, alders, elders, willows, and,
more westerly, pines and
is
from such an analogy double strength
further justified
cereals
by the healthful growth
and vegetables and
fruits as
it is
in-
sycamores, elms, horn-beams,
digenous arboreal vegetation of oaks,
rives
and when
home, amid an
firs,
such* a fact de-
and the attempted inference from both

in the
we have
Himalaya of such of our own
thus far tried to introduce, with
the sole exception of delicate and soft pulped fruits, not of an early or spring matur-
ing kind, such as peaches, grapes, and the like. These rot, instead of ripening in the
central region of the Himalaya,
owing
to the tropical rains
and
rarity of sun-shine
at the ripening season.
But such
come
soft fruits as
become mature before the
rains set
to perfection, as do all hard fruits, such as apples.
in,
There
is,
as strawberries,
in fact,
no end
no end of the mineral and vegetable wealth of the Himalaya, and if the absence of
flat ground, with the severity of the tropical monsoon or rainy season, present
considerable drawback to agricultural success,
on
the other hand the endless
inequalities of surface offer a variety of temperature
and of exposure, together with
signal modification even of the element of moisture
and
rain, all highly
conducive
to the advantageous cultivation of numerous and diverse products proper to the
imported from elsewhere.

Temperature changes regularly in the
soil or
thousand feet of height gained
ratio of 3 diminution of heat for every
and every large ridge crossing ths course of the
We
may now add that the children and, in a few instances, grandchildren born
J
at Darjeeling of the Europeans in question, and the children generally of the gentlemen
resident there, are as healthy and vigorous as any children in Europe.
much exposure at the hottest season, when the crops
Agriculture does not require
are growing.
* The beech
Tery common.
is
the only European tree not found in the Himalaya.
The
rest
are
86
monsoon modifies almost as remarkably the amount of rain in the several tracts
covered by such ridges. The ratio of decrease of heat with elevation, which has
just been stated, must however be remembered to be an average and to have
reference
the shade, not to the sun, for
to
has been found that the direct
it
rays of the sun are as powerful at Darjeeling as in the plains, owing probably to
the clearness of our atmosphere and this is the reason why our clouds are so
;
welcome and
beneficial
during the hottest months of the year. In other words,
the constant cloudiness of that season
is
beneficial to the European.
It
is
otherwise,
however, as regards his crops, which being ripening at that period, would
benefited by a clearer sky; and thus
exists
between the
it is
most congenial to the European and to his crops for,

to seven thousand, perhaps, might be most congenial to him,
sites
whilst a height of six
be
that a certain degree of oppugnancy

;
one of four to five thousand would certainly suit them better, not so much for the
But the oppugaverage higher temperature, as for the larger supply of sun-shine.
nancy is only one of degree, and whilst four thousand is a very endurable
climate for the European,
there
is
no reason
why
he should not have his abode,
as is the frequent custom of the country, at a somewhat higher level than that of
his fields, should he find such an arrangement advantageous upon the whole.
The fertility of the soil is demonstrated by the luxuriance t>f the arboreal and
shrub vegetation, a luxuriance as great in degree as universal in prevalence. True
this luxuriance has its evils*
why the
and without much
great cause
now,
and
and, in
its
present unpruncd state,
feeding of flocks and herds
European
success,
energy
is
speaking generally
would soon
for there are
districts
evil, or
be one
exceptions even
multiply these exceptions,
grappling successfully with the presumed source of the
rank vegetation, not to add, that, in the
may
by the people,
scantily pursued
too
besides
much and
next the snows and Tibet,
too
that
hyper-luxuriance ceases, and herds and flocks abound, and the latter yield fleeces
admirable for either fineness or length of fibre.f The soil consists of a deep bed
mould from one to three feet deep, to preserve which from

away by the tropical rains after the removal of its natural cover of
and under-growth, by terracing and other known expedients, must be the
of very rich vegetable
being carried
forest
colonist's first care, for the underlying earth is
but happily one whose tenacity and poverty are
almost always
much
qualified
hungry red clay
by better ingredients
derived from the debris of the gneisses and schists that constitute the almost sole
* The paucity of graminea? is, I believe, a feature of the Himalayan Botany, and
every observant person must notice the absence of meadows and grazing land and hay
But this is to be accounted for and explained by the
fields throughout the hills.
uncommon strength and abundance of the indigenous vegetation for, whenever a tract
and the European grasses that have been imof land is kept clear, grass springs up
climate being very
ported, including clovers and lucern, flourish exceedingly, the moist
Such, however, are the richness and high flavour of the native
favourable to them.
vegetation, that large and small cattle, even when provided with the finest European
pasture, are apt to desert it in order to graze at large amid the forests and copses.
are the great enemies
I here speak of the central region of the Himalaya, wherein leeches
are subject.
of the cattle, aud a peculiar disease of the hoofs to which they
fThe samples I sent to Europe of the wool of the sheep and goats of the Northern
region of the Himalaya and of Tibet were valued at seven to nine pence per pound.
;

The
rocks.
87
good proportion
argillaceous constituents of the soil are perhaps in
the siliceous, perhaps, rather too abundant

the superficial mould
How far that would

so loug as
it
the calcareous, deficient.
Heretofore,
has been the sole stay of the agriculturist and floriculturist.
know not. Bui,

demand the most vigilant
continue to be the case under abler culture, I
did continue, the caution above given would
and incessant attention.
The common European

in
cereals, or
the Himalaya, where I never
the plains.
But
this,
wheat, barley, rye, aud
encumbered
is
growing, by wild
hemp
or
wheat
most
is
careless,
without manure,
allowed to be over-run, whilst
is
artemesia, or other social
occurrence in the Himalaya.
weed of most frequent
Observe, too, that the system of double cropping
occasions the sacrifice of the despised wheat crop
cherished autumal crop which
is
which
a spring one to the
is
a rice one; and that were the former allowed due
consideration and treated with reference to
its
the native population,
main
furnishing a
instead of being regarded merely with reference to the
among
such
for
sorghums, panicums or millets, buck-wheat, and amaranth, on the
even in double-cropped and old lands, and the plant
the case
summer sun
sufficiency of
likewise attributable in part to the preference
part of the people, whose cultivation of
now
heeded
above those where, in the present
at heights
state of the country, a
crops can be safely calculated upon,

for rices, maizes,
little
in various parts of
though no doubt attributable in some measure to a deal of the
Himalayan population being located

forest
oats, are
saw crops equal those grown
still,
we might reasonably
as
is
article of food,
now very
of wheat as high at least as five thousand feet and more, especially so

clearance of the land, conducted judiciously,
generally
expect to see fine crops
was enabled
to
produce
when
its
the
due and
experienced effects in augmenting the sun-shine and diminishing the rain and mist
in such properly cleared tracts.
Heretofore,
skill
aud energy have done absolutely
nothing, in these or other respects, for Himalayan agriculture, and yet there
no country on earth where more advantage might be derived from

applied to the culture
of
As
agricultural products.
skill
is
and energy
already said, the infinite
variety of elevation and of exposure (both as to heat and moisture), together with
the indefinite richness of the
soil,
as proved
other vegetation, are premises one
by the indigenous
can hardly
fail
tree
and shrub and
to rest soundly
upon in
prognosticating the high success of European culture of the Himalavan slopes,
notwithstanding the drawbacks I have enumerated.
end
to the variety of the products,
many
soil
There need hardly be any

and good success must attend the cultivation of
of them, after a little experience shall have taught the specialities of the
and climate, so that the subject should
Government and the public
are
made
iteration is needed, inay be illustrated
fully
of
incessantly agitated
its
merits.
was
the
till
How much
by the simple mention of the
the fitness of the Himalayas for tea-growing
years ago in the valley
be
aware of
fact,
that
fully ascertained twenty-five
Nepal, a normal characteristic region, as well
regard to position* as to elevation.
in
Tea seed3 and plants were procured from
* It is equi-distant from snows and plains,
and has a mean elevation
of 4,500 feet.
88
China through the medium of the Cashmere merchants then located at Kathniandii.
They were sown and planted in the Residency garden, where they nourished
greatly, flowering
and seeding as
means
multiplied by
and moreover, grafts ad libitum were
usual,
of the nearly allied
Eurya (Camellia)
valley of Nepal, as elsewhere, throughout the Himalaya,
most abundant
kisi,
which, in the
an indigenous and
is
These favourable results were duly announced at the
species.
time to Dr. Abel, Physician to the Governor General, an accomplished person,
with special
And
qualifications, for their just appreciation.
twenty years were suffered to elapse before any
this,
yet, in spite of all
im-
effective notice of so
portant an experiment could be obtained.

I trust, therefore, that the general subject of the high capabilities of the climate
and
of the Himalayas, and their eminent fitness for European colonization
soil
having once been taken up, will never be dropped

1
and that the
accompli"
and simplest of
may
in India,
But
accomplishment
all political
mean wholesale and instantaneous
observe, I do not
of any such
anticipation
What
colonization
greatest,
a "fait
is
soundest,
surest,
measures for the stabilitation of the British power
nor,
were
distance and unpopularity of India,
it.
till
this
adorn the annals of the present Viceroy's administration.
such I regard as simply impossible
The
of
mean
colonization,
any
colonization, for
would
possible,
it
advocate
however, would preclude
all
it.
rational
whatever might be the wish to
effect
looking to these very obstacles and drawbacks, seeming
is,
and
real,
that some systematic means should be used to reduce their apparent
and
real
dimensions, to
make
cases towards reaching
it
and
familiarly
methods and actual cost of reaching India

and settling in
it
and
that
of juxtaposed
variety
infinite
its
differences of climate, both as to heat

its soil
shew
to
Himalaya, the vulgar dread of Indian diseases

also,
known
generally
cheapest
the
to afford discriminating aid in
is
some
that, in regard to the
wholly baseless
with
elevations,
to
show
correspondent
and moisture, and the unbounded richness of
at all elevations, offer peculiar and almost unique advantages (not a fiftieth
part of the surface being
now
occupied) to the colonist, as well on the score of
health as on that of opportunity, to cultivate a wonderful variety of products ranging
from the tropical nearly to the European.
A word as to the
In
tion.
the
native population, in relation to the measure under contempla-
first
place, the vast extent of
Government from the

and,
the
in
second
place, the
prejudices,
proper
protection
from European
subservient under
effectual
at
an
to
unoccupied land would free the
necessity of providing against
the
erect
spirit
and
wrongful displacement;
freedom from
Himalayan population, would

oppression easy, and
the direction of
at
would render
European energy and
skill
drawing forth of the natural resources of the region.
elevation
he
might
find
most conducive
to
disqualifying
make
once
their
them readily
to
the
more
Located himself
his health, the
colonist
might, on the very verge of the lower region (see Essay on Physical Geography
f Himdlaya, in another part of this work), effectually
command
the great
COLONIZATION OP THE HIMALAYA.
89
resources for traffic in timber, drugs, dyes, hides,* horns, ghee, and textile materials,
not excluding
self further
silk,
which that region
affords; whilst, if he chose to locate
him-
from the plains and devote himself to agriculture and sheep-breeding,
he might make his election

(see paper above referred
among
to)
endless sites in the central
and higher regions
of the Himalaya, of a place where these or those
sorts of cereal flourished best,
and where
cattle
and sheep could be reared, under
circumstances of surface, vegetation, and temperature as various as the imagination
can depict, but
all
more or
less propitious
the steep slopes and abundant vegetation,
rank but nutritious, of the central region, giving place, in the higher region, to a
drier air, a
more
level surface,
highly aromatic vegetr
and a scanter and
peculiarly suited to sheep and goats,
whose
fleeces in that region
would well
ion,
pay
the cost of transport to the most distant markets.
Not that
rich
would
in general hold out to the colonist the prospect of
by the utmost use of the above indicated resources
wealth
to which might, and certainly in due course would, be added those of the
his attention, primarily, at
but would rather
Trans-Himalayan commerce
least
upon the
or, in
fix
||
certain prospect
decent domicile,
of comfort, of a full
belly,
warm
back, and a
other words, of food, clothes, and shelter for himself, his wife,
and children, unfailing with the most ordinary prudence and

quality and quantity, as would
toil,
and such, as to
be a perfect god-send to the starving peasantry
of Ireland and of the Scotch Highlands.
These are the settlers I would, but with-
out discouraging the others, primarily encourage by free grants for the
years,
growing
for the accumulation of
first five
and by a very light rent upon long and fixed leases thereafter, looking
compensation in the general
prestige:):
of their
known forthcomingness on
and assured that, with the actual backing upon occasions of

difficulty of
some
fifty to
tu
the spot,
political stress
and
one hundred thousand loyal hearts and stalwart bodies of
Saxon mould, our empire
in India
might safely defy the world in arms against
it.
Countless herds of cattle are driven for pasturage annually, during the hot months,
from the open plains into the Tarai and Bhaver, and of the thousands that die there, the
hides and horns are left to rot, for want of systematic purchase, and this whilst the
demand is so urgent, that cattle-killing has become a trade in order to meet it.
In 1832 I furnished to Government a statement of the amount of this commerce,
the exports and imports then reached thirty lakhs,
as conducted through Nepal proper,
and this under circumstances as little encouraging to commercial enterprise as can well
be imagined, for monopolies were the order of the day, and those, in power were often
the holders of such monopolies, as I believe is still the case in Nepal and also in Cashmere.
In the paper adverted to, I also pointed out, by comparative statements, how
successfully Britain could compete with Russia in regard to this commerce.
J We are, it should- never be forgotten, 'ra/ri nantes in gurgite vasto,' occupying a
position quite analogous to that of the Romans, when one of their ablest statesmen
exclaimed 'quantum nobis periculum si servinostri numeraire nos eepiscent.' We cannot,
for financial reasons of an enduring kind, create an adequate guard against the perils
of such a position, nor materially alter it for the better quoad physical security, save by
having such a body of our countrymen as above contemplated within call.
To ward off Russian power and influence, we are just now entering on a war (in Persia^
as immediately and immensely costly, as full of perplexities and difficulties even in any
||
Were one-tenth, nay, one-fiftieth, of the money which that war,

of its better issues.
if it last, will cost, bestowed on the encouragement of European settlements in the
Himalaya, we might thus provide a far more durable, safe and cheap barrier against
Russian aggression, and should soon reduce her land-borne commerce with Eastern Asia
to nil.
(a.d. 1856.)
ON THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL.
7.
[The following papers, which are of
special interest just
now, were addressed
the Political Secretary at Calcutta in 1831, and were published in a volume

of " Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal, No. XXVII," in
to
Ed.]
1857.
No.
I.
A precise
and thence
practical account of the
to the marts
commercial route to Kathmandii,
on the Bhote or Tibetan
with the manner and
frontier,
expense of conveying goods, the amount and nature of the duties levied thereon
by
the Nepal Government, and the places where they are levied.
No.
It
was
II.
is
Lists
of imports and exports, with
scarcely necessary for
originally sought
me
by us purely
remarks.
remark, that a connexion with this country
to
for
commercial purposes, which purposes the
government, up to the beginning of this centurj7

itself,
by arms and by diplomacy,
advise a recurrence to that
mode
to
promote.
directly
and strenuously exerted
Now, though
of fostering the
commerce
contrary, entirely adhere to the opinions expressed
by me
of the 8th of March, 1830, yet I think
we may
it is
possible
error of entire forgetfulness and neglect of the matter.
would by no means
in question, but, on the

in
my public
fall
despatch
into the opposite
I conceive, therefore, that
a few remarks tending to reveal the actual and possible extent and value of the trade
moment, be well timed

make some such remarks, and to
in question will, at the present

I shall
now
them, the
proceed to
specific object
Why
was framed.
for
|and useful, in
which hope
point out, in the course of
which each of the two accompanying documents
that great commerce,
which naturally ought
to,
and formerly
between the vast Ois- and Trans-Himalayan regions, should seek the
did,* subsist
channel of Nepal rather than that of Bhutan on the one hand, or of
on the other, I have already explained at
and
to
which
large, in
I beg to refer you, should the subject
consultation or consideration.
But
I shall
discussion with the reasonable questions
my despatch
Kumaon
above alluded
to,
seem worthy of any present
probably be met at the threshold of the
what has been the
effect of sixteen years'
* I recommend a reference to the old records (inaccessible to me) of the commercial

In 1842, an official reference was made
Residency of Fatna and of its out-post Bettia.
to me, too immediately before my departure from Nepal to be answered, the object of
which was to ascertain whp the imports from Tibet through Nepal, and particularly
that of gold,
had
fallen off so
much
THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL.
92
peace and alliance with Nepal
what
what
is
now the positive amount of this commerce
extent as compared with any like preceding period. If the mustard-seed
its
be indeed, to attain
promised dimensions, there ought to be
its
symptoms of its great power of
To meet
in
some
up the paper No.

the vaguest
sort,
II.
now some
and prospectively, these reasonble enquiries,

have myself searched in vain tnrough
data, by which
might judge of the amount of
distinct
increase.
times of Kirkpatrick'sJ and Knox's missions to Kathmandu,
my
this
or, at
have drawn
record for any
commerce
at the
the period of Mr.
Gardner's arrival here (1816), and the vexation I have experienced at finding none
sucb, has led
time.
to
me
thus to place on record the best attainable data for the present
Fifteen years hence these data will furnish a scale of comparison
by which
now entertained respecting the power
of increase
measure the justness of the views
inherent in the trade of Nepal.
It
will readily be anticipated
government
this
neither makes nor keeps any express record of the annual amount of exports and
no easy thing for one in my situation to get possession of the

measure of this amount furnished by the sum-total of the duties
annually realized upon it. So far as attainable, I have used this measure. I have
also, sought and obtained other measures. I have secretly and carefully applied to
imports, and that
it is
indirect, yet facile,
some of the
oldest
and most respectable merchants of Kathmandu, and the other

amount
chief towns of the Valley, for conjectural estimates of the total annual
of imports and exports, and of the
These
firms of the Valley.
number and
estimates
are
capital of the chief
given
in
Number
commercial
II.
absence of statistical documents, these are the only accessible data, and
considered that I have been
sumed, that
many
years at this place,
it
may
it is
reasonably be pre-
have the means of so applying to the merchants
In the
when
in question as to
procure from them sincere statements to the best of their knowledge.

It appears then that at this present time there are, in the great towns of the
Valley of Nepal, fifty-two native and thirty-four Indian merchants engaged in

foreign commerce, both with the South and the North, and that the trading capital
of the former
is
considered to be not less than 50,18,000, nor that of the latter
than 23,05,000.* A third of such of these merchants as are natives of the plains
have come up subsequently to the establishment of the Residency in 1816, since
less
which period,
as
is
thought by the oldest merchants of Kathmandu, the trade
to
No.
has been tripled.
Turning again
II.,
Part
I.,
we
have, for the annual prime cost value of
the imports in Sicca rupees 16,11,000, and Part II. of No.

value, at
Kathmandu,
II. affords, for
the annual
of the exports, 12,77,800 of Nepalese rupees, equivalent to
Kuldars 10,64,833-5-4, thus making the total of imports and exports 26,75,833-5-4
But, from particular circumstances, the imports of 1830-31 were
of Kuldar rupees.
above what can be considered an average specimen, and should be reduced by one
{1792 and 1801, respectively.
* Before
a third.
I left
Nepal, I had some reason to suppose these estimates to be too high by
THE COMMERCE OP NEPAL.
93
precious stones, English fowling pieces, horses, velvets,
lakh, in the articles of
and kirukkabs, owing to the extraordinary purchases of the Durbar in that year.
After this deduction, there will remain a total of annual imports and exports, ac-
cording to the
lists
of No.
which sum
of something short of twenty-six lakhs,
II.,
agrees sufficiently well with the twenty-five lakhs yielded by the subsequent calculation
upon the amounts of duties and of exemptions from duty.
after the deduction
from the imports adverted
to,
there will
of imports over exports, amounting to four and a half lakhs of
may seem
think
it
want explanation,
to
them
II. likely to
to reduce these
would be
a nice speculation
be very useful
that,
which
But
estimates to
to forget that
In other respects, I hope and believe
they are necessarily mere approximations.

both parts of No.
rupees,!
considered as a permanent relation.
if
will be felt, on reflection, that to attempt
rigorous precision, or to raise on
am aware
remain an excess
still
but in regard to the precise accuracy
of its sum-totals of annual transactions, I have no wish to deceive myself or others.
In respect to the annual amount of duties realized by this government upon this
trade, I cannot ascertain it
upon the northern branch of the
trade, but
southern branch, or imports and exports from and to India, (which
and more
upon the
is
farmed
sum of one lakh and

Nepalese rupees.
Now, if we take
easily discoverable,) it reached last year (1830) the
sixty-thousand three hundred and sixty-four
good grounds
(as there are
valorem, the above
for
doing) the duty, upon an average, of 6 per cent, ad
amount of duty
will give a total annual value of imports
and
exports, with the plains of India alone, of 26,72,733^ Nepalese Paisa rupees, equi-
But to this sum must be added the whole amount
valent to Siceas 17,81,821-10-8.
of imports and exports passing duty free, and
which cannot be rated
at less
than
There are exemptions, from principle, of a
seven lakhs of Kuldars per annum.
general nature, such as those affecting the export of gold, pice, and Nepalese rupees
and which
list
articles alone
of Part II. No. II.
usage
of
amounted
for 1830-31, to fully five lakhs
There are
also
Nepal government, are largely extended
the
functionaries, civil
and military
meet abroad,
or expense to
be set
down
at a lakh per
at less.
We
all
whom,
of
if
at once dabble in trade,
freedom of export and import
must be rated
for the
nonce.
to its
more respectable
they have a penny to turn,
and procure
The goods
for
so exported
themselves
and imported
annum, nor can the Durbar's own purchases or imports

therefore, seven lakhs of exempted goods to the
must add,
nearly eighteen lakhs pointed out by the duties, and

little
of Siceas, as per
exemptions from favoritism, which, by the
we
shall have, in this
way,
short of twenty-five lakhs of Kuldars for the total amount value of the exports
and imports,
exemptions.
to
and from the
plains, as indicated
by the amount of duties and of
Such, according to data,of some worth at
least, is
the present extent
t The deficiency of exports is made up, and more by the agricultural produce of the
lowlands, especially grain, six lakhs of which are annually sent to Patna, etc., where
The means of export afforded to Nepal by her Tarai
it is paid for in money wholly.
B.H.H., 1834.
agriculture escaped me in drawing up the tables of commerce.
The total of exports and imports must, therefore, be set down at upwards of thirty
lakhs. B.H.H.,
1857.
MM
94
of the trade of Nepal.
might
trade
If
easily grow,
we would
we may do
reasonably conjecture to what a height that
by turning
so
to the statistical
documents
touching the amount and nature of the Russian commerce with China via Kiachta
and then, comparing the
facilities
and
difficulties of
such a commerce with those
which present themselves to a commerce with the same country via Kathmandii and
Lhasa. From St. Petersburg to Peking, by any feasible commercial route, cannot be
less
than 5,500 miles;* and though there
way, yet such
is
is
water carriage for a great part of the
the savage sterility of the country, and such the rigor of the climate,
that the water passage takes three years, and the land route one entire year, to
accomplish
The Russian government
it.
than 20 to 25 per
cent., save
levies high duties on this trade, not less
on Russian products, which are scant, compared with
There are some monopolies, and many prohibitions, especially those
the foreign.
mischievous ones affecting the export of either coin or precious metals.

I have
mentioned the interval separating St. Petersburg and Peking. It
is
further
necessary to advert to the yet more distant seats, both of production and of consumption, in reference
to the
The Russians export
to
more valuable
China
ware, hides, and prepared leather.
Of
produced in Siberia, the other half
is
way
England, or by
of
articles constituting
peltry, woollen
and cotton
these, not
the Russian trade.
cloths, glass-ware, hard-
more than half of the
first is
obtained from North America, either vid
Kamtschatka and the Aleutian
Isles.
Of
the cotton and
woollen cloths, the coarse only are Russian made, the fine come chiefly from England
and the
home
like is true of the glass-ware
production.
wrought
and hard-ware.
The hides
are, mainly, of
Russia imports from China musk, borax, rhubarb,
silk, ditto ditto cotton, porcelain,
best musk, borax, and rhubarb
by far are those of
north-eastern province of Tibet

of Szchuen, which province
is
japan ware, water colours,
and no tea
is
tea,
etc.
raw and
But the
Tibet, and especially of Sifan, the
better or
more abundant than that
only eighty-seven days' journey from Kathmandii
whilst, of course, the musk, borax and rhubarb regions (as above indicated) are yet
nearer to us, yet more inaccessible to the Russians, than Szchuen.
What more
I have to say
remarks on the
now
that topic I
this,
the
line of
on these products will
fall
my
address myself.
From
Calcutta to Peking
the interval between Calcutta and Kathmandii
way being
more naturally under
communication with these countries through Nepal and to

is
2,880 miles.
Of
540 miles, two-thirds of
fills
navigable commodiously by means of the Ganges and Gandak.
The mountains of Nepal and
of Tibet are steep and high
but they are, excepting
the glaciers of the Himalaya, throughout chequered with cultivation and population, as well as possessed of a
temperate climate.
It is only necessary to observe
the due season for passing the Himalaya, and there
apprehend
so that the journey
plished in five months, allowing for fifteen days of halts.
Peking
At
is
no physical obstacle to
from Kathmandii to Peking may be surely accom-
But wherefore speak of
the eighty-seventh stage only, from Kathmandii, the merchant enters
* Mr. Brun gives 4,196 miles for what I take to be the direct, or nearly direct, way.
Coxe. in one place, gives 5,363, in another place 4,701 miles. Bell's Itinerary yields 6,342.
These are obviously the distances by various routes, or, by a more or less straight course,
1 take nearly the mean of them.
95
that rich and actively commercial province of China Proper, called Szchuen,*
whence by means of the Yang-tsz-kiang, and

wares, as readily as
China,
if
Hwangho, he may
he can be supposed to have any adequate motive
where
capital of Szchuen,
purchase tea or
transport his
may
he
for
going beyond the
European and Indian products, and
sell his
The mountains of Sifan and of

musk and rhubarb in the world, lie in his way
other products of China.
silk or
which yield the
Tibet,
of the
cheaply, throughout the whole central and northern parts of
finest borax,
both to and fro ; and, in a word, without deviating from his immediate course,
Kathmandu, he may procure where

commerce which Russia
or proceeding above ninety days' journey from
they grow, or are wrought,
must seek
indirectly
those valuable articles of
all
and at a much greater
not Calcutta and China,
may be
it
consumption of the truly valuable
and Indians would have

ofl
It is so, indeed
freight, of
cutta
how
little
little
we must
articles of this
commerce, of which the Nepalese
more than the carrying trade
and England
is
but, with reference to the cheapness and facility of
importance to commerce
not to mention that, as
merce,
But England and China, and
cost.
argued, must be the sites of the production and
I have oberved in reference to the Russian
but remember that England and Canada supply him with half he needs.
convey
peltry, to
What
the endless savage wastes of Siberia.
it
Nepal and Tibet
to these
At
same Chinese.
less
them through
than ninety stages from
Kathmandu, they would
arrive at the banks of the
Hwangho
Szchuen
merchants might
in
have reached their goal.
What,
and
then the
again, should hinder the
under-selling the Russian, in the articles of
by conveying them
may
general course
information
safely be said,
and
prospect of
we might
There are no
to Sztchuen
political
easily
From
should hinder our Indian subjects and
the Yang-tsz-kiang
it
com-
to the Chinese across
the Nepalese from procuring these same furs at Calcutta and conveying
Nothing,
ship
the distance of England from Cal-
is
not suppose the Russian has no further to seek than St. Petersburg,
Canada Russia seeks through England our
glass-ware,
afar
in Sifan, or those of
be said to
same merchants from
English woollens, hard-ware and
from Calcutta, by the same route
but want of sufficient information
commerce throughout
communicate the
the
world
upon the
;
and that
practical substance of to them*
bars or hindrances to be removed for the Nepalese have
used the Chinese commerce via Tibet for ages, and our Indian subjects might
deal in concert with
same means,
or
mercial adventure.
Nepalese by joint
firms
now, or shortly, Europeans
But of them
it
is
not
at
Kathmandu.
might essay
my present
Nay, by the
line of
com-
purpose to speakf.
Let
this
The route from Lhasa to the central and western provinces of China is far more
easy than that from Lhasa to Pekin.
+ Lord Elgin is now proceeding to China, in order to determine the footing upon
which the civilized world, and especially England, shall hereafter have commercial intercourse with the Celestial Empire.
It may
be worth while to remind His Excellency of the vast extent of
conterminous frontier and trading necessity in this quarter, between Gilgit and
Brahmakund.
We might stipulate for a Commercial Agent or Consul to be
located at Lhasa, or for a trading frontier post, like Kiachta and, at all events, it
would add to the weight and prestige of our Ambassador, to show himself familiar
;
$6
the native merchants of Calcutta and of Nepal, separately or in concert, take up

this
commerce, and whilst we, though not the immediate movers,

advantage of
the great
wanted
for others chiefly
growing
than
to a vigorous maturity
its infancy.
we
Europe,
in
if
have a
shall
shall yet reap
European
as consisting in an exchange of
it,
Europeans were to conduct
have only further to add,
in the
way
articles
chance
better
of
its
through
it
of continued
contrast
between the Russian commerce and that here sketched, that whilst the former
is
be
loaded with duties to the extent of 25 per cent., the latter would, in Nepal,
only to 8 per cent.* duty; in
subject
Tibet, to no duty at all; and in our
provinces only, I fancy, to a very moderate one, which might perhaps be

tageously
Having
abolished.
numerous books
thus, in the best
in
by means
plains,
was
advan-
without
able,
here, given a rapid
very flourishing commerce might
I conceive a
European and Indian
Trans-Himalayan
none of which are to be had
to refer to,
view of the grounds upon which

be driven
manner
between
articles,
the great
Cis-
document No.
subjects and those of Nepal, I need only add, that the
I. is
signed to arouse and direct the attention of the native merchants of Calcutta
I have given it a popular form with
tion in the Gleanings in Science
advantage,
and
an eye to
that No.
nothing
lastly, that
thi3 publication all the effect
its
and
of our Indian
(at least in tha first instance)
dethat
publication for general informa-
might be similarly published with
2.
further
is
order
necessary, in
which could be wished, than simply
give
to
to enjoin the
Editor of that work to refer any native making enquiries on the subject to the
Resident at Kathmandu, who, without openly aiding or interfering, might smooth

the merchant's- way to
To prove
reference be
Kiachta,
Kathmandn, and
undue
that I have laid no
had
to the circumstances
as lately
(i.e.,
assist
stress
him with counsel and information.
on this matter,
in 1829) laid before Parliament
between the two trades be objected
I only
desire that a
and extent of the Russian commerce at

;
and even
if this parallel
to in its present extent, (and I
have run
it
the whole length of China on one side, partly from a persuasion of the soundness
of the notion, partly to provoke enquiry,) let us limit our
and maintain the
parallel so modified.
Tibet, in the large sense,
is
It
may
whom
settled, peaceful, lettered,
and inhabited by no rude
and commercially disposed
our broad cloths are the one thing needful since, whilst
and both
sexes,
to Tibet
an immense country, tolerably well peopled, possessed
of a temperate climate, rich in natural productions,
uomades, but by a
own views
instruct, as well as stimulate us.
wear woollen
cloths, the native
all
race, to
ranks and ages,
manufactures are most wretched,
and China has none of a superior sort and moderate price wherewith to supply
with his whole case, or with the landward, as well as the sea-board relations of
Note of 1857.
Britainand China.
* That is, the 6 per cent, before spoken of and 2 per cent, more levied between Kathmandu and the Bhote Frontier but the latter duty can hardly be rated so high at all
events, 8 percent, will amply cover all Custom House charges within the Nepalese doSee general reIn our territories, the duties appear to reach 7 per cent.
minions.
marks to Part 1.
;

With her musk, her rhubarb, her
the Tibetans.
97
borax, her splendid wools, her
mineral and animal wealth, her universal need of good woollens, and her incapacity
from any of her neighours, Tibet
to provide herself, or to obtain supplies
may well
be believed capable of maintaining a large and valuable exchange of commodities
with Great Britain, through the medium of our Indian subjects and the people of
Nepal, to which latter the aditus, closed to all others by China, is freely open
Nor is it now needful to use another argument, in proof of the extension of which
this commerce is capable, than simply to point to the recorded extent of the existing
Russian commerce with China across Siberia.
P.S., 1857.
alaya
A costly road has
been constructed recently over the Western
but, adverting to proximity
and
Him-
accessibility to the various centres of sup-
ply and demand, I apprehend
that a brisk trade between the Cis- and Trans-Himalayan countries would inevitably seek the route of the central or eastern part
To
of the chain.
Delhi, Benares, Patna, Dacca and Calcutta, on the one hand,to
the rich and populous parts of Tibet, extending from Digarchee
o ther hand, either of the latter routes
By
the unanimous testimony of
ern Tibet
country.
all
is
far nearer
to Sifan,
and much more
all
on the
accessible.
natives and of written native authorities
West-
much the poorest, most rugged, and least populous part of that
Utsang, Kham, Sifan, and the proximate parts of China furnish* all the
is
very
materials, save shawl-wool, for a trade with us, as well as all the effective
for our commodities.
All this points to
Kathmandu
Gowhatti in Asam) as the most expedient
demand
Darjeeling or Takyeul (above
line of transit of the
Himalaya. J
I.
THE TEADE OF NEPAL.
When we
consider
how much
intelligent
Calcutta have, of late years, been manifesting,

of the mercantile class
commerce
of Nepal.
activity
the native inhabitants of
we cannot
help wondering that none
among them should have yet turned their attention to the

Do they not know that the Newars, or aborigines of the great
Valley of Nepal, have, from the earliest times, maintained an extensive commercial
intercourse
between the plains of India on the one hand and those of Tibet on the
By the terms of the Treaty of 1792, the duties leviable on both sides are limited to 24
per cent, ad valorem of the invoice. The actual charges to which the trader is put
far exceed the customs duties eo nomine, since tolls are levied by every Jageerdar on the
transit of goods through the lowlands.
* See Cooper, Bengal As. Soc. Journal for May 1869.
t Since this was written the successful growth and manufacture of tea in the British
Himalaya are accomplished facts adding greatly to the means of establishing without
doubt or difficulty a flourishing commerce with Tibet and the countries immediately north
and east of it. In Kumaon, Sikim, Asam, are found great and thriving tea growing
Nothing is more craved for or less procureable, in Tibet and up to the
establishments.
Russian frontier, than good tea and if we cannot open up the Takyeul route from Asam
we can and have^hat through Sikim b}r the Chola pass. The recent treaty has given us
a right of way and of road construction, and this pass is not liable to be closed by the
snow nor is the access to Sikim from the south rendered dangerous by malaria. The
southern half of Sikim is our own the northern half belongs to our dependant ally to
whom we restored it in 1816, and for whom we have preserved it ever since, from the
;
grasp of Nepal.
MMl
98
other; that Nepal
owing
is
now
to the firm peace
subject to a wise and orderly Native
and
alliance
Company's, the Indian merchant has

confidence inspired
Government; that
between that Government and the Honorable

and free access to Nepal
full
that the
by the high character of the native administration, and by the
presence of a British Resident at the Court, has led the native merchants'of Benares
to establish
several
flourishing kothees
Kathmindu, that the Cashmerians
at
of Patna have had kothees there for ages past
the inhabitants of our territories
now
that so entirely
to Nepal, that lakhs of the natives of Oude, Behar,

all
the
mind of
and North East Bengal, of
ranks and conditions, annually resort to Kathmandu, to keep the great vernal
Are the shrewd native merchants
Pasupati Kshetra.
festival at
incapable of imitating the example of their brethren of Benares,
no
is
disabused of the old idle dread of a journey
less
than ten kothees at
Kathmandu
and will
it
not shame them to hear, that
whilst not one of them has essayed a visit to Kathmandu, to

observation on the spot, very
many Nepalese have found
and
cent, per cent,
realized,
articles ?
on their return,
The native merchants
of Calcutta
who have now
make enquiry and

way to Calcutta,
their
on their speculations in European
of Calcutta have, whilst there, a hard struggle to
maintain with their European rivals in trade, but at Kathmandu, they would have
no such formidable rivalry to contend with, because Europeans not attached to the
Residency, have no access to the country and without such access, they probably
could not, and certainly have not, attempted to conduct any branch of the trade
in question.
But every native of
pleasure, nor
would he
country permission
of trade.
With
find
any
to sojourn
the plains of India
difficulty in
by himself
is
free to enter
Nepal
or his agent at
Kathmandu,
for purposes
a view to arouse, as well as to direct, the attention of our native
brethren of the City of Palaces, in regard to the trade of Nepal,

of the principle details respecting the route, the
manner and the
we
subjoin
be necessary to dwell upon that portion of the way which
own
provinces
suffice it to
commodious water carriage

situated on the
Gandak
lies
and
It cannot
within the heart
say that, by the Ganges and Gandak, there
at all seasons,
territories.
is
from Calcutta to Govindguuge or Kesriah,
river, in the Zillah of
boundary of the Nepalese
some
cost of carriage^
the nature and amount of the duties levied by the Nepal Government.
of our
at his
procuring from the Government of the
Sarun, and no great
way from
the
Kesriah or Govindgunge, then, must be
the merchant's place of debarkation for himself and his goods, and there he must
provide himself with bullocks for the conveyance of his wares, as far as the base of
the greater mountains of Nepal, where
again, he will have to
men to complete the transfer of

and here we may notice a precaution of some
merchant's wares should be made up at Calcutta
bullocks and hire
carriage on a man's back of the full weight of
because,
if
the wares be so
made
importance, which
Kathmandu;
is,
that the
into secure packages adapted for
two Calcutta bazar mauuds each;
up, a single mountaineer will carry that sur-
prising weight over the huge mountains of Ne"pal, whereas

to unite their strength with effect
send back the
his merchandise to
in the
two men not being able
conveyance of goods, packages heavier
than two maunds are, of necessity, taken to pieces on the road at great hazard and
99
inconvenience, or the merchant must submit to have very light weights carried for
him, in consideration of his awkwardness or inexperience in regard to the mode

Besides the system of duties proceeds in some sort upon a
of adjusting loads.
presumption of such loads as those prescribed

exactly a bullock freight; and upon bullocks
dient to convey wares from Kesriah to
and
it is
let
him have with him apparatus
He
lock's saddle.
will thus save
dgunge are both flourishing
by
Let every
foot of the mountains.
the.
merchant, therefore, make np his goods into parcels of two
and
two such loads form
lastly,
necessary, or at least highly expe-
for fixing
full
bazar maundseach,
two of such parcels across a bulKesriah and Govintrouble.
much money and
which plenty of good bullocks can be had
villages at
the merchant, for the carriage of his wares, as well as a good tattoo for his
riding to the foot of the
whence he himself must
hills,
own
either walk, or provide
himself (as he easily can at Hitounda) with a dooly, for the journey through the
mountains to Kathmandu, the hire of a bullock from Kesriah to Hitounda; at tbe

besides which sum, there is an ex-
foot of the mountains, is three Sicca rupees
pense of six annas per bullock to tokdars or watch-men on this route,
The
nas at Moorliah, two at Bichiako, and two at Hitounda.

fore per bullock,
each bullock
is
viz.,
two an
total expenses, there-
from Kesriah to Hitounda, are Sicca rupees 3-6-0. The load of

Kesriah to
pukka maunds. The stages are nine, as follows
:
four
Bhopatpoor, 5 cos
to
Lohia, 7 cos
to Segoulee, 5 cos;
to
Amodahi, 5
cos; to
Pursoni,6 cos; to Bisouliah or Simrabasa, 4 cos; to Bichiako, 5 cos; to Chooriah

Ghauti, 3 cos
frequently
and
Hitounda, 4 cos being 44 cos in
to
all.
observed, is at
Hitounda, as already
the foot of the great mountains, which, for want of
Men,
roads, no beast of burden can traverse laden.
therefore, are employed, but
so athletic and careful and trustworthy are the hill porters, that this sort of
carriage
is far less
expensive or inconvenient than might be imagined. The precau-
tions in respect to packages before prescribed having been attended to
by the trader
he will find the four maunds of goods, which constituted the one bullock's load as
far as Hitounda readily taken up by two hill-porters, who will convey them
most carefully
in six days to
Kathmandii.
It is an
established rule,
maunds, properly packed, make two bakkoos, or men's
loads,
which
that four
are conveyed
Kathmandu at the fixed rate of two rupees of the country per bakkoo or load.
Hitounda to Bhainsa Dobkang, 3| cos;
The stages and distances are as follows
to Thankot, 3
to Chitlong, 3 cos
to Tambakhani, 3 cos
to Bhimphedy, 4 cos
there
is a Custom
At
Hitouada,
cos.
Total,
19^
cos
3
Kathmandii,
cos; to
to
House Chokey, where packages
are counted merely, not opened, nor is
any duty
At Chisapani Fort, which is half way between Bhimphedy and

Tambakhani, is another Custom Chokey, and there the merchandise is weighed,
levied there.
and a Government duty is levied of one anna per dharni of three seers, being two
Paisa rupees per bakkoo also, a Zemindary duty at Chitlong of two annas per
bakkoo or load of 32 dharni, in other words of 96 ordinary seers. At Thankot, the
:
last
stao-e
but one, a further Zemindary duty
is
levied of four annas per bakkoo.
IOO
SUMMARY RECAPITULATION OF THE EXPENSES FOR CARRIAGE AND DUTY

BETWEEN HITOUNDA AND KATHMANDU.
Nepalesc Rs.
4120
Duties Paisa rupees
we add
if
7 12
30
9|
3 12
Per bullock load
To which,
Siccus.
400
Hire of Porters
6 4 9!
the 3-6-0 Sicca for bullock hire and watch-men, between
Kesriah and Hitounda, we shall have a total of Sicca
9-10-9f for the
rupees
expense, for duty and carriage, of conveying four pukka bazar
maunds and upwards,
(64 dharni or 192 ordinary seers exactly,) from the Ghaut of the
thmandu, where
finally the
may
of the 'country or 2-13-6 Sicca, and where the merchant
upon Calcutta
The
duties
prices for his
European
to
Ka-
upon imports from the
On
get cent, per cent,
they have been well selected.
articles, if
plains, leviable at
Kathmandu,
The farm
the Government, instead of being collected directly.
the farmer, Bhansari.
Gandak
goods are subject to an ad valorem duty of rupees 8-8-0
is
by
are farmed
called
Bhansar
the arrival of a merchant with goods from the plains,
the Bhansari, or his deputy, waits upon the merchant and seals up his bales, if
it
When the bales
be not convenient to him to have them at once examined.
opened and the goods inspected, an ad valorem duty

cent, is levied
on them by the Bhansari, thus
(for the
most part) of
cent.
.
The value
of the goods,
10 o
36
6
13
upon which depends the amount of duty,
of the merchant's invoice and
thence called the Nirikhnian.

er's
Siccas.
..180
3
inspection
If th
are
per
NepaZese Rs.
For Kinara or Kinara, per

For Nirikhi, per cent.
2>\
by appraisement
is
settled
by
of a regular officer,
merchant continue to dispute the apprais-
valuation, and the consequent amount, of duty, and will not listen to reason,
it is
usual for the Government, in the last resort, to require the merchant to dispose
of his wares to
bate the duty

at his
word,
and exhibit
man
it
at his
own
when he
his goods, for if he do, he
least expected
his invoice,
Let no one therefore think
alleged valuation.
by under-valuing
it.
For the
able administration, to oppress
levied on the
way
are called Sayer
he be
would not be
the merchant.
to a-
find himself taken

fair
and reasonable
he has nothing to fear from the Bhansari,
of eminent place or power, and if he were,
present
rest, if
may
who
suffered,
is
not a
under the
In respect to the duties
up, (at Chisapani and Thankot,) as already explained, they
and Bakwaoon. If the merchant
them
on the road, and
settle
Chisapani takes a
memorandum
for
at
please, he
Kathmandu,
in
may
avoid paying them
which case the Collector of
of the weight of the goods and forwards
it
to
....
10
the Bhansari and to the Government Collector at Kathmandu, giving the merchant, at the same time, a note of hand to pass
We
him
on.
have stated that the duty on Imports from the plains
valorem one of 3-8-0 of the country currency
but
as,
there
is,
is
in general, an
ad
a different rate in
respect to some of the articles, and, as the enumeration of the chief Imports will
who may
serve as a sort of guide to the Calcutta trader,
a speculation to Kathmandu.
we
be disposed to adventure
shall give a list of these
Imports with the duty
assigned to each.
Duty
Nepal Rupees
European broad cloths and other woollens of all

European chintzes and other cotton of
European
per cent. 3 8
sorts
all sorts
silks of all sorts
in
&
Sicca*
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
European linens of all sorts
3 8
2 13 6
Amritsur and Cashmere shawls, good
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
Dacca muslins and Jamdanees, sahans, &c
Malda and Bhaugulpoor
silk
and mixed
and
silk
cotton stuffs
Benares kimkhabs,
pattahs,
Mirzapoor
mushroos. shamlas, do-
toftas,
&c
and
Calpee
kharwas and garhas
Mowsahans,andarsahs,&c.
Behar, pagrees,kha8as,&c
Lucknow and Tanha
Bareilly,
Enropean
cutlery,
as
chintzes
knives,
&c.
scissors,
European glass-ware chandeliers, wall-shades, &c.
European mirrors, window
glass,
&c
3 8
2 13 6
3 8
2 13 6
10
10
,,
Indian karanas, or groceries, drugs, dyes, and spicery

of all sorts
Peltry of Europe and India, as Dacca, other skins,
goat ditto,
&c
Quicksilver, vermilion, red and white lead, brimstone, jasta, ranga,
camphor
,,
Indigo pays in kind

Precious
Indian
stones, as
laces,
as
Whoever has
diamond emerald,
Kalabuttu, Gotah,
sold his wares at
pearl,
coral
&c
Kathmandu
500410
10
18
8 2
13 6
4 10
will next look to purchasing a
"Return Cargo" with the proceeds of such sale. We therefore now proceed to
notice the manner and amount of the Export duties levied by the Ne"pal Government
upon goods exported to the plains. There is no difference between goods the produce
of N6pal and such as are the produce of Bhote (Tibet) or China, all paying on
exportation to India at the same rate.
The Exports,
like the Imports, are farmed,
and
that the merchant will have again to treat with.
NN
it is
therefore with the Bhansari
102
The Export duty
per cent., which
is
is
an ad valorem one, and amounts, for the most part, to 4-11-1
levied thus
. . ..
. .

The
officers,
103
upon the Bhote trade are levied by government through
duties
its
own
Goods of the plains
not farmed, like the duties on the trade with the plains.
(whether the produce of Europe or India,) exported through Nepal to Bhote, are
made up
owing
into packages or bakkoos, of sixteen dhdrnis, or forty-eight seers only,
to the extreme difficulties of the road,
cany more than
that weight upon his back
which
Upon
of conveyance, until the Himalaya has been passed.
the duty
is
levied at the Taksar or Mint,
The
Taksari in consequence.
details of
and the
Taksar
Nikasi
10
sum
10
chief exports to Bhote are
10 10
furnishes the merchant
his goods, free, to the frontier of
European broad cloths
and brown- coloured), cutlery, pearls,
liver,
= Siccas
to the Taksari, that officer
with a passport, which will pass
The
for all articles
Paisa Rupees
of this
to
collector is familiarly called
duty of the 1-0-1 are these
Bahidar
Upon payment
man
these bakkoos or loads
and amounls to Paisa rupees 1-0-1 per bakhoo,
is levied,
The duty
alike.
will not permit a
and there are no other means whatever
coral,
Bhot
or Tibet.
(crimson, green, orange,
diamonds, emeralds, indigo and
Goods imported into Nepal from Bhote (no duty levied there) payto the
Taksar at Kathrnandu as follows
opium.
Musk
pods, per seer (in kind)
Gold, per tolah

Silver
paid
for
is all
1 tolahs.
1
anna.
necessarily sold to the Taksar and is received at the Sicca weight,
the Nepalese or Mohari weight, difference three annas.
at
Duty.
Articles.
Chours, white
black
Ditto,
Chinese and
and raw
Bhotea
silk
per dharni 4 annas.
velvets, woollens, satins, silk thread,
4 rupees
per cent.
Peltry of Mongolia and Bhote, samoor, kakoon, chuah-khal,

garbsooth, &c.
Borax
Chinese and Bhotea tea
..
Drugs
From Kathmandii to Bhote
..
..
frontier, or rather, to the frontier
of Keroong, there are two roads, one of which
called the
is
marts of Kooti and
Keroong and the other
the Kooti way, after the marts in question, which are respectable Botea towns.
The following
are
the
stages
and expenses
Kathmandii
stages, sixteen dharnis, or forty-eight seers, a man's load.
Nepal
or Siccas 1-10-0
The
His
Kooti, eight
to
hire,
2 rupees of
for the trip.
stages are Sankhoo, Z\ cos; to Sipa, 7 5 cos; to Choutra, 5 cos
to
Maggar-
;
;
104
gaon or Dharapani, 3 or 4 cos ; to
Listi,
5 cos ; to Khasa, 4 cos to Che-sang, 5 cos

;
to Kooti, 3| cos.
From K&thmandii
to
to Keroong, the eight stages are
to Nayakot, 5 cos
to Taptap, 4 cos
Maidan Pootah, 3 cos
to Risoo (frontier),
cos
to Prehoo,
4 cos
to
To
4 cos
to
Jaiphal-kepowah, 4
Dhom-chap, 5 coe
Maima, 4 cos
to Keroong, 4
cos.
The load is the same as on the Kooti road and the hire of the carrier the same.
The Himalaya once passed, you come to a tolerably plain country, along which
beasts of burden can travel laden.
The usual carriage is on ponies and mules,

which carry two bakkoos of sixteen dhdrnis each, and can be hired for the trip,
from Lhasa to the Nepal frontier, for twenty rupees of Bhote currency. They perform the journey in about a month, allowing
P-S.
The
Nepalese dhdrni
worth thirteen annas.

shortly and
common
rupee
called
equal to three seers.
The Nepalese rupee
is
an ancient dynasty, Mahendra Mally, or

almost a mere nominal coin, from its scarce-
It is called, after
commonly Mohari.
ness, the
is
is
for three or four days' halts.
It is
currency consisting of half rupees or Mdhars.
Kala Mohari.
It
The Bhote
ought to be equal to the Nepalese, but
dered five gundas less valuable by undue adulteration.
is
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INDEX.
Abhidhanottarottara,
Acharya,
Causes of good and
19.
Adbhuta Dharma, 15.

Adi Buddha, 27, 46 ff.,
Chaitya, 29
83
77,
Chepang language,
tribe,
Arhat, 30, 52, 70

Artha, 92.
f.
Arya Bhagavati,
16.
ff.,
55
ff., et
passim.
Dana,
ff.,
Bauddha
51,
Bhot,
63
f.,
ff.
71, 139.
ff.
13, 16, 49, 54.
40.
14.
EkthA'riahs,
63, 71.
ii.,
38
f.,
Export Trade of Nepal,
9, 22.
Bhotiya language, 3 ff., 22,

Bhotiya characters, 9 ff.
Bhotiya works, list of, 20

Bhiitam, ii., 29 ff.
Bhuvanas, 42 f., 76, 91.
Bodlncharya, 19, 68.
Bodhijnftna, 16, 59, 61
f.
Bodhtsattwa, 62, 74, 77.

Botia, ii., 61 f.
Brahmans, ii., 39.

Buddha, 46 ff., 62,
73.
Dharani Sangraha, 18.

Dharma, 40 f., 55, 60, 72, 109, 113.
Dharmakara, 116 ff.
Dharmapala, 118.
Dhwajagra Keyuri, 19.
Dhyana, 25 ff., 42, 58, 61.
Dhyani Buddha, 27, 58, 64.
Dhyani Bodhisattwa, 28 ff., 59.
Digambara, 40.
Divyavadana, 20.
Drokpa, ii., 66.
Dwiivinsati Avadana, IS.
17.
f.
f.
Dharani, 18, 49.
16.
89, 105
literature, 9
Bhanjin Mola, 8
Bhikshu, 30, 52,
18.
62.
ii.,
Dharana,
f.
16.
ff.,
Bhadrakalpika,
ff.
44.
Den war,
15.
Bala, 92.
Bandya, 30
47
15.
Dasa Bhumeswara,
Dasa Siksha, 142.
Asoka Avadana, 17.

Asva Ghosha, 127 ff.
Atman, 75.
f.
1, ii.,
ff.
DakshinXchara,
Prajna Paramita,
79
45
Circumambulation, 19.
Creation of the World, 42
Deha,
Ashta Sahasrika, 12
16,
Chivara, 19, 141.
Anupapadika Buddhas, 27.

Aparamita Dharani, 18, 32.
Avidya,
ii.
Chhandomrita Mala,
Aiswarika system, 23
Akara, 92.
Akasa, 74 ff., 104 f.
Ananda, 12.
Avatara, 47
19.
Chakpa, ii., 66.

Chakshu, 93.
Adi Dharma, 116.

Adi Prajna, 85 ff.
Adi Sangha, 88.
Vyakhyii,
49, 52, 54, 64, 71, 81, 136.
ff.,
Chaitya Pungava,
ff.
His 32 lakshanas, 90.

His 80 vyanjanas, 91 f.
His 5 varnas, 91.
Avadana,
evil, 50.
Chailaka, 30, 52, 64.
30.
ii.,
29
ii.,
ff.
Five Buddhas,
77.
Ganda
13, 16,
f.
VYtfHA,
Gatha, 14
Geya, 14
f.
f.
Gita Pustaka, 20.
God's attributes,
Gorkhii,
ii.,
Gorkhali,
72.
43.
45.
40.
,
52.
Graha Matrika,
19.
2, ii
4!.
114
ff.
..
12
INDEX.
Mahakala Tantra,
Mahasunyata, 74.
Mahavastu, 17.
Guhya Sumagha, 17.

Guna Karanda Vyuha, 17, 54.
Gurung language, 1 f., ii., 29 ff.
Gurung tribe, ii., 39 i., 44.
Mahayana Sutra, 11.

Mahayanika Buddha,
Gyami, ii., 65 ff.

Gyarung, ii., 65 ff.
tribe,
Himalaya, name,
ii.,
ii.,
16
ff.
1.
Manjhi,
46.
ii.,
ii.
physical geography,
population,
ii.,
13
ff. ;
aborigines,
ii.,
29
ff.
ff. ;
tion, ii., 83 ff.

Hor, Horpa, Horsok,
65
ii.,
Import Trade of Nepal,

Ityukta, 14
zoology,
colonisa-
ff.
ii.,
105
ff.
ii.,
62.
Manjughosha, 62.
Manjunatha, 62.
Manjusri, 62, 116
ff.
Manushi Buddhas, 7.
Manushi Bodhisattwas, 28
Manyak, ii., 65 ff.
Maracharya,
15.
68.
51.
Military tribes of Nepal,
Jataka Mala,
Jnana, 27 ff.,
ff.
Matter, 44, 55.
f.
Metempsychosis,
Jataka,
32, 60, 72, 86.
Manas, 78 ff
Manichura, 18.
Haiyu language,
Haiyu
19.
17.
Moksha, 25, 45 ff., 50,

Murmi, 1, ii., 29 ff.
92.
37
ii.,
ff.
55, 84.
Kachari
1.
Na*gas, 115
Kalpalatavadana, 20.
Kanaka Muni,
Kapila,
Nagavasa, 115
Nava Dharmas,
17, 54.
Karkotaka, 115.
Karma, 25, 74, 78
Kasyapa,
41, 57, 78
28
91
f.,
ii.,
38
37
ff.,
Kshattriyas,
1,
ff.,
ff.,
ii.,
29
ff.
41, 45
f.,
55
47, 63,
51, 62.
ff.
Nidana, 14
ff.
ii.
38
ii.,
61
Nirodha, 16.
Nirvana, 46, 82.
Nirvritti, 16, 23
104
Objects of Bauudha worship, 93

Original language of
13, 17, 49.
66
Eanja.
Lankavatara, 13,
29
1, ii.,
29
49.
47
29
ff.
f.
ff.
ff.
Paraimtii, 13, 15, 91.

Parbattia, see Khas.
Lokeswara Sataka,
19.
Magar language,
Magar
f.,
ii.,
39
Pauriinikas, 73.
f., ii.,
43
f.
29
ff.
Pauranika Buddhas,
Pindapatra, 19.
79
ff.,
29.
f.
ff.
ff.
Bauddha
Pancha Abhisheka, 142

Pancha Raksha, 18.
Litsavis, 17.
tribe,
f.,
f.
Pali, 120
1, ii.,
ff.,
74
Nivasa, 19, 141.
Origin of mankind, 43
Lapcha, Lepcha,
ff.,
f.
ff.
f.
Lalita Vistara,
ii.,
ff.
ff.
Kutagara, 49.
Limbu,
name, 51, 117

commerce, ii.,
ff.;
ff.
Newars, 1
ff.
Kusunda language, 1.
Kusunda tribe, ii., 45
Lhopa,
ff.
f.
Krakucchanda, 117
Kriya Sangraha, 9.
see
written characters,
religion, 22
Nirlipta, 63.
Kiranti, 1
Kuswiir,
ff.
Newari,
92.
ii.,
49, C9.
legendary history, 115
Katkinavadiina, 19.
Klias tribe,
ff.,
ff.
12, 119.
Khas language,
12
Nayaka, 63, 71, 140 f.

Nayakot, ii., 55 ff.
Nepal languages, 1 ff.
ff.
Karmika system, 23 ff.,

Karuna Pundarika, 18.
Lanja,
ff.
2.
Karanda Vyuha,
Kuya,
ff.
Niigapuja, 19.
119.
scriptures,
INDEX.
124
Pindapatra Avadana,
Prachanda Deva, 1 18
19.
Sukhavati Loka,
Sumaghavadana, 19.
Sunwar, 1, ii., 29 ff.
Prajna, 42, 53. 56, 61, 72, 75, 78
89,
ff.,
104 f.,
109, 116.
Prajna Paramita, 12, 14, 16, 49, 60, 62.

Prajnika Swabhavika system, 25, 55 ft.,
Prakrit, 120
19.
Sunyata, 16, 24
ff.,
Sutra, 12, 14
60, 87.
f.,
59
Prakriti, 55.
73
Prana, 44.
Pratisara, 18.
Swayambhu,
Swayambhu Purana,
104
Thakpa,
f.,
55
ff.,
74
Puja Khanda,
writings,
65
ff.
49.
ff.,
3, 21.
Thakuri,
12, 14, 16, 60.
Thochu,
Tibet
Saddhakma Pundarika,
ii.,
Sakavansa,
65
ff.,
Sambhu Purana,
ii.,
Bhot) literature, 9
29
70, 119
Sanskrit, 3, 5
66
32, 49.
f.,
Upaya,
ff.
;
Bauddha
literature, 11
ff.,
36
ff.
!
Saptavara Dharani,
Saraka Dhara,
19.
18, 54,
\
32.
|
29
ff.
Vaipulya, 15.
Vajra Acharya,
Vajra Pani, 17.
41, 52, 63
G\>.
99.
Vajra Sattwa, 73, 136.

Vajra Suchi, 127 ff.
73.
Vasita, 92.
Vihara, 29
ff.,
52, 62
ff.
ff.
Vinaya Sutra,
20.
Sikhi Buddha, 115.
Vipasyi Buddha, 115.
Sokpa,
Viswabhu Buddha, 115
65
f.
Vija Mantra, 73, 76.

Vinaya, 37.
Shadayatana, 80.
65
72, 78, 89, 104.
Vamachara,
Sarira, 44.
Sarvartha Siddha,
15.
Upali, 12.
ff.
48.
120
15.
Upadesa,
14, 17, 27, 53, 57, 62, 115
ff.,
50.
f.
Udana,
ff.
Spirit, 44.
Vyakarana,
12, 15
f.
ff.
Sravaka, 30, 52, 86.
Sravaka Buddha,
32, 60.
Yatna,
25, 74,
82
f.
Stotra Sangraha, 20.
Yatnika system, 23
Sugataja, 86.
Yoni,
Sugatavadana,
19.
56.
Yugas, 44,
ff.
ff.
lan-
ff.
Triyana, 60, 102, 145.
Sangha, 41, 69 ff.

Sankara Achaiya, 12, 14,
Sansara, 45, 74.
ii.,
33
ff.
(see also
Trigunatmaka,
2.
Sakyavausikas, 70.
Samadhi Raja, 13, 17,
ii.,
lists,
103.
Sakya Sinha, 11
ii.,
19.
Triad (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha),

ff.
Saktis of Buddha, 58
Sanskrit
61.
39, 43.
ii.,
ii.,
guages,
13, 17, 49.
39.
Saivism, 133
ii.,
14.
f.,
ff.,
Tarai,
Tathagata, 62, 77, 97, 101

Tathagata Guhyaka, 13, 49.
RakshjC Bhagayati,
Ranja, 8
Tapas, 25
Tara Satnama,
11, 54, 139.
Puranas, 38f.,49.
Sifan,
Sambhu Purana.
Tantrikas, 73.
Buddhist
of
ff.
Serpa,
see
Tantrika Buddhas, 29
f.
Primary language
Sahi,
61.
17, 111.
ii.,
Tantras, 36
ff.,
rravrittika, 24, 61.
120
ff.,
87.
45
41,
ff.,
41, 55
105.
ff.,
PratyangiriL Dharani, 19.
Pravritti, 16, 23
74 ff.,83, 93, 105.
Suvarna Prabhasa, 13, 17, 49.

Swabhava, 25, 73.
Swabhavika system, 13, 23 ff.,
62.
ff
Pratyeka Buddha, 32, 60,

Pravrajya Vrata, 139 ff.
ff.,
ff.,
41, 57. 82
27,
53,
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*Ti

GEOGRAPHY, ETHNOLOGY, AND COMMERCE

HONORARY MEMBER OF THE GERMAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY;

LATE BRITISH MINISTER AT THE COURT OF NEpXl.

Reprinted, with Corrections

and Additions, from "Illustrations of the Literature and Religion

of the Buddhists," Seramfiore, 1841

Government of Bengal, No.

& CO., 57 & 59

Summers was about

zine for China, Japan,

to start the Phoenix, a

and Eastern Asia, the

and obtained permission

The present and following papers

(to be given in successive numbers of the Phoenix)

are from the

'Journal of the Bengal Society;

vice to the learned of

Hodgson's "improved and extended views," so far as Buddhism

cerned, were found embodied in

numerous marginal notes

of the " Selections."

All these corrections and additions have been

phases of his views, ranging over a period

of nearly thirty years.

a collected form as a separate publication, to

to issue these reprints in

which proposition the

last article of the latter

(on the Pravrajya Vrata) terminates.

arrangement, the Editor of the present work found

sary to begin a fresh pagination with the Second Part.

References to this part

prefixed to the Arabic figure,

showing the page.

accordance with his original design.

to the completion of the separate re-issue in

his departure, in the

with a view to their eventual publication.

above-mentioned article has subsequently been completed.

Remarks on an Inscription in the Rancha and Tibetan

X. Account of a Visit to the Ruins of Simroun

Royal Asiatic Society), which were considered

count of the systems of

XL 1. 2. of the " Selections " (Route

Route of Nepalese Mission

XII. Extract of Proceedings of the

Police as recognised in the State of Nepal

These last-mentioned would in due course have

sudden discontinuance of that magazine.

regretted in the case of the papers on Nepalese Law,

most other papers by

remain the only

The same may,

trustworthy source of information on that subject.

Hodgson, especially those on the Tribes and Lan-

and would be well worth preserving

all these questions,

both those treated of in

he has almost exclusively remained master of a

search in which he had been the