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Vision Lecture II
Vision Lecture II
Primary Structures:
cilliary body:
Lens: is a transparent structure consisting of onion-like layers of protein.
The shape of the lens determines the degree to which light rays that as
through will be refracted. Contraction of the cilliary muscles relaxes the
suspensory ligament and makes the lens more spherical. A flat lens per-
mits focusing on distant objects. a spherical lens permits viewing close up
objects. Variations is ability to focus ( far sightedness, near sightedness)
are due to shape differences of the lens. Increased age causes the lens to
become less flexible in its ability to change shape (accommodation). This
leads to the need to use reading glasses to see things up close. Vision
problems can change
Internal Tunic
Retina: covers the choroid as the inner most layer of the eye. It consists of
an outer pigmented layer in contact with the choroid and an inner nervous
layer or visual portion. The nervous layer of the retina and the pigmented
layer are not attached to each other. except where they surround the optic
nerve.
Because these layers are not attached , the two layers may become
separated as a detached retina. This can be corrected surgically by fus-
ing the layers with a laser. The nervous part of the retina is composed of
3 layers. In the order of which they conduct impulses they are the Rod
and Cone Cells are the photoreceptors. Rod cells are slender and num-
ber around 100 million per eye. They are positioned on the peripheral
parts of the retina and respond to dim light for black and white vision.
They also respond to form and movement but provide poor acuity. Cone
cells which number about 7 million per eye provide daylight color vision
and greater visual acuity. Cone cells are concentrated in a depression
near the center of the retina called the fovea centralis. Surrounding the
fovea centralis is the macula lutea which also has an abundance of cone
cells. There are no photoreceptors in the area where the optic nerve is at-
tached to the eyeball. This area is known as the blind spot and also re-
ferred to as the optic disc.
A person is normally unaware of the blind spot because the eyes continu-
ally move around and objects are viewed from different angles with each
eye. Also the image of an object that falls on the blind spot of one eye will
fall on the receptors of the other eye. The optic disc/blind spot can be
seen on an examination of the eye with an opthalmoscope.
The photoreceptors synapse with the bipolar neurons, which in turn syn-
apse with the ganglion neurons. The axons of the ganglion neurons
leave the eye as the optic nerve.
Optic nerve: this is the main nerve responsible for transmitting images to
the brain. It is an extension of the axons of the ganglion neurons.
Blood supply: Both the choroid and the retina are highly vascular. The
primary artery is the central artery and the primary vein is the central vein.
Both of these pass through the optic disc as they enter and exit the eye.
Scientific Anatomy
Lacrimal apparatus:
This consists of the lacrimal gland (tear gland) and the lacrimal duct.
Lacrimal fluid (tears) is a lubricating mucous secretion that contains salts and a
bactericidal substance called lysozyme. This reduces the likelihood of infections.
The lacrimal gland produces about 1 ml of fluid each day. If something gets in the
eye larger quantities are produced to flush out the irritant by diluting and washing
it out.
The lacrimal glands also respond to emotional distress. This is a result of para-
sympathetic stimulation of facial nerves. Humans are one of the few animals that
cry as a response to distress or sadness.
extrinsic eye muscles: the movements of the eyeball are controlled by 6 ex-
trinsic ocular muscles. Four recti muscles move the eyeball in the direction of its
Scientific Anatomy
name (superior, inferior, lateral, medial). Two oblique muscles ( superior and in-
ferior) rotate the eyeball on its axis.
Transmission of Light
Light entering the eyeball passes through 4 transparent media before stimulating the
photoreceptors which are found on the surface of the retina. The sequence is this: cor-
nea > aqueous humor > lens > vitreous humor.
The lens and cornea are avascular and made of solid protein fibers. The aqueous hu-
mor is a low viscosity fluid and the vitreous humor is jelly-like.
Scientific Anatomy
Refraction of light
Refraction is the bending of light rays. It occurs as light rays pass at an oblique angle
from a medium of one optical density to a medium of a different optical density. The
convex cornea is the principal refractive medium; the aqueous and vitreous humors
produce minimal refraction. The lens is most important for refining and altering refrac-
tion. Of the refractive media in the eye only the lens can be altered in shape to get pre-
cise refraction. As with a camera lens the image is formed upside down on the retina.
Photoreceptors on the retina transmit the image to nerve cells which send impulses.
Nerve impulses of the image in this position are relayed to the visual cortex where the
inverted image is interpreted as right side up.
cles causes the suspensory ligament to relax and the lens becomes thicker. A thicker
more convex lens causes the greater refraction of light for viewing close objects in
sharp focus.
Constriction of the pupil
Constriction of the pupil is caused by parasympathetic stimulation that causes the pupil-
lary constrictor muscles to contract. This is important for two reasons. One is that it re-
duces the amount of light that enters the posterior cavity. A reflexive constriction of the
pupil protects the retina from bright intense light. Two, reduced pupil diameter prevents
light rays from entering the posterior cavity through the periphery of the lens. Light com-
ing from the periphery cannot be brought into focus and causes blurred vision. Auto-
nomic pupil constriction and lens accommodation occur simultaneously.
Three different specialized cone cells permit color vision. Different photosensitive pig-
ments enable each type of cell to absorb light in the red, green or blue range. Color
Scientific Anatomy
blindness is the inability to distinguish certain colors (most commonly, reds and greens
and occasionally blue & yellow ). Color blindness is a hereditary sex-linked defect.
It occurs in the general population at about 5-8% rate for men and 0.5% for women.
in the temporal lobes. The corpus callosum is also important in processing and integrat-
ing visual information since it allows the two hemispheres to communicate.
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Normal vision:
Focus point is at the fovea centralis
Scientific Anatomy