Ontoseno Penangsang1)

1) Electrical Department, Sepuluh Nopember of Institute Technology

Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia

Introduction
Synchronous machine model for
stability study
Developing Swing equation
Steady-state stability small
disturbance
Stability analysis on Swing equation
Transient stability
Equal Area Criterion

INTRODUCTION TO STABILITY

What is stability

the tendency of power system to restore the state of

equilibrium after the disturbance

mostly concerned with the behavior of synchronous

machine after a disturbance

in short, if synchronous machines can remain

synchronism after disturbances, we say that system is
stable

Stability issue

steady-state stability the ability of power system to

regain synchronism after small and slow disturbances
such as gradual power change
transient stability the ability of power system to
regain synchronism after large and sudden
disturbances such as a fault

POWER ANGLE

Power angle

relative angle r between

rotor mmf and air-gap
mmf (angle between Fr
and Fsr), both rotating in
synchronous speed
also the angle r between
no-load generated emf E
and stator voltage Esr
also the angle between
emf E and terminal
voltage V, if neglecting
armature resistance and
leakage flux

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY

Simplified synchronous machine model

the simplified machine model is decided by

the proper reactances, Xd, Xd, or Xd

for very short time of transient analysis,

use Xd

for short time of transient analysis, use Xd

for steady-state analysis, use Xd

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY

Simplified synchronous machine model

Vg

jXd
E

ZL
Zs

substation bus voltage and frequency

remain constant is referred as infinite bus

generator is represented by a constant

voltage E behind direct axis transient
reactance Xd

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY
Converting the network into equivalent circuit
for the conversion, please see Eq.11.23
V

I1

I2

y10

y12

y20

use equivalent line model for currents

I1 y10 y12 y12 E '
V
I y
y

20
12
2 12

real power at node 1

Pe E ' Y11 cos 11 E ' V Y12 cos 12

2

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY
Real power flow equation
let y12 = 1 / X12
E' V
sin
simplified real power equation: Pe
X 12
Power angle curve
Pe

Pmax

Pmax

E' V

X 12

Pe

Pm
0

/2

gradual increase of generator power output is

possible until Pmax (max power transferred) is reached
max power is referred as steady-state stability limit at
=90o

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY

Transient stability analysis

condition: generator is suddenly short-circuited

current during the transient is limited by Xd
voltage behind reactance E=Vg+jXdIa
Vg is the generator terminal voltage, Ia is prefault
steady state generator current
phenomena: field flux linkage will tend to remain
constant during the initial disturbance, thus E is
assumed constant
transient power angle curve has the same form as
steady-state curve but with higher peak value,
probably with smaller Xd

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY

Phasor diagram of salient-pole machine

condition: under steady state with armature
resistance neglected
jI d X d X q

Iq

E
Iq X q

Id

jIX q
Ia

jI d X q

jI d X d

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY

Phasor diagram of salient-pole machine

power angle equation in per unit

EV
2 Xd Xq
P
sin V
sin 2
Xd
2Xd Xq
voltage equation in per unit

E V cos X d I d V cos X d I a sin

E is no-load generated emf in pu, V is generator
terminal voltage in pu

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY

Calculation of voltage E
starting with a given (known) terminal voltage V and
armature current Ia, we need to calculate first by
using phasor diagram and then result in voltage E
X q I a cos

tan

X
I
sin

q
a

E V cos X d I a sin

once E is obtained, P could be calculated

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS

FOR STABILITY STUDY

Transient power equation

for salient machine
Pe

Eq' V
X

'
d

sin V

X d' X q
'
d

2X Xq

sin 2

this equation represents the behavior of SM in early

part of transient period
calculate first, then calculate |Eq|:
Eq' V cos X d' I a sin

see example 11.1

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Synchronous machine operation

consider a synchronous generator with
electromagnetic torque Te running at synchronous
speed sm.
during the normal operation, the mechanical torque
Tm = Te
a disturbance occur will result in
accelerating/decelerating torque Ta=Tm-Te (Ta>0 if
accelerating, Ta<0 if decelerating)

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Synchronous machine operation

introduce the combined moment of inertia of prime
mover and generator J
by the law of rotation --

d 2m
J
Ta Tm Te
2
dt

m is the angular displacement of rotor w.r.t. stationery

reference frame on the stator

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Derivation of swing equation

m = smt+m, sm is the constant angular velocity
take the derivative of m, we obtain
dm
d m
sm
dt
dt
take the second derivative of m, we obtain
d 2m d 2 m

2
dt
dt 2

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Derivation of swing equation

substitute into the law of rotation
d 2 m
J
Ta Tm Te
2
dt

multiplying m to obtain power equation

d 2 m
d 2 m
Jm
M
mTm mTe Pm Pe
2
2
dt
dt

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Derivation of swing equation

swing equation in terms of inertial constant M
d 2 m
M
Pm Pe
2
dt

relations between electrical power angle and

mechanical power angle m and electrical speed and
mechanical speed

p
m ,
2

p
m where p is pole number
2

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Derivation of swing equation

swing equation in terms of electrical power angle
2 d 2
M 2 Pm Pe
p
dt

converting the swing equation into per unit system

2 H d 2
2H

P
,
where
M

m ( pu)
e ( pu)
s dt 2
s

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Derivation of swing equation

swing equation in terms of inertial constant M
d 2 m
M
Pm Pe
2
dt

relations between electrical power angle and

mechanical power angle m and electrical speed and
mechanical speed

p
m ,
2

p
m where p is pole number
2

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Derivation of swing equation

swing equation in terms of electrical power angle
2 d 2
M 2 Pm Pe
p
dt

converting the swing equation into per unit system

2 H d 2
2H
Pm ( pu) Pe ( pu) , where M
2
s dt
s

DEVELOPING SWING EQUATION

Derivation of swing equation

swing equation plot, electrical power angle as a
function of time
30

25
20
15
10

0.5

1.5
t, sec

2.5

STEADY-STATE STABILITY
SMALL DISTURBANCE
Steady-state stability
the ability of power system to remain its
synchronism and returns to its original state
when subjected to small disturbances

such stability is not affected by any control

efforts such as voltage regulators or governor

STEADY-STATE STABILITY
SMALL DISTURBANCE
Analysis of steady-state stability by swing
equation
starting from swing equation
H d 2
Pm ( pu) Pe ( pu) Pm Pmax sin
2
f 0 dt

introduce a small disturbance

derivation is from Eq.11.37 (see pg. 472)
simplify the nonlinear function of power angle

STEADY-STATE STABILITY
SMALL DISTURBANCE
Analysis of steady-state stability by swing
equation
swing equation in terms of
H d 2
Pm cos 0 0
2
f 0 dt

PS

dP
d

Pmax cos 0

PS=Pmax cos0: the slope of the power-angle curve at 0,

PS is positive when 0 < < 90o (See figure 11.3)
the second order differential equation
H d 2
PS 0
2
f 0 dt

STEADY-STATE STABILITY
SMALL DISTURBANCE
Characteristic equation: s
2

f 0
H

PS

rule 1: if PS is negative, one root is in RHP and

system is unstable
rule 2: if PS is positive, two roots in the j axis and
motion is oscillatory and undamped, system is
marginally stable
rule 2 : the oscillatory frequency of the undamped
system
f
n

PS

STEADY-STATE STABILITY
SMALL DISTURBANCE
Damping torque
phenomena: when there is a difference angular
velocity between rotor and air gap field, an induction
torque will be set up on rotor tending to minimize the
difference of velocities
introduce a damping power by damping torque
Pd D

d
dt

introduce the damping power into swing equation

H d 2
d

D
PS 0
2
f 0 dt
dt

STEADY STATE STABILITY EXAMPLE

Example 11.3

using the state space matrix to solve and

the original state 0=16.79o, new state after P is
imposed =22.5o

the linearized equation is valid only for very small

power impact and deviation from the operating state

a large sudden impact may result in unstable state

even if the impact is less than the steady state power
limit

STEADY STATE STABILITY EXAMPLE

Example 11.3

the characteristic equation of determinant (sI-A) or

eigenvalue of A can tell the stability of system

system is asymptotically stable iff eigenvalues of A are

in LHP

in this case, eigenvalues of A are -1.3 6.0i

STABILITY ANALYSIS
ON SWING EQUATION
Characteristic equation:

d 2
d
2

n
n 0
2
dt
dt

Analysis of characteristic equation

s 2 2n s n2 0

for damping coefficient

D
2

f 0
HPS

STABILITY ANALYSIS
ON SWING EQUATION
Analysis of characteristic equation
roots of characteristic equation
s1, s2 - n jn 1 2

damped frequency of oscillation

d n 1 2

positive damping (1>>0): s1,s2 have negative real

part if PS is positive, this implies the response is
bounded and system is stable

STABILITY ANALYSIS
ON SWING EQUATION
Solution of the swing equation

d 2
d
2

n
n 0
2
dt
dt

roots of swing equation

0
1 2

e nt sind t , 0

0
1 2

e nt sind t

rotor angular frequency

n 0 t

e
sind t , 0 n 0 e t sind t
1 2
1 2
n

STABILITY ANALYSIS
ON SWING EQUATION
Solution of the swing equation

response time constant

2H
f 0 D

settling time: tS 4
relations between settling time and inertia constant H:
increase H will result in longer tS, decrease n and

TRANSIENT STABILITY

Transient stability

to determine whether or not synchronism is maintained

after machine has been subject to severe disturbance

Severe disturbance

sudden application of loads (steel mill)

loss of generation (unit trip)

loss of large load (line trip)

a fault on the system (lightning)

TRANSIENT STABILITY

System response after large disturbance

oscillations of rotor angle result in large magnitude that

linearlization is not feasible

must use nonlinear swing equation to solve the

problem

TRANSIENT STABILITY

Rotor
Angle

Unstable

Disturbance

Stable

Time

EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Equal area criterion

can be used to quickly predict system

stability after disturbance

only applicable to a one-machine system

connected to an infinite bus or a twomachine system

EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Derivation of rotor relative speed from swing
equation

starting from the swing equation with damping

neglected
H d 2
Pm Pe Pa ,
2
fo dt

Pa accelerati on power

for detailed derivation, please see pp.486

the swing equation end up with

d
2f o

dt
H

Pe d

EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Synchronous machine relative speed
equation

d
2f o

dt
H

Pe d

the equation gives relative speed of machine with

respect to the synchronous revolving reference
frame

if stability of system needs to be maintained, the

speed equation must be zero sometimes after the
disturbance

EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Stability analysis

stability criterion

Pe d 0

consider machine operating at the equilibrium point o,

corresponding to power input Pm0 = Pe0
a sudden step increase of Pm1 is applied results in
accelerating power to increase power angle to 1

EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Stability analysis

the excess energy stored in rotor

1

Pe d area abc area A1

when =1, the electrical power matches new input

power Pm1, rotor acceleration is zero but relative speed
is still positive (rotor speed is above synchronous
speed), still increases

EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Stability analysis

as long as increases, Pe increases, at this time the

new Pe >Pm1 and makes rotor to decelerate
max

m1

Pe d area bde area A2

rotor swing back to b and the angle max makes

|area A1|=|area A2|

EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Equal area criterion (stable condition)
A2
Pm1
Pm0

A
c1 b

A2max

Pm1

max
1

0
0 1

max

t0

Equal Criteria: A1 = A2
A1 < A2max
A1 = A2max
A1 > A2max

Stable
Critically Stable
Unstable

APPLICATION TO SUDDEN INCREASE

OF POWER INPUT
Stability analysis of equal area criterion

stability is maintained only if area A2 at least equal to A1

if A2 < A1, accelerating momentum can never be
overcome

Limit of stability

when max is at intersection of line Pm and power-angle

curve is 90o < < 180o
the max can be derived as (see pp.489, figure 11.12)
max o sin max cos max cos 0
max can be calculated by iterative method
Pmax is obtained by Pm=Pmaxsin1, where 1 = -max

SOLUTION TO STABILITY ON
SUDDEN INCREASE OF POWER INPUT

Calculation of max

max o sin max cos max cos 0

max can be calculated by iterative Newton Raphson
method

assume the above equation is f(max) = c

SOLUTION TO STABILITY ON
SUDDEN INCREASE OF POWER INPUT

Calculation of max

starting with initial estimate of /2 < max(k) < , gives

(k )
max

(k )

c f max

df
d max ( k )
max

where

(k )
(k )
max
0 cos max

df
d max

(k )
max

the updated max(k+1)

max(k+1) = max(k) + max(k)

SOLUTION TO STABILITY ON
SUDDEN INCREASE OF POWER INPUT
Equal-area criterion applied to the sudden change in power

Power, per unit

1.5

0.5

20

40

60

80
100
120
Power angle, degree

140

160

180

SOLUTION TO STABILITY ON
SUDDEN INCREASE OF POWER INPUT

Equal-area criterion applied to the sudden change in power

Power, per unit

1.5

0.5

20

40

60

80
100
120
Power angle, degree

140

160

180

APPLICATION TO
THREE PHASE FAULT
Three phase bolt fault case
a temporary three phase bolt fault occurs at sending end of line at
bus 1
1
Pe

fault occurs at 0, Pe = 0
power angle curve corresponds
to horizontal axis
machine accelerate,
increase until fault cleared at c
fault cleared at c shifts operation
to original power angle curve at e
net power is decelerating, stored
energy reduced to zero at f
A1(abcd) = A2(defg)

f
e
A
Pm

d2

A1
b
c
0 c max

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- NEAR SENDING END

Three phase bolt fault case

Pe

when rotor angle reach f, Pe>Pm

rotor decelerates and retraces

along power angle curve passing

through e and a
rotor angle would swing back and

forth around 0 at n
with inherent damping, operating
point returns to 0

A
Pm

d2

A1
b
c
0 c max

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- NEAR SENDING END

Critical clearing time

critical clearing angle is reached when further increase
in c cause A2 < A1
c

Pmd

max

Pmax sin Pm d
cos c

Pm
max 0 cos max
Pmax

we obtain c
from swing equation H d 2
f 0 dt 2

Pm

integrating both sides from t = 0 to tc

we obtain the critical clearing time
2 H c 0
t
c

f 0 Pm

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- NEAR SENDING END
Application of equal area criterion to a critically cleared system
Critical clearing angle = 84.7745
1.8
1.6

Power, per unit

1.4
1.2
1
Pm

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

CB trip

20

40

60

80
100
120
Power angle, degree

140

CB reclose

160

180

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- AWAY FROM SENDING END
Three phase bolt fault case
a temporary three phase fault occurs away from sending end of bus 1
1

Pe
F

fault occurs at 0, Pe is reduced

e
C
power angle curve corresponds
A
a
d
g
to curve B
2
Pm
machine accelerate, increase
A1 c
B
from 0 (b) until fault cleared at c (c)
b
fault cleared at c shifts operation
0 c max
to curve C at e
net power is decelerating, stored energy reduced to zero at f
A1(abcd) = A2(defg)

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- AWAY FROM SENDING END
Pe

Three phase bolt fault case

when rotor angle reach f,

Pe>Pm rotor decelerates and
rotor angle would swing back
and forth around e at n
with inherent damping, operating
point returns to the point that Pm
line intercept with curve C

A
Pm

A1 c
b
0 c max

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- AWAY FROM SENDING END

Critical clearing angle

critical clearing angle is reached when further increase
in c cause A2 < A1
c

max

Pm c 0 P2 max sin d

P3 max sin d Pm max c

we obtain c
Pm max 0 P3 max cos max P2 max cos 0
cos c
P3 max P2 max

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- AWAY FROM SENDING END

The difference between curve b and curve c is due

to the different line reactance

curve b: the second line is shorted in the middle point

(Fig. 11.23)

curve c: after fault is cleared, the second line is isolated

See example 11.5

use power curve equation to solve max and then c

APPLICATION TO THREE PHASE FAULT

- AWAY FROM SENDING END
Application of equal area criterion to a critically cleared system
Critical clearing angle = 98.8335
1.8

P = 1.80 sin

1.6

Power, per unit

1.4

P = 1.46 sin

1.2

r2 = 0.8

1
Pm

0.8

P = 0.65 sin

0.6
0.4

r1=0.36

0.2
0

20

40

1= 26.390

60

80
100
120
Power angle, degree

c= 98.800

140

160

m= 146.580

180

Most common transient stability

analysis is numerical simulation

Apply a fault and integrate the differential

equations of all the generators while the fault is on.
Remove the fault after some time (representing
the relay setting time plus breaker clearing time).
Continue integrating and observe the response
and monitor bus voltage levels. Stop when stability
condition has been determined.