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Biology: 2.1.1 Outline Cell Theory
Biology: 2.1.1 Outline Cell Theory
Biology: 2.1.1 Outline Cell Theory
Exceptions:
1. skeletal muscle, some fungal hyphae, and some algae have multinucleate
cytoplasm, lacking normal cell separations, red blood cells have no nucleus
2. connective tissue, such as bone, blood and cartilage, is composed of both
cellular and extracellular structures, especially extracellular proteins and
fluids; however, these extracellular structures are products of cellular
activities
2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using appropriate SI units
1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 1000 mm
1 m = 1,000,000 µm
Relative sizes
Molecules Membrane Viruses Bacteria Organelles Cells
thickness
1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm upto 10 µm upto 100 µm
2.1.5 Calculate linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens
in images of known magnification
If a plant cell of 150 µm diameter with the microscope and with the image enlarged
photographically, the magnification in a print enlarged photographically; then the
magnification to show the cell at 15 cm diameter
(150 000 µm) is:
Scale Bars
A scale bar is a short line usually drawn on an electron micrograph that enables the viewer
to calculate the magnification of the photograph
To determine actual size of the cell - the electron micrograph states the magnification
note magnification x750
measure a dimension of the cell (state length or width) = 41 mm
divide this by the magnification 41 / 705 = 0.055 mm
convert to a sensible unit 0.055 mm x 1000 = 55 µm
REALLY IMPORTANT
WHEN DEALING WITH ANY NUMBER YOU MUST ALWAYS SUPPLY
UNITS
2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor
limiting cell size
Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts; the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts
For example if an organism can use temperature homeostasis by using hair, feathers,
sweating, changing blood flow then that organism has a greater rate of survival in a variety
of habitats
2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized
functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.
unicellular organisms
must solve all of life’s challenges within the confines of a single cell
multicellular organisms
can differentiate into a variety of interdependent cell types
each specialized to carry out a subset of functions
thereby achieving a greater efficiency
through division of labour among a multicellular cooperative
cellular differentiation
achieved through differential gene expression
all cells in an organism have identical DNA = genome
different cell types make different proteins
usually as a result of transcriptional regulation
each cell type expresses a closely regulated subset of its genome
“turning on” some genes and “turning off” others
2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to
differentiate along different pathways.
Stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different
pathways
In lymphoma:
1. cells are removed from the bone marrow of the patient
2. high doses of chemotherapy drugs are taken by the patient to kill dividing
cells in the body
3. both cancerous and normal are killed
4. HS cells from the bone marrow are then transplanted back into the patient
5. these HS cells can then fully restore healthy production of blood cells in the
bone marrow
Ethical issues
use of embryonic stem cells involves the death of early-stage embryos
therapeutic cloning could reduce suffering for patients with a
wide variety of conditions
QAHS BIOLOGY
CORE TOPIC 2.2 Prokaryotic Cells
2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as
an example of a prokaryote.
2.3.2
Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure
Structure Function
Free ribosomes sites of protein synthesis for use within the cytoplasm
ribosomes are constructed in the nuclear region called the
nucleolus
Rough endoplasmic reticulum flattened membrane sacs (cisternae)
ribosomes attached to outside of cisternae
proteins synthesized by ribosomes enter cisternae
proteins collected within cisternae are packaged in vesicles
vesicles transport proteins to Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes spherical vesicles formed by Golgi apparatus
contain hydrolytic/digestive enzymes
enzymes for breaking down ingested food, damaged
organelles, or entire cells
Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae
unlike ER, cisternae are curved, shorter, and lack ribosomes
proteins received from arriving vesicles are processed
carbohydrates added to proteins to form glycoproteins
vesicles of glycoproteins exit Golgi for exocytosis or
intracellular use
Mitochondria double membrane bound
inner membrane invaginated to form cristae
site of aerobic respiration, producing ATP
Nucleus double membrane bound, containing pores for transport of
proteins and ribosomes
contains chromosomes, made of DNA + protein
uncoiled chromosomes = chromatin
site of DNA replication and transcription into RNA
nuclear pore allows exchange of substances between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
nuclear envelope a double membrane with nuclear pores to allow exchange of substances between the
nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
The cellulose cell wall (1) Basement membrane: a secretion formed from
Role collagen and glycoproteins joined together by a third
'linkage' protein. Their exact composition varies form tissue
to tissue.
Role
Support: the membrane surrounds the tissues of lines ducts. It
provides structural support for the integrity of the tissue or organ
Filter : The basement membrane of the kidney glomerulus
provides the effective barrier for ultrafiltration
Vascular niche: Interestingly cells often require a base on which
to organise before they will form proper tissue. There are
implications here for developmental biology, tissue repair, stem
cell therapies and cancer treatment.
Functions of membrane
proteins
Hormone receptor
Active transport
Diffusion channel
Electron carrier
Cell adhesion
Cell-to-cell communication
Immobilised enzymes
Diffusion Osmosis
the passive movement of particles from a the passive movement of water molecules,
region of higher concentration to across a partially permeable membrane,
a region of lower concentration using from a region of high concentration of water
molecular kinetic energy (lower solute concentration) to a region of
Passive means no energy from ATP is used low concentration of water (higher solute
A membrane is not essential concentration).
Passive means no energy from ATP is used
A membrane is essential
Simple Diffusion
Osmosis
2.4.5
Explain
passive
transport
across membranes in terms of simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport is require when transport is against a concentration gradient - moves substance from an area where it
is in lower concentration to an area where it is in higher concentration
Protein pumps Requires energy:
Integral protein pumps embedded within Provided by ATP.
Often by phosphorylating the protein pump as ATP is
membranes. hydrolysed to ADP + Pi
Specific to molecule transported
Some pumps transport two substances,
either in the same direction (symport) or in
the opposite direction (antiport).
:
2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, and plasma membrane.
Membrane
fluidity
The phospholipids are held together by mutual attraction an dnot by chemical bonds
The hydrophobic tails are flexible
This allows the membrane to bend easily, break and rejoin
Unsaturated fatty acid chains make a membrane more fluid
Cholesterol makes a membrane less fluid
ENDOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis – taking into cell involves both Endocytosis – removing substance from a
phagocytosis (taking in particles cell – includes secretion
pinocytosis (taking in solutions) a vesicle in the cytoplasm joins to the
energy from ATP required plasma membrane
the plasma membrane folds inwards to
form a vesicle which bus off
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
QAHS BIOLOGY
CORE TOPIC 2.5 Cell Division
2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and
cytokinesis
Interphase Interphase is the active period in the life of a cell when there are three phases
many metabolic reactions occur (eg. Protein synthesis, G1 (Gap 1) – longest phase, synthesis of
DNA replication and an increase in the number of biochemicals (protein, mRNA, tRNA); replication of
mitochondria and/or chloroplasts organelles
S (synthesis) – DNA replication
G2 (Gap 2) – synthesis of microtubule
components; centrioles in animal cells replicate;
mitochondria and chloroplasts replicate
Mitosis Nuclear division – the replicated chromosomes are there are four phases
separated into two nuclei Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis Cell division – the cell is split into two, one nucleus in each new cell
Cytokinesis
Normal cell
Tumour cell
2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many
metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and
an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.
DNA replication during S phase of interphase produces two identical copies of DNA
Identical sets of DNA are attached to each other as sister chromatids of each of the
cell’s chromosomes
Mitosis segregates the two chromatids of each chromosome to opposite poles, forming
two identical nuclei, each with one complete copy of the original DNA
Cytokinesis separates the two daughter nuclei into two identical daughter cells
Mitosis is involved in
growth
embryonic development
tissue repair
asexual reproduction