Chlorine

Chlorine gas, Cl2, is classified as a choking/pulmonary agent. The Swedish

chemist Carl Scheele was the first to discover the element, in 1774, although it was not originally

intended to be used for chemical warfare. In fact, Scheele thought that the element contained

oxygen. It was not until 1810, when Sir Humphry Davy

named the gas. There are several ways to produce

chlorine gas, one of them being electrolysis of an

aqueous solution of sodium chloride. Chlorine gas is a

diatomic molecule composed of two chlorine atoms. The

boiling and melting points of chlorine, respectively, are

34.4 C and -101.5 C. It bears a greenish-yellow color, and smells strong, similar to the smell of

bleach.

The effect of chlorine gas, or bertholite, as a chemical weapon is deadly,

and usually fatal. It can be exposed to the eyes, skin and the lungs, if inhaled. When in contact

with moist tissues, it can chemically react with water in the body to form hydrochloric acid, HCl,

a strong acid, and depending on the amount of moles, the pH can vary. (For example, at 0.1

moles, HCl has a pH of 1.) Signs and symptoms of chlorine gas poisoning that may develop are:

“coughing, chest tightness, burning sensation in the nose, throat, and eyes, watery eyes, blurred

vision, nausea and vomiting, burning pain, redness, and blisters on the skin if exposed to gas,

skin injury similar to frostbite if exposed to liquid chlorine, difficulty breathing or shortness of

breath (may appear immediately if high concentrations of chlorine gas are inhaled, or may be
delayed if low concentrations of chlorine gas are inhaled), [and] fluid in the lungs” (CDC 5). The

rate of action for chlorine gas varies from immediate exposure up to 4 hours. The half life of

chlorine depends on the isotope. The isotopes Cl-35 and Cl-37 are stable, while Cl-36 and Cl-38

have, respectively, 301000.0 years, and 37.2 minutes.

To protect yourself from the agent, leave the area where the chlorine was

released, and go to a place with fresh air, or higher ground. If you have been exposed, remove

and dispose of your clothing, wash your entire body with plenty of soap and water, and seek

medical attention immediately. If chlorine was swallowed, do not induce vomiting or drink, but

get medical care. Chlorine can be detected by its pungent,

distinct odor. It can also be detected by the Automatic

Chemical Agent Detector Alarm, ACADA, which the US

Department of Defense uses for deployment with the Army,

Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and National Guard.

Chlorine agents were used in the Second

Chechnya War, when the “Chechen militants exploded canisters of toxic agents in a village on

the outskirts of Grozny on 10 December 1999” (“Second Chechnya War” 3). The Russians

claimed that those canisters contained chlorine and ammonia. The outbreak of this war was due

to the Chechens, an ethnic group that has long opposed rule to Moscow, declaring independence

from Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. However, by 1994, the two

governments’ affairs had dilapidated, and the Russians attacked Chechnya, starting the First

Chechnya War. War broke out again in 1999, and ended in 2000. The Chechen campaign,

however is still ongoing.

 Phosgene

Phosgene, COCl2, is a choking/pulmonary agent, made by

chemist Jon Davy, in 1812. Davy exposed carbon monoxide and

chlorine to sunlight, and he “named it in reference to use of light

to promote the reaction; from Greek, phos (light) and gene

(born)” (Harrison 1). Phosgene can be industrially produced by

a similar way that Davy did: by passing carbon monoxide and chlorine gas through a catalyst.

This exothermic reaction is conducted between 50 to 150 . The compound consists of one

carbon atom, one oxygen atom, and two chlorine atoms. Carbon shares a double bond with

oxygen, and two single bonds with chlorine. Phosgene is a colorless gas, but it may appear

white or yellow when exposed to air, due to refraction of light. The odor of phosgene is similar

to freshly cut hay or maize. Soldiers in World War I claimed it to smell like may blossom. The

boiling and melting points of phosgene, respectively, are 7.5 °C and -128 °C.

The effects of phosgene include death, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Most people

who recover after being exposed make a complete recovery, however. Phosgene can cause death

by pulmonary edema, or fluid buildup in the lungs, which triggers swelling. The theory behind

this is that hydrochloric acid can be produced in the aveoli, which results in carbon dioxide and

hydrochloric acid. HCl reacts with the capillary walls, causing edema fluid to flood it, which in

turn, leads to internal suffocation. The two other diseases that exposure to phosgene can cause,

chronic bronchitis and emphysema, are the two main forms of chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease, which makes it difficult to breathe. Chronic bronchitis is identified by a cough with
mucus. Emphysema, on the other hand, is identified by destruction of the lungs over time. Some

signs and symptoms of phosgene exposure include: “coughing, nausea, vomiting, headache, and

rapid decreases and increases in heart rate” (“Uses and Effects of Phosgene” 3). Some symptoms

may not show up until 48 hours after exposure, like difficulty breathing, pulmonary edema, low

blood pressure, and heart failure. The rate of action is immediate up to several days.

The half-life of phosgene is very short in aqueous solutions, at 0.026 seconds. It is rapidly

degraded to hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide, which makes it effortless to die from

pulmonary edema. To protect yourself from the agent, leave the area and get to fresh air. Move

to higher ground, because phosgene is heavier than air, so it will sink to low-lying areas. If you

have been exposed to phosgene, remove and dispose of your clothing and rapidly wash your

entire body with plenty of soap and water, and seek medical attention. If ingested, do not induce

vomiting or drink fluids. The patient should be monitored for the next 48 hours, because other

symptoms can occur. Phosgene can be detected by smell or devices called “Detector Tubes”,

which have detection limits of 0.1 ppm.

Phosgene has been rarely used by traditional militaries since World War I, and there was

a Chemical Weapons Convention to outlaw the use of chemical weapons. Nevertheless, the cult

Aum Shinrikyo, or Aleph, is well known for using phosgene and countless other agents. Aum

Shinrikyo is a Japanese destructive cult that “combines tenets from Buddhism, Hinduism, and is

obsessed with the apocalypse” (Fletcher 1). Although inactive for fifteen years already, it is still

closely watched over by the government. Currently, they have an estimated total of about 2,000

members across the world. At their height, they were said to have about 40,000. They were elite:

their members were often young university students and graduates from rich families. Japanese

journalist Shouko Egawa, who reported on Aum Shinrikyo’s activities, was targeted with
phosgene in 1994, when cult members tried to kill her by releasing it into her Yokohama

apartment through the mail slot. However, it “helped prompt Japanese police to raid the … cult,

and Shoko's crusade eventually resulted in many of the cult leaders being convicted” (Rapitou

12).

Sodium Cyanide

Sodium cyanide, NaCN, is an asphyxiant/blood agent. It is derived from hydrogen

cyanide, HCN. Hydrogen cyanide was known from 1704, but it’s structure was unknown. In

1752, French chemist Pierre Macquer “show[ed] that Prussian blue could be converted to iron

oxide plus a volatile component and that these could be used to reconstitute the dye” (“Hydrogen

cyanide” 1). The component was HCN, or Prussic acid. Later in 1783, Swedish chemist Carl

Scheele isolated and characterized hydrogen cyanide and named it Blausäure, German for “blue

acid”. Then, in 1787, French chemist Claude Berthollet proved that Purssic acid did not have

oxygen. Finally, in 1815, Joseph Gay-Lussac, found the chemical formula. The cyanide in

hydrogen cyanide was derived from Greek for blue. Sodium cyanide is produced by reacting

hydrogen cyanide with sodium hydroxide, the co-product being water.

The appearance of sodium cyanide is a white crystalline or granular powder, and is solid.

The structure of sodium cyanide consists of the metal atom sodium and the two nonmetal atoms

carbon and nitrogen. Carbon and nitrogen share a triple bond with each other, and this forms an

ionic bond with sodium. The boiling and melting points of sodium cyanide, respectively, are

1496°C and 563°C. Sodium cyanide is odorless when the air is completely dry, but when the

atmosphere is slightly damp, it may smell like almonds.

 Sodium cyanide can cause death, brain damage, neurological effects, discomfort, or

rashes. If sodium cyanide is ingested, stomach acid reacts with sodium cyanide to form hydrogen

cyanide, which reacts with hemoglobins. The body cannot carry enough oxygen to other parts of

the body, and the victim will die from lack of oxygen. Survivors of cyanide exposures can get

brain damage due to toxins affecting the nerve cells, not enough blood circulation, or lack of

oxygen. Long-term neurological effects of sodium cyanide “include personality changes,

memory loss, and disturbances in movement (both voluntary and involuntary movement

disorders); some damage may be permanent” (“SODIUM CYANIDE”, “Long-Term

Implications”). Some signs and symptoms that may occur after exposure are redness in eyes,

nausea, vomiting, abdomal pain, rapid breathing, headaches, weakness, and if severe, it may

cause comas and seizures. The rate of action of sodium cyanide is rapid- symptoms occur within

seconds, and death within minutes. The half-life is about 1 to 3 years, once exposed to air.

To protect yourself from this agent, you should wear a local exhaust, protective gloves

and clothing, safety goggles, and breathing protection. If you have been exposed to the agent,

leave the area and remove the contaminated clothes. Wash your body with water and soap. Seek

medical attention. If ingested, induce vomiting. Detection of sodium cyanide is possible, through

the distinct almond smell. A small molecule has been designed to detect cyanide in water, but it

is still in the process of being perfected.

Sodium cyanide was used by the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo on May 5, 1995. They

placed sodium cyanide in a public restroom. “The chemical device was a rather simple binary

weapon consisting of two plastic bags, one containing 2 liters of powdered sodium cyanide and

the other containing about 1.5 liters of diluted sulfuric acid” (“V. Crimes of the Cult” part D).
The bags were ablaze, and fortunately, they had not broken open, otherwise around 10,000 to

20,000 people would’ve died.