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Individual Study Paper
Individual Study Paper
Individual Study Paper
Xuan Liu
Draft 1
Dr. Strauss
tense markers. Therefore, it is inevitable that Chinese EFL learners struggle with
acquiring the usage and complex concept of English tense and aspect. By
examining ten stories from Grimm’s fairytale in both Mandarin Chinese and
English and also ten mandarin blog entries, this paper aims at finding a way to
simplify English tense and aspect for Chinese EFL learners. Particularly, it
lexical aspect in mandarin Chinese. At the end, some pedagogical suggestions for
both Chinese EFL learners and the teaching of tense and aspect are made.
1. Introduction
Compared with English, Chinese has no morphological tense markers (Li and Thompson,
1981, p. 13). Instead, time adverbials are extensively used to indicate tense. Besides, as an aspect
language, Chinese also depends on aspectual markers and inherent meaning of verbs to
determine temporality. Obviously, the temporal system in Mandarin is extremely different from
the one in English, no wonder Chinese EFL learners usually struggle with acquiring the usage
and complex concept of English tense and aspect. Therefore, a great deal of attention has been
paid by many researchers to investigate temporal reference in mandarin in order to assist those
EFL learners. However, most of those studies focus on understanding aspectual markers and
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lexical aspect respectively, few studies look into the function of time adverbials and how it
This study aim at simplifying the learning of complex tense and aspect system in English
for Chinese EFL learners by examining the interaction between aspectual markers, time
adverbials and inherent meanings of verbs. It uses ten stories from Grimm’s fairytale in both
English and Chinese and as well ten blog entries in Chinese as data and examines sentences with
time adverbial clauses in particular. And, the paper is organized as follows: it starts with a brief
literature review about notions of tense and aspect, the concept of grammatical aspect and lexical
aspect, as well studies concerning temporal reference in mandarin Chinese. Then it explains the
study aim, data and methodology. After that, it presents a detailed data analysis of the study and
tries to identify some patterns of temporal reference in mandarin. And, the paper ends with
All languages have their own ways of locating time. The differences exist in the accuracy
of temporal location achieved in every language and as well the ways in which temporality is
located (Comrie, 1985, p.7). It is commonly acknowledged that tense and aspect are two notions
closely related to temporality. As Comrie (1976) said, both tense and aspect are concerned with
time, but in very different ways: tense indicates “situation-external time” while aspect indicates
time, usually with reference to the present moment, though also with reference to other
situations”. And, aspect is a non-deictic category and is concerned with “the internal temporal
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constituency of the one situation” (p.5). Many scholars argue that aspect is compositional in
nature, involving two important components: grammatical aspect and lexical aspect.
which are marked explicitly by linguistic devices, usually auxiliaries and/or inflectional and
derivational morphology” (Li and Shirai, 2000, p. 3). Xiao and Mcenery (2004) argue that
grammatical aspect is grammatical in nature and tends to be language specific. However, the
Figure 1
Perfective Imperfective
Habitual Continuous
Non-progressive Progressive
Lexical aspect refers to “the semantic characteristics inherent in the lexical content of
words, usually verbs or verb phrases that are defined in terms of the temporal properties of given
situations that the verb describe” (Li and Shirai, 2000, p.14). According to Xiao and Mcenery
languages. Three types of lexical aspectual oppositions are identified by Comrie (1976, p. 41-
51). They are punctual/durative, telic/atelic and state/dynamic. Depending on such kinds of
inherent aspectual meaning oppositions, verbs are divided into four categories by Vendler
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Table 1
Punctual - - - +
Telic - - + +
Dynamic - + + +
The expression of tense and aspect is not universal among languages. For example, In
English, both tense and aspect are realized grammatically by using overt morphological
inflection. However, mandarin Chinese is another case. Aspect exists as a grammatical category
while tense does not. In order to locate in time, mandarin Chinese depends on aspectual markers
and lexical means such as temporal adverbials. A wealth of research has been done to look into
aspectual markers used in mandarin Chinese, mainly the perfective “le” and “guo” and
progressive “zai”, “zhe” and “zheng”. There is also a large amount of research concerning
lexical aspect However, little research has been done to examine the function of time adverbials
in mandarin Chinese and how it interacts with the other two components. It is important to
understand whether and how these three components work simultaneously at both lexical and
3. Present Study
The author collects data from a certain genre of writing: narratives. In order to get a large
variety of temporal expressions, both fairytales and blog entries are used. In detail, ten stories
from Grimm’s fairytale in both English and Chinese and as well ten Chinese blog entries are
collected and analyzed. Due to the space limit, the current analysis is confined to sentences with
1. In the examined sentences, what are the forms and structures of time adverbials?
2. Does time adverbial clause interact with aspectual markers and the inherent meanings of
verbs in the main clause? If yes, how do they interact with each other?
3. If there is a clash among these three factors, which factor will override? Under what kind
of situations?
4. Can this interactive relationship explain the difficulties that Chinese EFL learners have in
It is found that time adverbials are frequently used in these data. And, there are three
levels of temporal adverbials. Table 2 shows the number and percentages of each level of
Table 2
Categories Example
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Since the focus of this study is to examine the function of time adverbial clause and how
it interacts with grammatical aspect and lexical aspect in the main clause, it is important to
understand the structure of time adverbial clauses in mandarin Chinese first. Figure 2 shows the
structure:
Figure 2
1. (a) zai tongshi mang zhe (aspectual marker “zhe”) pai (verb “shoot”) waijing de shihou
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(b) gang (temporal adverb “just”) ru (verb “start going”) tuo de shihou
(c) mama yao (modal verb “yao”) likai (verb “leave”) de shihou
As shown above, examples in group one all have verbs. As for the use of aspectual marker,
temporal adverb and modal verb, it is not obligatory. On the other hand, examples in group don’t
We’ve mentioned before that complex sentence with time adverbial clauses were
extracted from the data and analyzed. Figure 3 shows the structure of the complex sentence in
general.
Figure 3
With verb 1
+ aspectual marker 1
With copula +
adjective
Complex sentence
Zai tongshimen mang zhe pai waijing de shihou, women zai xiaomen qian paizhao liunian.
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3.3. 4. Interaction
All the complex sentences extracted from the data are analyzed according to the structure
mentioned above. The results show that time adverbial clauses, aspectual markers and inherent
meanings of verbs involved work simultaneously at both lexical and sentential levels. Sometimes
they work in the same direction. However, in some other situations, there might be a clash. And,
under that kind of circumstance, which factor overrides is situation-specific. I’ll discuss them in
turn.
Within the data, the frequency of time adverbials without verbs is much lower than time
adverbials with verbs. For time adverbial clauses without verbs, it is usually translated into
English as copula plus adjective. It is more like a generic description of a situation rather than an
inference of a specific time point. In this situation, if there is an aspectual marker in the main
clause, it will dominate the temporality in the whole sentence. Let’s look at one example first.
3(a)
In this example, the time adverbial clause contains neither an aspectual marker nor a
verb. And, it describes a tense-less situation. It could have a past, present or future interpretation.
However, the main clause has a past interpretation because the use of experiential aspectual
marker “guo”. Therefore, a past interpretation has been assigned to the time adverbial clause as
well. As for the lexical aspect of the verb “help” in the main clause, it is an activity verb, which
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means it is atelic, dynamic and durative. If there is no aspectual marker following this verb, it
can indicate either perfective or imperfective aspect. However, the experiential “guo” adds
perfective aspect to the verb “help”. To summarize, in this sentence, the aspectual marker “guo”
in the main clause assign a past interpretation to the time adverbial clause and a perfective
meaning to the verb. In other words, the aspectual marker dominates in this sentence. In order to
test whether this conclusion works, I change the aspectual marker “guo” to several other ones to
3 (b)
In 3(b), everything is the same as 3(b) except the aspectual marker “guo” is changed into
“hui”. hui can be understood as a model verb in mandarin Chinese and it has a future
interpretation. Similar as “guo” in 3(a), “hui” here assigns a future interpretation to the time
adverbial clause. However, there is “a general principle of historical linguistics that holds that
historically older inflectional/grammatical forms and word orders are preserved in subordinate
clauses longer than in independent clauses” (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p. 136).
Therefore, even though the future meaning is assigned to the time adverbial clause, the present
tense is used instead. Moreover, “hui” also assign an imperfective meaning to the verb “help”.
To be more specific, the imperfective meaning that “hui” assigns here is habitual (see figure 1)
because the action of helping here is “characteristic of an extended period of time, so extended in
fact that the situation referred to is viewed not as an incidental property of the moment but,
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precisely, as a characteristic feature of the whole period” (Comrie, 1976, p. 27-28). As a result,
Actually, in both 3(a) and 3(b), even though the time adverbial clause does not exist, the
tense and aspect will not be changed at all as long as the aspectual markers “hui” and “guo”
exist. For example, if time adverbial clauses are taken away from 3(a) and 3(b):
As shown above, it is easy to see that nothing changed after the time adverbial clause is
taken. Therefore, in 3 (a) and 3 (b), the grammatical aspect of aspectual marker overrides the
semantic meaning of the time adverbial clause and the lexical aspect of the verb in the main
clauses.
For time adverbial clauses with a verb, sometimes an aspectual marker, a modal verb, or
a temporal adverb will be involved in the clauses as well. Under this circumstance, the
interaction of time adverbial clause, aspectual marker and inherent meaning of the verbs will be
more complicated since it is entirely possible that two verbs and two aspectual markers are
working at the same time. We will examine these different situations in turn.
As we can see, in this example, the time adverbial clause includes an activity verb
“shoot” and a progressive aspectual marker “zhe” while the main clause includes an activity verb
“take” without any other aspectual markers or model verbs. It is easy to understand that the time
adverbial clause adopts past progressive tense due to the progressive marker “zhe”. Since activity
verbs are intrinsically durative, there is no clash between the aspectual marker and the lexical
aspect of the verbs in this case. It is also noteworthy that the main clause uses past progressive
tense, too. Therefore, we hypothesize that if there were no aspectual markers in the main clause,
the aspectual marker in the time adverbial determines the tense and aspect in the main clause.
Now we will look at example 4 (b) which has an aspectual marker in the main clause and
4 (b)
In this example, the main clause includes a state verb “hear” and a perfective marker
“guo” while the time adverbial clause has an activity verb “go” and no aspectual marker. State
verbs are atelic, durative and stative. Simple present are usually associated with state verbs.
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Besides, the perfective marker “guo” indicates the completeness of this state. The interaction
between the lexical aspect of the state verb and the perfective marker “guo” makes the main
clause adopt present prefect tense. However, the perfective marker “guo” does not exert an
influence on the time adverbial clause. The time adverbial clause just uses simple present tense.
Taken together, 4 (a) and 4(b) suggests that if there were no aspectual markers in the main
clause, the aspectual marker in the time adverbial will affect the tense and aspect in the main
clause. However, if there were no aspectual markers in the time adverbial clause, the aspectual
marker in the main clause does not have an impact on the time adverbial clause.
Things will get more complicated if aspectual markers exist in both the time adverbial
As shown above, there is a model verb “yao” in the time adverbial clause in 5 (a). This
model verb is similar as the model verb “hui” in 3 (b). It serves as an imperfective marker and
thus assigns an imperfective meaning to the achievement verb “leave”. It implies that the action
of “leaving” has not been completed. Since “leave” is an achievement verb which is intrinsically
dynamic, telic and punctual, the time adverbial clause uses past progressive tense but still
conveys the meaning of future. As for the main clause, there are two progressive markers
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“zheng” and “zhe”. It seems that there is no clash between the aspectual markers in the time
adverbial clause and the main clause, respectively. Each of them operates individually.
It is noteworthy that the time adverbial in this example uses the past perfect tense. As far
as I know, past perfect tens is one of the most difficult ones for Chinese EFL learners to acquire.
The core meaning of past perfect in English is “an action completed in the past prior to some
other past event or time” (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p. 116). In this time adverbial,
the perfective marker “le” indicates the completeness and the verb “receive” is an achievement
verb. Besides, there is the word “after”. Combined together, these three suggest that the action of
“receiving” has already been completed before the frog sank down. With respect to the main
clause, there is also a perfective marker “le” and an action verb “sink”. By simply using present
Though there are many more examples, we will not examine them individually due to the
space limit. Four generalizations can be drawn from the analysis so far. First, if the time
adverbials were without verbs, the grammatical aspect of the aspectual marker and the lexical
aspect of the verbs in the main clause override the lexical meaning of the time adverbial. Second,
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If the time adverbial were with verbs but without aspectual markers and the main clause were
with aspectual markers, the grammatical aspect of the aspectual marker and the lexical aspect of
the verbs are only effective within the main clause. Third, if the time adverbial were with verbs
and aspectual markers as well while the main clause has no aspectual marker, the grammatical
aspect of the aspectual marker in the time adverbial will have an impact on both the time
adverbial clause and the main clause. Fourth, if both the time adverbial clause and the main
clause have verbs and aspectual markers, each aspectual marker and verb performs its own
functions within their own territory. No evidence of clash is shown in the data.
associated with the tense and aspect system in English. More importantly, this study aims at
providing some pedagogical suggestions for teaching Chinese EFL learners the tense and aspect
system in English. The findings so far suggest that time adverbial clauses and aspectual markers
are extremely important elements in shaping Chinese EFL learners’ understanding of the whole
concept of tense and aspect. As a result, it would be helpful if the classroom instruction could
use these two elements as an assistant tool to help Chinese EFL learners.
Studies in SLA already prove the effectiveness of providing positive evidence and
negative evidence. The traditional grammar teaching in China oftentimes use the way of
providing negative evidence. Here the first pedagogical suggestion I would made is based on
providing positive evidence. Instead of always giving corrective feedback to the students’
production of tense and aspect, teachers could provide the students with more contextualized
examples of tense and aspect use in authentic language. For example, teachers could show the
students that certain time adverbials frequently occur with particular tenses. Only providing these
examples and improving the input is not enough, teachers should also explain every example to
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the students and resort to the concept of time adverbial clause and aspectual markers in Chinese
when necessary.
If positive evidence is provided but the students do not notice it at all, it would be useless.
Therefore, the second suggestion I want to make is to increase the students’ awareness of the
difference between their own grammar and the target grammar. Each presentation of positive
evidence should go with a corresponding noticing exercise. For example, in order to help
students understand the concept of past perfect in English, teachers could first give an example
as “He had already left before I came” and as well explain it in detail to the students. Then,
teachers could give another sentence and ask the students to identify whether the use of past
In a closing, this study provides some observations and findings about the differences in
temporality between Mandarin and English. It also gives some pedagogical suggestions with
regards to teaching Chinese EFL learners the complicated tense and aspect system in English.
Hopefully it will make a contribution in both research area and real teaching.
References
Li, Charles and Sandra Thompson. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar.
Li, P. and Shirai, Y. (2000). The acquisition of lexical and grammatical aspect. Mouton de
Gruyter.
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Richard Xiao & Tony McEnery. (2004). Aspect In Mandarin Chinese: A Corpus-based Study.
Vendler, Zeno. (1976). Linguistics and philosophy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.