Volum China

Free International University of Moldova
Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova

Confucius Institute at ULIM
Institutul Confucius la ULIM
Institute of Philological and Intercultural Researches
Institutul de Cercetri Filologice i Interculturale
PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE

BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION
PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE
FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL
International Conference
March 4th 2011
Chiinu: ULIM, 2012
Recommended to publishing by Free International University of Moldova Senate (minute no. 6 of March the 30-th 2011).
Head of edition: Acad. Andrei GALBEN
Coordinators:
Elena PRUS, Professor, Ph.D. Hab., Director of the Institute of Philological and Intercultural Researches, ULIM.
Zhongkui LIU, Professor, Ph.D., Vice President of Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China.
Editorial board:
Xiaohui QUAN, Assistant Professor, Director of International Cooperation and Exchange Division, Northwest Normal University,
Lanzhou, China.
Shu TIAN, Professor, Ph.D., Director of Chinese Literature and Culture Department, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China.
Gaonian HAN, Professor, Ph.D., Vice Director of Chinese Literature and Culture Department, Northwest Normal University,
Lanzhou, China.
Jianjiang WANG, Professor, Ph.D., Vice Director of Chinese Literature and Culture Department, Northwest Normal University,
Lanzhou, China.
Huangai ZHAO, Director of the Confucius Institute, ULIM.
Najib REDOUANE, Ph.D., California State University, Long Beach (CSULB), USA.
Efstratia Oktapoda, Associate Professor, Ph.D., Paris-Sorbonne, Paris IV University
Luminia BALAN, Professor, Ph.D., University of Bucharest, Romania.
Victor BOREVICI, Ph.D. Habilitatus, Ex-Ambassador of the Republic of Moldova in the Peoples Republic of China.
Ludmila HOMETKOVSKI, Associate Professor ad-interim, Ph.D., Dean of Faculty of Foreign Languages and Sciences
of Communication, ULIM.
Victor UNTIL, Associate Professor ad-interim, Ph.D., Vice-Director of the Institute of Philological and Intercultural Researches, ULIM.
Ion MANOLI, Professor, Ph.D. Habilitatus, ULIM.
Drago VICOL, Professor ad-interim, Ph.D. Habilitatus, ULIM.
Margarita DAVER, Associate Professor, Ph.D. Habilitatus, ULIM.
Inga STOIANOVA, Associate Professor, Ph.D., Chief of Germanic Languages Department, ULIM.
Zinaida CAMENEV, Associate Professor, Ph.D., ULIM.
Tatiana PODOLIUC, Associate Professor, Ph.D., ULIM.
Computer editing:
Ghenadie RBACOV, Tatiana ROMAN
Paradigms of Chinese Culture Background Values and the Image of Civilization, intern. conf. (2011 ; Chiinu).
Paradigms of Chinese Culture Background values and the Image of Civilization = Paradigme ale culturii chineze
fond valoric i imagine civilizaional : Intern. Conf., March 4th 2011 / dir. de ed.: Andrei Galben ; coord.: Elena
Prus, Zhongkui Liu ; col. red.: Xiaohui Quan, Shu Tian, Gaonian Han [et al.]. Ch. : Pontos, 2012 (F.E.P Tipografia
Central). 184 p.
Antetit.: Free Intern. Univ. of Moldova, Inst. of Philological and Intercultural Researches. Tit. paral.: lb. rom., engl.
Texte: lb. rom., engl., chineze. Bibliogr. la sfritul art. Apare cu sprijinul financiar al Univ. Liber Intern. din
Moldova (ULIM). 200 ex.
ISBN 978-9975-101-65-3.
008(510)(082)=135.1=111=581
P 33
200 ex.
ISBN 978-9975-101-65-3.
008(510)(082)=135.1=111=581
P 33
ULIM, 2012
PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL
CUPRINS
ALOCUIUNI N PLEN
Andrei GALBEN. Discurs .......................................................................................................................6
Zhongkui LIU. Speech ...........................................................................................................................10
CULTUR I FILOSOFIE
Luminia BLAN. The Confucian Conception of the Ideal State Past and Present .........................12
Gaonian HAN ...............................................................................................17
Gaonian HAN. On the Diversity of origins of Chinese Culture .............................................................18
Dorina KHALIL-BUTUCIOC. Feele i mtile povetilor chinezeti n spectacolul Ploia .........19
Ludmila LAZR. Relevana eticii chineze n contextul globalizrii ....................................................24
Efstratia OKTAPODA. China Fascinating and Potentially Clouded. The Chinese Mirage
in the XXIst Century. Towards a New Myth in the Era of Globalization? .....................................29
Elena PRUS, Cezar SECRIERU. Pictura chinez, o po(i)etic a sensurilor simbolice .....................36
Ruslan SEVCENCO. Colaborri culturale moldo-chineze (1956-1960) .............................................42
Shu TIAN ...............................................................................................46
Shu TIAN. He and the Inclusiveness of Chinese Culture ...................................................................48
Violeta TIPA. Valorificarea tradiiilor n filmul de animaie chinez ......................................................51
Victor UNTIL. Filosofia (in)diferenelor culturale i noul modus vivendi .........................................57
Jianjiang WANG ..............................................................................64
Jianjiang WANG. On Chinese Cultural Specific Property from the View of Aesthetic Form . ..............66
STUDII COMPARATIVE, TRADUCERE I TERMINOLOGIE
Maria ALEXE. Chinese Reflexion on Romanian Culture ......................................................................70
Victor BOREVICI. : .................................................... 76
Zinaida CAMENEV. The Most Spread Editions of Confuciuss Analects Translated into English........89
Josefina CUNIR. The Concept of Aesthetic Sense as a Tool of Comparative Research:
Case Study of Pu Songlings and M. Bulgakovs Texts ..................................................................93
Ion MANOLI. Mic glosar de termeni i cuvinte-cheie utilizai n Analectele lui Confucius:
de la esen, rdcin (BN) pn la a merge pe urmele cuiva, a urma(YHU) . ..............97
Tatiana PODOLIUC. The Beginning of Translation Science in China . ............................................104
Zinaida RADU, Lilia STRUGARI. Dimensiunea pedagogic n traducerea din China ...................112
Timofei ROCA. Tangene structurale n poezia chinez i cea basarabean: ntre originar
i globalizare . ..............................................................................................................................117
Inga STOIANOVA. The Concept of Woman in Chinese, English, Romanian
and Russian Paremyology . ..........................................................................................................123
LINGVISTIC, LITERATUR I COMUNICARE
Natalia AZMANOVA. Cultural Impact Into Language Development ................................................132
Margarita DAVER. Contemporary Globalization and New Technologies of Language Learning
in China .......................................................................................................................................135
Valentina ENACHI. Rafinamentul i elegana comunicrii chineze ...................................................138
PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION
Victoria FONARI. Pianjeniul conexiunea simbolistic dintre www i

.................................141
Maria ABRAMCIUC. Lectura ca for transformatoare n romanul Balzac i micua
croitoreas chinez de Dai Sijie ...............................................................................................147
Valentina ENCIU. Confucius primul autor de literatur n lumea chinez .....................................151
Ana GHILA. Cultura i spiritualitatea chinez n viziunea artistic a Juliei Kristeva ....................156
Drago VICOL. Sapiena literaturii chineze din perspectiva categoriilor estetice ale grotescului,
comicului i umoristicului . ..........................................................................................................161
Diana VRABIE. Imaginea Chinei n Jurnal de cltorie n China de Nicolae Milescu Sptarul ......... 165
RECENZII
Luminia BLAN. The First International Scientific Conference at Confucius Institute in Chiinu ....... 170
Ruslan EVCENCO. Relaiile culturale moldo-chineze n ascensiune ..............................................174
ALOCUIUNI N PLEN
Academician Andre GALBEN

Rectorul Universitii Libere din Moldova
Mesaj
adresat Conferinei Internaionale Paradigme ale culturii chineze
fond valoric i imagine civilizaional
Excelen, Domnule Fang Li, Ambasador al Republicii Populare Chineze n Republica Moldova!
Mult stimat Doamn Ana Guu, Vice-Preedinte al Asambleei Parlamentare a Consiliului Europei!
Mult stimate Domnule Mihail leahtichi, Ministru al Educaiei al Republicii Moldova!
Onorai oaspei de peste hotare!
Mult stimai colegi!
Onorat asisten!
Fiind abilitat de ctre Senatul ULIM, vin ctre Domniile Voastre cu un mesaj adresat tuturor
participanilor la Conferina Internaional Paradigme ale culturii chineze fond valoric i imagine
civilizaional.
Viaa politic, social i economic din a doua jumtate a secolului XX a evoluat att de vertiginos,
nct nici un profet nu i-a imaginat o atare situaie de fenomene i relaii internaionale aidoma celora,
contemporanii crora suntem noi cu Dumneavoastr, astzi. Dac n prima jumtate a secolului XX,
lumea continua s fie dominat de mentalitatea perimat medieval divizarea, servilismul vecinilor i
celor mai slabi, ct i confruntarea acerb de-a lungul mileniilor a popoarelor i civilizaiilor europene
pentru remprirea lumii, apoi dup cel de-al doilea rzboi mondial, raiunea uman a evoluat ntratt, ntruct s-au gsit adevrate personaliti politice, care au fost capabile s modifice mentalitatea
european, punnd bazele unei comuniti calitativ noi, dup cum este Uniunea European. Dac
Marele Geniu al Omenirii Napoleon Bonaparte a ncercat s realizeze procesul de europenizare,
forat la ceea ce aspir majoritatea statelor Btrnului Continent, astzi acest fenomen evolueaz pe
cale natural, eliminnd violena i fora fizic. Mai mult dect att, n ultima ptrime a secolului XX
europenizarea a impulsionat un alt fenomen mai superior globalizarea. n calitatea mea de savant
i simplu european, m bucur nespus de mult c personal, mpreun cu instituia pe care o reprezint,
ncercm s impulsionm la nivelul nostru acest proces. n acest context, sunt nespus de fericit c
putem participa la acest fenomen, mpreun cu una din cele mai vechi i impuntoare civilizaii ale
lumii civilizaia, cultura i poporul chinez.
Am depus eforturi considerabile ntru atragerea lumii chineze aici la ULIM, prin Institutul
Confucius. Apreciem i suntem contieni de misiunea i rolul Institutului Confucius n Republica
Moldova. Am susinut conceptul de promovare al acestui Institut, i la rndul nostru ncercm s
impulsionm activitatea acestuia prin diverse forme i criterii de activitate cotidian. Misiunea
Institutului Confucius este, n fond, aceeai pe care o are Institutul Cervantes sau Ghoete, Aliana
Francez n statele lumii. n acelai timp, statutul i misiunea acestuia difer substanial. Deoarece
Republica Moldova are mari restane la capitolul globalizare, ULIM-ul, ca structur inseparabil a
Sistemului Educaional Universitar, vine s contribuie cu aciuni concrete ntru completarea acestui
vacuum (deficiene). Cu acest scop, am acordat spaiu auditorial, sprijin financiar i logistic Institutului
Confucius pentru ca aceast unitate educaional s activeze n condiii optime de cele de la batin.
Suplimentar, inem s atribuim activitii Institutului Confucius de la ULIM conotaii deosebite.
Totodat, inem s redm Institutului i calitatea de cercettor tiinific. Sunt preconizate mai multe
manifestri de acest gen, ca de exemplu - Conferina tiinific dedicat activitii, rolului i locului
marelui crturar Milescu Sptaru n stabilirea i dezvoltarea contactelor spirituale dintre europeni
i civilizaia chinez. Preconizm, ca prin intermediul sistemului de radio-difuziune i televiziune
instituional, s familiarizm comunitatea universitar cu realitile din cultura, tradiia i limba
chinez. Suplimentar, am convenit ca n una din paginile a dou hebdomadare cotidiene s publicm
materiale n limba chinez, despre viaa i activitatea Institutului Confucius, cultura i civilizaia
chinez, n ansamblu.
Republica Moldova i China reprezint dou extremiti geografice, dou culturi i civilizaii
diferite, dou mentaliti de excepie. Dei, pe parcursul evoluiei istoriei noastre, am avut posibiliti
de impulsionare reciproc limitat, astzi situaia s-a schimbat. Dorina de afirmare i promovare a
idealurilor globalizrii ne cere i noi rspundem afirmativ ntru susinerea acestui deziderat. Conferina
Internaional Paradigme ale culturii chineze fond valoric i imagine civilizaional, realizat
prin intermediul Institutului Confucius de la ULIM, Universitii noastre, altor organisme de resort
din China i Republica Moldova, ct i Ambasadei Republicii Populare Chineze n RM, constituie
unul din primele argumente despre aciunile noastre comune. Aceast manifestaie internaional
constituie i piatra de temelie a procesului de extensiune academic a Institutului Confucius de la
ULIM n spaiul educaional i cultural-lingvistic din Republica Moldova, deoarece se preconizeaz
deschiderea filialelor Institutului Confucius ULIM la Universitatea din Bli, centrele universitare
din Comrat, Cahul i Tiraspol. Ulterior, Institutul Confucius i va extinde spaiile i activitatea
n mediul educaional preuniversitar pe teritoriul municipiului Chiinu. i n general, contm s
acordm Institutului Confucius de la ULIM un caracter multidimensional. i anume, crearea grupelor
de studiere a limbii i culturii chineze pentru diverse categorii de populaie, vrst i gen de activitate.
n sperana c ai primit mesajul pe care l-am avut drept misiune de a Vi-l transmite, doresc tuturor
participanilor la acest for tiinific succes i noi oportuniti.
ntr-un ceas bun!
Acad. Andrei GALBEN

Rector of the Free International University of Moldova
Message
addressed to the International Conference Paradygms
of the Chinese Culture - Valuable Fund and Civilizational Image
Your Excellency Mr. Ambassador of the Peoples Republic of China in the Republic of Moldova!
Dear Mrs. Ana Guu, Vice-President of the Parlamentary Assembly of the Council of Europel!
Dear Mr. Mihail Shleahtitsky, Minister of Education of the Republic of Moldova!
Honorable guests from the other countries!
Dear colleagues!
Honorable audience!
With the permission of the ULIM Senate I came to address you and all the participants of the
International Conference Paradygms of the Chinese Culture-Valuable Fund and Civilizational
Image.
Political, social and economic life from the second half of the XX-th century developed so rapidly
that not even a prophet has ever imagined such a situation of international phenomena and relations
as those the contemporaries of which we are today. If in the first half of the XX-th century the society
continues to be dominated by the medieval superannuated mentality the devision, the obedience of
the neighbours and the weaker people as well as the hard confrontations of peoples and the European
civilizations for redivision of the world during millenia, then after the second World War the human
reason developed in such a way as there emerged such real political personalities who that were capable
to modify the European mentality establishing the bases of a qualitatively new community such as the
European Union. If the great genius of the Mankind, Napoleon Bonaparte tried to realize the goal the
majority of the states of the Old Continent hope to achieve the process of Europeanization, today
this phenomenon develops in a natural way eliminating the physical violence and force .Moreover in
the last quarter of the XX-th century the europeanization gave an impulse to another more superior
phenomenon the globalization. As a scientist and simply as an European, I am extremely glad that
personally and together with the institution represented by me, we can try to impulse this process.
In this context I am very happy that we can participate in this phenomenon together with one of the
oldest and the most impressive civilization of the world the Chinese civilization, culture and people.
We made a considerable effort to attract the Chinese people to the ULIM by means of the Confucius
Institute. We appreciate and are aware of the mission and role of the Confucius Institute in the Republic
of Moldova. We took up the concept of promotion of this Institute, and, in our turn, we try to give an
impulse to this activity by means of different forms and criteria of the contemporary life. The mission
of the Confucius Institute is, in fact, the same as that of Francophonie in the countries of the world.
At the same time its statute and mission differ substantially. As the Republic of Moldova is in great
debt to the process of globalization, the ULIM as an inseparable structure of the University System of
Education contributes with concrete actions to the completion of this vacuum (these deficiencies).That
was the scope I gave space for classrooms, financial and logistic support to the Confucius Institute
in order that this educational institution to activate under conditions similar to those from its native
country. Additionally, we attribute certain connotations at ULIM to the activity of Confucius Institute.
At the same time we render to the Institute the scientific researcher status. There are recommended
many manifestations as, e.g., the Scientific Conference dedicated to the activity, role and place of the
great scholar, Milescu Spataru, in the establishment and development of the spiritual contacts between
the Europeans and the Chinese civilizations. We stipulate to familiarize the university community
with the Cultural relations, traditions and the Chinese language by means of the institution radio and
television .In addition, we agreed that one of the two weekly newspapers will publish in Chinese the
materials about the life and the activity of the Confucius Institute, the Chinese culture and civilization
generally taken.
The Republic of Moldova and China represent two geographical extremities, two different
cultures and civilizations, two exceptional mentalities. Although in the evolutionary process of our
history we had possibilities of limited reciprocal impulsiveness, today the situation has changed.
The desire of affirmation and promotion of the ideals of globalization imposes our positive support
this desiteratum. The International Conference Paradygms of the Chinese Culture Valuable Fund
and Civilizational Image, organized through the intermediary of Confucius Institute at ULIM, our
University, other departments from China and the Rebublic of Moldova as well as the Embassy of
the Peoples Republic of China in the Republic of Moldova constitutes one of the first arguments
on our common actions. This international manifestation constitutes the headstone of the process of
academic extension of the Confucius Institute at ULIM in the educational and cultural - linguistic
space from the Republic of Moldova, because the opening of branches of Confucius Institute at
ULIM at the Universities from Bli, University centres from Comrat, Cahul and Tiraspol is supposed.
Subsequently, Confucius Institute will extend its space and activity in the preuniversity educational
medium on the territory of Chisinau municipality. In general, we tend to give the Confucius Institute
at ULIM a multidimensional character, namely, the creation of groups studying the Chinese language
and culture for diverse categories of the population, age and kind of activity.
I believe and hope that my message, addressed to you was a source of information to your
Excellencies, and wish to all the participants at this scientific forum, great opportunities, success and
promotion.
Good luck!
10
Zhongkui LIU
Vice President of Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China

Opening Speech
Dear Mr Minister of Education, Mihai LEAHTICHI,
Mr. Prime-Minister of Culture, Gheorghe POSTICA,
Mr. Ambassador of the Peoples Republic of China in Moldova, Fang Li
Mr. Rector of ULIM, Academician Andrei GALBEN,
Mr. ex-Ambassador of the Republic of Moldova in the Peoples Republic of China,Victor BORSEVICI,
Ladies and gentlemen,
Good evening!
I am honored that our delegation was invited to the Republic of Moldova, the visit was organised
by the Free International University of Moldova, by the Rector Mr Andrei Galben.
We congratulate all of you on behalf of Northwest Normal University.
Chinese people say: The true friendship doesnt have borders. Starting from the Antiquity, the
Silk Road connected Europe and Asia, the Silk Road passed through China, in my Motherland, in
Gansu province, and brought to China the art and the culture of Europe.
Thanks to the cooperation between the Nortwest Normal University and the Free International
University of Moldova, and also thanks to the Republic of Moldova Government the Confucius
Institute, the worldwide spread institution, was established in Moldova. The Confucius Institute
makes a great contribution to the developement of communication, cultural exchange and friendship
between these two countries. The Confucius institute at ULIM organises book and photo exhibitions
on Chinese culture and holidays like the 9th Festival of the Double Ninth Lunar Festival, lessons
about Chinese food, Taijiquan, as well as other activities and presentations, which help the youth
from the Republic of Moldova to feel the diversity of the world culture. The teachers from the Free
International University of Moldova visited China for an exchange of experience. From the moment
the Confucius Institute is established in The Free International University of Moldova, almost
180 students are learning Chinese language and culture, 21 of them study in the Nortwest Normal
University, 13 students from Moldova State University has already studied in China and returned in
Moldova.
Culture represents a country, the soul of a nation. The aim of this seminar is to discuss the common
essence and values of China and Moldova. We want these two countries to work together in order to
promote prosperity and development in the academic field, to have mutual understanding, to enhance
friendship. Today, we gathered together to discuss academic issues, that in itself is a manifestation of
outstanding culture and civilization.
Therefore, I express my warm thanks to the Free International University of Moldova, to the
Director of Institute of Philological and Intercultural Researches of the Free International University
of Moldova, Mrs Elena Prus, to the teachers from the Confucius Institute and to the Director of the
confucius institute, Mrs Zhao Huangai!
I am sure that our joint efforts will ensure the success of this conference.
Thank you!
CULTUR I FILOSOFIE
12
THE CONFUCIAN CONCEPTION OF THE IDEAL STATE PAST AND PRESENT

Luminia BLAN
University of Bucharest
This paper aims at discussing the Chinese conception concerning the ideal state, as it was elaborated in the classical period and the way in which it is put into value in the contemporary world, along with the specific view on
man and society. It is demonstrated that not only Confucianism, but also Legalism contributed to the shaping and
the development of the theory of governing the state. The unique characteristics of these two philosophical systems
can be identified in the political strategies of China nowadays, especially in the context of its aspirations to gain the
status of a global power in the modern world.
Key-words: governing, state, Confucianism, Legalism, ethics, law.
Lucrarea de fa are drept obiectiv discutarea concepiei chineze despre statul ideal, aa cum a fost ea elaborat
n perioada clasic, precum i modul n care este valorificat n lumea contemporan, reflectnd o viziune specific
asupra omului i societii. Se demonstreaz faptul c nu numai confucianismul, ci i legismul au contribuit la conturarea i dezvoltarea teoriei referitoare la guvernarea statului. Caracteristicile unice ale acestor dou sisteme filozofice pot fi identificate n strategiile politice ale Chinei n zilele noastre, n special n contextul definirii aspiraiilor
sale de a dobndi statutul de putere global n lumea modern.
Cuvinte-cheie: guvernare, stat, Confucianism, Legism, etic, lege.
1. Premises and Objectives
During the last decades, the problem of analyzing and understanding the rapid economic development of a series of countries in East Asia, as well as Chinas ascension and ambition to become
a modern state and a global power brought into discussion various social and cultural factors which
could be held responsible in this respect. It is generally agreed that Confucianism played a significant
role not only in the evolution of China, but such countries as Singapore and Taiwan (which are often
labeled as the little tigers). As well they share common characteristics due to their social cohesion,
order and authoritarian governments and such features are considered to originate in the Confucian
system of thought.
Confucianism is a philosophy and an ethical system deeply rooted in the classical culture, with a
history of more than 2500 years. Regarded either as an ideology, as a tradition or as a cultural practice, it has faced different changes up to its transformation into a quasi-official ideology in the late
2000s. Nevertheless, it remained one of the most important forces that have contributed to the molding of the Chinese state, which is in full process of modernization and development nowadays.
The aim of this paper is to discuss the way in which China built the model of the ideal state in the
classical period, setting its basis and its fundamental coordinates which have been perpetuated along
the centuries up to the contemporary period. The revival of the Confucian thought system in the last
few decades has brought to light not only moral and ethical values which have never ceased to be
vital and to influence peoples life and social interactions, but also the specific perspective upon the
role and structure of the state. In a period in which a new global order is under formation, a specific
approach of the state along with these Confucian values seem to provide the recipe for Chinas
ascension and for its success in forging modernity.
13
2. Traditional Conception of a Harmonious Society Goals and Perspectives

As a philosophical system which emerged in a period of crisis (with the decay of the Zhou dynasty1), Confucianism set goals which meant individual and general salvation. One of the goals and
by far of the greatest interest for those who represented the state authority was to bring order to the
state and thereby to promote peace throughout the world. In a brief presentation, Confucianism is the
philosophical system holding that people should cultivate their minds and virtues through lifelong
learning and participation in rituals, that they should treat their family members according to the
norms of filial piety, respect the superiors and rulers. The intellectuals above all should devote themselves to politics and education in order to promote the Way and build the ideal society.
Confucius basically built his system of thought on the order or rites ( li) and social values developed in the early Zhou dynasty. Pondering on the social problems and political disorder of his time,
Confucius reached the conclusion that the source of all those problems was weakening of rites and
ethical norms because the powerful feudal lords had become self-centered, arrogant, corrupted and
did not accept the constraints of rites anymore. Confucius chose to revive the Zhou rite system by
giving it a new ethical dimension which sustained the argument that the return to this system was the
key to put away disorder. He made benevolence and humane spirit the core element of his philosophy,
which influenced the unfurling of rites and gave them a humanistic value. Thus, in Confucius conception rites are not simple external regulations, which constrain peoples behaviour and distribute
roles and duties, but they are a necessary component of a moral portrait. The ideal of such a person is
the attainment of ren (humaneness) the highest virtue, the perfect expression of humanity which
manifests in various degrees, from the rigorous self-examination and self-control to the love and care
for the others.
Therefore, ren induces a humanistic spirit to a rigid system that otherwise would have been devoid
of any preoccupation for anything else but hierarchy and duty. The solution that Confucius proposed
was to revive the rites by founding them on the stronger basis of humaneness.
In the Confucian view of society, each person occupies a certain place, and it is assumed that the
society goes well as long as each individual correctly performs his/her duties in every context and in
every relationship. It is the duty of the father to preside over the family, in the proper manner, that is
to make sure that the physical requirements of its members are satisfied, but also to guarantee the right
environment in which everybody is led to the direction of moral goodness and virtue. Therefore, the
family becomes the very place where the individual is morally integrated in a system that perpetuates
such values and rites. Every relation in the family offers its members the opportunities to grow in the
direction of self-attainment by learning, respect for the others and practice of rites.
In many ways, Confucianism modeled its understanding of the state on the representation of the
family. The ruler is regarded as the parent of the people and that reinforces an organic view of a society as an enormous family, with the ruler as the pater familias. Like in a family, both the people and
the ruler have obligations and duties that they must fulfill. In Analects, Confucius underlines that a
filial son must never disobey2, as the peoples fundamental obligation is to submit to the ruler who
represents the cosmically ordained authority.
On the other hand, each individual holds his expectations concerning the states protection in several areas: the state should ensure peoples most basic needs of food, shelter, order in such a way that
the physical comfort is guaranteed. People also expect that the state has a just administration of their
affairs so that their interests are protected. The ruler, by his moral conduct and judgement, should
cultivate the proper environment in which his subjects can progress and develop their moral qualities.

Zhou dynasty (1066 221 B.C.) was one of the most important periods in the Chinese history, due to the significant transformations in
the governing system, but also due to the impressive cultural production that later became the ancient intellectual heritage of the Chinese
civilization. This period was divided into Western Zhou (1066 771 B.C.) and Eastern Zhou: Chun Qiu (770 476 B.C.) and Warring
States (475 221 B.C.).
Confucius Analects, 2.5.
14
He has the moral duty to rule justly, to be benevolent and set the interests of his subjects above any of
his personal interest. All these build the image of the ideal state, in which both people and ruler have
their own duties that they should gladly fulfill.
According to Confucian philosophy, adherence to rites and ren was essential for regulating the
social system, imposing order and harmony. Not only Confucius, but also his most remarkable followers, Mencius and Xunzi, considered that the ruler had the duty to practice rites and ren, that could
lead to a benevolent policy. By setting peoples welfare and well-being ahead of his own interest, the
ruler would determine people to follow the Way and achieve harmonious social relationships and a
well-ordered society.
Confucius was the first to attempt at elaborating a theory which exceeded the understanding of the
state as an administrative tool. He claimed that at the basis of the state there was a set of ethical and
moral rules, generically called Dao (the Way), which could ensure the law and order of the country.
In this way, Confucius provides an ethical character to the state as a form of social organization. It is
essential that the ruler offers a model of exemplary behavior he has moral authority, obeys tradition
and practices the rites, the result of his action being moral order and harmony in the state.
By setting the duties of the ruler, Confucius defined the essence of the humane (ren) government. It
is in Mencius book that the main coordinates of such a benevolent ruling are indicated. It is illustrative in this respect the paragraph where Mencius addresses King Hui of Liang:
If your Majesty can practice a humane government to the people, reduce punishments and fines,
lower taxes and levis, make it possible for the field to be plowed deep and the weeding well done,
men of strong body in their days of leisure may cultivate their filial piety, brotherly respect, loyalty
and faithfulness, thereby serving their fathers and elder brothers at home and their elders and
superiors abroad. (96)3
Mencius, the second most famous Confucian thinker, described the state as an inseparable unity comprising 3 divisions: political authority, territory and people living on it. He considered them the 3
treasures indispensable for a ruler to be able to exercise his authority. For the first time in the classical
period, he made a clear distinction between the state as an institution and the ruler. In his opinion, the
most important element in a state was the people, then the territory on which the respective people
lived, while the ruler was at the bottom of this hierarchy. Such interpretations led to the conclusion
that ruling a country was a mission which meant strong moral authority.
A complete image of the classical Confucian conception of the state cannot be achieved without
taking into consideration the opinions of another famous Confucian thinker Xunzi, labeled as the
last great Confucian thinker of the pre-imperial era4. He is the most important because he is the one
who brings Confucianism and Legalism closer than ever the latter being a school which provided
significant conception for governing the state in the pre-imperial epoch.
According to the Legalist system, the state, by using a strict mechanism of penalties and laws
could eliminate the evil in man and restore the order. As the Legalists considered that human nature
is evil, the role of the state was to keep people from doing evil acts, and not cultivate their morality.
The ruler did not govern in virtue of his moral authority, but by exercising his power and using the
system of penalties and rewards.
In comparison to his predecessors, Xunzi demonstrated a consistent support to the law, considering
it a necessary instrument for the good functioning of the state. In the Legalist vision, which represented
an important source of inspiration for Xunzi, the strength of a country was ensured by waging wars and
developing agriculture. Still, Xunzi did not adopt all the Legalist ideas, but only those which meant
the development of the state. His pleading for the use of law in government, the emphasis on order and
the rulers power were elements which perpetuated far beyond the end of the Qin dynasty (209 B.C.).

3
4
The paragraph cited here belongs to Chapter 1. 5.

The preimperial period ended in 221 B.C., when Qin dynasty - the first Chinese empire was set up.
15
3. Trends in the Modern Theory of Governing the State

Many of these elements were preserved and used along the centuries by various rulers. It seems
plausible that Confucianism, with its accent on moral cultivation and harmony could not have led the
state towards a rapid development and social order by itself. It is rather by combining the strategies
of the 2 schools: moral cultivation and vigorous enforcement of law that the government could maintain itself and not collapse, in spite of all the difficulties that China experienced in the past. During
its long and turmoil history, China managed to resist and develop due to a viable governing theory
which allowed rulers to rely on Confucian ethics and morality, and to exercise power through Legalist
methods.
A comprehensive investigation into the political atmosphere and administrative structure of the
state in the last few decades demonstrates the rulers attachment to both strategies, which conforming to the traditional pair of opposites ( yin yang) of the Chinese philosophy, brings opposites
together. The successful combination of two sides of the system of authority, so different, but still
complementary, can be noticed in the political strategy nowadays. The emphasis on respect for hierarchy, moral cultivation and strengthening of social relationships on ethical basis has been maintained
during the centuries up to the present. Still, the pragmatic view which led to a flourishing economy
and to the elaboration of a huge administrative mechanism, with a strong law system is responsible to
the same extent for the ascension of China, which promises to be the most impressive phenomenon
of the 21st century.
It is exactly what Ross Terril, a famous historian and biographer of Mao Zedong, describes very
metaphorically referring to Chinas mechanism of authority. He imagines it wearing the Legalist
armour (reference to the military spirit and coercive strategies) and the silk Confucian robe of
disguise5, thus constructing a system whose efficiency has been tested and demonstrated for centuries.
During recent years, much more frequently than before, the official discourses and the trends followed in the construction of the modern ideal state bring forth phrases or concepts belonging both to
the Confucian and to the Legalist philosophy. For instance, starting from the 80s, the Chinese leaders
focused on the elaboration of an efficient legal system, thus setting constitutional law as the basis of
modern China. Such a tendency is fully rendered in the phrase yi fa zhi guo (rule the country by law), frequently present in the ideological framework of that period.
Nevertheless, in spite of the growing importance of law and legal structure in the state, the Confucian values did not cease to be treasured and to exercise their influence. Thus, during the second half
of the 90s, the Chinese leadership started to discuss more about the necessity to build a spiritual
civilization, a new morality which could fight against problems inherent in the process of Chinas
opening-up and modernization, such as corruption, a decrease in the sphere of morality and other
negative aspects. The revival of Confucian values and ethical concepts determined the emergence of
the doctrine of yi de zhi guo (ruling the country by means of virtue). Other Confucian ideas
were added against this background, such as the conception referring to the necessity that the leaders should set peoples interests ahead of personal interest. This conception is fully illustrated by the
phrase yi ren wei ben (consider people as the most important thing).
With the coming of the 21st century which brings new challenges to China, both at home and at the
international level, the discourses of the party leaders underline the determination to build a harmonious society ( hexie shehui), which can contribute to the establishment of a harmonious
world ( hexie shijie), a key conception in the ideology of the Chinese Communist Party.
Such phrases can be identified also in the academic world, in numerous debates referring to the necessity of everybody making efforts in the direction of moral cultivation and harmonious integration.
In his discourse at a conference of the high level cadres, delivered in June 2005, President Hu

Ross Terril. The New Chinese Empire: Beijings Coming Confrontation with an Emerging China. New York: Basic Books, 2003, p. 73.
16
Jintao discussed about the importance of the Confucian concept of harmony in strengthening the
social stability and order in the country. Ever since then, the attainment of social harmony has been
considered as a significant strategy, a vital solution for decreasing social pressures, for diminishing
the differences between urban and rural areas, and also for encouraging a healthy economic growth.
The revival of Confucian values transparent in the occurrence of Confucian concepts in the ideology is reflected more and more frequently in the political discourses. That demonstrates once again
that Chinas cultural heritage, nourished by the Confucian philosophy and sustained by the Legalist
preference for rigorous strategies and a strict law system, has been forging the new mould for the modern
Chinese State.
References
Ames, Roger T. The Art of Rulership. New York: State University of New York Press, 1994.
Bell, Daniel A. Confucian Political Ethics. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2008.
Cao, Deben. Zhongguo chuantong sixiang tansuo (Research on the Traditional Chinese Thought). Daxue: Liaoning
Daxue chubanshe, 1988.
Cheng, Anne. Istoria gndirii chineze. Trad. Florentina Vian and Viorel Vian. Iai: Polirom, 2001.
Confucius. Analecte. Trad. Florentina Vian. Bucureti: Humanitas, 1995.
Fung, Yu-Lan. A History of Chinese Philosophy. Trad. Derk Bodde, the VIII th ed. vol. 1. Princeton: University
Press, 1983.
Graham, A. C. Disputers of the Dao. Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. Illinois: Open Court. Chicago and
La Salle, 1989.
Han, Feizi. Han Feizi. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2007.
Hsiao, Kung-chuan. A History of Chinese Political Thought. Trad. F. Mote. Princeton: Universtity Press, 1997.
Jelonek, W.Adam and S. Zemanek. Bogdan. Confucian Tradition Towards the New Century. Wydawnictwo: Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 2008.
Levi, Jean. Funcionarii divini. Trad. Beatrice Stanciu. Timioara: Amarcord, 1995.
Mencius. Mengzi. Han Ying si shu (The Four Classical Booki Chinese English Edition). Hunan: Hunan chubanshe, 1992.
Nivison, S. David. The Way of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese Philosophy. Illinois, La Salle. Open Court:
Ed. B. Van Norden, 1996. p. 203 - 313
Terril, Ross. The New Chinese Empire: Beijings Coming Confrontation with an Emerging China. New York: Basic
Books, 2003.
17
200
1000-20004000
18
ON THE DIVERSITY OF ORIGINS OF CHINESE CULTURE

Gaonian HAN
Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China
The territory of China, from the east to the west, covers a vast land from the Pacific Ocean to the
Pamirs, and extends from north Mohe to south Nansha Islands. Geographically, the great land has a
structure as three stairs from west up to east down. The first stair, which covers coastal southeast areas,
has a elevation of less than 200 meters, and the second stair covers Yun Gui Plateau, Sichuan Basin and
Loess Plateau, has an elevation of 1000 to 2000 meters. The third stair, which had been called spine of
the world, is Tibetan Plateau of which the height level is 4000 meters above sea. Therefore, China is
geographically set back to Asia and facing to Pacific. The geographical environment of China is somehow
isolated. As for the climate, the wide land extends from cold temperate zone to Torrid Zone, as a result,
weathers vary very much and the amounts of rainfall in regions differ a lot.
The geographical environment has been a key factor that makes diversified origins of Chinese culture.
Along the Yellow river and theYangtze River, there were lots of original places that had cultivated the
great culture.
The local scholars, around the 6th B.C., divided ancient China into 9 cultural regions, which are all
scattered along the fluvial plain by distributaries of theYellow River and the Yangtze River. The 9 places
are all isolated in spaces, with water and mountains around. The 9 origins, with different cultural characteristics, are believed to be formed by the power of nature instead of by human. The ancient scholars made
studies on soil, climates, products, even on life styles and traditions of the 9 to describe how different
cultures came out. As for the distribution of culture typologies, from ancient times, agriculture civilization
was born from the regions along theYellow River, northeast China nourished the nomadism culture, while
coastal culture, was cultivated in coastal regions. Nevertheless, there were interdisciplinaries occurred
from time to time.
The differences of regions brought up individualities and life styles of people, which were the key factors that caused the diversity of Chinese culture.
There are some examples that could illustrate the diversity. The well-known founder of Confucianism,
Confucius, was born in mid-land of China and grew up on east Shandong coastal region. He was born in a
place where agriculture was developed. In this kind of life style, people seldom left their places. Men were
responsible of farming while women of laboring. This tradition made Confucius practical in acting and
diligent in thinking. As he had much sympathy on common people, in his political ideas, he was always
promoting agriculture, i.e. food first, education second. Most of his students were born in farming families. Confucius once set up four steps of life: first, to be morally educated; second, to balance relationships
within a household; third, to seek an opportunity to serve the people and nation; last, to enable common
people better lives. If it was out of the competence of one, he could try to archive the first one or two.
This was an example showing how agriculture could be influential to Confucianism.
Another example is about Lao Tzu, who was contemporary with Confucius. Lao Tzu was the founder
of Taoism, he was born in the south of China where the climate was wet and life was easy. The south of
China has a beautiful sight of water and mountains that endowed the people with romantic personalities.
They were less practical but tended to think matters out of reality, such as celestial or values of life. This
kind of environment made Lao Tzu a thinker of nature and human, as a result, he advocated that everything should be developed by the natural discipline. He even raised that one should retreat from outside
in the war time. This idea varied a lot from ideas of Confucius.
These are two examples of Confucius and Lao Tzu. The diversity of Chinese culture would be illustrated from the examples.
Notes
Mohe, a Chinese village located in the most north of China in Helongjiang Province.
Nansha, a series of small islands located in the most south of China.
Lao Tzu, an outstanding ideologist and philosopher in ancient China. He was also the founder of Taoism.
19
FEELE I MTILE POVETILOR CHINEZETI

N SPECTACOLUL PLOIA
Dorina KHALIL-BUTUCIOC
Academia de tiine a Moldovei
Pe 12 iunie 2008 la Teatrul Republican de Ppui Licurici s-a jucat premiera spectacolului Ploia dup una
din cele 100 de poveti de aur din volumul Poveti i legende al scriitorului rus Vlas Doroevici. Fabula este
aparent simpl: mpratul chinez Li Oa i-a dorit s afle ci dintre supuii si n Beijing nu au nici mcar o plrie
care s-i apere pe timp de ploaie. Dregtorii Tzung Hi Tzang, San Ci San, Pai Hi Vo i Huar Dzung au rspuns n
felul lor la aceast ntrebare. Ei au ieit n strad, i-au adunat pe toi oamenii fr plrie ntlnii i i-au decapitat.
Necunoscnd adevrul, suveranul s-a bucurat c n timpul domnirii sale oraul, ara i poporul sunt fericii.
Piesa Ploia este o schi realist despre strivirea omului simplu de ctre mainria sistemului totalitar, demascnd frnicia i servilismului, compromisul moral i cruzimea executorilor acestuia. Chiar dac Vlas Doroevici
este considerat rege al pamfletului, piesa i spectacolul se nscriu n registrul tragi-comic prin atmosfera de teroare din afara curii mpratului i de fastuozitate din interiorul ei. Cadrul tragi-comic este validat i de prezena n
spectacol a unui Mscrici, care nu rde, ci plnge.
Spectacolul Ploia transpune n scen farmecul, fascinaia i rafinamentul povetilor chinezeti, dar i nelepciunea, subtextele i paradoxurile culturii orientale.
Cuvinte-cheie: fee, mti, poveti, Vlas Doroevici, Titus Jucov, Teatrul Republican de Ppui Licurici,
Ploia, dans, muzic, lumini, specific chinezesc.
In 12 June 2008, Republican Puppet Theatre Licurici played premiere The rain after one of the 100 golden
stories of volume Stories and Legends of the Russian writer Vlas Dorochevici. The fable is apparently simple:
Chinese Emperor Li Oa wanted to know how many of his subalterns do not even have a hat to shield the rain.
Governors Tzung Hi Tzang, San Ci San, Pai Hi Vo and Huar Dzung responded to this question in their own way.
They came to the streets, gathered all the people meet without hat and they decapitated. Ignorant the truth, the sovereign has enjoyed during his reign the city, country and people are happy.
The piece The rain is a realistic sketch about ordinary people crushed by the machinery of the totalitarian system, exposing the hypocrisy and servility, moral compromise and the cruelty of his executors. Even if Doroevici
Vlas is considered King of the pamphlet, the text and the spectacle are recorded in the tragicomic register by the
atmosphere of terror outside king court and the sumptuous inside. The tragicomic cadre is validated by the presence
of a Jaster, not laugh, but cry.
The spectacle The rain transposes the charm, fascination and sophistication of Chinese stories, and the philosophy, subtexts and paradoxes of Oriental culture.
Key-words: faces, masks, stories, Dorochevici Vlas, Titus Jukov, Republican Puppet Theatre Licurici,
Ploia, dance, music, lights, Chinese specifically.
Cnd vezi un om bun, ncearc s-l imii,

cnd vezi un om ru, analizeaz-te.
Pe 12 iunie 2008 la Teatrul Republican de Ppui Licurici din Chiinu actorii-ppuari, absolveni ai Academiei de Muzic, Teatru i Arte Plastice din Chiinu, au prezentat n limba rus premiera spectacolului Ploia. Spectacolul este o adaptare dup una din cele 100 de poveti de aur
din volumul Poveti i legende al scriitorului rus Vlas Doroevici, jurnalist cu un discurs obiectiv
conectat la problemele dintre secolele XIX - XX, publicist cu o fraz acid-ironic mpotriva statului
poliienesc, critic teatral cu o voce ferm nu numai n analiza, ci i n orientarea fenomenului teatral.
Supranumit i rege al pamfletului, Vlas Doroevici s-a evideniat i ca autor al unor schie realiste
despre sistemul judiciar, politic i economic al statului. Deci, fascinat de modelul literaturii occidentale, V. Doroevici a devenit din fin degusttor un bun cunosctor al literaturii populare chineze.
Astfel, el ne-a lsat o motenire considerabil de poveti i legende n care predomin motivele i
imaginile mitologice i folclorice ale popoarelor occidentale.
20
Titus Jucov, directorul artistic al teatrului Licurici, a citit cartea de poveti a scriitorului rus nc
n anii de studenie, realiznd atunci dramatizarea i adaptarea basmului Ploia. El a rmas impresionat att de textul povetii, pe care visa sa-l monteze, ct i de ecourile tradiiilor orientale, pe care
dorea s le valorifice pe scena teatrului basarabean. Astfel, directorul de scen al Ploiei a ntreesut
n structura subiectului dramatic motive din diverse legende i poveti orientale, a pstrat intacte replicile personajelor i a angajat unul nou pe post de Bufon, obinnd un spectacol plin de peripeii i
parabole.
Fabula povetii6 este aparent simpl: mpratul chinez Li Oa i-a dorit s afle ci dintre supuii si
n Beijing nu au nici mcar o plrie care s-i apere pe timp de ploaie. El i-a ordonat ambelanului
Tzung Hi Tzang (Adrian Puc) s afle adevrul, care a ncredinat porunca Primului Ministru San
Ci San (Ion Buzil), care l-a chemat pe Vornicul cetii Pai Hi Vo (Valentin Munteanu), iar acesta pe
Cpetenia strjerilor Huar Dzung (Ion Turcule). Strjerii (Valentin Munteanu i Ion Buzil) au fost
trimii n strad, i-au adunat pe toi oamenii fr plrie ntlnii i i-au decapitat. Cum porunca a
fost transmis n descreterea statutului social de la un dregtor la altul, rspunsul a ajuns la mprat
n ordinea invers. Raportndu-i-se adevrul deformat c n capital nu mai exist nici un supus fr
plrie, suveranul s-a bucurat c n timpul domnirii sale oraul, ara i poporul triesc n prosperitate
i fericire.
Or, n spectacol opoziia dintre planurile din interiorul i exteriorul curi mprteti este mai mult
dect evident, exprimndu-se cu exactitate i veridicitate specificul fiecruia. Fastuozitatea i armonia din palat sunt redate prin decorurile sugestive i simetrice, prin tronul centru al lumii, plasat
n mijlocul scenei, prin micrile delicate ale Suveranului, prin dansurile feerice ale fetelor de curte
i prin reverenele servile ale dregtorilor. Atmosfera sumbr i abominabil a planului din exterior,
impregnant de teroare i oprimare, este sugerat de ntunericul hu din fundalul scenei, de umbrele groteti ale strjerilor, de vacarmul arestrii celor cu vin / fr plrie i fr vin / cu plrie.
Pe acest fon se deruleaz cteva istorii tragice de persecutare a btrnilor i copiilor, de desprire
a mamei de copii, de separare a tinerilor ndrgostii etc. Totui, n faa nedreptilor i persecuiei,
protagonitii i pstreaz credina n adevr, buntate, toleran. Dar nici vorb de Adevr-Compasiune-Toleran, principiile mai multor sisteme de credin reprimate n toate dictaturile, din partea dregtorilor alias executorilor sistemului totalitar, demascndu-se frnicia i servilismul, compromisul
moral i cruzimea acestora. Preocuparea lor princip(i)al rmne, hic et nunc, ocuparea tronului,
fiecare dintre dregtorii de la curtea mpratului Li Oa nscunndu-se pe tron i complcndu-se n
postura de stpni pe situaia din subordinea lor. Cu ajutorul unor structuri de semne, simboluri i
metafore, spectacolul Ploia (de)mascheaz mecanismele de strivire a omului simplu de ctre mainria sistemului i dezvluie suferina, temerile i instabilitatea acestora. n spatele mtilor-machiaje
ale celor executai se simte o tensiune corporal care ne vorbete nu numai despre mti ca simbol,
ci i despre intensitatea caracterului, despre gtlejurile sugrumate i numrul morilor, despre fric i
teroare. n spectacolul Ploia, violena sngeroas, direct i imediat, este doar o simulare, ns ale
crei resurse de a (ne) nfricoa i putere de a (ne) sensibiliza aduc mai multe provocri sentimentului
nostru de dreptate. Or, ntr-adevr teatrul ne ajut s ne regsim poziia personal fa de violen,
intoleran, injustiie. n aceasta rezid rolul su umanist.7 Astfel, povetile i legendele lui Vlas
Doroevici rmn actuale i interesante pentru noile generaii anume prin scoaterea mtilor de pe
feele sistemelor politice dintotdeauna, dar i de pe feele tradiiilor populare orientale. Or, chiar i
programul de sal al spectacolului este croit n stil chinezesc din prile frontal i dorsal ale unui
chimonou rou, pe transversala de la mijloc odihnindu-se minile albe splate (ale suveranilor).
La deschiderea foii-program, din interior, ne fixeaz privirea unei fee-mti glaciale i abominabile,
ascunse dup un evantai, dar nu i dup degete, cci din ambele pri ale foii ne salut dou mini:
una desfcut i alta strns pumn, simbol magic i semn al puterii.

6
7
Doroevici, Vlas. Poveti i legende. Mn: Nauka i tehnika, 1983 // http://az.lib.ru/d/doroshewich_w_m/text_0160.shtml
Stefanova, Aglica. Violena n teatrul contemporan: efecte retorice i etice // Sud-Est, 2008/3 // http://www.sud-est.md/
numere/20080915/article_15/
21
Intriga spectacolului se declaneaz ntr-un univers chinez complex, n care jocul mpratului Li
Oa de-a ntinderea i tragerea sforilor de care sunt legai dregtorii i doamnele din alai pune sub
semnul dualitii identitatea Ppuarului i a marionetelor. Or, Ploia este unul din spectacolele n
care nu apare nici o ppu, actorii n plan viu ascunzndu-se dup mtile-machiaje, chimonourile
somptuoase, perucile negre cu crengue de prun n floare, simbol chinez al puritii i longevitii.
Graie inspiraiei costumerului i macheuzului spectacolului, personajele sunt echipate la chinoise,
iar mtile-machiaje, corespunztoare culorii chimonoului, sunt corectoare pentru fizionomiile fetelor de la curte i ascunztoare pentru feele adevrate ale dregtorilor i suveranului, fiind i mijloc
de caracterizare a (strii de spirit a) eroilor care mai devreme sau mai trziu transpar pe scen. Astfel,
mpratul Li Oa, machiat cu bujori n obrjori, este mbrcat ntr-un chimonou de nuane rou-sngeros i galben-strlucitor, culoarea roie a rochiei fiind simbolul norocului n cultura chinez. Numit
i fiul cerului sau al soarelui, El se ascunde dup o masc de suveran tnr, bun, nelept, justiiar
i grijuliu, fiind, ns, contemplativ, trufa i apatic, rol jucat cu grandilocven de Nichita Doscoci.
ntr-o poveste, artarea la fa a adevratului chip al mpratului i al lumii poate fi exprimat
desigur doar de un alter ego al su Mscriciul, n Ploia rol realizat cu subtilitate de ctre Mihaela Bstrichi. n acest spectacol Bufonul i poart costumul clasic din dou culori plasate simetric:
nuanele atenuante ale roului i albastrului, simboliznd balana lumii ntre lumin i ntuneric, ntre
cruzime i armonie, ntre tragic i comic. Venit n Ploia din alte poveti, Mscriciul, care mai are
i rolul de Prolog, ndeplinete doar funcia
sa de ntreinere a atmosferei de veselie la
curile suveranilor, dar mai puin pe cea de
bufon regal care putea s spun lucrurilor
deranjante pe nume. Or, aparteurile sale sunt
adresate doar spectatorilor, el neavnd dreptul de a participa la dialog i aciune dramatic, ci de a le explica, completa i comenta.
Druindu-se trup i suflet, adic mbinnd
micrile scenice de saltimbanc cu retririle
interioare profunde, fr a se expune sau a
se isteriza, el i schimb feele pe ntregul
spectru cuprins ntre comic i tragic odat
cu creterea intensitii aciunii. Bufonul jongleaz cu abilitate accentele comice cu cele dramatice,
nemaiputnd ns relativiza totul prin glumele i sclmbielile sale. n finalul reprezentaiei, conf(r)
und(t)ndu-se cu suferina lumii pe care o re-triete i o re-d, Mscriciul trece dezinvolt de la rs
la tristeea lacrimii. Or, i cerul sau materia plnge, ploia de la nceputul spectacolului simboliznd
nu purificarea total i viaa nou, ci sentimentul singurtii cosmice i golul existenial ca la simboliti, iar ploaia de la sfritul povetii simboliznd binecuvntarea cereasc i lacrimile ngerilor, ca
ntr-o tradiie islamic apocrif. Astfel, ntr-un dans funebru, Bufonul aduce un pahar-urn funerar
plin cu petale roii, simboluri ale sngelui i agoniei sufletelor moarte, pe care le mprtie pe scen
cu o durere grav impregnat pe chip. Se tie c n Roma antic la srbtoarea Rosalia, preluat n
cretinism sub numele de Rusalii, pe morminte se presrau petale de trandafir, flori asociate i cu
moartea, nu numai ca ofrand, ci i ca simbol al regenerrii. Dar Suveranul Li Oa re-ia paharul i
arunc petalele ntr-un elan de fericire i de srbtoare, imaginea simboliznd deja luxul i bunstarea, ca bujorii n cultura chinez, pictai pe chimonoul su.
Faa autentic i controversat a traiului de la curte i a regulilor sale este devoalat tot de ctre
Bufon, care i prezint cu pietate contrafcut i ironie nefalsificat pe toi dregtorii mpratului
invitai n scen. Mtile-machiaje ale acestora se schimb n dependen de mimicile mbrcate
asemenea feelor lui Ianus: o fa pentru mprat le este supus i curtenitoare, alta pentru curteni
viclean i bnuitoare, o a treia pentru oamenii simpli crud i dur. Asemenea schimbri de
22
perspectiv ntre bine i ru trdeaz criza

i confuzia unor valori etice, scriitorul i
regizorul nfiernd anumite tare morale i
aspecte negative ale realitii sociale, Mscriciul nfptuind demascarea final.
Tot Bufonul ncearc s se ncing n
dans cu fetele din alaiul suveranului, format din tinerele actrie Alina Popov, Elena
Frunz, Anastasia Stavilov, Olesea Spiridonov, Natalia Pana i Maria Tuchilu. Ele
poart chimonouri rafinate i mti-machiaje n stilul primei metode din opera chuan,
renumit prin abilitatea schimbrii mtilor,
devenite simbolul acesteia. Astfel, pe parcursul ntregului spectacol, ca n opera chuan, ateptm parc schimbarea la fa a fetelor printr-o tergere inopinat cu mna a machiajului. Dar acest moment
fascinant i misterios nu se produce, cci statutul fetelor de curte este redus la cel de ppui mobile,
ele interpretnd graios mai mute dansuri chinezeti care (contra)puncteaz momentele principale ale
subiectului dramatic. Astfel, dansul lor cu clopoeii de vnt, care n cultura chinez semnific norocul
i bogia, reprezint expoziia, sugerndu-ne locul, timpul i personajele desfurrii aciunii. Sunetul fin i melodios al clopoeilor de vnt nu-i ndeplinete, ns, funcia de a atrage energiile pozitive
i de a le risipi pe cele negative, ci acioneaz n sens invers. Dansul cu nframele leag nceputul
intrigilor de la curte, cel cu evantaiurile prevestete ascunderea unor evenimente funeste, a unor adevruri sau a feelor (ne)vinovate, iar dansul cu sbiile ne con-duce cu gndul la punctul culminant,
adic la momentul sacrificrii orenilor fr plrie pe timp de ploaie.
Deci, spectacolul nu are ca punct de plecare doar (pre)textul dramatic i mesajul ideatic pe care
acesta l transmite, ci i o combinaie de dans i muzic al crei corolar este crearea unei sublime stri
participative. Gesturile, micrile, dansurile doamnelor de curte le transform corpul ntr-un limbaj
care (se / le) elibereaz i (se / le) transmite simultan graia i rafinamentul prin fora comunicrii
teatrale. Or, picioarele mereu pliate i alunecarea uoar i extrem de coordonat a mersului n timpul
dansului implic un control muscular permanent al ntregului corp, inclusiv al laringelui, avnd centrul de greutate vintrele, ca n Noh i Kabuki. Lentoarea micrilor dansatoarelor este ritmat de sunetul sincopat al muzicii tradiionale chineze ce se distinge prin melodicitate, fascinnd i hipnotiznd
publicul. n muzica popular chinez predomin registrele nalte i, de multe ori, sunetele stridente,
n spectacol fiind explorat detaliul btilor de / n tobe care susin tempoul i punctele culminante ale
aciunii dramatice.
Astfel, n spectacolul Ploia fiecare micare a dansatorilor, fiecare not muzical i fiecare decor
luxuriant poart ecoul integritii. Gsind un echilibru ntre componentele muzicale i coregrafice,
costumaie i machiaj, spectacolul i-a format un stil artistic cu adevrat chinezesc, dezvoltnd specificul acestei culturi. Prin specificul chinezesc nelegem realizarea unei producii teatrale inspirate din
povetile chinezeti i din estetica teatral oriental, din formele vechi de cultur chinezeasc i din
tradiiile chineze vechi, eterogene i autarhice. Se tie c pentru chinezi, dar i pentru noi, cum ne-o
demonstreaz acest spectacol, tradiia a rmas un rezervor spiritual activ.
Or, ceea ce vedem este de fapt un exemplu de nsuire a principiilor teatrale occidentale, cci pentru a realiza o astfel de reprezentaie, echipa de creaie a parcurs o etap iminent oricrei montri
de studiere aprofundat a nuanelor culturii pe care o reprezint n spectacol, n acest caz, a celei
chineze. Or, preceptele i canoanele, procedeele i tehnicile culturii chineze sunt nsuite de ctre toi
coautorii spectacolului, fiecare n domeniul su i n ansamblul de echip: regia - Dana Strungaru,
scenografia - Maria Gross, coregrafia - Mariana Drozdov, selecia muzical - Arcadie Strungaru, ghidai de ctre Titus Jucov, care a susinut adaptarea i direcia de scen.
23
Prezena pe scena basarabean a unui astfel de spectacol este un act curajos i ndrzne n contextul n care reflect realiti ambigue, fugitive, neltoare ca un Proteus cu o mie de fee. Condamnarea injust a oamenilor care nu s-au ajustat la anumite reguli unice creeaz un fel de vortex tragic,
spectacolul ndemnnd a priori la demascarea ororii i la revolt exasperat. Impresia pe care i-o las
spectacolul este copleitoare, cci violena promis de un subiect inspirat din cultura oriental este
trit i entuziasmeaz dincolo de orice ateptri pe orice privitor, mai puin pe copii. Or, Ploia
este primul spectacol pentru adolesceni n repertoriul Teatrului de Ppui Licurici, necesitatea i
oportunitatea cruia a pornit de la ideea c nevoia de basm, inclusiv de cel chinezesc, este aceeai la
orice vrst doar c povetile se neleg diferit Or, acelai lucru ni l-au demonstrat i alte teatre
basarabene, montnd n plin secol al XXI-lea spectacole n baza povetilor chinezeti. E vorba de punerea n scen a pieselor Prinesa Turandot de Carlo Gozzi la Teatrul Luceafrul de ctre B. Foca
i Privighetoarea de H. Ch. Andersen la Teatrul E. Ionesco n regia lui V. Drucec, spectacole ce ne
sugereaz parafrazarea versului eminescian: alte piese, aceleai mti.
Prin varietatea temelor i notaia detaliilor, prin naturaleea tonului i intensitatea sentimentului,
prin plasticitatea imaginilor i prospeimea atmosferei, spectacolul Ploia reconstituie un tablou
fidel al vieii i mentalitii popoarelor orientale, aducnd n sal parfumul chinezesc. Or, spectacolul
transpune n scen farmecul, fascinaia i rafinamentul povetilor chinezeti, dar i nelepciunea,
subtextele i paradoxurile culturii orientale.
Referine bibliografice
Doroevici, Vlas. Poveti i legende. Mn: Nauka i tehnika, 1983. http://az.lib.ru/d/doroshewich_w_m/text_0160.
shtml
Stefanova, Aglica. Violena n teatrul contemporan: efecte retorice i etice // Sud-Est, 2008/3.
http://www.sud-est.md/numere/20080915/article_15/
24
RELEVANA ETICII CHINEZE N CONTEXTUL GLOBALIZRII

Ludmila LAZR
Am trit experiena globalizrii n aspectele ei att pozitive ct i negative. Astfel este necesar elaborarea unei
etici globale bazat pe experiena Estului i Vestului pentru identificarea celor mai bune practici. Etica chinez,
i n special confucianismul, ne ofer valori i principii relevante pentru a face fa provocrilor lumii contemporane. Cunoatrea acestei etici i promovarea valorilor sale este posibil i necesar cci conduita etic este nu
doar ereditar, ci se cultiv prin educaie. n spaiul romnesc, fiind unul de frontier cultural, fuziunea i sinteza
valorilor Orientului i Occidentului este o realitate emergent. Astfel mbinarea experienelor i normelor cretine
cu unele principii ale eticii confucianiste ar putea oferi instrumente pentru soluionarea problemelor social economice i politice stringente ale societii contemporane n diverse pri ale lumii.
Cuvinte-cheie: Confucianism, valorile morale ren i yi, etica global.
We have experienced the reality of globalization, both in its positive and negative aspects. We need a global
ethic by drawing on the experiences of East and West to find the best practice. Chinese Ethics and Confucianism
in particular, give us values and principles relevant to face the challenges of the contemporary world. Introduced
to the ethical and promote its values is possible and necessary because of ethical conduct is not only hereditary,
but is cultivated through education. In the Romanian cultural space frontier the fusion and synthesis of Eastern and
Western values is an emerging reality. This combination of Christian experiences and norms with some principles
of Confucian ethics could provide tools for solving socio-economic and political problems of contemporary society
in various parts of the world.
Key-words: Confucianism, moral values of ren and yi, global ethics.
Principiile etice sunt conceptele cele mai semnificative pentru ordinea social i actul uman, iar tradiia
etic reprezint coninutul esenial al culturii tradiionale a unui popor sau a unei civilizaii. Putem
crede, pe de o parte, c aceleai principii etice exist n cele mai multe naiuni sau civilizaii. Aceste
principii sunt exprimate prin cuvinte sau concepte, cum ar fi principiul ceresc i etica omului n
China antic sau dreptul natural n Occident. Pe de alt parte, trebuie s recunoatem c reglementrile etice, practicile morale sau modalitile judecii morale pot fi foarte diferite de la o naiune la
alta. Mai mult dect att, pentru o naiune sau civilizaie n diferite perioade ale istoriei sale principiile
etice pot fi diverse. Un principiu etic, dac este urmat de mai multe persoane i aceasta dureaz mai
mult de o generaie, constituie deja o tradiie etic naional.
Strmoii chinezi au extras din relaia omului cu natura i experienele agricole dou idei de baz:
armonie i ordine. Este nevoie de a menine armonia dintre om i natur, iar oamenii ar trebui s
respecte legile naturii. Armonia este punctul central al acestei etici. Confucius a spus: Armonia
predomin n toate. Confucianismul i taoismul sunt cele dou curente majore opuse care au animat
toat istoria chinez, mpreun cu budismul, ajuns n China, n perioada Han (aproximativ n secolul
al treilea), fiind adus probabil de ctre comerciani indieni prin intermediul Cii de Mtase.
Taoismul este considerat de unii ca fiind unica adevrat religie chinez. El este un amestec al
cultului spiritelor, al naturii i al strmoilor, o cutare mistic a legilor care ne guverneaz viaa, un
mod de cutare a imortalitii. Este ntemeiat n secolul al Vl-lea . Hr. de ctre un filosof pe nume
Lao-Tz, care nseamn btrnul maestru. Lao-Tz este autorul lucrrii Dao dejing, sau Cartea Cii
i a Virtuii. Aceasta propovduiete daoismul sau doctrina Cii (tao sau dao, n chinez). Dou fore
se opun i confer un anumit ritm vieii: yin, care este rece, opac, feminin, i yang, care este cald, luminos, masculin. Aceste dou fore complementare se echilibreaz astfel ntreptrunzndu-se. Omul
trebuie s-i gseasc propria dao, s-i ocupe locul distinct n cadrul Universului i s nu distrug
armonia care domnete. Daoitii venereaz zeii Cerului, ai Pmntului i ai Apei, puterile Vnturilor,
ale Fluviilor i ale Munilor.
25
n aceiai perioada apare i doctrina etic a lui Confucius. In centrul doctrinei morale a lui Confucius se afl ideea armoniei dintre om i cosmos. O alt idee este c omul trebuie s tind spre
perfeciune moral si c fericirea depinde de perfeciune. Perfeciunea moral i fericirea depind de
venerarea tradiiilor trecutului cu scopul de a se imbunati climatul prezent. Printre frumuseile morale pe care trebuie s le probeze omul, patru erau considerate cele mai importante, valabile pn in
ziua de azi:
S fii generos, dar nu risipitor;
S fii mndru, dar nu trufa;
S ai dorine, dar nu pofte;
S ari inocen, dar nu asprime.
Un alt concept fundamental n filosofia confucianist este omul superior. In opinia sa, ceea ce
i acord superioritate omului este cultivarea propriului su eu, cu grija zeloas si constant. Cele
trei virtui ale omului ideal sunt inteligena, curajul si buna intenie, ceea ce inseamn caracter,
corectitudine, generozitate. Baza caracterului este sinceritatea (s-i pui de acord cuvintele cu faptele), corectitudinea (s caui n tine cauza nereuitei tale), moderaia n vorbe si atitudini, simpatia
cordial pentru tot ce te inconjoar.
n general, meninerea armoniei se face cu ajutorul legii i ordinii, o societate trebuie s fie guvernat de ordine, care s-i permit s -i stabileasc o ierarhie, un sistem de legi, de relaii umane i de
norme morale. Confucius a descoperit c ntre oameni se stabilesc 5 feluri de relaii fundamentale,
bazate pe dragoste si datorie, care ar putea fi imbuntite, dac fiecare din cei implicai i-ar aduce
contribuia:
conductor-supus,
printe-fiu,
sot-soie,
frate mai mare frate mai mic,
prieten-prieten.
Pe baza armoniei dintre cele cinci relaii umane armonia poate domni n familii, comuniti, grupuri
etnice, societate. Aceste cinci tipuri de relaii de baz astzi definesc nc relaiile umane n China.
Valorile confucianiste se regsesc n toate societile care au adoptat scrisul chinez.
Faptul c Confucius a fost interzis n perioada revoluiei culturale nu a fcut dect s sublinieze
perenitatea gndirii acestui personaj, care a trit n secolul al V-lea .e.n. n timpul unor mari dezordini
politice care caracterizau sfritul dinastiilor regale antice i cu mult naintea instaurrii ordinii imperiale. Fiind iniiatorul gndirii etice n rile de Mijloc Confucius nu se prezint nici drept iniiatorul
unei noi religii, nici drept creatorul unui sistem de gndire. Originalitatea sa nu rezid nici n destinul
su social, care l-a limitat la rolul modest de a consilia principii i i-a conferit titlul de suveran fr
coroan, dar mai degrab n faptul de a fi primul care a conceput o reprezentare a omului chinez cu
destinul su milenar.Acest om se dedic lecturii unei mici lucrri, care este o culegere de note adunate
de discipoli - Analecte. El este omul binelui care se definete n opoziie cu omul mic, cel ce triete doar cu interesul pentru profit. Acest om este n cutarea dimensiunii umaneren(virtutea), pe
care Confucius n-a nchistat-o n limitele unei definiii. Ordinea social se constituie n jurul practicii
ren, care coroboreaz exigena interioar cu atenia si respectul fa de alii.
La nivel personal, Confucius era concentrat pe jen, adic pe dragoste, virtute i sinceritate. El a
stabilit cinci reguli pentru atingerea unui caracter deosebit:
Li: aderena la normele ritualice;
Ching: loialitate fa de sinea adevrat;
Shu: reciprocitatea comportamentului;
Yi: dreptate;
26
Hsiao: pietate de copil (foarte important n confucianism).
Dac abstractizm faptul c acest sistem moral a fost elaborat pentru o societate patriarhal, cu
profunde conotaii culturale specifice i deosebit de rigide, fiind respectate de-a lungul a dou milenii, contribuind astfel la conservarea societii chineze i rezistena ei fa de influenele occidentale,
atunci putem constata o consonan perfect dintre valorile confucianismului i cele occidentale,
adic preponderent cretine i democratice.
Acestea sunt:
Simplitatea doctrinei;
Eficiena n practic;
Principiul reciprocitii Ce ie nu-i place, altuia nu-i face;
Msura mai nti de toate ;
Virtutea;
Dimensiunea uman.
De la sfritul imperiului, sub regimul comunist al lui Mao Tzedun, confucianismul a fost combtut
cu vehemen. Cu toate acestea, numeroi chinezi continu s practice aceast religie. Singurul lucru pe care noul regim nu-l va putea face niciodata este de a-l scoate pe Confucius din China. Unii
spun c nici n-a ncercat. Alii susin ca nici nu merit s ncerce. Cei peste 1.000.000.000 de oameni
care locuiesc n China l cunosc pe Confucius deplin, tot att cum sute de milioane de oameni din
Europa si America l cunosc pe Hristos. Chinezii nu au o religie de stat, dar China este predominant
confucianist. Dei Confucius a trit acum 2.500 de ani, nvturile lui sunt extrem de actuale. Ceea
ce spunea el nc sun ca un adevr irevocabil ce trebuie repetat astzi la fiecare post i program de
televiziune.
n contextul mondializrii i emergenei unei gndiri etice unice prin confruntarea diferitor tradiii
culturale China are un cuvnt greu de spus, deoarece astzi n lume,conform unor cercettori, exist
aproximativ 1, 5 miliarde de urmai ai lui Confucius (Kung Fu- tzi, naltul slujba i filosof Kung)
nu doar n China, ci i n Korea, Vietnam, Japonia, Taiwan, Singapore(1,87) Valorile reprezentative
ale spiritului confucian sunt omenia i cedarea deferent (o cale blnd, moale, tolerant, n relaia
cu cei din jur). Textele confucianiste sunt capabile s sugereze potenialul universal al gndirii confuciene. Valori i principii ale eticii confucianiste precum principiul reciprocitii, poate fi gsit practic
n toate crile sfinte ale religiilor lumii, n diverse interpretri. Virtutea, msura, ordinea i echilibrul
sunt valori etice general- umane recunoscute pe toate continentele. Nu n zadar institutele Confucius
din toat lumea au devenit un brand oficial al Chinei moderne. Acesta este i motivul pentru care
unii filosofi occidentali contemporani propun confucianismul ca alternativ la criza spiritual a
Occidentului. La cellalt capt se afl politologii occidentali care, asemenea lui Samuel Hantington,
consider c civilizaia confucianist asemenea celorlalte 7 civilizaii i anume cea cretin, budist,
african, latin-american, ortodox i musulman posed un mare potenial conflictogen care va degenera n numeroase conflicte pe liniile de falie dintre ele. n special ne avertizeaz controversatul
politolog de pericolul eventualei pactizri dintre musulmani i confucianiti. Desigur, n loc de a
adopt calea pragmatic a misionarismului politic, i a exporta n China valori ca liberalismul, drepturile omului, fr a ncerca de a nelege valorile culturii i eticii chineze, a venit timpul de a identifica soluii pentru un viitor panic al satului global n civilizaiile care i-au demonstrat viabilitatea,
stabilitatea, capacitatea de coexisten panic pe teritorii imense ale unei populaii ce constituia o
bun parte a omenirii pe parcursul mileniilor. Studierea confucianismului, pe de o parte, ar ajuta la o
inelegere mai profund a civilizaiei orientale, n general, ar contribui la facilitarea comunicrii cu
lumea oriental, iar pe de alt parte, ar putea sa ne ofere instrumente pentru depirea crizei morale
i spirituale actuale, tot aa cum adresarea ctre cultura oriental la sfarsitul sec. al XIX-lea a oferit
surse de inspiraie pentru cultura occidental, care n viziunea lui Nietzsche pn atunci a neglijat
27
dionisiacul, prezent n cultura oriental cu prisosin.

Ministrul pentru Educaie colar din Marea Britanie, Jim Knight, a surprins n 2009 opinia public, declarnd c i-ar plcea ca n coli s se predea i ore de Confucianism. Ideea nu ar prea att de
ocant, dac s-ar lua n considerare faptul, c datele oficiale denot c n Marea Britanie copiii din
familiile de chinezi obin rezultate net superioare celor de alte origini etnice, raportul fiind de 65%
fa de doar 44,3% rezultate foarte bune obinute la invttur, scria The Telegraph.
Cteva posibile explicaii pentru aceast situaie sunt oferite de profesorul Yu Dan de la Universitatea Normal din Beijing care susine ca sistemul filozofic dezvoltat de Confucius n urm cu peste
2.000 de ani poate fi aplicat i astzi cu succes n educarea celor mici.
Principiile confucianismului nc mai reprezint o busol pentru majoritatea est-asiaticilor n era
post-confucianist, dupa cum i avertismentele biblice reprezint n continuare standarde n Occident
n era post-religioas.
n era conflictelor civilizaionale savanii sunt n cutarea unor soluii pentru depirea conflictelor
prin aderare la o etic global. Exist trei metode de baz pentru realizarea eticii la nivel mondial:
Cutarea Paralelelor;
Eticienii caut paralele ntre tradiiile etice din Est i Vest, i le dezvolt ntru unificarea lor la nivel
mondial. Gsirea acestor paralele nu va fi facil din cauza diversitii tradiiilor etice.
Cutarea celui mai mic numitor comun;
A doua metod este o varietate a celei menionate anterior. Eticienii iau n consideraie numai
cazurile n care exist un acord n tradiiile etice, deja acceptabile n Est i n Vest. Avantajul unei
astfel de cutri este c ofer posibilitatea atingerii unui consens, dei foarte limitat,. Dar ignor dezacordurile.
Cutarea celei mai bune practici.
Multe companii internaionale examineaz operaiunile n jurul lumii pentru a identifica cele mai
bune practici, aplicndu-le apoi la nivel internaional. Acelai lucru poate fi fcut n domeniul eticii,
cutnd cele mai bune practici din punct de vedere pragmatic i al respectului dintre multiplele varieti ale tradiiilor etice orientale i occidentale.
n cutarea celei mai bune practici globale am examinat dou sisteme etice, unul din Est i altul
din Vest:
Etica Confucianist
Etica confucianist ofer o bogat tradiie de nvare. Dar exist o problem special, i aceasta este
relaia ntre confucianism i cultura chinez. Predarea confucianismului se afl la o rscruce. Va lua calea
spre a fi cu adevrat o nvtur global, sau va rmne una local, doar o nvaatur chinez? Desigur,
originile sale sunt n istoria Chinei. Chinezii pot fi mndri de marele nvtor Confucius la fel precum
poporul grec este mndru de marele filozof Aristotel. Dar nu este necesar de a deveni grec sau chiar a
vorbi grecete pentru a-l nelege pe Aristotel. i vei gsi oameni care dezvolt filosofia aristotelian
pretutindeni n lume, nu numai n Occident, dar i n lumea islamic. Va putea oare etica confucianist
n acelai mod deveni cu adevrat global, gsindu-i loc dincolo de hotarele culturii de origine?
Cea mai bun practic a confucianismului const n tradiia secular de aplicare a eticii n viaa
cotidian. Confucianismul ne nv a cuta armonia pentru rezolvarea conflictelor. Conflictele sunt
rareori simple, i cutarea armoniei ne poate ajutora s echilibrm interesele divergente.
Etica cretin
Etica cretin este un sistem moral bazat pe o tradiie religioas. Aceast etica s-a constituit la o
28
rscruce de drumuri. n timp ce originile religiei cretine sunt n Asia de Vest (semite), studierea ei a
fost exprimat, de regul, folosind metodele filosofice occidentale. Dar pentru a fi pe deplin una global, aceast etic trebuie s poat fi exprimat utiliznd orice metod filozofic. Poate oare doctrina
social cretin deveni cu adevrat global i gsi un loc dincolo de expresia sa obinuit n filosofia
occidental?
Cea mai bun practic a acestei etici este echilibrul dintre individ i comunitate. Mai mult dect
att, prin aplicarea principiului subsidiaritii, aceast etic recunoate varietatea complex de niveluri ale comunitii, de la cea mai mic familie pn la satul global. n domeniul conflictelor etica
cretin ne nva importana rezolvrii conflictelor la nivelul lor instrumental.
O utilizare respectuoas a metodei celor mai bune practici va permite specialitilor de a combina
ce e mai bun n confucianismul chinez, n etica cretin, i n alte sisteme etice pentru a crea o etic
cu adevrat global. Colaborarea dintre profesioniti din diverse domenii din spaii culturale diverse
va contribui la realizarea cu succes a acestor proiecte.
Am trit globalizarea, att experiene pozitive ct i negative. Un viitor global este inevitabil.
Avem nevoie de o etic global care s se ocupe cu problemele etice cu care se confrunt lumea
contemporan. Dezvoltarea unei astfel de etici la nivel mondial poate fi realizat prin studierea experienelor din Est si Vest, pentru a gsi cele mai bune practici. La baza unei etici globale trebuie s se
afle spiritualitatea, care are un factor comun: o viziune global, care este suficient de larg pentru a
include toat omenirea, problemele ei i speranele.
Indubitabil este faptul c etica confucianist are un potenial enorm pentru rezolvarea problemelor
mari i mici ale umanitii, iar studierea ei aprofundat va permite o mai bun percepie i asimilare
n cadrul unei etici globale emergente.
Bibliografie
-----------. Confucianism. 20 decembrie 2010< http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/>
Do-Dinh, Pierre. Cofucius et lhumanisme chinois. Paris : Editions du Seuil, 2003.
Elisseeff, Danielle. Confucius:des mots en action. Paris : Gallimard,2003.
Hollenbach, D. The common good and Christian ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Kim, Y. A common framework for the ethics of the 21st century. Paris : UNESCO Division of Philosophy and Ethics, 1999.
Knapton, Sarah. Chinese culture to revive English education, says minister. The Telegraph 22 (February 2009).
21 decembrie 2010< http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/4780843/Chinese-culture-to-reviveEnglish-education-says-minister.html >
Tu, Weiming. Confucian Humanism as a Spiritual Resource for Global Ethics.11decembrie 2010< http://tuweiming.com/lecture.8.html.>
----------.Global Ethics in the Age of Cultural Diversity. 15 decembrie 2010. <http://peaceproposal.com/Weiming.
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2000.10decembrie2010<http://assets.cambridge.org/97805216/43122/sample/9780521643122wsc00.pdf >
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CHINA FASCINATING AND POTENTIALLY REDOUBTABLE THE CHINESE MIRAGE

IN THE XXIst CENTURY TOWARDS A NEW MYTH IN THE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION?
Efstratia OKTAPODA
University of Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV)
China has always fascinated the western imagination as much as it frightened it. If the twentieth century China
and the civilizations of Asia have successed to halt Western domination of international relations, the twenty-first
century has seen China becoming the new dominant people. The image of the world changes. The myth of the West,
wanting to be considered as the most powerful, is now collapsing. We cross a new millennium, a new kind of use
particularly Asian and especially Chinese.
Key-words: China, XXIst century, globalisation, architecture, Worlds Fairs, the myth of China.
La Chine a toujours fascin limaginaire occidental autant quelle lui fit peur. Si au XXe sicle finissant, la Chine
et les civilisations dAsie ont contrecarr la domination occidentale sur les relations internationales, au XXIe sicle
la Chine est devenue le nouveau peuple dominant. Limage du monde change. Le mythe de lOccident, voulant
safficher tout gard le plus puissant, est en train de seffondre. Nous traversons un nouveau millnaire dun nouveau genre usage asiatique et chinois.
Mots-cls : Chine, XXIe sicle, globalisation, architecture, Expositions Universelles, le mythe de la Chine.
When China wakes up the world trembles, wrote in its formidable book Alain Peyrefitte in 1973, already
forty years ago.
It will certainly have been necessary much time so that worthy Empire of the Medium, craftsman and heir to one
of the greatest civilizations of all times, to be found in the forefront in the world.
Extirpated by its thousand-year-old insulation by the foreign and civil war, the Empire of the Medium is taken
by a frantic desire to become again a great power. The Chinese people never missed ambition. It was just necessary
to wake up, which they did. Stability, internal and external that the country had since the years 1980, allows them
a striking rise.
In this new millennium, China climbs the steps of the world scene again. The Empire of the Medium becomes
the centre of the World technology innovation. Deng Xiao Ping was renovating Chinese saving and in his extraordinary economic development of the capitalist type jointly with Communism in place, denies the Western creed
according to which only the democratic regimes allow economic development.
At all events, China is a great power. Super power expanding constant, China modified and continuous to
modify the geopolitical landscape in the world sphere. That terrifies also the whole planet in particular the United States of America which sees in China a world threat. But let us be reasonable, it is not China which threatens
the world, it is those which, wanting by all the means of slowing down or of breaking its rise which put in danger
geopolitical balances of tomorrow.
The rise of China is inescapable. The massive acuity of the Chinese companies and the key role which its Diaspora plays throughout the world are part of the strategies of the country in the euphoria of the starting globalisation. China will assume more and more of responsibility growing in the stability and the development of Asia and
the World. The permanent interrogation over the 21st century will have answers elucidated over this century which
wants to be undoubtedly Chinese.
Indeed, in the 21st century, the world reduces and China grows. It is omnipresent everywhere. Its influence is felt
each day in our life of consumers, employers and citizens. The label made in China is universal.
The Chinese economic miracle is posted in many forms and in all the fields. And when China appears, it is difficult not to see it everywhere.
Fear of the Other. A Short Historic Insight

China knew at the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century an expansion and an opening
towards the Western world without precedent, its history is long and painful. Locked up a long time
30
in itself in an agrarian system and of exchange, of fear of the other, foreigners who plundered it and
ransacked during the previous centuries, of the Portuguese colonialists, in 1492, following the discovery of the new road towards the East by Vasco de Gama, with the Spanish and the Dutchmen, then
English, French and Americans. The Westerners did not hesitate to put the hand in the wildest way
over China by various means trade, policy of drain-holes and activities of the missionaries. I will
not spread out over the Portuguese and different Conquistadors, but the history showed that the Western colonialists were savage with the Chinese territories and the populations which they maltreated
and massacred, and this lasting of the centurie. Now to support the crushing yoke that was imposed
on it by the foreign colonialists, the Chinese people revolted more than one recovery. The Dutchmen
carried out enormous profits with the trade with China, to which they sold pepper, sandalwood and
other products coming from the South-East Asia, and bought gold, white copper, raw silk and silk
trade. They resold most of this silk and of this silk trade to Japan in return for the metal money. Then,
with the gold and the white copper of China and the money of Japan, they bought cotton fabrics in
India which they exchanged on spices in Java and elsewhere.
In the 19th century, the English colonialists, transported to China the woollen articles and the spices
by boats which they exchanged on tea, the medicinal herbs and the porcelain. The cotton fabrics constituted the principal English export. But the English goods were not very required on the Chinese
market. The English bought tea from the Chinese, but they were especially in search of opium. With
no regard for the Chinese law, they continued the transport of the narcotic by smuggling or corruption
of the Chinese civil servant while making their profits increase with the favour even of the prohibition
of their goods.While damaging the health of the Chinese and by blunting their will of combat, the
drug traffic did not cease draining great quantities of silver money towards the foreigner. This bleeding burdened the Treasury and national finances. For China, such a situation could not last any more,
whereas for England, a financial resource of this kind was to be preserved at all costs.
The French colonialists had started to make trade with China by 1640. Although their weight in
the trade was by far lower than that of the English, the catholic missionaries that they brought in a
considerable number penetrated deeply in the interior regions of China without the authorization of
the Chinese government. These activities of the missionaries constituted in fact another form of aggression adopted by the colonialists.
The American colonialists tardily began the trade with China, in 1874, but the exchanges went
accelerating. While undertaking the trade of the usual products, the Americans were large traffickers
of opium.
The Chinese government did not like all that which underwent the Western invader underwent
and who looked with an evil eye the colonizing expansion in its territories and the violation of the
sovereignty of China. Because in fact, holding the key of the Celestial Empire of God, Catholics and
Jesuits on foot pressed the terrestrial empire of the men.
After the two wars of opium, the foreign capitalists continued their economic aggression by transforming China into an outlet for their goods and a raw material base for their industries. The transformation of China under imperialist control, in a market of world capitalism, ruined little by little
agriculture and the craft industry and more impoverished each day the peasants and the producers.
Thus, little by little, and face to the continuous and increased push of the foreign attackers, the
Chinese recommended the creation of factories to Western in order to make the country rich and
powerful. There was then in China the creation of the group of the occidentalists who counted on
the despotic domination and the foreign assistance, very separate, so to speak of the Chinese property owners who had little contact with foreign capitalism and who remained blind xenophobes. The
group of the occidentalists devoted to a large extent their efforts to the creation of industries of war.
With the appearance of modern industry in China, there emerged in the country, on the one hand the
first generation of the blue-collar workers of modern industry, the young Chinese proletariat, and on
the other hand, the national middle-class. Then, with the establishment of modern industry a modern
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Western science settled.

In the second part of the 19th century, the East Asia (or Far East) constituted a bone of contention
for the imperialist countries. The United States, Japan, Great Britain, Russia, France and Germany did
not hesitate to lay hands on the vast border regions of China. One also knows that the United States,
which coveted Taiwan for a long time, took as pretexts the murder of the crew of Rover, a shipwreck,
to send the war builders to invade the island. China also knew the aggressions of Great Britain against
Tibet with the sending of the spies disguised as travellers or explorers.
Long is the history of China. Long and multiple are covetousness from Western abroad. All that
just to explain the phenomenon of the fear of the Other in the Chinese people, the Other foreigner
who was always in covetousness and sacrilege towards the autochthones and the Chinese governors.
The New China: First World Power. Towards a New Myth at the Era of the Globalisation?
So at the end of the 20th century, China and the civilizations of Asia thwarted the Western domination on the international relations, at the 21st century China became the new dominating people. The
image of the world changes. The myth of the Occident, wanting to post itself in any most powerful
connection, is in the train of crumbles. We cross a new millennium of a new Kind of Asian and Chinese use.
China is not only the oldest geopolitical entity of the modern world, but it is also a vast country
whose borders extend from North to Southern, of Mongolia and the Manchuria with Guandong and
Hainan, and of the East in West, Jhejiang and Shanghai to Tibet and with Xinjiang, joining together a
plethora of ethnic minorities with each one of its local traditional habits.
Dynamic result of changes of dynasties and political regimes, the current Peoples Republic of
China, always had an irrefutable continuity, conferring on the Chinese culture a generalized aspect
which transcends the regional and historical differences. One has only to give examples like the Confucianism, with the mode mandarin and the design of the social and family reports which it marked
at its print, and Taoism, at the origin of philosophical concepts or metaphysics and religious practices
generally adopted in the Chinese world. The prestige of the Chinese empire contributed to diffuse this
common culture in the Far East and South-East Asia; it also attracted many foreigners who enriched
the Chinese civilization. Other cultural achievements are on the contrary specific to an area of one
time. The various fields of the Chinese culture had a considerable impact on Western civilization as
from the 19th century and their influence on the globalization of 20th and 21st centuries is not any more
any doubt. However, modernization and economic development, undoubtedly involve the calling into
question of the traditions and popular arts of the country, particularly in the areas of the interior. Many
shapes of the culture: embroidery, dance, theatre, are disappearing8.
Like all the large countries, China is kneaded by contrasts and contradictions. On the one hand it is
a tradition, on the other the expansion. It respects the tradition at the same time as it breaks it. But
isnt the existence of the opposites at the basis of the Chinese people, incarnation of the yin and the
yang, which indicate the negative and positive forces of the universe?
Omnipresent, the country remains imperceptible, protean. The travel agencies testify to the fascination exerted by China on the imaginary contemporary. This success falls under a full cultural movement which made of this country the cultural expression of modernity. Inspirer of an immense artistic
expression, celebrated stalemate so much of painters, artists, scenario writers, writers, architects,
China multiplied by ten her phantasmagorical potential and acquired powerful will all over the world.
At the beginning of the 21st century, it faces a true myth: the myth of growing a new China. A phenomenon except standards. A metaphor, a mirage. A country of unlimited possibilities what Kafka
said formerly about America. In this world in search of models of happiness, one turns from now on
to China, new Eldorado. Even if the critics of the economic system and policy are severe, people are

See: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_chinoise. Visited on 21/2/2011.
32
fascinated by this country of five thousand years old modernity. Something is occurring. Marvellous
universe, one is some share like Alice in the country of the wonders. One likes the country, one loves
people. China, legendary country: reality with the legend it does not have there a way, one has only
to close the eyes. All the stars of the sky roll on the ground. It is a precious stone flutter, fruits of ruby
and topaz flowers. True myth, China incarnates the immense power of seduction.
Attractive five millennium old China, country of thousand and one colours, contrasts and light,
country of Kingdoms and the feudal Dynasties, the emperors and the concubines, country of Han,
Tang and Am, Song and Ming, countries of the Kingdom of heaven, countries of the legends and the
divinities, the geniuses and the spirits, the demons and the dragons, country of the porcelain, ink and
paper, country of the calligraphers and the artists, country of medicinal sciences, country of the rivers
and the plains, the mountains and the rice plantations, the ancestors and Confucius, country of Buddhism and the Taoism, country of valorous people, country of vitality and longevity, country of the
shade and the Sun, country of the traditions and the reforms, countries of Revolution and evolution,
country of the ideology and the culture, China always fascinated the imaginary Westerner as far as it
frightened him.
At the era of globalisation, China is at the same time the workshop of the world and its larger
market potential. Its industrial power saps opportunities of the developing countries, but its insatiable
economy draws the poorest countries upwards.
1. Worlds Fairs
The dimension of China becomes at the same time spectacular. During the World Fair in 2006, in
Saragossa, in Spain, the House of Chinese water, outstanding building construction, looked figure
head, attracting admiration and praises.
Still more, the Worlds Fair of 2010 in Shanghai, shows China like the marvellous country of the
modern world. The Exposure of Shanghai, the largest of all times, sets ablaze the sky on banks of the
Huangpu River.
China, which found its magnificence, intends to make events the window of its new power, less
than two years after having organized with brilliance the Olympic Games of Beijing, the French
famous daily newspaper Le Monde notes. But the challenge is of size, in particular to ensure safety
over six months and for up to 100 million visitors, to 95% Chinese. A public which seems acquired in
advance after being bludgeoned by an intense propaganda by the Chinese media since months.
The Worlds Fair of Shanghai marked the spirits. The Building REN, project of hotel, conference
room and sports complex, composed of two distinct parts, one turned towards the water and dedicated
to the sports activities, the other terrestrial to be used for the conferences, is a futuristic realization
except standards.
Great figurehead, the house of Beijing charmed the whole world. Indeed, the charm of Beijing is
in constant evolution. Any sound charm is due to its change of each day and each month. The Temple
of the Sky, the watery Cube, the Large National theatre, the Birds nest The changing shape of the
house fully reveals the charms of Beijing like a city of the people, a town of high technology and a
green city. Inside, one can know what occurred in a lane from Beijing, to see in real time the scene
of the avenue Chang year and to see the film the charms of the capital realized by the director of
reputation Zhang Yimou. In average the techniques originals of exposure show promptness under
various aspects, the charm and the competitiveness of Beijing as an international city.
The tower of the Exposure in Spain, the Exposure of single magnificence of Shanghai with as
many houses as provinces, the bridge of Yangzi carried out in only nine months whereas the Americans and the Germans affirmed that it is inconceivable, and so much of other gigantic monuments
and achievements, are offered as much panoramic screens of gigantic China which is hatching itself.
The spectacular image of these imposing achievements produces a powerful effect of anamorphous.
One is facing again the myth, the myth of the China news, which is consolidated in the meeting
33
between real image and mental image. The walker in modern China delivers himself to the phantom
of its architectural memory and space vastness. Monumental China with the commercial icon. Imposing country which defies the limits of the probable one. In China, nothing is impossible.
2. Town Planning and Architecture
The new Chinese myth is, on the other hand, the radical American myth. While America is a terra
incognita, infinite, unfolded in the flatness of a chart of geography, China, on the other hand wants to
be a landscape at the same time remote and close, familiar and convivial like its people, and a fabulous horizon saturated with figures and legends.
Beijing is often compared with Washington. The two administrative capitals have in common
certain majesty, defined by their public monuments. But the comparison already ceases being of
topicality. Beijing, seized by the fever of the skyscrapers, set off in pursuit Shanghai. The city wants
to create a sophisticated image and an infrastructure, able to attract the foreign currencies as much as
other metropolises. If the boom of the building is not recent in Beijing, the idea that its buildings can
claim with the international guns as regards taste is however a new phenomenon. Shanghai, which
for a long time decided to allure the world, called upon foreign architects to build its most spectacular
buildings, whereas in Beijing, the government and the promoters preferred to entrust the projects of
prestige to its Chinese architects.
The result is that Beijing is close to the total of the large buildings which border the large avenues
of the capital, the gigantism of the Soviet era and the Chinese taste of the ornamentation mixed. The
shopping centres and the administrative buildings resemble very decorated arsenals. The hotels are
giant cubes, surmounted by revolving restaurants and roofs in the shape of pagoda, or decorated with
arches reversed with the concrete. The things evolve with an incredible pace.
Beijing is today a point of required passage for the international stars of architecture. The city saw
emerging enormous structures which push the modern design and technology until their limits.
For the construction of the Olympic stadium in 2008 Beijing called upon the famous Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron. The building eclipsed the most known of their achievements until then, the new museum of modern art of Tate in London. The project wanted to be to be the
symbol of an ultramodern and materialist Beijing. It is however not the most imposing construction
of the Chinese capital. This distinction returns to the building of the National theatre, works of the
French architect Paul Andreu. The building is composed of several scenes nested under an enormous
dome of glass and titanium. The unit is posed on an artificial lake on which it seems to float, while an
escalator at the entry gives to the spectators the feeling to be inserted in water.
There is also the new seat of the Chinese national chains, CCTV. It was conceived by Rem Koolhaas, undoubtedly the most influential architect and most required of the world. The building of glass
and steel, more than 200 meters high, is made of two buildings which meet. Conceived to be noticed,
it fulfils his mission perfectly. It is also one of the first buildings of what makes the new district of
Beijing business. For China, the modernization of its cities is a factor of competitiveness in the total
economy.
3. Sciences and Technologies
China takes the take-off in all the fields. In the field of technologies, China exceeded itself. In the
only field of biotechnology, the country counts fifty thousand researchers and produces each year
4.500 new graduates of the Universities. In the Chinese policy, China attracts the Chinese scientists
who were trained and worked abroad. The park of biotechnology of Shenzhen is an example in the
way in which the authorities attract their scientists towards the private company, but the similar efforts were deployed in all the country to incite them to come to teach in the Chinese University, offering stations and wages worthy of those which they had abroad. Thus, in 2004, Steve Chen, one of the
originators of super computers the most admired in the United States, entered the Galactic Comput-
34
ing, a company of Shenzhen supported by investors of Hongkong and several Chinese Universities.
Steve Chen who had immigrated to the United States in 1975, and obtained his diploma in Illinois
before working among pioneers of the super computers, CRAY Research, declared that he returned to
China, because the sources of venture capital had been dried up in the United States.
Let us recall on the way, that the Qinghua University in Beijing, is the best of China for the scientific and technical disciplines. It should be also said that the Chinese Universities offer few places
compared to the population, and the award-winnings are an extraordinary brilliant group, untiring and
ambitious individuals. If all the Chinese students are geniuses, the pupils of Qinghua followed by
those of the University of Nanjing and Fudan to Shanghai , form the elite of the entrepreneurs of the
Chinese and foreign large companies. They speak English perfectly, read the international press on
Internet high-speed lines and are fanatics of the books of management, gurus of quality and modern
capitalists.
4. Globalization, Chinese Culture and the World System
The 21st century is the century of China. China invents types of technology able to transform the
world, and products for general public which become the symbols of the advanced economies. The
genius, which until now governed the creation of large factories, appears in the creation of large products and famous brands of an unequalled quality and refinement. Japan will have to divide the rays of
the top-of-the-range stores of electronics and of cameras, France and Italy will compete with China
on the market of clothing and of the accessories of luxury, South Korea will have difficulty remaining
at the head in the field of naval construction.
Globalization utilizes undoubtedly considerable cultural challenges. After the end of the cold war,
one attends thus sometimes such events that call a shock to the civilization.
So since the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), it is the British model and liberal which prevailed, in
this new millenium, the values change, the world is discussed. China seems a power first, in many
regards, in industry, the armament, technologies, sciences. With the American influence, the Chinese,
antagonistic and competitor Empire, is made the first place. Frightening super power, China is essential like public power exploiting the interactions of western world (signed contracts, companies,
partnerships, etc.).
The sociocultural influence is exerted via social learning, and its components which are teaching,
the language, and the cinema. The world model is not any more the British model with English like
common language. The Chinese who tend to impose certain operating processes in the world institutions, in particular commercial, which, according to certain observers, can translate a form of cultural
and linguistic imperialism.
Will I take again here the famous theory of Samuel Philips Huntington, American Professor of
political sciences at the University of Harvard, and his article The Clash of Civilizations, published
in 1993 in the Review Foreign Affairs, on the subject of the operation of the international relations
of the world post-Communist?
The theory of Huntington was based in fact on the cultural differences which would be, according
to him, the reasons of the future wars. Huntington warned against the Chinese world. He considered
that China would like to take up a hegemonic position on the South-East Asia to appease its economic
strong growth. Huntington insisted on the fact that the Chinese civilization is based on a strong hierarchy, included in the civil society, contrary to individualism.
But can one speak in 2011 about the shock of the civilizations? Absolutely not. If the theory of
Huntington had great success after the attacks of September 11th, 2001, at the present time, it is not
any more topicality.
The wake of Americanization in the years of 1930 gives way to the Chinese Empire and the modes
of consumption and production which do not disturb any more and which do not pose any more social
constraints. By the language and the attractive culture, the opening also of the country to the Western,
35
avid tourists know the thousand-year-old country, China holds a new fashion of domination on the
western world.
5. The Economic and Cultural Hegemony of China. Conclusions
Byte by byte, China penetrates in our homes, our workplaces and our mentalities with increasingly
high degrees. Nothing material, intellectual or cultural will be out of attack for the largest country
of the world. A new world is developing. China has such a power that one never met. If all the eyes
were formerly turned towards the so-called the clash of civilizations theory which is rather related
to Islam and the Occident, the growth of China will have without any doubt to be an impact much
major on the World.
In the world system, the borders are permeable, the economies interpenetrable, and the States must
agree to lose part of their sovereignty. This opening of the world space causes reactions of cultural
fold and the refusal of the standardization. Very strongly impregnated by the Confucianism, Asia does
not adhere to the individualistic values.
Turning to the commercial world, China represents a ground of conquest and a strategic point on
the geopolitical chess-board.
Being an important engine of the world growth, China frightens the World. But China is not in
itself a threat. On the contrary, it is a partner more attached to world stability than the United States,
which appears now inclined to reject the international standards violently. Just or erroneous, the
American foreign politics does not seem any more constant, and for China and its new close partners
to the European Union, the axis Europe-China provides a recourse face of American instability.
The economic and cultural hegemony of China is a fact. The world order is changing. A new
world is outlining itself, a new History is being written, a new myth is in silvering to be created.
The 21st century is a Chinese century. And the Chinese of our century are the messengers of the
future.
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Erdem, Engin. The Clash of Civilization: revisited after September 11. Alternatives (2002).
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Fishman, Ted. La Chine. Premire entreprise mondiale. ouvrage publi sous la direction de Geoff Staines, trad.par
Monique Spery et Herv Dens. Paris: Vuibert, 2005.
Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History?. The National Interest (1989).
Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilization? . Foreign Affairs (1993).
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Nadoulek, Bernard. Lpope des civilisations. Paris: Eyrolles, 2005.
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2006).
36
PICTURA CHINEZ, O PO(I)ETIC A SENSURILOR SIMBOLICE

Elena PRUS
Cezar SECRIERU
Pictura chinez formeaz un sistem estetic relativ unitar. Nota distinctiv cea mai reprezentativ a acestei estetici este faptul c vizeaz o pictur de idei. Dac pictura european ncepe prin reproducerea naturii i indic
realitatea, pictura chinez s-a fixat de la nceputuri pe recrearea subiectiv a imaginii. Pictura chinez nu ofer
privitorului realitatea apropiat, universul real, ci sugereaz, las loc imaginaiei, imprimnd unor elemente aparte
(ape i multe, flori i animale etc.) o imagine simbolic a sensurilor pansive.
Pictura chinez fascineaz prin stilul su inconfundabil, deosebindu-se de cea european prin tehnic, principii
i compoziie. Particularitatea picturii europene const n realitatea reprezentrii, anatomism, perspectivism, tendin spre relief sculptural. Artistul chinez ignor voit legile perspectivei liniare, el practic principiul centrului
mobil, conform cruia ochiul putea rtci, pentru a intensifica senzaia de imensitate necunoscut, sugernd astfel
inconmensurabilitatea lui dao.
Critica de specialitate constat principiul de baz al tuturor exegezelor artistice orientale, i anume, acela al implicrii unui sens de subordonare a activitii artistice unui el spiritual activ. Culturile Orientului solicit artei, pe
de o parte, cunoaterea adnc a realitii; pe de alt parte, transpunerea imaginii pe un plan de gndire mai adnc,
simbolic, asigurnd perspectiva axiologic inerent artei.
Cuvinte-cheie: pictura chinez, pictopoezie, pictur de idei, sens simbolic, poetic.
Chinese painting forms a relatively uniform aesthetic system. The most representative feature of this aesthetic is
that it is a painting of ideas, in which ideas predominate over the formal similarity. Unlike the European painting
that starts with reproduction of the nature and tends to reality, the Chinese painting from the early beginning sets
on recreation of the subjective image. The Chinese painting does not give the viewer a close outlook on reality, real
world, as it suggests and includes the imagination, the giving to some elements of the picture deep some symbolic
meanings (water and others, flowers and animals, etc..).
Chinese national painting fascinates with its inimitable style, differing from the European one, with its technique, principles and content. The particularity of European painting representation is reality, anatomism, perspectivism, a trend toward sculptural relief. Chinese artist deliberately ignores the laws of linear perspective; he
practices the principle of mobile center, according to which the eye can wander in order to enhance the feeling
of immense unknown, thus suggesting the vastness of dao.
Critics found the basic principle of all Oriental artistic exegesis, namely, that the involvement of the artistic
works sense of subordination to an active spiritual goal. The Eastern cultures calls art, on the one hand, a deep
knowledge of reality, on the other hand, the image transposition on a deeper level of symbolic thought providing an
axiological perspective inherent in art.
Key-words: Chinese picture, pictorial poetry, picture of ideas, symbolic meaning, poetics.
Profilul unic creativ al civilizaiei chineze este reflectat i decantat n etosul spiritual al culturii
sale. Cu o dezvoltare nentrerut de peste dou milenii, cultura i arta chinez a exercitat secole de-a
rndul asupra Europei o fascinaie deosebit. S-a subliniat, ns, n numeroase rnduri c principiile
de gndire i categoriile clasificatoare ale culturii occidentale snt inoperante n cazul culturii i artei
chinezei. Comparnd cultura chinez cu spiritul altor culturi din prisma a trei probleme fundamentale
ce configureaz experiena uman Natura, Omul i Divinitatea, Georges Rowley constat c din
ecuaia spiritului chinez ultimul termen aproape c lipsete. Chinezii nu au contemplat viaa prin
intermediul religiei sau al filosofiei sau al tiinei n primul rnd, ci prin art. Toate celelalte activiti
par s fi fost colorate de sensibilitatea lor artistic.
Arta, alturi de filosofie, reprezint cea mai relevant expresie a spiritualitii chineze, nucleul su
ireductibil. Filosofia, fiind sistem de gndire i de reprezentri, determin ca arta n general i pictura n particular s traduc n formulele sensibilitii estetice Cartea transformrilor sau alte lucrri
fundamentale. Fuziunea organic ntre gndirea artistic i cea filosofic face din pictor un filosof, iar
din filosof un comentator al picturii. Potrivit concepiilor confuciene, un pictor atinge perfeciunea
37
doar dac are, la rndul su, un caracter perfect moral, iubete i respect natura ntreag, i natura
uman se conformeaz ritmului ordinii cosmice9. Totui, chinezii nu vedeau viaa prin intermediul
religiei sau al filosofiei confucianiste sau daoiste, n locul unui sistem raional de trai ei i plsmuiau
o gndire poetic, imaginativ; iar n locul tiinei ei se lsau dui de fanteziile astrologiei, alchimiei,
prezicerilor sau ghicitului n fire de pmnt (Rowley 64 ).
Dintre cele cinci arte arhitectura, sculptura, caligrafia, pictura i muzica catalogate impropriu
minore, doar caligrafia si pictura erau considerate demne de numele de art, nglobnd i vechi
tradiii proprii exclusiv culturii chineze. Dup opinia majoritii criticilor de art chinezi, pictura i
caligrafia au provenit din acelai izvor. Cele dou arte aveau n comun i materialele folosite: penelul,
tbliele de bambus, cerneala, lacul i mtasea, substituit apoi n secolul II cu hrtia, inventat tot de
geniul chinez. Deseori tablourile terminate snt nsoite de ideograme sau caligrame (un fel de abstracii picturale), aa numite pre- i postfee, care completeaz n mod organic i armonios lucrrile
avnd i un caracter decorativ, ele nsele stilizri ale unor imagini reale. Pictorii chinezi amintesc
deseori despre scrierea tabloului. Astfel, principiul mbinrii picturii, poeziei i caligrafiei, cnd
poezia este tablou, iar tabloul conine poezie devine particularitatea prim a picturii chineze. n genere, tabloul n tradiia chinez se constituie din unul sau cteva poeme caligrafiate, o imagine pictat
i sigiliul autorului.
Pictura chinez, eminamente liric i sugestiv, este o poezie care a cptat form, la fel cum i
poezia chinez poate fi considerat o pictura fr form: Poetic sentiments, picturesque language,
painting in poetry, poetry in painting these are some common sayings on the affinity between painting and poetry. (Yangmu 6) Privilegiat printre celelalte arte, pictura este chiar considerat o art
a artelor, ocupnd primul loc naintea caligrafiei, poeziei i muzicii.
Cele mai vechi picturi chineze dateaz din sec. IV-III .e.n. i au fost descoperite n anul 1949 n
mormintele de lng localitatea Cianga. Pictura a parcurs n evoluia sa mai multe perioade distincte
cu aportul lor relevant.
Perioada de mare nflorire a artei i literaturii chineze este perioada Tang (618-907) n care activeaz Wu Tao-zuo, considerat cel mai mare pictor al tuturor timpurilor, autor al unei vaste creaii
cu caracter preponderent religios. Dac Wang Wei este printele peisajului monocrom n cerneal i
inventatorul tehnicii picturale a cernelii, ali pictori ai vremii picteaz figuri umane, cai, scene de la
curile imperiale. n aceast perioad activeaz i pictorul Djou Fang, unul dintre cei mai importani
reprezentani ai picturii de scene din viaa de la curte, n special autor de portrete de femei nobile.
Chinezii au conferit pensulei i tuului un sens superior funcionalitii ca mijloace tehnice de
lucru: Pensula este ca mduva i osul pentru tu. Iar tuul pentru pensul, ca floarea spiritului su
(Sben Hao), fiecare trstur de penel este o for propulsoare de energie n diverse direcii i cu
fiecare nou trstur, se stabilete o alt tensiune pn cnd ideograma ntregit este capabil s reprezinte un echilibru de fore care se influeneaz reciproc.
Epoca Sung (960-1276) este dominat de artiti care picteaz flori, psri, figuri umane i mai
ales peisaje n tehnica monocrom. Ca principali exponeni n pictur i vom cita pe Xing Hao, pictor
de muni i autor al unui tratat de pictur, Li Sheng, Xu-Tao-ning, dar cel mai de seam peisagist al
vremii este considerat Guo Xi10. Se formeaz n aceast perioad un grup de pictori literai, condui
Un poet nelept al acelor vremi sftuia prin versuri un pictor:
Purific-i inima i i vei spulbera frmntrile vulgare;
Citete mult, spre a ptrunde n taina regescului trm al principiilor;
Renun la faima ta de odinioar i te vei mplini,
puterea ta de cuprindere fiind acum mai mare;
ntovrete-te cu oameni cultivai,
pentru ca astfel s i rafinezi manierele i stilul.

(Shen Tsung-chien, sec. XVIII )
10
Picturile lui snt dramatice, abundnd n episoade povestite cu rigoare... o exaltare celebrativ a forelor grandioase ale naturii, mai ales
a munilor, figurai eroic i ocupnd scena asemenea unor protagoniti uriai. () Iluzia spaiului vid, absorband al formelor, maselor
materiale i ponderii obiectelor integrate lui, o caut pictorii epocii Sung, atunci cnd i compun planul tabloului cu ajutorul unei diagonale, sitund primul plan, cu cea mai mare pondere materiale, doar n partea inferioar. (Frunzetti 12).
9
38
de Su i, vestit filozof, poet i pictor, autor a peste o sut de poeme dedicate imaginii bambusului
ndreptnd arta ctre un estetivism devitalizat, convenional.
n epocile Yuoan i mai ales Ming (1368-1644) se dezvolt numeroase coli de pictur peisajist.
Pentru artitii vremii genul superior este peisajul, cuvntul ideogram presupunnd muni i ape,
imobil i calm contra micare i efort Yang i Yin doctrin filozofic distinct a sec. IV .e.n. Acum
se lanseaz cultul pentru bambus, gen aparte n pictura chinez11.
n ultima epoc imperial, Quing (1644-1911), pictura chinez se elibereaz de vechile dogme i
principii i devine mai individualizat; apar diferite grupri de creaie, cum ar fi: Cei Opt Maetri din
Nan-Jing, Cei Patru Wang, Grupul Marilor Solitari etc.
Ca mod de expunere, pictorii folosesc dou beigae de bambus pe care pictura se strnge sul. Derulat apoi n mod progresiv de pe bastonaul inut n mna stng pe cel din mna dreapt, tabloul se
prezenta privitorului de dreapta la stnga, asta face ca pictura chinez s fie att o art a timpului, ct
i a spaiului sau s fie perceput n timp, ca muzica sau ca literatura (Rowley 29 )
Putem conchide c pictura n stil tradiional are o mare vechime n arta chinez i s-a dezvoltat
continuu de-a lungul istoriei. Totui, au existat i epoci n care contribuie artitilor era foarte mic,
aproape inexistent. Pictorii se mulumeau numai s copieze lucrrile maetrilor, adic ale creatorilor
de coli, ceea ce a fcut ca, pentru un timp, pictura tradiional chinez s-i deprecieze valoarea.
(Yu-giu 8). Orientul, spre deosebire de Europa occidental, nu renun la propriile rdcini sale, legtura culturii actuale cu mileniile este mult mai bogat i mai complex, n care s-au pus bazele
prezenei n lumea spiritului a modului oriental de a fi de a fi n lume, cu lumea i pentru lume, cum
ar zice Heidegger. (Frunzetti 6)
Pictura chinez se clasific n trei categorii: pictura peisajului (muni i ape), pictura florilor i psrilor, pictura de gen. Arta contemporan chinez ncearc s renvie tradiionala pictur de muni
i ape, pentru asta operele trebuie s reprezinte o sintez ntre experiena motenit i realitatea
contemporan, iar pictorul s exprime n art impresii vii i personale. El trebuie, de aceea s tie s
vad, s descopere, s observe realitatea i s considere peisajul ca ceva viu, reprezentnd un anumit
timp i spaiu (Yu-giu 8).
n cadrul picturii chineze, primul loc l are pictura de peisaj n tu, cunoscut sub numele de
pictura muntelui i a apei12. n limba chinez noiunea de peisaj nseamn munte, ap (idem 5),
adic mbinarea luminii cu ntunericul, a cerului cu pmntul. Amploarea pe care a luat-o ca nicieri
n alt parte peisajul se explic prin concepia cu totul specific a acestui popor de integrare a omului
n natur, iar pictura este poate modalitatea cea mai rafinat de cunoatere i de poetizare a naturii.
Chinezii concep lumea natural ca un sistem universal comparabil cu sistemul cosmic, spaiul devenind un mijloc de sugerare a imensitii. Esena omului se afl n natur refugiu i cadru familiar,
unitatea omului i cosmosului fundamenteaz dinamismul nentrerupt din interiorul universului13.
Dihotomia opozitiv la care ajunge Occidentul, este vzut aici ca o integrare organic a omului n
natur (i nu nstrinare sau ostilitate) cu tot ce cuprinde: anotimpuri, ape, muni, plante i animale.
Formele delicate i rafinate ale peisajelor snt puternice n semnificaii (copaci, ramuri, poteci, izvoare, nori cu forme contorsionate vene dragonice sau vi, pietre cu contururi dantelate superbe, care
parc personific un gnd dureros al artistului), rednd perfeciunea unei stri de suflet sau infinitul
visrii i trecerii n alt univers: un peisaj chinezesc e sintez ntre gndirea cosmologic, arta picturii,
observaie i imaginaie. El nu reproduce realitatea, ci pe baza celei existente creeaz o alta, mai viguroas i mai rscolitoare dect concretul. Genialitatea picturii chineze e fora de sugestie. (Mariana
Senila-Vasiliu). Picturile chineze au, astfel, toate un miez de legend, un germene basmic, armonie i
o nelepciune. Muntele maiestuos este simbolul vitalitii spirituale a acestui mare popor, a sufletului
bambusul a deinut totdeauna un loc privilegiat n afeciunea chinezului, el se ndoaie, dar nu se rupe i astfel el ntrunete simbolic cele
dou caliti principale ale omului dup doctrina confucianist: nelepciunea i cinstea (Frunzetti 23)
12
Confucius spunea c omul de suflet este ncntat de munte, omul de spirit se bucur de ap.
13
Preferina pentru prezentarea picturilor n form de suluri verticale poate fi explicat prin dorina de a integra armonios pe pnz ansamblul munilor, pmntului cu oamenii.
11
39
su, care mbin mreia cosmic cu statornicia, echilibrul - cu puterea. Pictorul vede sufletul muntelui cu care dorete s se identifice n silueta acestuia: Ideea aceasta a spiritului cuprins n nensufleit
pune greu la ncercare mintea apusean. (...) Pentru noi, stnca este un obiect inert, nensufleit; pentru
chinezi, stnca trebue s fie vie. (Rowley 19) Din aceleai considerente, genul de natur moart european a fost omis n clasificrile picturii chineze14.
Criticii de specialitate subliniaz un aspect important, referindu-se la marele merit al chinezilor
care const n perceprea naturii aa cum este ea n conformitate cu propriile reguli. Esena aceasta
care leag totul ntre-olalt, lege interioar, nevzut (pulsaie, suflu vital, ci ca-n scrierile vechi sau
cale dao, cum o numete neleptul Lao Tze) () este o continu micare, scurgere, determinnd
devenirea a toate i relativitatea oricrei aparene sensibile, concrete (Stnculescu-Zamfirescu 17) i
stabilind legtura direct ntre univers, pictur i om. Chiar daca poate fi definit, Dao este vid, dar
atunci cnd acioneaz pare inepuizabil (...) Dao nu doarme niciodat. Formele apar i dispar n ap,
nori sau cea; ritmurile lor se ntorc i se rsucesc ntr-o permanent rsucire (Rowley 23). Concepia chinez opereaz i cu alte noiuni fundamentale, cum ar fi Wu (care se situeaz ntre da i nu;
orice este i altceva), cuplul Yan-Yang, relaie care declaneaz tensiuni n ntregul univers (coerena
prilor prin interdependena contrariilor care se completeaz). Universul este, n percepia chinezilor,
un imens organism, despre care este inutil ca omul s-i pun ntrebri ce in de originea, forma sau
limitele lui. Ceea ce explic atitidinea contemplativ n faa naturii cu lucrurile sale nesemnificative
prin ele nsele, dar prinse n coerena lor ca cicluri, alternane, ritmuri i corespondene. Este limbajul
metamorfozelor creatoare ale existenei.
Spiritul chinez, cum bine se tie, evit extremele, lumea nu este privit prin dualismele antagonice
materie/ spirit, real/ ideal, uman/ divin, clasic/ romantic, tradiie/ modernitate etc. ci prin fuziunea
contrariilor. Aceast complementaritate face c artistul chinez, cum subliniaz G. Rowley, nu este
nici tradiional, nici original; nici clasic, nici romantic etc., el este i unul i altul (14). Chiar dac
au fost nvinuii de relativism i compromis, perspectiva specific chinez favorizeaz contrariile ca
pri care au nevoie una de alta spre a se complementa.
Pictura chinez formeaz i ea un sistem estetic unitar. Caracteristica suprem a acestei estetici
este faptul c genereaz o pictur de idei. Dac pictura european ncepe prin reproducerea naturii
i vizeaz realitatea, pictura chinez se fixeaz pe reproducerea subiectiv, pe recrearea imaginii care
s-a sedimentat n capul pictorului i se prezint ca o reproducere simplificat. Picturii chineze nu-i
este tipic mimesisul occidental. Este interesant c peisajele nu sunt executate n plein-air, ci n atelier, dup o ndelungat concentrare asupra impresiei din exterior. nainte de a reproduce o imagine,
artistul o pregtete foarte bine la nivel mental, imaginar i emoional, fr modele exterioare de inspiraie sub ochi. Acest lucru este absolut esenial pentru a putea picta i scrie, sigur si uor, deoarece
materialele folosite cerneala, hrtia, mtasea nu-i permit eventualele retuuri. Pictorului chinez
nu i se solicita reproducerea naturii, lui nu i se prea straniu nici chiar reprezentarea locurilor n care
niciodat nu a fost sau reprezentarea lucrurilor aa cum ele nc nu au fost. Prin aceasta, pictorul se
nnoia i el i anuna o alt lume. Spaiul picturilor chineze este universul nelimitat al visrii care
duce la lrgirea contiinei.
Astfel, pictura chinez nu a supraevaluat imitaia n dauna recrerii imaginative a experienei.
Aceast pictur, numit art a imaginii ideatice, a evoluat de la compus spre simplu, favoriznd
liniile n detrimentul culorii i, prin aceasta deosebindu-se de palitra cromatic a europenilor15.
Alturi de arta realist i cea abstract, pictura chinez ocup un loc distinct n arta mondial.
Imaginile, aa-numitele siang snt concepute iniial aici ca abstracii, avnd la baz fenomenele

Florile trebuie s creasc sau s par c se dezvolt, fructele i legumele, cu toate c snt inerte, trebuie s fie animate de acea via
interioar (...). Ct de nensufleit ni se pare acum o mare parte din natura noastr moart; ct de lipsite de via ne apar nenumrate din
buchetele noastre de flori tiate n comparaie cu suflul de via spiritual sugerat n fructele i plantele chineze. (Rowley 19-20).
15
Like texture strokes, these units derived from nature and simplified; natures essentials were extracted, its details eliminated. Such units
of pattern were closely associated with what the Chinese artist sought both in nature and in art, not endless detail but underlying essence.
(...) Again and again, Chinese artists wrote of the need to start a painting, especially a complicated one, with a few essential divisions
or contours, laid down in pale ink at the outset and establishing a unified design that the lesser motifs later generated must not obscure
(Silbergeld 46)
14
40
i aspectele lumii, vzute, dar izolate din contextul lor i transformate n concepte, ncadrndu-se
adic n pictogramele scrierii pictografice, cele mai vechi, cum observ James Cahil, specialistul n
arta chinez al Galeriei Free din Washington, n cartea sa despre pictura chinez, aprut la Geneva,
la editura Skira. Vorbind despre adevrata pictur, marele poet Su Dongo spunea: Muntele, stnca,
bambusul, arborele, valurile apei, negura i norii, toate aceste lucruri care alctuiesc natura nu au o
form fix; n schimb ele au o linie constant. De acea linie trebuie s se lase ndrumat spiritul pictorului (apud Yu-giu 5). Pictura chinezilor a devenit astfel o structur abstract, fr nicio aluzie la
umbre.
Pictura naional chinez fascineaz prin stilul su inconfundabil, deosebindu-se de cea european
prin coninut, ct i prin tehnic. Particularitatea picturii europene tradiionale const n realitatea
reprezentrii, anatomism, perspectivism, tendin spre relief sculptural. i pictura chinez pornete
de la peisajul real, dar l aprofundeaz spiritual i ideatic, reconfiugurnd contururile realului, imprimnd unor elemente aparte (floare, frunz sau piatr) o imagine simbolic16. Vocaia chinez pentru
imanen face ca dincolo de aspectul reprodus s i se caute nelesul i esena: Gndirea i viaa
chinezilor este cluzit de o mentalitate a concretului i a simbolului, a designrii i reprezentrii,
i nu a definirii logice (n sens aristotelic) (Tnase IX). Critica de specialitate constat principiul de
baz al tuturor exegezelor artistice orientale, i anume, acela al implicrii unui sens de subordonare a
activitii artistice unui el spiritual activ (Frunzetti 7).
Ar fi i mai exact s spunem c pictura chinez nu are ca obiect lumea natural i nici reprezentrile ideale despre ea, ci o realitate simbolic, recunoscut n timp ca natur a voinei creatoare i
matrice a existenei.
Astfel, pictura chinez nu ofer privitorului realitatea idediatului, universul real, ci sugreaz, lsnd
loc imaginaiei luxuriante. Emoiile artistului chinez sunt mai cotrolate, mai reinute, dect cele ale
artistului european, nu se utilizeaz expresii cromatice violente sau ostentative, ceea ce se datoreaz
unor tradiii care indic o anumit bun-cuvin, decen i msur n comportament. Pictorii chinezi
sunt cromaticieni subtili i delicai, nu se face abuz de culori, mai mult dect att, au fost perioade n
istoria picturii chineze cnd culoarea era interzis reputaiei unui artist, cu alte cuvinte era preuit
pictura monocrom: Over the centuries, many artists held an active prejudice against the use of any
significant degree of color in painting. (...) Color was a superficial, attractive, and base in its appeal.
(Silbergeld 25-26) Pictura monocrom chinez este foarte expresiv i cunoate un spectru de nuane de invidiat, cuprinznd pna la 50 de nuane de rou sau negru. Perspectiva aerian, impresia de
adncime este realizat printr-o cavalcad de tonuri, nuane n care spaiul este sugerat prin ndulcirea
formelor, prin atenuarea culorii obiectelor ndeprtate. Unde nu este tablou, tabloul este, aa sun
una din maximele chineze.
Caracteristic picturii chineze este principiul specific de compoziie (izolarea motivelor, spaierea
ca mod de combinare a prilor ntr-o grupare, ritmuri lineare, relaia dintre suprafee, funcionalitatea
golurilor ca amplificatori, structura temporal). Se urmrete purificarea compoziiei i a expresiei,
pentru a se obine o simplitate voit exprimat n sensuri poetice. Compoziia este asemntoare cu cea
muzical: are o introducere, o dezvoltare, un punct culminant i un final. Foarte important este i principiul de coeziune structural, se recomand ca opera s nceap prin conturarea ntregului i nu prin
detalii (dei chinezii sunt de nentrecut i la redarea minuiozitaii detaliilor; excesul de naturalism
sau de alte tendine se consider periculos)17. Compoziia peisajului clasic chinez reproduce semnul
ieroglific, are o structur asimetric.
De fapt, n tabloul chinez coexist dou planuri de reprezentare: a detaliilor i a micrii spirituale.
Avnd acest punct similar de demarare, culturile Orientului solicit artei, pe de o parte, cunoaterea adnc a realitii, a naturii i lucrurilor ori fiinelor ei, ca i a omului; pe de o parte, transpunerea imaginii pe un plan de gndire mai adnc, simbolic, afirmndu-se n ele,
asigur perspectiva valorificrii celor constatate, n art ca i n filozofie; perspectiva axiologic, inerent artei, adic. (Frunzetti 8).
17
N. Stnculescu-Zamfirescu puncteaz cteva principii eseniale: Sensul oricrei picturi chineze rmne totdeauna simbolic, evocator:
pictorul chinez s-a strduit s exprime ct mai pregnant firea unic a lumii, n scurgerea ei nentrerupt. De unde lipsa de interes pentru
studiul anatomic al corpului omenesc, al nudului ca atare, pentru legile perspectivei liniare sau ale compoziiei geometric construite, centrate, statice. S-au dezvoltat n schimb ajungnd la un mare rafinament, liniile curbe, dansante, contururile nencheiate, i mai cu seam
acele mari spaii albe specifice, care nvluie liniile i pulseaz ca i ele de o aceeai via integratoare. (17)
16
41
Arta este, pentru pictorul chinez, prelungirea organic a vieii spiritului.

n pictura european perspectiva liniar, des folosit, restrnge spaiul18 la o vedere monocular,
la un singur punct de observaie, pe cnd la chinezi spaiul este mobil, i totul este ca i cum ai privi
lucrarea de sus n jos. Este semnificativ c artistul chinez ignor voit legile perspectivei lineare, el
practic principiul centrului mobil, conform cruia ochiul putea rtci, n timp ce spectatorul cutreiera i el peisajul n imaginaie (Rowley 43), iar mobilitatea imaginilor este menit a intensifica
senzaia de imensitate necunoscut, recurg la nori, cea, condiii atmosferice, estompnd i mai mult
golurile dintre cele trei adncimi i sugernd nemrginirea lui dao i suflul spiritului n tot peisajul.
(idem). n viziunea artistului chinez, spaiul este un spaiu alveolar n accepia lui Lucian Blaga n
care privirea trece progresiv n adncimi i zone diferite, deplasndu-se liber de la un nivel la altul i
n felul acesta crend ntr-un mod infinit mai sugestiv impresia de spaiu incomensurabil i etern ncrcat de mister (Drmb 364)19. Mobilitatea structurilor opozitive ale tabloului cadreaz raporturile
ntre prile dominante (mai ales munii) i prile dominate (apele, casele, oamenii, copacii).
Spre deosebire de pictura occidental, cea chinez nu const nici n bogia de efect, nici n atracia
fizic, ci n elegan i distincie. Astfel, portretul chinez se remarc printr-o mare elevaie spiritual
i rafinament al detaliului, nct nimic s nu fie de prisos i nimic s nu lipseasc. Nici un alt neam, cu
excepia japonezilor, nu a acordat atta atenie penetului psrilor, blnii animalelor, urzelii insectelor,
ritmului plantelor i contexturii rocilor. Fiecare detaliu este transcris cu determinare, fiecare lucru are
perspectiva proprie. Decorarea este semnul formei extreme i concomitent simbol al infinitului n exprimare. Formula artei chineze, formul investit cu prestigiul de dogm, este: perfeciunea formei
tradus prin precizia desenului, plus maxima for sugestiv a temei, egal Marii Picturi (Drmb
364), pendularea de la grafic la pictural, i uneori ndrt la grafic, se extinde i la pictura de flori,
psri i animale, ca i la temele vieii umane i sociale (Frunzetti 12).
Pictura chinez contemporan menine n mare parte stilul laconic de exprimare, reducerea coninutului la esenele sale, concentrarea semnificaiilor, limbajul sujestiv impersonal, reprezint concepte filosofice simple sau destul de complexe, dar ncepe s recurg la o perspectiv (deseori comprimat) i la modelarea umbrelor. Pictura chinez tinde spre a realiza acel farmec artistic i a reconfigura
tainic misterul ce atinge infinitul.
Li Yu-giu. Pictori chinezi contemporani. Bucureti: Meridiane, 1987
Ion Frunzetti. Spiritul picturii chineze. In Pictura chinez clasic. Bucureti: Meridiane, 1973, p. 5-13.
Nina Stnculescu-Zamfirescu. Scurt incursiune istoric. In Pictura chinez clasic. Bucureti: Meridiane,
1973, p. 15-26.
George Rowley. Principiile picturii chineze. Bucureti, Meridiane, 1982
Tnase Al. Filosofia picturii chineze sau logodna spiritului cu materia In Principiile picturii chineze. Bucureti,
Meridiane, 1982, p. I-XXXIII
Ovidiu Drmb Istoria culturii i civilizaiei vol. I, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1985
Jerome Silbergeld, Chinese Painting Style. Media, Methods, and Principles of Form. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1982
Wu Yangmu, The Techniques of Chinese Painting. Beijing, Morning Glory Publishers, 1996.
Mariana Senila-Vasiliu
http://fotopoeziemuzica.wordpress.com/2009/12/27/pictura-chineza/
Posted on decembrie 27, 2009 by camir
Pictur adevrat este doar arta de tip pictural, adic acela al crei protagonist nu atinge obiectele i fiinele noastre n spaiul lumii, i
nici acesta, delimitat n funcie de ele, ci protagonistul real devine spaiul nsui, ca unitate anglobant de obiecte, definit prin propria sa
materialitate i lumin, prin propriile sale caliti, de densitate i rezisten la razele eclerajului filtrat prin atmosfr, caliti metaforizate
n anvelop, absorbia obiectelor n mediul fluid prin pasage de lumin. (Frunzetti 12)
19
Am neles trziu, studiind decenii arta, ce nsemneaz construcia spaiului topologic emoional un spaiu n care nu exist centru,
ci centre, nuclee succesive de interes afectiv i poate c lectura timpurie, n adolescen, a lui Blaga, care vorbete de spaiul alveolar
succesiv al artei chineze, mi-a ajutat s pricep c se pot altura valabil, fr preocupri de construcie concomitent i a receptacolului
spaial unificator, - obiecte, fiine i elemente peisajistice disparate, nealturabile nici ca sens nici ca proporie, dar asamblate decorativ
pe aceeai suprafa, doar n virtutea egalei lor ndreptiri la interesul nostru sentimental. (ibidem: 10-11)
18
42
COLABORRI CULTURALE MOLDO-CHINEZE (1956-1960)

Ruslan EVCENCO
Universitatea de Studii Europene din Moldova
The first inhabitants of the MSSR visiting China after the war were tourists. In 1956 they were allowed to travel
to this country. Among the people who visited China was the chairman of the Composers Union Mr.L.Gurov. He
has been teaching for 2 years at the Central Conservatory of Tianjin. The Moldovan-Chinese scientific cooperation
begins with arrival of a group of Chinese paleontologists to Chisinau. This event has been given a lot of space in the
press of the country. Many Chinese students who study at the Odessa and Leningrad (St.Petersburg). Universities
have visited Chisinau. The samples of flora and fauna were sent to China by Moldovan botanists in order to develop
the scientific ties. The scientists of China and Moldova work as a team and they have published many literary works
as well as some works on the history of literature. There are scientific between individual scientists as well. Since
1958 China has started to show its movies in Chisinau. Exchanged between Moldovan and Chinese sport team have
also begun. And in 1959 Moldova has visited the Chinese Song and Dance Ensemble.
Key-words: visit, relation, scholars,researchers,students.
Primii ceteni ai RSSM care au vizitat teritoriul Chinei dup rzboi au fost turitii. Accesul ctre aceast ar a
devenit liber n 1956. Unul dintre primii vizitatori ai Chinei a fost preedintele Uniunii Compozitorilor din RSSM,
L.Gurov. El a activat timp de 2 ani n calitate de profesor la Conservatorul Central din Tianjin. Un alt tip de colaborare intre ara noastr i China, cea tehnico-tiinific, se ncepe cu venirea unui grup de paleontologi chinezi la
Chiinu. Acest eveniment a avut rezonan n presa rii. Muli studeni care fceau studiile la Universitile din
Odesa i Leningrad (St.Petersburg) au vizitat Chiinul. Botanitii moldoveni, cu scopul dezvoltrii relaiilor tiinifice, au trimis n China probe ale florei i faunei. Cei implicai n parteneriatul respectiv, savanii, dar nu numai,
i mprteau patrimoniul literar editat, inclusiv i lucrrile privind istoria literaturii. ncepnd cu 1958, filmele de
producie chinez au fost prezentate la Chiinu. Interrelaionarea s-a extins pn i n domeniul sportului. n 1959
Chiinul a fost vizitat de un Ansamblu de Dansuri i Cntece din China.
Cuvinte-cheie: vizit, relaii, savani, cercettori, studeni.
n contextul iniierii relaiilor moldo-chineze, care dateaz nc din timpul lui Nicolae MilescuSptaru, boier moldovean, aflat n serviciul Rusiei, care n 1675-1677 a condus ambasada rus, trimis
la porunca arului Alexei Mihailovici, pentru a lichida conflictele la frontiera ruso-chinez i a descrie
zona rului Amur, a lacului Baikal i a rilor vecine Rusiei. Dei misiunea lui Milescu-Sptaru nu
a coincis ntocmai obiectivelor trasate iniial, acesta a scris un ir de lucrri importante, recunoscute
i apreciate n multe centre tiinifice europene. Aceste lucrri sunt actuale i contemporaneitii. E
vorba de Jurnal de cltorie n China, oper ce nglobeaz prile:
1) Cltoria de-a lungul Siberiei de la Tobolsk pn la portul Nercinsk, pn la grania Chinei;
2) Izvorul misiunii diplomatice n China a lui Nicolae Sptaru;
3) Descrierea celei dinti pri a pmntului, numit Asia, n care se afl i mpria Chinei cu
oraele i provinciile sale.
Toate aceste lucrri comport o valoare incontestabil, ntruct sunt alctuite n mare parte conform izvoarelor scrise i impresiilor personale de cltorie ale lui N. Milescu-Sptaru20, fapt ce i-a
determinat pe anumii savani rui i sovietici s-l prezinte pe N. Milescu-Sptaru n calitate de cltor i savant rus. mpotriva acestei tendine de a rusifica oamenii de cultur i tiin ai rii noastre,
au protestat unii reprezentani ai intelectualitii Moldovei. Scriitorul Andrei Lupan, spre exemplu, a
afirmat n 1962: De ce noi tot vorbim despre ajutor, de ce noi trebuie s ne aflm cu mna ntins?...
Doar noi l-am avut pe Cantemir i primul nostru ambasador n China a fost Sptaru.21
n 1950-1951, dup o ntrerupere provocat de rzboi, n Moldova, care era izolat de rile strine,
se iniiaz procesul de restabilire a contactelor RSSM cu strintatea. Ele au fost reluate, cu unele
20
21
http://www.istoria.md/articol/73/Nicolae_Milescu_Sp%C4%83tarul
, . 1962-1963 . PONTES.
Review of South East European Studies. III-IV. Chiinu, 2009, p.196.
43
excepii, doar cu rile lagrului socialist. Un rol aparte aici l deine Republica Popular Chinez.
n 1956 se ncep primele cltorii ale cetenilor Moldovei n China. Durata unei cltorii constituia atunci 12-14 zile i prevedea vizitarea Beijingului, a Sheniangului, a centrelor industriale din
Nord-Estul Chinei, a combinatului metalurgic din Anshan, a uzinei de construcie a mainilor-unelte,
a Universitii din Beijing, a Teatrului de Oper, a Zidului Chinez i a altor locuri importante. Turitii
erau cazai n cele mai prestigioase hoteluri, beneficiau de transport i hran22. Printre primii vizitatori
ai Chinei a fost cunoscutul compozitor moldovean, preedintele Uniunii Compozitorilor din republic, L.Gurov. El a fost invitat n calitate de oaspete de onoare la Conservatorul Central din oraul
Tianjin, unde timp de 2 ani a predat studenilor metodica predrii obiectelor muzical-teoretice. El oferea consultaii privind problemele compoziiei i efectua lecii practice. n afara or. Tianjin, activa n
conservatoarele i institutele muzicale din or.Shanghai, Guangzhou, Xian, Wuhan, Cendu. L.Gurov a
prezentat asculttorilor ultimele rezultate profesionale ale muzicanilor din Moldova, familiarizndui pe acetia cu muzica popular moldoveneasc. n calitate de specialist, L. Gurov era preocupat n
China de studierea specificului dezvoltrii culturii muzicale chineze. Soia lui, R.Gurov, a organizat
n conservatorul din or. Tianjin clasele de violoniti i cea de cntare cameral. Cu coordonarea ei a
fost elaborat proiectul programei de studiu al clasei primilor violoniti. n ajunul plecrii din China,
L.Gurov a fost decorat de ctre primul ministru al Consiliului de Stat al Chinei, C.Enlai, cu medalia
Prietenia sovieto-chinez23.
Cooperarea tiinific moldo-chinez a parcurs traiectoria unei dezvoltri armonioase . La 3 octombrie 1956 Chiinul a fost vizitat de ctre un grup de paleontologi chinezi n frunte cu profesorul
Ian Ciuncen, eful laboratorului vertebratelor fosile i preedintele societii paleontologice a Chinei.
Venirea savanilor chinezi n Moldova a fost o reflecie la vizita din nceputul anului 1956 a savanilor
sovietici n China. Aceast ntrunire i punea drept scop de a face cunotin cu rezultatele activitii tiinifice ale colegilor sovietici, de a studia structura geologic a unor raioane ale URSS i de a
stabili amplasarea animalelor i a plantelor fosile24. Savanii chinezi au urmrit evoluia fosilelor n
Moldova n diferite epoci preistorice. Cercetarea detaliat a lor va stimula cercetrile respective n
China25. Dei, dup cum se va meniona ulterior, n Moldova existau specialiti n domeniul paleontologiei, nencrederea conducerii sovietice n cadrele locale s-a manifestat prin trimiterea la Chiinu
a profesorului A.Eberzin (Moscova) i a cercettorului tiinific de la Institutul de Paleontologie al
A a URSS, B.Trofimov. Ei i-au informat pe oaspeii chinezi despre situaia din domeniul cercetrilor
paleontologice, efectuate n Moldova. Savanii chinezi au vizitat zcmintele vertebratelor fosile din
apropierea s.Trebujeni, raionul Orhei, din cariera Petricani, unde s-au pstrat sedimente sarmatice, n
raioanele Cimilia i Tiraspol (astzi r-nul Slobozia R..); au fcut cunotin cu ruinele oraului
medieval Orheiul Vechi i spturile arheologice din apropierea s.Butuceni. La Chiinu ei au vizitat Catedra Geologie Istoric i Paleontologie a Universitii de Stat din Moldova (USM), Muzeul
Geologic, Muzeul Republican de tiine ale Naturii, Filiala moldoveneasc a A a URSS; Institutul
de agricultur irigat i legumicultur (Tiraspol), Institutul de horticultur, viticultur i vinificaie
(Chiinu), cmpurile experimentale ale acestora, seciile i laboratorul uzinei de vinificaie, au vizitat locurile istorice ale Chiinului26. Venirea paleontologilor din China a contribuit la stabilirea
relaiilor tiinifice ale savanilor din Moldova i China. N. Konikova i V. Gudina sunt paleontologii
moldoveni care au colaborat cu Institutul de Paleontologie al Vertebratelor din China27.
Botanitii moldoveni, de asemenea, au stabilit relaii cu colegii lor din China, n aceste colaborri
se nscriau cercetrile din domeniul plantelor ce erau cultivate n Grdina Botanic a RSSM, transmiterea rezultatelor, materialului semincer colegilor chinezi. La rndul lor chinezii transmiteau labora , . . (20 1956).
. (16 1956); .
(16 1958).
24
. (4 1956).
25
. (9 1956).
26
, . . (14 1956).
27
Chiinu-Pekin. Moldova Socialist (30 noiembrie 1957).
22
23
44
torului de investigare soiuri de origine chinez28. Colaborarea tiinific a fost preluat i de ctre unii
savani. Spre exemplu, profesorul-oftalmolog al Institutului de Medicin din Chiinu I.Kurlov i
profesorul Institutului de medicin din China de Sud, Cen Iaocjen, au efectuat un schimb de literatur
n domeniul oftalmologiei, listele lucrrilor i rapoartele sale29.
Societatea Moldoveneasc de Prietenie i Relaii culturale cu rile strine expedia regulat n China albume cu operele scriitorilor moldoveni, monografii despre viaa profesional a artitilor, a pictorilor, a compozitorilor i a scriitorilor din RSSM30.
S-au stabilit contacte ntre studenii instituiilor de nvmnt superior din China i Moldova. n
iarna anului 1957/58, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova a fost vizitat de ctre studenii chimiti din
China care i fceau studiile la Universitatea din Odesa. Ei s-au familiarizat cu viaa intern a Universitii, cu utilajul laboratoarelor Facultii de Chimie, au vizitat Institutul Agricol din Chiinu,
unele muzee oreneti, inclusiv cel de istorie i tiine ale naturii i Muzeul de Art Plastic, fabrica
de producere a nclmintei S.Lazo, au efectuat o excursie la Staia Hidroelectric din Dubsari31.
n august 1959 la Chiinu a venit un grup de studeni din China, care fceau studiile la Institutul
Politehnic din Leningrad. Ei au fcut cunotin cu locurile istorice ale Chiinului, i, aflnd despre
tradiia sovietic de a trimite studenii la strngerea roadei, au participat la colectarea roadei n colhozul M.Frunze. Revenirea la Chiinu era planificat pe 5 septembrie 195932.
Se stabilesc relaii ntre muncitorii i funcionarii din Moldova cu cei din China (contabilul-ef al
Uzinei de producere a berii din Soroca, Gaizler, cu lucrtorii direciei statistice a oraului izeacjuan;
vnztoarea magazinului nr.45 din Tiraspol, P.Jarkova cu colaboratorii radioului din oraul Pekin;
elevii colii medii de tineret muncitoresc cu elevii chinezi; participanii adunrii raionale a fruntailor
de producie din raionului Dubsari cu muncitorii raionului zinganan. S-a realizat corespondena
personal ntre femeile din Moldova i China)33.
ncepnd cu 1958 a demarat prezentarea filmelor chineze artistice la Chiinu. La 16 iunie 1958 n
cinematograful Patria a avut loc premiera filmului artistic color chinez Baschetbalista nr.5, care a
fost receptat cu multe emoii. nainte de prezentarea filmului consilierul ambasadei Chinei n URSS,
Cjean Iniu, a rostit un mesaj34.
n august 1959 Chiinul a fost vizitat de ctre ansamblul de dans al Chinei (conductorul Shen
Simn). Membrii ansamblului s-au ntlnit cu muncitorii ntreprinderii Steaua roie i au prezentat
un concert la Teatrul Verde35. n iulie 1959 la Chiinu a venit selecionata de fotbal a Chinei, care se
afla la acel moment n turneu prin rile socialiste36. n meciul cu Moldova (Chiinu) oaspeii au
Legturi prieteneti. Moldova Socialist (29 mai 1957).
. (22 1958); . (1 1958).
30
Kalov, S. Cadouri prietenilor. Moldova Socialist (16 august 1960).
28
29
. (1 1958).
31
. (16 1959).
. (25 1957); - .
(8 1958); , . -- (2 1959);
. (17 1959); , . .
(8 1960).
34
. (17 1958).
35
. (19 1959).
36
Doroevici, Vlas. Poveti i legende. Mn: Nauka i tehnika, 1983 // http://az.lib.ru/d/doroshewich_w_m/text_0160.shtml
Stefanova, Aglica. Violena n teatrul contemporan: efecte retorice i etice // Sud-Est, 2008/3 // http://www.sud-est.md/numere/20080915/
article_15/
http://www.istoria.md/articol/73/Nicolae_Milescu_Sp%C4%83tarul
, . 1962-1963 . PONTES.
Review of South East European Studies. III-IV. Chiinu, 2009, p.196.
, . . (20 1956).
. (16 1956); . (16
1958).
32
33
. (4 1956).
. (9 1956).
, . . (14 1956).
Chiinu-Pekin. Moldova Socialist (30 noiembrie 1957).
Legturi prieteneti. Moldova Socialist (29 mai 1957).
45
pierdut cu scorul de 0:237.

n perioada respectiv, n Moldova a fost srbtorit solemn data proclamrii Republicii Populare
Chineze. Spre exemplu, n 1958 ziarul Sovietskaia Moldavia a oferit o pagin pentru materialele
pe aceast tem 38.
La 13 februarie 1960 a avut loc edina solemn a Comitetului Orenesc de Partid Chiinu i a
Societii Moldoveneti de Prietenie i Relaii Culturale cu rile strine, consacrat aniversrii a 10-a
de la semnarea Tratatului de prietenie, alian i ajutor reciproc ntre URSS i China. Participanii la
edin s-au salutat cu membrii societii de prietenie chinezo-sovietic39.
Aadar, putem concluziona c relaiile moldo-chineze au o istorie ndelungat, care ncepe nc n
sec.XVII. Dup al Doilea Rzboi Mondial, n perioada anilor 1956-1960, au fost create bazele relaiilor de colaborare reciproc ntre Moldova i China. S-au stabilit contacte tiinifice i culturale att
la nivelul personal, ct i oficial; att ntre intelectuali, ct i ntre muncitori. Moldova i China i-au
consolidat relaiile, care au determinat evoluia de mai trziu.
. (22 1958); . (1 1958).

Kalov, S. Cadouri prietenilor. Moldova Socialist (16 august 1960).
. (1 1958).
. (16 1959).
. (25 1957); - . (8 1958); , . -- (2 1959); . (17 1959); , . . (8
1960).
. (17 1958).
. (19 1959).
hiinuienii vor viziona un joc frumos. Moldova Socialist (14 iulie 1959); . (14 1959).
37
, . . (16 1959); Vlaicu M. Meciul prietenilor. Moldova Socialist (16 iulie1959).
38
, . (1 1958).
39
. (14 1960).
46

[]
[]
47
1988
48
HE AND THE INCLUSIVENESS OF CHINESE CULTURE
Shu TIAN
Chinese culture, which has been defined as historical and incessant, features characteristics of
He which means harmony and peacefulness. The essence that makes continuity of Chinese Culture,
from the view of human beings evolution, lies in its respect to harmony and discrepancy. Chinese
culture has a great inclusiveness, which covers various regional, religious, linguistic and national
differences; therefore, the connotation of Chinese culture has been immensely endowed. The openness and suitability of Chinese culture have ensured its vitality, eventually makes Chinese culture an
important part in world cultures.
The essence of Chinese culture is defined as He, which means harmony, peacefulness and
gentleness. Chinese culture constantly absorbs various regional and national cultures, even the world
culture to establish consensus and harmony from discrepancies so as to enrich the connotation of Chinese culture itself. Therefore, the vitality and connotation of Chinese culture is ensured and Chinese
culture has been believed to be influential and important in world civilization history.
1.He, the fundamental concept of Chinese culture.
The main ideas of He, in the Chinese context, means to be adaptive, adjustive, to coordinate, or
to be harmonious. In a word, He means a balanced relationship of different factors, and it is also
associated with the idea of being smooth, likeness, calm, and well-being. As Confucius said: In practicing the rules of propriety, a natural case is to be prized. In Chinese culture, He is the foundation
of the world. The three main architectures in the Forbidden City, which is the palaces of Ming and
Ching dynasties, are named Tai He, Zhong He and Bao He. From the names of ancient palaces,
we could make the conclusion that the ideas of He are well preserved since ancient China.
There are four approaches to accomplish He.
First, He requires human being to be self-disciplined and to fulfill the principles of Ren,
which means human beings have to preserve the moral disciplines and to conduct self-education.
Only by being modest, could harmony be reached.
Second, human beings should be diligent and reasonable. Behaviors should be harmonized with
the time, place and environment. This requires a civilized mind and wisdom, i.e. to hold a clear discrimination and act according to what the environment requires. Meanwhile, self-confidence, cautiousness, flexibility, optimistic and modesty are also playing important roles in He. In the approach, principles should be combined with flexibility, so as to ensure the harmony.
Third, Li, which means propriety and disciplines, enables the society to be harmonious. The
idea of being moral and disciplined is externalized to be the social norms, thus, the social norms have
to be observed so as to reach the goal of harmony.
Fourth, constant education is vital to He. As an outstanding educationist, Confucius emphasized
the importance of studying, and believed that studying is the most pleasure in the world. He proposed
that the process of studying can not be neglected in refining morals. Human beings could be selfrealized only by constant studying, this also meets the requests of being He, Li, and Ren.
The idea of He is the integration of different factors while showing respect to discrepancies. This
reflects the quality of inclusiveness and extensiveness. As Confucius proposed the idea of Harmony
without sameness, He does not equal to equivalence. He emphasized to absorb the rewarding ideas from others to correct our own inaccurateness. The theory of Harmony without sameness
is a grand devotion to Chinese culture, which had been accounted as a typical tradition of Chinese
culture. The idea of Harmony without sameness had provided plentiful resources to the inheritance
and development of Chinese culture.
49
1. He; General Unity; Multiple-Integrationism

Geographically, China has a vast territory and obtains a natural protective screen, furthermore, the
topography is complicated and the climate is diversified. There is clear distinction of agriculture and
nomadism. The two kinds of ethnic groups not only interrelated to each other closely but displayed
the obvious discrepancies in social development in each region and nation. Chinese civilization also
includes different species, they are, Yellow River Civilization, Yangtze River Civilization, and North
Prairie Civilization. In a context of plural civilizations, He turns to be a vital factor in preserving
characteristics of each species while in coexistence. From the view of authority, He is also defined
as General Unity, which requires a unified nation, an identical political system, the same legal system, and a collaborative civilization so as to achieve the unity of a nation.
In the idea of General Unity, with the background of coexistence of different cultures and development of economy, Chinese culture is accepted by other regions and nations, meanwhile, the connotation of Chinese culture is endowed and developed. The concepts such as all within the Four Seas
are brothers, domestic and abroad belong to one are deeply rooted and China, as a middle kingdom had been a symbol for the authority. A leader, who abandoned morals and disciplines would
lose his authority and be replaced by a sage. In ancient China, when some minority ethnic groups
obtained the imperium, they must have fulfilled the idea of General Unity and adopted the political
from Han so as to be regarded as orthodox. Manchu and Mongolian had devoted greatly in the
development of General Unity.
An outstanding scholar Fei Xiaotong, expanded the idea of General Unity into a wider concept of multiple-integrationism in 1988, i.e. the whole Chinese civilization is constituted by different pieces of minority groups, the process of integration was also involved by separation and
disappearance of some groups. Thus, an integration which contains pluralism formed. However, in
the complicated process, there should be a key power that acts as a core. Han, without a doubt, is an
important part to Chinese culture and functions as the core in the multiple-integration. Han, with
the largest population and highest economic productivity, is the most stable stream in the integration
of the Chinese culture.
Han is just one among the cultures that integrated ancient minority cultures and cultures from
the outside world. In todays context, the Han culture does not equal to the Chinese culture. It is the
integration of different minorities that should we call Chinese culture. Only by realizing this, the
inclusiveness and acceptability of Chinese culture could be understood by the world, thus the responsibilities and cohesion of minority groups could be enhanced. Eventually, identification of different
nations could be strengthened.
2. The contemporary value of inclusiveness of Chinese culture
3.1 Chinese culture contains the feature of inclusiveness, which has ensured the vitality of Chinese
culture. The conflicts of different ideologies occurred from time to time in the historical development. Chinese culture is one that came through the conflicts and formed its continuity. The essence
that makes it an incessant one lies in the idea of He and its respects to discrepancies. Harmony and
discrepancies interact both as cause and effect. Only in discrepancies could harmony be developed.
Only by creating an environment of harmony, could Chinese culture develop in a healthy way. He
could win much more cultural identification and acceptance for Chinese culture, thus to gain vitality
for further development. Therefore, the value of Harmony without Sameness should be promoted
in the contemporary context.
3.2 What He pursues is a universal harmony, i.e. the harmony between human, human and
nature, human and society, and the balance between different regions and nations, even between different cultures and nations. Mind cultivation could achieve the harmony and balance, which requires
human beings to self-constrained and to be honest. In todays society, when we are facing conflicts
and wars, the essence idea of He in the Chinese culture is undoubtedly a resource to establish a
50
harmonious world.
3.3 Chinese culture attaches much importance to the harmonious relationship with neighborhood
countries and criticizes domineers over others. Ancient China kept friendly connections with neighboring countries by silk road. Zheng He, an ancient diplomat, traveled to the West by sea 600
years ago, was the first Chinese who spread the idea of He abroad. As Confucius said: do as you
would be done by others, one should not have enemies at home and a nation should not set enemies
with other nations. A peaceful international environment has provided China with an opportunity for
development, whereas the development of China could promote a peaceful world. China chooses a
peaceful way for development while well preserving the cultural tradition and dignity. The principles
of mutual understanding, mutual progress and win-win relationship, anti-confrontation, and win-win
relationship enable China as a responsible power in international affairs. The phenomenon of Sinomania reflects that the world has paid great attention to China. It is for sure that the Chinas contribution to the world would be even more essential in future.
Notes
He, Li and Ren are the basic ideas in Chinese ancient Confucianism philosophy. He refers a state of
being peaceful, harmonious, and mild; Li means ritual and propriety, while Ren means humanity. There are all
items about the relationship between human beings and nature.
Han. The Chinese nation has various minority ethnic groups, within which, Han is the first main nationality, its population is also the biggest in the world.
Manchu and Mongolian. Two main minority groups in China. Manchu was also the authority in China
from the 17th century A.D. to the early 20th century A.D.
Fei Xiaotong is an outstanding scholar in sociology, anthropology , and history. He is also an expert in nationality studies.
Silk Road, an ancient traffic built around the 200th century B.C. It connected China with the countries in
Mediterranean area. It devoted a lot in ancient Chinese economy as the main traffic route connecting with the West.
Zheng He(1371-1433) was a diplomat in ancient China in Ming dynasty. 600 years ago, Zheng He headed
to the Southeast Asia, even to Africa by sea. This event showed China had been a powerful nation even in that
period of time.
51
VALORIFICAREA TRADIIILOR N FILMUL DE ANIMAIE CHINEZ

Violeta TIPA
Academia de tiine a Moldovei
Filmul de animaie clasic chinez se impune ca o continuitate a culturii i artei naionale. Astfel, tradiiile stilistico-artistice ale genului ancoreaz n una dintre cele mai vechi civilizaii umane i-l face s se deosebeasc radical
de cel european. Pictura chinez (Ink and wash painting), teatrul de umbre, gravura primitiv etc. au fost i rmn
a fi surse inepuizabile ale artei filmice. n special, caligrafia (calligraphy) i pictura chinez, ce fascineaz prin peisajele sale monocrome n cerneal, vor fi preluate i n arta filmic cea a desenului animat.
Animatorii studioului din Shanghai au elaborat n baza artelor naionale un stil original pentru filmele sale.
Tradiia pornete de la Te Wei, printele filmului de animaie asiatic, care valorific anume cele mai demne dintre
arte, transformndu-le ntr-o simfonie vizual. Arta pictural i tradiiile chineze cel mai bine sunt redate n filmele
lui: Where is Mama (1960), The Cowboys Flute (1963), Feeling from Mountain And Water (1988). Stilul specific
al filmelor lui Te Wei i a continuatorilor si ine de tradiiile artelor plastice. Filmul de animaie permite o depire
a tuturor conventionalismelor spre o deschidere larg ntr-un bogat univers spiritual.
Nu mai puin semnificative sunt i subiectele filmelor, care sunt luate din mitologia i eposul naional, la fel ca
i din manhua (chinese comics).
n prezent n filmul de animaie chinez coexist la fel de bine grafica n tu, spectacolul de ppui i tehnologiile
computerizate. Filmul alimenteaz din bogatele i frumoasele tradiii ale civilizaiei chineze.
Cuvinte-cheie: film de animaie, pictur chinez, arte plastice, grafic, caligrafie, simfonie vizual, mitologie,
civilizaie chinez, Tr Wei, Qi Baishi.
The Chinese animation film is set forward as a continuation of the national art and culture. Thereby, the stylistic-artistic traditions of this genre land in the oldest human civilization and makes him differ completely from that
European one.
The Chinese painting (Ink and wash painting), shadow theatre and primitive engraving etc., keep on remaining
inexhaustible sources of filmic art. Especially, calligraphy and Chinese painting, which fascinates with its monochrome landscapes in ink will be used in filmic art as well that one of cartoons.
Shanghai studio animators developed an original style for their movies based on national arts. The tradition
originates from Te Wei, the father of the Asiatic animated film, which values namely the ones of the worthiest arts,
turning them into a visual symphony. Art painting and the Chinese customs are rendered best in his movies: Where
is Mama (1960), The Cowboys Flute (1963), Feeling from Mountain And Water (1988). The peculiar style of the Te
Weis movies and of his followers keep to the arts as: the continuity of line, color spectrum, color drama. Animation
films allow an exceeding of all conventionalisms for an wide opening to a rich spiritual world.
Of no less importance are the subject of movies taken from mythology and national epos, as well as from manhua (Chinese comics).
In the current Chinese animation films coexist very harmonious ink graphics, puppet show and computerized
technologies. The movie keeps on feeding from rich and beautiful traditions of Chinese civilization.
Key-words: Chinese animation film, ink and wash painting, ink graphic, calligraphy, visual symphony, national
art, mythology, Te Wei, Qi Baishi.
Filmul de animaie clasic chinez chiar de la nceputurile sale se impune n cultura cinematografic
mondial ca o continuitate a culturii i artei naionale. Astfel, tradiiile stilistico-artistice ale genului
ancoreaz n una dintre cele mai vechi civilizaii umane, n una dintre cele mai bogate i mai variate
mitologii fapt ce l face s se deosebeasc radical de cel european. Pictura chinez (Ink and wash
painting), teatrul de umbre, gravura primitiv, arta popular etc. au fost i rmn a fi surse inepuizabile ale artei filmice. n special, caligrafia (calligraphy) i pictura chinez, ce fascineaz prin peisajele
sale monocrome efectuate cu cerneal, vor fi preluate i n arta filmic cea a desenului animat.
Animaia n China este adus de fraii Wang Guchan i Laiming, care realizeaz primele filme
sub influena stilului a la Disney, dar care valorific materialul autohton. ncepnd chiar cu primul
lungmetraj de animaie Tie shan gong shu / Prinesa Evantai de Fier (1941), subiectul i eroii sunt
inspirai din Cltorie spre Occident unul dintre cele patru romane clasice chineze, semnate de We
Chengen. Legendele concentrate n universul acestui epos amplu se vor valorifica pe parcursul anilor
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nu numai n filmele frailor Wang: Da nao tian gong / Revolt n ceruri (1965), Do no tien gu/ Sun
wu kong / San Ukun mpratul maimuelor nvinge demonii (1965), Fruits of Genshen / Fructe de
ginseng (1981), dar i ale altor animatori: Cltorie spre Vest (1984, mini serial, regia Te Wei, Bao
Lei) etc. Filmele frailor Wang din start au trasat direcia de dezvoltare a filmului de animaie n albia
culturii autohtone, care se va menine constant decenii la rndul. Animatorii studioului din Shanghai
au elaborat n baza artelor naionale un stil original pentru filmele sale.
Tradiia pornete de la Te Wei (22 august 1915 4 februarie 2010), printele filmului de animaie
asiatic, fondatorul Studioului de filme de animaie din Shanghai (Shanghai Animation Film Studio),
care a determinat specificul filmului de animaie tradiional chinez i a pus n valoare prin animaie
anume cele mai demne dintre arte pictura i caligrafia transformndu-le ntr-o simfonie audiovizual.
Deoarece aceleai legi estetice guverneaz artele, am putea porni de la ideea c pictura, definit
de chinezi drept o poezie care a obinut form, aa dup cum poezia chinez este o pictur creia i
lipsete forma, atunci filmul de animaie tradiional chinez este concomitent i poezie, i pictur, i
filozofie. Conform datinilor artitii chinezi, inclusiv realizatorii filmului de animaie, trebuie s fie
i poei, i filosofi. Or, animaia confer picturii i poeziei noi dimensiuni spaial-temporale, dar i
chinestezie. Regizorul-animator a raportat la noul gen cinematografic att conceptul ideatic, ct i
principiile artei chineze. n opera sa Te Wei apeleaz la tradiia artelor plastice chineze, care cel mai
bine sunt redate n filmele:
Xiao Kedou Zhao Mama / Unde e mama? (1960), Mu di / Flautul ciobnaului (1963), Shan Shei
ging / Impresii de la muni i ape (1988).
Mu di / Flautul ciobnaului (1963), regie Te Wei

http://rutracker.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=238550
Prima pelicul realizat din perspectiva viziunii estetico-artistice naionale devine pelicula Unde
e mama?, inspirat din creaia pictorului chinez Qi Baishi (1863-1957). n film se prefigureaz nu
numai stilul picturilor lui Baishi, un virtuoz al genului i un continuator al tradiiilor picturii chineze
n maniera corifeilor artei naionale din secolele XVI-XVII, nsi personajele (broasca, mormolocii,
racul, petele, puiorii etc.) par a fi preluate din ciclul de picturi Flori psri i Ierburi insecte
care i-au adus notorietate internaional. Transpuse n alt limbaj cel cinematografic toate aceste
fiine prind viat, apar chipuri, caractere. Apare fascinaia unui spectacol animat n toat splendoarea.
Cunoscutele picturi ale maestrului Doisprezece crabi (1930), Crevete ntre alge (1946), Lotusul i
53
broasca (1953), Puiorii lng bananier (1953) opera lui Te Wei le-a oferit o continuitate i o unitate
conceptual.
n pelicula Flautul ciobnaului peisajul n acuarel se va plasa deja n prim-plan. Filmul va deveni un manifest artistic pentru evoluia ulterioar a animaiei chineze n tradiia picturii n acuarel.
Subiectul simplu ciobnaul adoarme n copac i viseaz c i-a pierdut taurul, pe care-l gsete cu
ajutorul flautului cioplit dintr-o tulpin de bambus se conformeaz principiilor estetice ale picturii
chineze n care subiectul este subestimat. Or, cutarea animalului, care ocup cea mai mare parte a
peliculei, se transform ntr-o cltorie printre cele mai frumoase peisaje ale naturii lacuri, muni,
pduri, ruri, cascade etc. Astfel, filmul ofer imaginile naturii, n care omul este doar o prticic din
ea, un element component al acestui tablou, amintind de lumea paradisului. Notorietatea filmului a
venit abia peste un deceniu i ceva, cnd la Festivalul Internaional din Londra i s-a acordat premiul
Pentru cel mai reuit film, iar n 2003 la Festivalul LAPUTA din Tokio a fost inclus n lista celor mai
bune filme ale tuturor timpurilor i popoarelor.
Dup realizarea celor dou filme Unde e mama? i Flautul ciobnaului, considerate capodopere
ale filmului de animaie tradiional chinez din epoca sa de aur, Te Wei este eliberat de la studiou mpreun cu ali colegi de breasl. Perioada Revoluiei culturale chineze din anul 1965 a stopat activitatea studioului de animaie din Shanhai i, n general, a animaiei chineze. Oamenii de art i cultur,
inclusiv animatorii au fost trimii prin sate, fiind nevoii a se reeduca lucrnd pe cmp. Doar peste
25 de ani, Te Wei a putut reveni la activitatea sa de creaie. Primul film realizat dup o lung perioad
de surghiun intelectual a fost Impresii de la muni i ape (1988). Un film nostalgic. Aceast pelicul
n ntregime se bazeaz pe peisaj i muzic naional.
Shan shui ging / Impresii de la muni i ape (1988), regie Te Wei

http://sadpanda.cn/archives/7597
n peliculele lui Te Wei Impresii de la muni i ape i Flautul ciobnaului pot fi sesizate principiile
estetice ale picturii tradiionale chineze. Filmele lui devin adevrate picturi n micare, care redau nu
numai frumuseea naturii, dar fac aluzie i la ocrotirea ei. n prim-plan se instaleaz peisajul n care
omului i se atribuie un loc mai modest. Autorul ine neaprat ca atenia spectatorului s se ndrepte,
n primul rnd, asupra peisajului. Cci conform filosofiei chineze nu omul, ci natura este msura
tuturor lucrurilor, iar aceast natur este conceput exclusiv ca simbol al universului (Drinba 86).
Omul este i el o parte component care doar ntregete peisajul naturii. Aa cum se ntmpl n pelicula Flautul ciobnaului sau n Impresii de la muni i ape, unde spectatorii sunt invitai s admire
peisajele n micare predispun spre meditaii, spre contemplare.
n viziunea maetrilor animaiei natura este personificat, devenind personajul principal al ima-
54
ginilor ce prind via prin limbaj cinematografic. Armonia i linitea domin peisajul i se extind,
inclusiv asupra lumii spirituale a spectatorului. Natura surprins n culori pastelate se armonizeaz cu
ritmurile micrii i ale muzicii naionale.
Aidoma picturilor tradiionale chineze, filmele de animaie abund n copaci i psrele, insecte
i animale, ap i muni. nsui cuvntul-ideogram peisaj se traduce ca muni i ape, care formeaz
cei doi poli ai naturii i ai dramaturgiei filmului. Munii simbolizeaz calmul i statornicia naturii, iar
apa curgtoare tensiunea, efortul, micarea, comunicarea cu natura i n natur. Astfel, n pictura
chinez clasic, muntele se opune apei aa cum principiul yang se opune principiului yin, aa cum
imutabilitatea se opune vremelniciei. Prima este cel mai adesea reprezentat printr-o stanc, cea de
a doua, printr-o cascad (Chevalier 323).
Filmul Impresii de la muni i ape ne demonstreaz aceast unitate a imuabilului cu micarea, a
vieii cu moartea. ntlnirea celor dou personaje copila i btrnul are loc la malul rului la
hotarele dintre ap curgtoare simbolul micrii i al vieii i malul pmntul, stnca. Btrnul
transmite cunotinele sale (arta interpretrii la cetera chinez) i mai apoi chiar instrumentul muzical
i pleac n linitea munilor, spre nlimea lor cutremurtoare.
Astfel, filmul de animaie permite depirea tuturor convenionalismelor spre deschiderea in extensio a bogatului univers spiritual.
Stilul filmelor lui Te Wei i ale continuatorilor si ancoreaz n specificul artelor plastice: continuitatea liniei, spectrul cromatic, armonia culorilor, a nuanelor. Filmul de animaie chinez, n comparaie cu cel tradiional european, prezint o complexitate conceptual n care toate aceste elemente
inerente formeaz un tot ntreg: plasticitatea peisajului, subiectul mitologic i fabula filozofic. Or,
naraiunea filmului se desfoar ntr-un ritm net diferit. Animatorii se conformeaz tradiiilor care
invoc un anumit calm, o anumit decen, maniera de bun cuviin. Ei nu-i permit s foreze lucrurile, s comprime timpul i micarea, fiind animai de ritmul i ordinea cosmic a naturii. De aceea
pentru noi, europenii, filmele chineze produc mai mult impresia unui timp oprit sau care se scurge
nemaipomenit de lent, a unui tablou n care aproape c nimic nu se mai ntmpl. Pe ecran se perind
n ritmul muzicii tradiionale peisajele ce te vrjesc prin plasticitatea lor, iar aciunea pare s rmn
pe plan secund.
Cu regret, filmul de animaie chinez tradiional e puin valorificat i receptat n spaiul european.
Tang Lang Bu Chan (1988), regie Hu Dao ging

http://www.lookatme.ru/flows/animatsiya/posts/80183-klassiki-kitayskoy-animatsii-tri-monaha
55
Un peisaj transfigurat ntr-o simfonie audiovizual urmrim nu numai la Te Wei n Impresii de

la muni i ape ci i n filmul Tang Lang Bu Chan / Grangurul, clugria i cicada (1988) n regia
lui Hu Dao ging o parabol din mitologia veche chinez despre un mprat, decis s porneasc cu
rzboi asupra vecinilor si. Nimeni nu putea s-i contrazic decizia, doar unui tnr, inspirat de frumuseea i filozofia naturii i reuete s stopeze aciunile rzboinice ale mpratului.
Deloc ntmpltor n primele imagini ale filmului apare un flutura zburnd, care n mitologie este
un simbol al schimbrilor i al instabilitii. Imaginile copacului, linia ramurilor, frunzele care par a fi
ntr-o stare de repaos, ne amintesc de stilistica tablourilor lui Qi Baishi (Creanga de copac i cicada
pe frunza roie, 1955). n aceast linite micarea i dramaturgia o susine prezena a ctorva fiine:
cicada ce se odihnete pe ram, un grangur cntnd, o veveri se iete din scorbur, o clugri n
cutarea jertfei. Totul pare deosebit de armonios, dar e o armonie ce prevestete un conflict, o rsturnare de situaie. n tihna ce domin atmosfera, sub o frunza verde st pitulat clugria, ce se mic
insistent spre victim cicada pe care o prinde n cangele sale puternice. n clipa aceea grangurul
se arunc asupra clugriei... Atenia vieuitoarelor copacului este ndreapt asupra lor.
Aceast legend a dat natere i unui proverb despre clugria care prinde cicada, iar grangurul
prinde clugria i se refer mai nti de toate la persoanele, care sunt ntr-att de ocupate, nct
nu observ ce se petrece n preajm. O astfel de metafor plastic, venit din nelepciunea antic
chinez ne amintete c: viaa noastr care pare c se desfoar n linite mereu este pus n pericol.
Astfel, spectrul tematic al filmelor de animaie chineze este foarte larg. Chiar i cugetrile filosofice ale lui Confucius i-au gsit reflectare n animaie. Spre exemplu, filmul Hou Li Lao Yue / Cum
maimuele au pescuit luna (1981) n regia lui Keqin Zhou ncearc s explice contradicia dintre lucrurile care se vad i esena lor. Trebuie menionat i originalitatea realizrii combinarea reuit a
stilurilor: cea a marionetei plate cu cea a umbrelor care au dat un efect deosebit n procesul animrii.
n contextul valorificrii nelepciunii naionale chineze se nscrie i pelicula Yu Bang Xiang Zheng
/ Duelul dintre beca i stridie (1983) regie Jinging Hu i Lu Ruhao, realizat n maniera stilistic a
picturii n acuarel.
Duelul dintre beca i stridie (1983), regie Jinging Hu i Lu Ruhao.

http://foto.mail.ru/inbox/tashaf/_favorites/325.html
Filmul are la origine o ideom chinez, care, fiind tradus n romn ar suna cnd doi se ceart al
treilea ctig. n aceeai cheie estetico-stilistic este creat i filmul Cao ren / Sperietoarea (1985),
regie Jinqing Hu. Autorii se adreseaz concomitent la Istoriile comice datate cu anul 445-221 i.e.n.
pentru subiect, iar stilul este inspirat din ciclul Flori i Psri din pictura epocii Tan. Lupta pescarului cu doi pelicani ndrznei, care pretind la peti, este efectuat ntr-o tehnic combinat: grafic i
56
marionete plate cu utilizarea unor materiale neordinare cum ar fi penele, puful .a.
Mitologia chinez o inepuizabil surs pentru autorii filmelor de animaie duce la o concentrare
de simboluri i metafore incifrate n filme, sensibiliznd i spectatorul strin. Ar mai fi de menionat
i pelicula Nv Wa Bu Tian / Zeita Nu Wa repar cerul (1985) n regia lui Yunda Quian dup o legend
veche chinez. Mitul povestete cum Zeia Pmntului Nu Wa a creat oamenii i chiar i-a mprit
n categorii. Nobilii erau modelai de minile Zeiei din lut galben (n China culoarea galben are un
simbol specific, ea reprezint aurul, care este carnea soarelui i a zeilor) i au format rasa superioar
clasa dominant, iar oamenii sraci au fost creai din buci de lut i nmol, aruncat de Nu Wa cu
ajutorul frnghiei.
Astfel, filmul de animaie tradiional chinez devine o ntreag enciclopedie a culturii i civilizaiei
chineze n care se reflect toate aspectele ei att etico-filozofice, cat i cele estetico-artistice. Pornind
de la ideea ocrotirii i pstrrii tradiiilor i ntregului patrimoniu spiritual, televiziunea din China este
obligat s transmit zilnic 1,30 2 ore filme de animaie de producie autohton pentru a familiariza
tnra generaie cu valorile culturale ale imperiului, aa-numit, subceresc i concomitent de a proteja
spectatorul de produciile strine (n special cele americane i japoneze).
n ultima perioad, ncepnd cu anii 90 animaia chineza i extinde hotarele. n vog azi sunt
subiectele filmelor luate din mitologia i eposul naional, la fel ca i cele din manhua (comicsurile
chineze). Astfel, n 1995 a fost ecranizat comicsul Ciberarma Z, personajele cruia sunt similare celor
din anime-urile japoneze, dei stilul susine specificul animaiei chineze. Influen tot mai mare n
evoluia animaiei o are Internetul, ce se impune printr-o nou direcie, aa-numita flash animaie, a
crui stil specific detaeaz genul de la tradiii.
n prezent n filmul de animaie chinez coexist grafica n tu, spectacolul de ppui i tehnologiile
computerizate. Astzi filmul chinez, utiliznd noile tehnici i tehnologii, continu s se alimenteze
din vechile i bogatele tradiii ale civilizaiei chineze, cucerind tot mai largi spaii de admiraie printre
consumatorii de frumos din toat lumea.
Bibliografie
Chevalier, Jean, i Alain Gheerbrant. Dicionar de simboluri (n trei volume). Bucureti: Editura Artemis, 1995.
Drimba, Ovidiu. Istoria culturii i civilizaiei. Vol II. Bucureti: Editura Vesrala, 1999.
Helft, Claude. Mitologia chinez. Bucureti: Meteor Press, 2006. .
. : , 1972.
, . . : , 2004.
, . . : , 1965.
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FILOSOFIA (IN)DIFERENELOR CULTURALE I NOUL MODUS VIVENDI

Victor UNTIL
Conceptul de cultur cunoate n prezent o viguroas resurecie i pretinde s devin aproape de natur transcendental, precum conceptele de substan, spaiu, timp, cauzalitate .a care n filosofie sunt categorii de baz
utilizate de gndirea uman.
Definind culturalul ca o condiie uman, gndirea filosofic modern a impus ideea c omul produce lumi
culturale diferite. Rmnnd o form de expresie pregnant a spiritualului, culturalul genereaz i configureaz
dezvoltarea epigenetic a entitilor umane prin instanele sale de totalitate, integritate, unitate, dar i de delimitare,
difereniere, unicitate. Aceast difereniere opozitiv-disjunctiv a determinat s prevaleze sau/i s discrimineze
pe parcursul istoriei o cultur n raport cu alta. Etnocentrismul, caracteristic primar i universal a societilor
umane pn nu demult, a promovat diferenele culturale, nscnd tot felul de mituri i prejudeci cristalizate n
stereotipuri culturale, care uneori degenerau n manifestri de ur, intoleran, rasism, rzboaie etc.
Discontinuitatea i non-separabilitatea, natura complex i politropic a Realitii, propagarea complementaritii i corelativitii impune tiinelor antropologice reconsiderarea culturii spre o paradigm interconexionist sincretic si integrativ pe interfaa dinamic Real-Raional-Relaional deteminat i de factorii celor 3 axe solidare:
spaiu-timp-societate. Astfel, contiina unitii n diversitate devine indispensabil ntr-o lume pe calea mondializrii totale, or paradigma gndirii fragmentare, opozitive, duale, reducioniste, a separrii i a disjunciei a devenit
perimat i trebuie substituit prin cea sistemic, complex, deschis i conjunctiv.
Cuvinte-cheie: cultur, dezvoltare epigenetic, (in)diferen, heterotopie, identitate, unitate n diversitate, paradigm interconexionist, corelativitate, complementaritate, perspectiv ontologic, modus vivendi.
The concept of culture is currently experiencing a vigorous resurrection and claims to be close to transcendental
nature of the concepts of substance, space, time, causality etc which are the basic philosophical categories used by
the human thought.
On defining the cultural as a human condition, modern philosophical thought imposed the idea that man produces various cultural backgrounds. Being a form of spirit expression, the cultural brings forth and configures
the epigenetic development of human entities by means of totality, integrity, unity, as well as the delimitation, distinction and uniqueness. This oppositive-disjunctive differentiation historically made prevail and/or discriminate
a culture against another one. Ethnocentrism as a primary and universal feature of human society until recently
has promoted cultural differences, all sorts of myths and prejudices being born; later they crystallized into cultural
stereotypes, which sometimes got the expression of hatred, intolerance, racism, wars, etc..
Discontinuity and inseparability, as well as a complex polytrophic nature of Reality, promotion of complementarity and correlativity enforced anthropological sciences to lead culture to syncretic and integrative interconnective paradigm on the dynamic interface Real-Rational-Relational, also being determined by the joined three-axed
factors: space-time-society. Thus, the consciousness of unity in diversity is essential in the world of would-be total
globalization, thus, the paradigm of fragmentative thought as well as that one of object, duality, reductionism, the
separation and disjunction has become obsolete and must be replaced by the systemic, complex, open and conjunctive one.
Key-words: culture, epigenetic development, (in)difference, heterotopics, identity, unity in diversity, inter connectionist paradigm, corelativity, complementarity, ontological perspective, modus vivendi.
La diversit des cultures nest donc pas un obstacle
l'unit du genre humain, mais sa condition.

Claude Lvi-Strauss
Definiii de concept. A defini cultura nseamn a defini nsi condiia uman n unitatea i varietatea
ei. Definiiile cunoscute i aflate n circulaie pun accent pe anumite componente sau aspecte ale culturii. Definiiile din sfera antropologiei i a istoriei difer de cele sociologice, psihologice sau semiotice.
Evitnd jungla conceptual numeroasele speculaii epistemologice de definire, de la E. B. Taylor,
58
A. Kroeber, C. Kluckhom pn la definiiile UNESCO vom meniona c nu exist o definiie standard a culturii i c, de fapt, cultura se preteaz la o definiie deschis (A. Males). Vom reine totui
cteva elemente definitorii ale acestui concept: sisteme de valori, idei i atitudini, forme de creaie
prin care omul, grupurile sociale i societile i interpreteaz experiena istoric i o transcriu n
opere, care reprezint valori i norme i se transmit din generaie n generaie, asigurnd continuitatea existenei umane. n ceea ce urmeaz vom opera cu dimensiunea filosofic a culturii, de condiie
uman, pentru c homo sapiens este cultural de la natur i natural prin cultur (E. Morin). Deci,
n senso lato : cultura este ansamblul de trasturi distinctive, spirituale i morale, intelectuale i
afective, care caracterizeaz o societate sau un grup social i cuprinde artele, literatura, modurile de
via, drepturile fundamentale ale fiinei umane, sistemele de valori, tradiii i credine. (Declaraia
despre politicile culturale. Conferina mondial asupra politicilor culturale, Mexico, 1982)
Culturalul, ncadrare actual. A aborda problema culturii din punct de vedere filosofic nseamn
a accepta istoricitatea omului i perfectibilitatea uman. Decretnd o perfectibilitate evolutiv perpetu a culturii i a fiinei umane s-ar putea afirma, mpreun cu Liang Schuming, c suntem captivii
epocii Omul fa-n fa cu Alter (cellalt), prima fiind Omul fa-n fa cu realitatea material, a treia urmnd s fie Omul fa-n fa cu sine-nsui. Circumstanele civilizaionale pentru aceast epoc
sunt contrastante i chiar contradictorii:
dintr-o parte: globalizarea i standardizarea modurilor de via, de producie, de consum i de
mediatizare amenin s nghit orice diversitate cultural,
din alt parte: conflictele din motive culturale iau o amploare pronunat prin tevatura lor ideologic pe care o adopt, repetnd politici etnocentrice de alt dat.
Civilzaia postmodern/postistoric se afl n faa unei ecuaii cu trei termeni contradictorii, care
se exclud reciproc: 1) globalizarea economic, tehnic-informaional, 2) universalitatea valorilor, 3)
singularitatea formelor culturale. Antropologia i filosofia culturii caut soluii la aceast ecuaie i
este pus n faa unor interogaii mai vechi i/sau mai noi: Exist valori universale? Unde se situeaz comun-ul ntre oameni? Cum trebuie conceput un dialog eficient ntre culturi? Universalismul i
relativismul cultural mai sunt soluii pentru cultural? Dialogul ntre culturi mai poate fi negociat n
termeni de identitate i diferene culturale?E posibil o unitate n diversitate?E posibil ca omul s fie
natural prin cultur i cultural prin natur?
Dup Samuel Huntington (The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, 1996), autorul faimoasei teze despre ciocnirea civilizaiilor, cultura conteaz n condiiile de azi, ea devenind
un fel de economie suprasimbolic, (Alvin Toffler), iar factorii de natur cultural au o relevan deosebit pentru transformrile sociale, fundamentarea lor democratic, pentru modelarea raporturilor
geopolitice. Nu n zadar declaraia Universal UNESCO asupra diversitii culturale (2001) i cea de
promovare a diversitii expresiilor culturale (2005) au marcat un moment-cheie, acordnd de facto
culturalului aceiai importan ca i politicului i economicului.
Tensiunile provocate n lume de fenomenul globalizrii, de escaladarea conflictelor militare i
religioase au determinat, n ultimul timp, recursul insistent la cultur, n sens conceptual i fenomenologic pentru aflarea argumentelor i soluiilor privind protejarea demnitii i identitii culturale, promovarea toleranei i a comunicrii interculturale ca surs a creativitii i a dezvoltarii durabile. Mult
timp eclipsat de ascensiunea eclatant a tiinei si tehnologiei, precum i multiplele interpretri reducioniste sau/i universaliste, subminat de numeroase confuzii i inadecvri cu efecte distorsionate
n plan cognitiv i comunicaional, notiunea de cultur cunoate n prezent, o viguroas resurecie.
Cuprinznd instane de totalitate, integritate, unitate, dar i de delimitare, difereniere, unicitate conceptul de cultur tinde s devin aproape de natur transcendental precum conceptele de substan,
spaiu, timp, cauzalitate .a care n filosofie sunt categorii de baz, utilizate de gndirea uman.
n aceste condiii civilizaionale teoriile/doctrinele clasice asupra culturii precum : evoluionist
- (E. B.Taylor 1832-1917), L. H. Morgan ( 1818-1881), J. G. Frazer (1854-1941); morfologic L.
Frobenius (1873-1938), O. Spengler (1880-1936); simbolic E. Cassirer (1874-1945), L. Blaga
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(1895-1961), P. Bourdieu (1930-2002); relativist F. Boas (1858-1942), E.Sapir (1884-1939); culturalist A. Cardiner (1891-1981), R. Linton (1893-1953), R. Benedict (1887-1948), M. Mead
(1901-1978); funcionalist B. Malinowski (1884-1942), A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955);
structuralist C. L. Strauss (1908-2009); semiotic U. Eco (1932), I. Lotman (1922-1999); neoevoluionist L.White, J. H. Steward, M. Sahlins; postmodern Fr. Lyotard, G.Vatimo; comunicaional M. McLuhan, R. Escarpit, .a se dovedesc insuficiente i/sau reducioniste.
Diferena. Una din categoriile centrale ale refleciei filosofice diferena este marcat intrinsec de
temporalitate i constan care permit accesul la bogia inepuizabil a Realitii, iar n plan metafizic
i metaraional la misterul Fiinei. Pe parcursul istoriei conceptul de diferen a avut mai des conotaie negativ i nsemna nc la Platon i Aristotel negarea identitii. Astfel, eficiena de justiie era ierarhizat n dependen de gradul de asemnare ntre identic i divers. Prezena diverselor dimensiuni
ale diferenei precum : fiin-aparen (Parmenide); sensibil-ideal (Platon); fenomen-lucrul n sine
(Kant); contiin-spirit (Hegel); empiric-transcendental (Husserl); ontic-ontologic (Heidegger) .a
puneau n valoare capacitatea gndirii de separare dar i de legtur. Grecescul diafora(dia=distan,
ndeprtare, deschiztur; fora=a transporta) nsemna a transporta dou elemente care se apropie
pentru a le dispersa, ndeprta unul de altul. Astfel, metafizica conceptului presupune deservirea
prezenei i construirea sensului (Hegel), ntr-o lume n care nu este loc pentru identiti, identicul
se prbuete mereu (Nietzsche). Suntem astfel n faa unei unificri (transportri) care nu conciliaz
contradiciile dar le expune n mod dispersat i grupate n aceiai prezen. O diferen care nu se
reduce numai la contradicii, i o identitate care nu sfrete n identic.
Definind omul prin cultur, gndirea filosofic modern a impus ideea c omul produce lumi
culturale diferite. Fiind o form de expresie mai degrab a spiritualului, cultura genereaz i configureaz dezvoltarea epigenetic a entitilor umane. De aici i variatele materializri culturale subiective, cu toat opulena formelor simbolice, specificitatea i, foarte des, contrarietatea lor.
Contiina diferenei i geneza separrii se produce foarte devreme. Omul nva diferena de la
vrsta cea mai fraged n familie, la coal, n strad, printre semeni, atunci cnd se calific singur
sau mai des de alii diferit de ceilali dup diverse criterii: constituie fizic, capaciti intelectuale,
statut social, apartenen rasial, naional, religioas etc. Aceasta va provoca un reflex identitar de
protecie care se va manifesta printr-o repliere respectiv. Astfel reificat diferena va produce separaie, alteritate, nstrinare i ca rezultat apare problema coabitrii culturale.
n domeniul culturalului diferena devine proeminent n termenii de naional, specific naional
sau identitate naional. Astfel, putem exprima integrarea trsturilor distinctive ale unei culturi ntr-o configuraie relativ stabil, ce vizeaz modul de a simi, gndi i aciona, particularitile sale
istorice, sociale i psihologice codificate n diverse sisteme de valori. Diveri factori (vezi Georgiu)
cu valoare distinctiv particip la profilarea acestui ego cultural: a) aciunea modelatoare a condiiilor
spaio-geografice, b) particularitile etnice i antropologice, c) ethosul factura psihic i moral,
dominantele caracterologice, d) structura psihologiei colective, e) tradiia ca sistem al valorilor durabile i regulative, f) limba ca instrument esenial de constituire i comunicare a valorilor, g) fizionomia spiritual, modurile specifice de organizare a coninuturilor de cunoatere, h) atitudinile axiologice reprezentative fa de lume i condiia uman .a. Toi aceti factori se integreaz ntr-o totalitate
dinamic complex care se obiectiveaz i se codific n filosofie , art, moral, religie, mitologie,
comportamente, obiceiuri i moduri de via. Valorile create n spaiul culturii naionale poart n fizionomia lor tiparul unui mod specific de simire i gndire, forma esenializat i transfigurat a unei
experiene istorice irepetabile.
Dar caracterul specific, difereniator al culturii exprim n acela timp un sens al existenei omului
n univers, aspect esenial, al condiiei umane, i poate s se rasfrng modelator sau catalitic i asupra
altor comuniti umane dobndind astfel i o semnificaie universal. Astfel, universalul se impune
nu ca opoziie a doi termeni contradictorii, dar ndeprtare care apropie prile diferite, ndeprtare i
apropiere infinit (Heidegger). Teoreticienii antropologi vorbesc tot mai des i de un patrimoniu uni-
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versal, de o ordine ideal a valorilor n care converg semnificaii, viziuni i performane creatoare de
pretutindeni, cele care definesc condiia uman n toat varietatea nfirilor sale istorice. Dar relaia
universal/naional rmne o ecuaie complex, fundamental i interioar fiecrei culturi naionale i
cu varii niveluri de manifestare: ontologic/antropologic, istoric de fundal, de ntemeere; axiologic,
comunicaional de relief, active n plan istoric, de valorificare i afirmare potenial a primelor
dou. Situaia se radicalizeaz pe msur ce valorile universale pierd din autoritate i legitimitate.
Atta timp ct se impuneau ca valori de mediere reueau s integreze singularitile i diferenele
ntr-o unitate prin diversitate. Dar deja numai reuesc, globalizarea triumftoare face tabula rasa
din toate diferenele i valorile, inaugurnd o (in)cultur absolut indiferent (Baudrillard). La fel de
sceptici fa de conceptele-cheie, precum universal, uniform, comun, n judecarea raporturilor dintre
culturi sunt i ali filosofi. Astfel, universalul, concept riguros al judecii, derivat din teoria cunoaterii, poate doar disimula ambiguitatea : totalitate constatat prin experien vs datorie care proiecteaz un a priori stabilind o norm absolut pentru toat umanitatea. Nici transparena, neutralitatea
conceptului nu mai rezist, confruntndu-se venic cu singularul, particularul. Din oglinda spart a
universalului fragmentele resuscit i rezist n faa puterii dizolvante i omogenizante a mondializrii graie procesului diaforic perpetuu. Conceptul de uniformitate, dublul pervertit al universalului,
nu poate pretinde nici el la legitimitate, fiind autorizat nu de raiune, necesitate dar de comoditatea
globalizant. La rndul lui conceptul de comun nu invoc un a priori ipotetic, dar vizeaz un fundal al
experienei sociale. Fiind caracterizat prin deschidere participativ este marcat de fenomenul incluziv,
dar care poate manifesta contrariul sau de excluziune comunitarismul (U.E, NATO, Schengen etc.).
Heterotopia Occident-China. Civilizaia chinez suscit o fascinaie irezistibil prin faptul c reprezint un totalmente alter, or, anume acel totalmente alter poate inspira respect i n acelai timp o
dorin de a-l cunoate. Ceea ce frapeaz i provoac interogaii ntr-o alt cultur este contrastul cu
propria cultur i numai ntrebndu-ne asupra contrastului poi fi condus n mod analitic pn la fondul
comun, pornind de la care s-ar explica geneza diferenei.
Dificultatea demersului difereniator cultural n cazul Occident-China nu rezid n faptul c paradigmele culturale ale cestora sunt excesiv de diverse, rzlee, dar n faptul c ele s-au dezvoltat mult
timp n exterioritate absolut una fa de alta, ca dou totaliti nchise. Or, comparaia nu poate s
se impun de la sine, nu poi vorbi de asemnri sau chiar diferene n absena oricrui raport faptic
n prealabil stabilit. n acest caz mai degrab e vorba de indiferen (incomparabil) pentru c nici un
cadru comun nu se impune a priori care ar putea organiza punerea n relaie/comparaie. Realitile i
reprezentrile culturale, n acest caz, nu-i gsesc omologul, echivalentul, vis-a-vi-ul lor. Suntem n
prezena a ceea ce M. Foucault numea, n Des mots et des choses, heterotopie. China este acel alter
care nu este utopic dar heterotopic, i cum spunea acela Foucault, utopicul linitete, iar heterotopicul nelinitete.
Profilarea divergenelor, diferenelor civilizaionale i culturale sunt n centrul ateniei cercettorilor din ambele tabere din toate timpurile. Astfel, contrapunerile Occident-China prin opoziiile de
tipul : filosofie/nelepciune; dualism/unitate; cultur prometeic(a aciuni)/cultur conciliatoare;
aciune/conduit; moral n libertate/moral fr libertate; individualitate/colectivitate; conflict/armonie; egalitate/ierarhie; exterioritate/interioritate .a se ntlnesc practic la majoritatea cercettorilor. n continuare vom reliefa leit-motivul (in)diferenelor, elementul heterotopic care a influenat n
mare parte construcia cultural divers, cel al idealitii. Prin filosofia greac savantul occidental a
fost plmdit din aluatul comparatist, de stabilire a diferenelor, opernd peste tot cu opoziii, contrarii, dihotomii, dualisme, binarisme, contradicii .a. Ca rezultat Occidentul a detaat din sensibil
un plan abstract al ideaiei pentru a instaura idealul, caracteristica cea mai marcant a culturii europene, n baza creia s-a construit Europa, n timp ce cultura chinez a mers pe calea transformrilor
silenioase (F. Julien) i integrrii armonioase. China a trecut pe alturi, a ocolit aceast categorie,
a manifestat indiferen fa de ea, precum i n cazul categoriilor de Fiin, Libertate, Dreptate,
Frumos .a. n concepia nelepilor chinezi Cerul, Pmntul, Omul au fiecare specificul lor, dar sunt
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ntr-o interdepeden i corelativitate armonioas. De aici au rezultat dou logici: cea european de
emancipare ideal-ul a devenit promotorul categoriilor de Adevr (n tiin), Dreptate (n politic,
justiie), Frumos (n arte); pe cnd China nu a dezvoltat aceste categorii n absolutul lor, favoriznd
integrarea uman n mediul social, familial, etnic, cosmic. Ideal-ul deci n Occident presupune instaurarea unui plan de idei, categorii, paradigme, n timp ce n China neleptul este fr idei pentru
a nu se lsa prins n parialitate, rmnnd astfel deschis tuturor posibilitilor, pentru c neleptul
trebuie s cuprind toate punctele de vedere prin atitudinea sa, urmnd totui un ideal de contopire
armonioas yin/yang.
Perspectiva ontologic a culturii i noul modus vivendi.
ncepnd de la Kant metafizica a schimbat paradigma cunoaterii. ntrebarea ce este? a fost nlocuit prin cum e cu putin ce este?, adic o deplasare de accent de pe epitemologic pe ontologic. Vechiul
vector antropocentric l proiecta pe om n natur, devaloriznd axiologic Natura, ca pe un termen de
opoziie, cu statut corelativ, dar subordonat, adncind astfel prpastia dintre cultur i natur. Filosofia
actual tinde s reactualizeze ideia c exist un acord metafizic ntre om (raiune) i univers, acord nscris n codul Fiinei. Acesta proiecteaz umanului o semnificaie explicit cosmologic i ontologic.
Dup antropologizarea excesiv a naturii revine n plin for necesitatea naturalizrii (cosmologizrii) Omului i a culturii sale, o alian cu dublu sens: dinspre om spre natur i dinspre natur spre om.
Omul devine din nou o msur a lumii, dar n sens ontologic. De aceast dat omul conine n sine un
referenial (fractal) universal, e un analogon al Universului (L. Blaga), o msur ce este congruent
i consonant cu msura lumii. Omul apare, concomitent, n rolul de produs suprem al Universului
i n aceea de oglind relativ a lui, drept obiect i subiect, sau cum ar spune Lao-Tze omul este
i cale i cltor n acelai timp. Aceast perspectiv profileaz o nou viziune asupra culturii i
omului paradigma holografic (orice fragment poart informaia ntregului i-l poate reconstrui).
Acest model, chiar dac este n dezacord cu viziunile analitice i liberaliste despre autonomia entitilor i caracterul lor separat n timp i spaiu, este foarte aproape de nelepciunea chinez i permite
o proiecie prolific de conciliere a (in)diferenelor culturale Occident-China. n plus, paradigma
ontologic-holomeric redescoper adevrata dimensiune a vieii, modus-ul vivendi natural al omului.
Gndirea european a privilegiat fiina neglijnd viaa. Astfel, sinologul francez Franois Julien consider c metafizica a fcut pn acum baraj dimensiunii adevrate a conceptului de via, deplasnd-o
n Fiin pentru a separa esene, instaurnd coincidena. n timp ce a tri nseamn a avea capacitatea de a trece n alter sau de a te salva constant de tine-nsui... a tri e o continu ieire din hotare.
Cnd ajungi la o coinciden complet cu tine-nsui nu mai trieti... (Martin 224). Pentru a tri cu
adevrat ar trebui, dup acelai filosof, s ne detaam de filosofiile vitaliste i existenialiste, care au
pe fundal fiina i neantul meninndu-ne astfel ntr-o perspectiv dramatic.
Fiind mai aproape de nelepciune dect de metafizic viaa adevrat (individual, colectiv) are
resurse de explorat de la cultura chinez. Astfel confucianismul ar putea deveni purttor de valori universale, inspirnd acestora contiina unei comuniuni ontologice cu universul, elementele primare i
fundamentale de construire social. Chiar dac cultura chinez i asum n totalitate starea lucrurilor,
conceput ca o energie dinamic fr nceput i fr sfrit i promoveaz o inserare ntr-un echilibru,
ntre yin i yang exist suflul vidului median (Lao Tzeu). Acesta din urm permite extragerea lui
yin i yang din echilibru (pasivitate) pentru a-i antrena ntr-o interaciune. Acest vid median, un fel de
ter inclus, ar putea exercita rolul de declanator al unui feed back cultural, ar favoriza depirea (in)
diferenelor culturale i ar genera un interconexionism dintre priceperea de a aciona a Occidentului i
priceperea de a tri a Orientului, acordnd astfel antinomiilor inseparabile un statut nou de polaritate
concordant (Cassirer).
n fapt, deficiena comunicrii interculturale provine, n mare parte, din amalgamarea celor trei dimensiuni ale culturalului: a) patrimonial, b) biologic, c) dialogic i a cror coexisten rmne nc
dificil. Dimensiunea patrimonial datoreaz totul ereditarului (motenirii culturale). Cuantificabil i
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msurabil acest model impune o politic care s asigure integritatea, refuznd inovaii externe i chiar
interne, deci refuz orice dialectic ca factor de schimbare i se menine mai mult pe conceptul de a
avea dect pe cel de a fi. Dimensiunea biologic implic funcionarea culturii graie organismului
uman. Aici este vorba mai nti de toate de viaa cultural, unde se admit i se tolereaz schimbri i
evoluii endogene i exogene. Dimensiunea dialogic ( ilustrat de E. Morin n Penser l Europe,
1990 i de J. Habermas n Die postnationale Constellation, 1998) profileaz o viziune contrastant,
n care cultura se definete drept o confruntare continu i o aciune comunicaional ntre popoare,
clase, state care au construit o unitate pluralist i contradictorie. n acest sens, cultura este privit
ca o dialectic, o voin de dialog, o autonegaie radical i care interzice de a o contempla ca pe o
realitate fix i stabil. Cultura apare deci nu ca o acumulare de valori, dar ca un antier tumultuos (E.
Morin) n continu construcie. Pentru a evita barbaria omenirea trebuie s ncerce s triasc ntr-o
lume pluralist, n care afirmarea de sine nu trece prin distrugerea sau supunerea Celuilalt. A venit
momentul ca fiecare s-i asume responsabilitile de a proteja planeta noastr fragil i locuitorii
si att de imperfeci fiinele umane (Todorov 330).
Concluzii
Confruntarea deschis a tendinelor contradictorii ale lumii contemporane, animat de paradigme
diferite privind raportul dintre conceptele opozitive: unitate/diversitate; globalizare/identitate; universal/specific profileaz n faa filosofiei culturii o arie problematic vast (vezi Georgiu), pe care o
vom rezuma la cteva obiective majore: noua alian ntre om i cultur:
inetrconexionismul dimensiunii antropologice a culturii cu statutul ontologic al omului;
perspectiva hermeneutic, semiotic i informaional, care are menirea s realizeze o convergen
a demersurilor din tiinele naturii cu cele socio-umane, proiectnd demersuri inter i/sau transdisciplinare ( vezi Nicolescu);
resolidarizarea valorilor i coalizarea culturilor prin prisma dialogic-conjunctiv, creterea interdependenei i a schimbului de valori ntre diverse arii culturale, reconsidernd astfel procesul de
fisiune i fuziune cultural.
Depind cultul utopic i idolatru al unei societi globale i al unei culturi mondiale omenirea este
nevoit s perpetueze diversitatea, diferena. Suntem n faa unui paradox (aporie): culturile exist i
se dezvolt colabornd unele cu altele, dar pentru a exista i a se dezvolta au nevoie s dispun, ntr-o
oarecare msur, de o repliere identitar, pornind de la care s-i afirme singularitatea, unicitatea i
prin aceasta contribuia i valoarea universal. Este o provocare i o misiune nou a speciei umane,
care proiecteaz o metamorfoz a continei ntru educarea nou a genului uman. Viitorul const n
(re)fondarea unei contiine de moralitate public, bazat cum spunea C. Taylor nu pe o simpl
adiionare a diferenelor dar mai degrab pe o intercomprehensiune critic i respectuoas a diferenelor, care vor continua s se manifeste n spaii-timpuri asimetrice i asincrone.
Discontinuitatea i non-separabilitatea, natura complex i politropic a Realitii, propagarea
complementaritii i corelativitii n toate cmpurile epistemice impune tiinelor antropologice reconsiderarea culturii spre o perspectiv ontologic, bazat pe o paradigm interconexionist sincretic si integrativ pe interfaa dinamic Real-Raional-Relaional determinat i de factorii celor 3 axe
solidare: spaiu-timp-societate. Astfel, contiina unitii n diversitate devine indispensabil ntr-o
lume pe calea mondializrii totale, or epistema gndirii fragmentare, opozitive, duale, reducioniste, a
separrii i a disjunciei devine perimat i trebuie substituit prin cea sistemic, complex, deschis
i conjunctiv.
Propensiunea interconexionist profileaz revana culturii (Lipovetsky), o nou alian holografic ntre natur i cultur. n acest context dia-logos-ul culturilor trebuie s fie vzut nu n termeni de
identitate, diversitate, (in)diferen, dar n termeni de fecunditate colateral, situat la un nivel comun
de inteligibilitate, utiliznd culturile ca resurse de explorat n vederea redescoperirii naturii umane ca
analogon al Universului, profilnd-se indubitabil un nou modus vivendi.
63
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Chine ternelle
www2.cndp.fr/magphilo/.../dossierImp.htm
http://www.france2025.fr/xwiki/bin/view/France2025/ Penser la diversit culturelle au IIIme millnaire.
Philosophie et spiritualit.com Leon 20. Humanit et culture
Publicaii de autor la tem:
Pluralism lingvistic, comunicare intercultural i dezvoltare n condiiile globalizrii. in: Interconexiuni n contextul globalizrii. Iai: PanEurope, 2005, pp. 73-80 materialele conferinei tiinifice internaionale USM (Universitatea de Stat) , Chiinu, 20-21 noiembrie 2004.
Interconexiuni filosofice, civilizaionale i lingvistice n interpretarea valorilor axiologice. in: Interconexiuni metodologice, pragmatice i didactice n tiinele limbii. Conferin Internaional. Chiinu : IRIM, 18 aprilie 2008,
pp. 14-19.
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MIRABLE
66
ON CHINESE CULTURAL SPECIFIC PROPERTY FROM THE VIEW

OF AESTHETIC FORM
Jianjiang WANG
1. The diversity of Chinese culture from the view of aesthetic uniqueness.
Aesthetic forms such as comedy, tragedy, gracefulness, sublime are the features of aesthetic style
extracted from aesthetic activities.
Chinese aesthetic culture has formed its specific forms during a long period of development. In
the mostly used textbook, there are aesthetic forms such as Zhong-He (justice and harmony), Qi-Yun
(rhythmic vitality), Shen-Miao (miraculous style), Yin-Rou (introverted and amiable), the forms also
included Yang-Gang (virile), Yi-Jing (artistic conception), Chen-Yu (gloomy), Piao-Yi (elegant and
free), Kong-Ling (intangible emptiness) etc. Compared with aesthetic forms in the West, such as
comedy, tragedy, and absurdism, Chinese aesthetic forms are unique and diversified. From a broad
point of view, Chinese aesthetic, morphology contains what West aesthetic has, such as comedy,
gracefulness and comical. However, West aesthetic forms do not have what Chinese has such as
Yi-Jing, Zhong-He, Qi-Yun, Shen-Miao, Kong-Ling, Piao-Yi. Etc. Therefore, Chinese aesthetic morphology has a feature of uniqueness.
Zhong-He means to obey the natural discipline and to achieve emotional constraint. Zhong-He
gives great importance to harmony, discipline and mild emotion. As in opera, Zhong-He always results in a happy ending, which shows a lack of tragedy.
Qiyun means spirit, tone and atmosphere. We could see this kind of image of being aggressive in
the film Hero. Qiyun is a kind of aesthetic morphology which boosts vitality, vividness, energy etc.
Qiyun, the literal meaning in Chinese means mass and rhyme. In Chinese tradition, mass is essential
for all lives while the rhyme is the rhythm of the movements of lives. Qiyun is wildly employed in
Chinese poetry, dancing and painting and calligraphy.
Shen-miao is a aesthetic charm which lies beyond imagination. It has a connotation of being
metaphysical.
Yi-Jing expresses the unity of reality and imagination in a context of emotion and scenery. It has
an acceptance effect of limit words with endless meanings.
Piao-Yi is an idea extracted from Taoism. It is an aesthetic form of being free and light mindedness.
Therefore, the diversified Chinese culture could be reflected not only by its quantity but its uniqueness and profoundness.
2. The inclusiveness and creativity of Chinese aesthetic evolution
Chinese aesthetic morphology is not only diversified in culture, but has formed a mechanism that
absorbs the essence from other cultures while sticks to its original standard. Take Shen-Miao and
Piao-Yi as examples, the two forms firstly came into being in Pre-Qin period. After a serious collision
and communication with foreign cultures, they had been enriched and developed.
2.1 Shen-Miao
The boundless supernatural power of the Buddhism sculptures of Tang dynasty had been applied in the Central Plains Culture. The Guanyin Bodhisattva was a male figure while in Dunhuang
grottoes, it was a male face with female body, it was even developed into a full female figure later
in a Chinese way. In Song dynasty, Shen-Miao was defined as the standard of Chinese calligraphy
evaluation. In modern China, Shen-Miao also stands for the great territory and high technology. The
development of Chinese culture has a important character, i.e. to absorb from inclusiveness, and to
create from incorporation.
67
2.2 Piao-Yi
As in the film of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, the Chinese martial art had delivered the aesthetic form of Piao-Yi to the audience. The story in Dunhuang grottoes came from ancient India. But
different from the Divines in ancient India, Greek and Egypt, the figures in Dunhuang Grottoes had
no wings with them. The elegant and free style had shown that Chinese culture has a great creativity
and assimilation. The grace of the figures in Dunhuang grottoes is just a case of incorporation and
creativity of Chinese culture.
3. The stability of Chinese culture - from the view of the continuity of aesthetic morphology
3.1 Zhong-He
Zhong-He can be found both in the design of household or visual environment. It was also applied
in the opening ceremony of 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. Although the modern aesthetic morphology turns to be diversified, it still keeps the idea of being harmonious and neutralized. This is also the
collective value of Chinese public.
3.2 Qi-Yun
Qi-Yun is widly used in modern dancing, calligraphy, and film, such as sword dancing in the film
of Hero. Qi-Yun means rhythnmic vitality, which is a basic method in Chinese calligraphy. It is also
a request to obtain Qin-Yun when evaluating Chinese calligraphy. Even in the process of poem and
novel composition, the spirit-resonance, liveliness and tone are appreciated.
3.3 Shen-Miao.
Shen-Miao is a widly used aesthetic form which the taste of calligraphy, Chinese Kungfu, artistic
charm, technology and national status can modify. Shen-Miao expressed an extraordinary imagination beyond normal life, which is quite different from MIRABLE in Christianity.
3.4 Yi-Jing
Yi-Jing can be found not only in poem, drawing, garden design, but in the large square design and
opera background, such as ceremony of Olympic Games and grand music operas. The modern use of
technology of luminance and audio effects combines the reality with imagination, which delivers a
feeling of limit words with endless meanings to the audience.
3.5 Piao-yi
As a style of feature, Piao-Yi is widely applied in Chinese Kungfu films as well as in Dunhuang
grottoes. In the film of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, the dancing on the bamboos, extracted from
the figures in Dunhuang Grottoes, is representative of leisure, elegance, and freedom.
The reappearance of Chinese ancient aesthetic forms for modern need illustrates that the Chinese
aesthetic morphology has a feature of stability; this is the main factor that Chinese culture to stay as
a stable stream in the world culture.
In a word, in the context of aesthetic morphology, Chinese culture has formed as independent and
stable. Meanwhile, it is still a culture with diversity, stability, inclusiveness, creativity and transcendence, thus a stable and diversified feature of Chinese culture was formed. Chinese culture is one that
can absorb the essence of all great cultures and always shows its inclusiveness to the world.
68
STUDII COMPARATIVE TRADUCERE

I TERMINOLOGIE
70
CHINESE REFLEXION ON ROMANIAN CULTURE

Maria ALEXE
UNArte/UTCB-Bucharest
Since the end of the Middle Ages, China has been a fascinating place for the Romanian scholars and writers. The
change due to globalization has not damaged the mysterious aura of Far East culture, the strange feeling generated
even for postmodern literature. This paper aims to present the way in which the Chinese culture is reflected in some
of the Romanian writers' works. First it analyses some of the travel notes written by writers who had the privilege
to visit China and then it goes through some aspects mirroring the influence of the Chinese culture. In an epoch
where the boundaries are disappearing China is still a mystery.
Key-words: Orient, Far-East culture, fascination, boundaries, contrast, globalization.
nc de la sfritul evului mediu, China a reprezentat un spaiu fascinant pentru savanii i scriitorii romni. Schimbrile datorate globalizrii nu au distrus aura romantic a acestei culturi din Rsritul ndeprtat, sentimentele
stranii pe care le provoac chiar i scriitorilor postmoderni. Scopul acestei lucrri este s prezinte modul n care
influena culturii chineze se reflect n operele unor scriitori romni. La nceput sunt analizate notele de cltorie ale
unor scriitori care au avut privilegiul de a vizita China pentru ca apoi s fie prezentate aspecte ce oglindesc influena
culturii chineze. ntr-o epoca n care graniele dispar, China reprezint nc un mister.
Cuvinte-cheie: orient, cultura estului ndeprtat, fascinaie, granie, contrast, globalizare.
1. Introduction
In the Middle Age the known world was smaller than it is today, China, India or Japan were so
far away that they seemed unreal lands of fantasy, hosting fantastic animals and unbelievable treasures. Their names were mentioned in the fairytales collection like Halima, as faraway lands wrapped
in mysterious aura. At the time countries like Turkey or even Persia, had an image designed by the
flavour of spices and by legends told by sailors. The more mysterious they were, the stronger the attraction for adventurous travellers, for those people who dreamed to become rich and famous after
such a trip. Marco Polo is the first and still the most famous traveller who went to China in order to
find new business opportunities; he was followed by many other courageous people. Among them
Nicolae Milescu, a Moldavian scholar, massager of the Russian Tsar, he deserves special attention
because he was not just a sailor or an adventurous merchant, he was a scholar. Therefore his impressions about China are the result of his keen observations, interpreted according to his previous cultural background.
At the same time when Marco Polo was travelling to China, the Romanian Principates, as well
as other contemporary Balkan countries were considered to be part of the Orient and real oriental
countries like China as fantastic/magic lands. Only in the late 17th century a Balkan scholar, Nicolae
Milescu Spatarul managed to travel to China and to be in real contact with the Chinese civilization.
His fantastic journey cannot be considered as a starting point of the Chinese influence, because just a
few Romanian scholars have been aware of the richness of the Chinese culture. It cannot be question
of a constant and deep influence or cultural exchanges between the two cultures. A few symbolic aspects were transferred into the Romanian literature and were used as metaphorical images to express
various social and cultural aspects. For this paper George Calinescus play Sun and Eugen Barbus
Journal were selected to illustrate together with Milescus book the way in which China was mirrored
in the Romanian literature.
Postmodern society with its unbelievable means of communication has narrowed the distances, so
now China can be reached in a day long journey, but the mystery has not vanished and the Chinese
civilization is fascinating for European citizens. In the 70, when Eugen Barbu visited it, China was
still a mysterious country and sometimes an impenetrable civilization, not only due to the oppres-
71
sive political regime but because of its civilization and symbols. The writer is no more a diplomat in
searching of new alliances or expressive metaphors; he is a tourist, the representative of a different
society where entertainment has become an industry and searching for new lands a vital task.
2. Working Hypothesis
The starting point of the research which is quantified in this article is the work of Nicolae Milescu,
a manuscript from the end of the 17th century. Written in Greek, it was translated into Romanian in
the 19th century. So the first question, does actually a working hypothesis refer to the influence of
his accurate description upon the Romanian literature? According to literature of the domain even if
Milescus work, a manuscript of almost two hundred became famous among scholars, had a relatively
large circulation in different countries, so it was not completely unknown before it was published in
1888. Which was its real influence? This aspect will be analysed along this paper.
A second work hypothesis refers to the way in which the Romanian writers rediscover China as a
source of metaphorical representation in the 20th. century. As an outstanding example George Calinescus play was chosen to illustrate the way in which China and its image were perceived in a delicate period as the Second World War. The analysis will refer to some specific symbols of the Chinese
Culture transferred into the Romanian literature. The period in which Calinescus play was written
corresponds to the time when such terms as Orient, Balkan, South-East Europe/European, Far East
and Far West, colonial/native culture started to be quantified and large debates contributed more or
less to their clarification. The way in which China was looked determined the attitude concerning the
Chinese symbols and their metaphorical value. Modernism contributed to decode the less known cultures is Asian or African and introduced them into the large framework of the world culture. In Paris
or in London exhibitions displayed artifacts that were perceived as great cultural revelations, which
might be considered as a positive and introduced non-European art into the world circuit
As for the last artistic representation selected for a case study concerning the way in which the
Chinese culture is valued in Romania, Eugen Barbus Journal mirrors a completely different attitude
facing unknown cultures. The Journal is the work of a writer and a tourist with a certain cultural
background, who compares and analyses. The work hypothesis refers to the way in which Chinas
fantastic and mysterious image is reflected by a modern writer sensibility. The first postmodern influences started to be noticed in the Romanian literature, meaning that the attitude versus cultural patterns, boundaries and classification was different, even compared to that in Calinescus time.
3. Nicolae Milescu - a Humanist Searching for New Cultural Spaces
Although a remarkable scholar, Milescus activity needs to be remembered before analysing the
way in which he presented China. He had an adventurous life, but mostly his work and cultural
background will be remembered. Born in 1636 in a small village near Vaslui, Nicolae Milescu is a
representative of the Romanian Humanism. In the Catalogue edited on the occasion of the Exhibition
organized in 2009, Mircea Malita wrote He is one of the most vivid, mobile, multilateral and picturesque characters of his time, an illustration of the Romanian aristocracy of the 18th best qualities,
stylish, cultivated, searching for Knowledge He studied at Constantinople/Istanbul in an ecclesiastic
school cultivating Latin traditions of the Byzantine Empire. Since his young age he was famous for
the large number of languages he knew. Besides Greek, the language in which he wrote most of his
original works, he knew Latin, Russian, and Turkish. Later he learned Persian and Chinese. It was
because of his language knowledge that Milescu received the mission to China.
His work consisted in difficult, yet remarkable translations of different religious texts, hagiographical legends, fragments of the Holly Bible. As a translator he worked with other scholars to accomplish
the translation, known as Biblia de la Bucuresti (Biblia lui erban Cantacuzino) considered being a
72
landmark of the Romanian culture. His work recommended him as a translator for the tsar when due
to his conflicts with the Moldavian kings Milescu had to settle in Russia. Another important field of
the Moldavian scholars activity consisted in medieval hermeneutics, a testimony of Nicolae Milescus extraordinary cultural background, especially if one is evaluating him in the frame of his epoch.
Milescus political activity was that of a diplomat who travelled westward and eastward from
Berlin and Paris to Stockholm, or to Istanbul and Moscow. In 1675 he received a diplomatic mission
from the tsar and went to China as a Russian ambassador. His mission ended in 1678.When he returned to Moscow he wrote a report to the tsar and a beautiful description, the first travel journal in the
Romanian literature. The work gained an international reputation by J.F. Bradleys English version,
published in London in 1719. This is the first work dedicated to China in the Romanian and Russian
culture and one of the most accurate of his epoch. Milescu wrote three books: the first one A Travel
from Tobolsk to Nercinski Fort, the second one The Report for the Russian Tsar and the last one, the
most valuable one The Description of China, in which a large part is dedicated to the description of
the Amur river. The book offers a lot of data about the Chinese geography, fauna and flora, legends
and traditions. He designed a detailed map of his travel that underlines the scientific value of his work.
Meant to be a report, the journal has a literary value because the writer communicates his own observations as well as many data from official documents. If Report for the Russian Tsar was written
according to the pattern of the Russian official rules (Dumbrava, 2007) the description is written more
literary. Milescu describes different regions, tries to characterize the people and the Chinese artifacts
(Chapter II The Chinese Character, How They Look Like, Which Are Their Traditions and Their
Talents). One of the most interesting passages is about the Chinese people. Strong qualities such as:
healthy, wise, economical, handy, polite and inventive are mentioned with admiration. Impressed by
the Chinese legends he retells some of them. The work is attractive and interesting because operates
with elements of space morphology and ethnology. As for its influence upon the Romanian literature
it is hard to quantify it. The fantastic journey contributed to design a legendary aura of Milescu and
acted as a call for adventures for other scholars, but the Chinese civilization remained an unknown
subject.
4. George Clinescu a Metaphorical Vision
During the Second World War, George Clinescu, felt that he has to express his attitude against
war, oppression and lack of hope. He wrote a play setting the action in China. The title of the play
refers to the main hero un, the image of the ideal ruler. The subtitle Mongol Myth is a fake, the
writer himself underlined that he was inspired by the Chinese literature The idea came into my mind
when I was reading about China[] China was at the time invaded as well(G. Clinescu). In the 80
the play was adapted for radio transmission, the musical support underlining the Chinese atmosphere.
As the result of a meditation concerning the human faith, un was inspired by old Chinese legends,
according to the author. Written in 1943 and published with great efforts due to the war atmosphere
the play was not a complete success even if some important literary critics welcomed it One of the
qualities of this book is the fact that it is completely different, compared to any other book written in
our literature wrote Tudor Vianu. The Chinese civilization was an unknown issue for a large part of
the Romanian people, a fact that contributed to the hard understanding of its metaphorical message.
The plot of the play is quite simple, following the simple line of oriental legends. un is the son-in
law of the old Emperor, who marries the emperors daughter and becomes emperor himself. He helps
his people, building everything that was missing. He sacrifices himself for the people and fights with
his opponents, following his way, no matter how, leading his people to freedom. The action takes
place in five mythical locations: the entrance of the royal palace, a market, a room in uns palace,
his private apartment and finally the Ancestors Chamber As the second subtitle underlines, he follows
his undisturbed path. A character built in a ceremonial and hieratic way, according to the stereotypic
73
image of the Chinese imperial life, un embodies the writers conception and the Chinese symbols.
It is an image in which the writer metaphorically interpreted the Romanian reality of a controversial
epoch. Setting the action in a far away country gives to the whole action an abstract and symbolical
value. It also mirrors Chinas image as it was imagined by the Romanians.
When the action starts un is one of the emperors five advisors, a poet, a very gifted one as he is
a musician, a philosopher, a farmer and a pottery maker, having five positive energies. His wisdom
and talents elect him as the emperor successor even if he is not a member of the royal family. This is
a wise decision but it is the starting point of the dramatic conflict. un has to fight with nature as well
as with the aristocrats who turn against him. The stage scenery suggests, according to the writers
indications the richness and the symbols of ancient Chinese architecture. uns novels, attracted Calinescus interest for architecture and a rich knowledge of the Chinese architecture.
Living in ancient China, in 2250 BC, un, the generous leader of his people, as Clinescu mentions, lives in a mythical time. Nevertheless he has much in common with another literary character
designed by George Clinescu to represent his esthetics ideals: the architect Ioanide, the embodiment of pure creative forces. Like Ioanide, un is a man who knows what he has to do and cannot
be stopped by accidents belonging to everyday life. (tefnescu 61). Despite those similarities with
other characters created by the writer, un suggests the atmosphere of ancient China and operates
with the Chinese symbols as, for example, the mythical number five. Obviously the writer has a deep
knowledge about China.
George Calinescus play was considered from his first printed version a fantasy of a picturesque
personality, exotic may be, but not a very valuable piece of writing. Being his only dramatic work
all his biographers mention it, it is not deeply analysed, therefore one may consider that its contribution to real understanding of the Chinese culture is not important. This is a superficial interpretation.
The play minuses concern for some aspects of its plot construction, but the Chinese symbols and the
magic atmosphere are recommending the play to the contemporary readers. un is an open window
to a rich civilization.
5. Eugen Barbu a Traveler to Modern China
In 1969, Eugen Barbu defined tourism as a phenomenon which characterizes the prototype of the
20th century restless people, a different way to perceive space and culture In 1970, a tourist himself,
the writer went to China to get a better image of Chinas culture. It was the time when writers all over
the world started to travel, to build all kinds of cultural relationships in order to know each other better. At the end of a very strict period of reclusion the Romanian writers tried to recuperate. In Romania the seventh decade of the last century was characterised by a relative opening, poetically named
by Alex tefnescu Bucharest Spring In the Romanian literature evolution was mirrored by the desire
of writers to search in order to renew their creation, one of them being the writers search for new
horizons and an open attitude versus other cultures.
At the time the romantic image of the Chinese culture was set in the back ground by the dark characteristics of an oppressive political regime. The stereotypical image meant uniforms, Chinese Army,
tea, endless spaces and mainly the Cultural Revolution. At the end of the Middle Age, for almost three
centuries much of a writers imagination was fed by all kinds of hagiographical legends that used to
circulate in manuscript copies and orally, the so-called Popular Books, mixing religious and anecdotic aspects. [Manolescu, 1990, 84]. When Eugen Barbu went to China, the country and the culture
image although quite stereotypical was built through all kinds of media sources (documentaries, television, magazines, translated literary and scientific books). The problem was that due to the fact that
both countries were under strict communist regime the information was filtered.
Many literary critics analyzing Eugen Barbus literature consider that his work shows that he, as a
former reporter, was always searching for reality, for significant details and facts with special mean-
74
ings. Back in 1970, the writer was aware of the importance of all kind of fact which, at least in Romania, were not considered to be part of culture. This attitude is obvious in his Chinese Journal and one
may consider that it is echoing the Chinese search for the perfect shape, at the same time mirroring
the authors will to look behind the open doors.
When he arrived to China, little fit the previous stereotypical image, habits, traditions, culture everything seemed different, starting with a meal in a restaurant and ending with the impressive Great
Wall of China. The book is a collection of memorable scenes describing an exquisite meal in a fancy
restaurant, a meeting with the Chinese writers, impressive architectural monuments and the richness
and sensibility of the Chinese literature. The book is a proof of Barbus talent as an observer and as
a reporter (Popa 271) and its charm is due to the way in which the writer was able to create a unitary
image by putting together various aspects of the Chinese life. Influenced by the new coming postmodernism he selects details and re-compounds a world for his readers, offering at the same time an
objective image and a subjective one by expressing his own feelings of astonishment and delight. As
much as he knew about this culture before arriving to China it was but a little part compared to the
overwhelming reality. Killing a monkey for dinner seemed barbarian but then another scene points
the delicacy of the Chinese artifacts. Large mass demonstrations versus delicate drawings and gracious porcelain, richness of the old imperial palaces versus population poorness, the miracle of old
Chinese medicine versus propaganda of the communist regime, contrasts that all together constitute
the image of a very complex culture.
The Journal in China is not one of the most outstanding of Eugen Barbus literary work, but it
is representative for his attitude, as well as for the 70 way of thinking when confronted with a new
civilization. The writers pleasure for discovering new horizons is obvious, no matter if he likes or
dislikes the scenes he presents to his readers. At the same time it should be underlined that this book
has more readers than those of his predecessors and as a consequence his contribution in reflecting
the Chinese culture in Romania is greater.
6. Conclusions
Analysing the work of these three remarkable writers, representatives of different epochs in the
Romanian literature one can draw a quite clear image of how China was seen by the Romanian writers. The three analysed case studies can be considered as the path stretching from the Middle age to
contemporary times, a leading line which may be enlarged by further research. It does not mean that
only those are the reflections of the Chinese culture on the Romanian literature, yet some conclusions
can be formulated:
Despite the facilities offered by the advanced means of communication China is still superficially acting as a barrier.
The mysterious aura of the Chinese culture still exists and attracts artists, writers and common people.
Great progress of communication means led to a greater accessibility and a better knowledge
of different cultures. The Chinese culture is now better known in Romania than it was in Milescus
time, yet some of its real values are hidden under a stereotypical image.
In the late 20th century Chinas development was considered to be a miracle from the technological
and economical point of view. This miracle was possible due to the old and rich cultural background,
a culture which was impossible to kill during the Cultural Revolution, a culture which has so much to
offer. Serene and constantly in search of perfection the Chinese Culture has become a powerful and
distinctive voice in the age of global culture, gaining a well deserved prestige.
75
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Cartojan, Nicolae. Istoria literaturii romne vechi. Bucureti: Editura Minerva,1980.
Dumbrav, Daniela. Nicolae Milescu nu a plagiat. Romania literar 41 (2007).
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* * * Istoria literaturii romne, vol I. Bucureti: Editura Academiei R.P.R, 1964.
76
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88
, . . 11 (1904).
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, . . . Stratum Plus (2011).
, . . : . Stratum plus 6 (2001-2002).
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(2004).
, . . 10 (1904).
Ames R. and H. Rosemont. The Analects of Confucius: a Philosophical Translation. New York:Ballatine, 1998.
Epstein I. My China Eye: Memories of a Jew and a Journalist. San Francisco, 2005.
Fung, Yu-lan. Selected Philosophical Writing. Beijing: Foregn Language Press, 1998.
Laozi. Library of Chinese Classics. Beijing: Peking University Press, 1999.
Scollom R. and S. W. Scollom. Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approch. Foreign Language Teaching
and Research Press, Blackwell Publishers Ltd (1995).
Shpiro, S. Jews in Old China. New York: Hippocrene Book, 1984.
Stockwell, F. Religion in China Today. Historical Notes on the Jews (1996).
Sunzi. The Art of War. In: Sun Bin: The Art of War. Beijing: Library of Chinese Classics, 1999.
Swartz M. J. and D. K. Jordan. Culture: The Anthropological Perspective. New York: John Wiley&Sons, 1980.
The Analects of Confucius. Library of Chinese Classics. Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1999.
The Wiles of War: 36 Military Strategies from Ancient China. Beijing.
Whorf, B. Language, Thought and Reality. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1956.
Zhang, Dainian. Key Concepts in Chinese Philosophy. Beijing: Yale University & Foreign Languages Press, 2002.
89
The most spread editions of ConfuciusS Analects translated into

English AND OTHER LANGUAGES
Zinaida CAMENEV
The article is dedicated to the reproduction of Florentina Visans Translation of The Note over the Edition and
Translation of Confuciuss Work The Analects into English.
Lun Yu (The Analects) are the model of manifesting the force which exists in speech, a technique yang sheng to
keep the vital force of the discourse, of its Virtue (DE), a magic force which can be released with similar intensity
and very simply. The reader must accept the correct position, i.e. let himself be attracted into the part of the text
and become its centre. The Analect is the most translated Chinese book after Dao De Jing written by Lao Zi.
We analyze two words which reproduce Confuciuss system of thought (the Dao triad which is the pattern of human life, Li as the rite of a projection model in the act of this pattern and Ren as the special attitudinal modality with
their different equivalents). These are terms with the biggest frequency and with a difficult meaning for translation.
We also mentioned the tradition of the old aristocracy in giving names with a binary composition as well as the
manner of addressing by using Zi either as a prefix or as a suffix giving to the family name different meanings.
Key-words: ancient Chinese language, interpretation, modern sinologists, the equivalents of the words Li, Ren,
master, disciples.
Articolul este dedicat traducerii lucrrii lui Kong Fu Zi (in latin numit Confucius, care a trit n anii 551-479
AD) Analecte. Lun yu (Analecte) este cea mai tradus carte scris n chineza veche dup cartea Dao De jing scris
de Lao Zi. Analecte a fost tradus n multe limbi, cele mai importante fiind engleza, franceza, spaniola, germana,
romna.
Din traducerile crii concluzionm c gndirea lui Confucius a fost organizat n form de model filozofic de
ptrundere a cititorului n solidaritatea ritual a terminologiei lui Confucius, c Confucius a fost un innovator care a
dat un sens nou cuvintelor vechi n limba chinez. Ne-am axat pe sensul cuvintelor Li i Ren i de asemenea metaforelor cuvintelor anger i love, care au fost comparate n limbile chinez i englez ca avnd multe asemnri
n comun fiind bazate pe emoii, dar care au diferite traduceri la diferii traductori.
Cuvinte-cheie: limba chinez veche, interpretare, sinologi moderni, echivalentele cuvintelor Li, Ren, maestru,
discipoli.
Lun Yu (Analects) is the most translated Chinese book after Dao De Jing written by Lao Zi. It
benefits in Europe by excellent versions due to great founders of the translation tradition from Chinese (S. Couvreur, 1855; J. Legge, 1861; A. Waley, 1928; R. Wilhelm, 1941; A.Castellani, 1949) as
well as modern Chinese who are registered in this tradition and continued further (D. Leslie, 1962;
D.C.Lau, 1979; A.Cheng, 1981; P.Ryckmans, 1987). The authors name has the same Latinized form
in all the languages Confucius but the title of the book knows diverse equivalents such as: Entretiens, Analects, Gesprche, Dialogues, Sayings.
At present, every Confuciuss translator must know the tradition of translating the Analects not as
a professional obligation of the erudite translator as an indispensable apprenticeship in the period of
affinity ( maximum familiarization with the text and its analysis) but also as a moral obligation before the project of sinology: bringing to life the translation connecting it to the spirit of time by its
own options in the work of idea interpretation and the orientation readings and the original solutions
of remaking the text in its concreteness as literature.
The present translation, the first into Romanian realized directly after an original text in old Chinese used the text in Lun Yu version like the texts of Yang Bojun (1958) and Qian Mu (1963). Florentina Vian wrote that she used the interpretation trend of the old variant (the term Yi with the meaning
from Yi jing mutation, change).
In her translations she appealed to A.Waley and D.C.Lau who proposed the variants which were
considered the most authorized among the modern sinologs.
In order to interpret the difficult passages the author addressed and consulted other translations,
90
those of D.Leslie, A.Cheng or P.Ryckmans and proposed new solutions (from the literary interpretation, from etymology to philosophic evaluation) which subdued to the unity principle and the cohesion of the text of the Analects which was considered to be integral: an organization of Confuciuss
thought into a model.
Through a short commentary the author tried to orientate the reading according to a personal project by means of which she proposed a Confucius-philosopher with a system of thinking in the reflecting of which to imply the reader himself, this being a very ambitious project because it proposed to
respect the fundamental demand of the text as the prime element, to recover its original beauty, its
ritual effect.
All the exigencies that take part and to which the translator is subject to are reflected over the
reader who is asked to obey, to have a rhythmic resonance, a ritual implication, a textual sensitivity
(adequacy and a ritual solidarity in terms of Confucius). Only in such a way it is possible to penetrate
in the spirit and to taste the letter of the Analects.
The philological notes combined with the commentary annexed in the way of the Chinese tradition
immediately after every passage are also subject to the wish to signal to the reader (who is confused
by a linguistic zone farther from the familiar Indo-European space), under the deceiving appearance
of simplicity the possibility of reconstitution in flux of the significances permitted by the morphology of the Chinese very fluid language (the phenomenon of conversion and of the mobile usage of
words). A wish which cannot be fulfilled by the text itself because of the fact that the translator cant
relate with everything he has at his disposal the bulkiness of the meaning, the evocation power of
the word (pronounced) from the old language, the impossibility of the translator to remake the ambiguities, phonetic games, the analogy of the text. The text is written in a language with lexical choices
grammatically and stylistically marked of the elite scholars, a language of certain academic form that
encouraged some technical neologisms at the level of emblematic terms. Exercising on the basis of
preclassic Chinese texts (gian Qin) makes us think that although being the beginner of the company
of correcting of names Confucius himself used many of the old words with new senses and for his
epoch he was an innovator at the level of the language. The text of Analects appears to be marked by
the tension of its oral form (as an enunciation text as a strategy of discourse) and scientific pedantry
of the diplomatic language with erudite and cited allusion from the simple style and sometimes the
artificial way of expression. The author tried to implant the esthetic zone of Confucius, his mode of
natural philosophing, to save his monumental concision, laconic form favoured by the classic Chinese language and to appeal to the aphoristic formulation. Not only what is said by the Master but
also everything that the Analects include most sound notable, memorable, must have the prestige of
saying already uttered as well as the vocation to be transferred in a future quotation.
The greatest trial for the translator was the choice of the equivalents for the emblematic terms in
order for them to have the power of conceptualization and image. Sometimes it was difficult to find
unique terms for a Chinese concept (especially in the chapter with definitions) and then the term was
given in phonetic translation and it was explained in a note being given the graphical structure and
the etymologic indication, so to say, many variants were used. For example, for Li the most comprehensive metaphor of the cultural mans existence, Daos human fulfillment, is the essential term that
appears 71 times in The Analects the author gave or used in principle for the equivalents Rite, Ritualising but she also used the heteronyms Norm, Rule, Law when the sense coincided with
the supreme standard for justifying the political, social, individual values or Ceremony when the
sense used was strictly specialized by officers. The Chinese translators registered this impossibility of
giving equivalents in other languages. Thus, Lin Yutang (13) expresses his opinion that the term Li
cant be related through an English word and that in a constrained sense it means ritual, property, but in the general sense it means simply good manner, in its high philosophic sense it means
the ideal of the social order by which everybody must be in his/her place especially in the feudal rationalized order which was destroyed before Confucius. J. Legge translated the term Li by: rules
91
of Property, what is proper, regulations, ceremonies, rituals, the English translators as we

already mentioned translate it as good manners, the rules of proper conduct, rites A.Fingarette
or being comprehensively paraphrased as the laws of usages of social life. P. Ryckmans (1987)
who, in his turn, notes that in the case of the term Li it means the whole ensamble of civilization
habits, but in the technical sense of mass, it is an operational and effective form having a function of
learning and control, he uses the variants as rituel rites, pratique des rites. In Chinese anger
is seen as fire or hot liquid in a container but in English it is as heated air in a container. Chinese also
locates the spleen in many expressions of hot spleen air. Both languages have metaphors in which
anger is a dangerous animal, with which we struggle, but the personification of anger in Chinese is
much more common and the person is expected to struggle valiantly to control anger. In Chinese, an
angry person is very dangerous and should not be touched or provoked. Here we come across cultural
differences: in Chinese it is air that heats, the person must fight fiercely to control the emotion, and,
if that fails, the angry person is seen as a very dangerous indeed.
The metaphors of love as an emotion are also very similar in these two languages but there is the
dimension of yuan (destiny) which differs from the English notion of bond. Shyu suggests that, despite differences in detail, one would expect strong similarities since so many of the metaphors are
related to the physiological effects of the emotions.
The other term on the basis of which Confuciuss system of thought was constituted (in the Dao
triad the pattern of the human life, Li the rite as a projection model in the act of this pattern
and Ren as the specific attitudinal modality), Ren with 108 occurrences in the Analects mostly
frequent with the sense of the ideal of the human personality was translated as the supreme virtue
of the humaneness, Humaneness, Supreme Human Behaviour, Supreme Humaneness. This
term appears with many equivalents in the English language: perfect virtue, virtualis goodness,
benevolence, love, principle (J. Legge), shamaneness (H. Fingarette), true manhood (Lin
Yutang), the moral sense (Shu Shanmian) and in French: Lhumanite, le bien, la bonte, la
bienveillance, la vertu. While commenting the term Ren, Cheng Jingpan (238) criticized the arbitrary character of different equivalents and attracted the attention over the term disintegration,
over losing its force by this dispersion and by the division of the sense values. He pleads for love
but notices that this love refers to the family domain, to the natural affection, to the social or ethic
domain, as well as to the religious love (storge, philia, philanthropia, agape).
It is impossible to cover the term Ren in a single word or syntagm because Confucius himself
doesnt manage to fix one definition only, but he presents it as a poetic place, an absolute indecision
of a nice beauty which represents a heroic and total exigency for the man, a force that informs everything and which is not possessed by anybody truly being manifested only by partial effects.
All these terms difficult to be overtaken in their rich intensity were explained in notes where the
modification of the sense was signaled thus that some of them appear being discussed and (re)defined,
their vertical fate being watched. The progress of reading as it is demanded by the text itself is equal
to the more correct and adequate progress of cognition.
Another zone of translation difficulty is constituted by the equivalence of the terms referring to
the administrative units, high offices and dignities, ritual techniques so-to-say those exogists that
request translators civilizational competence. The author didnt overbid this exotic aspect but
made her option for simple and economic solutions. Otherwise, even the weight of these realia is
not exaggerated they are in a moderate dose and were mentioned in this register so as to give the colour and reconstitute the atmosphere (the most representative in this case is chapter 10).
The Analects represent a dictionary of names giving the names of different personages: noble men,
disciples, hermits, historical personalities, among whom Confuciuss disciples appear, the principal
dialog partners; the names, the rituals of addressing and references being very impressive. According
to the information from the books Meng zi, Shi ji, Jia yu the number of Confucius disciples is 70 not
3000 (A.Maspero, 1978; A. Waley, 1939). But in the Analects the number of those the Master ad-
92
dresses and refers to is 30, a modest number, but also a big number, bigger enough to make problems
to the translator because these names appear in different variants specifically to the practice of naming
from old China.
According to the tradition of the old aristocracy organized in paternal clans, the Chinese names
had a binary composition: the first represented the clan (xing) and the second represented the house
(shi). In Confuciuss time the naming became more complex. Besides the surname (the old clan name
with or without the name of the house) and the personal name (ming) they used also a courtesy name
(zi) or a cognomen (this name is taken at the end of adolescence, at the age of 20, being defined also
as a social name). Being considered to have a magic value, the personal name cannot be used but
only by the bearers name or by his father, sovereign or his Master. The addressing is made either by
the surname together with the courtesy name, either by both the surname and the personal name or
the surname and the courtesy name. The suffix zi that appears after the surname has the meaning of
Master or Wise men. As a prefix it has the value of Honorable, His Majesty and is attributed
to those of noble origin or to those who became people of elite by virtue. Confuciuss disciples are
very often called by their courtesy name with the prefix zi. For example, the preferred disciple Yan
Hui (surname + personal name) is called Li Yuan (the courtesy prefix + the courtesy name); Zhong Yu
is called Li Lu, Yan Qui is called Li Yan. Confucius used many ways of addressing (only the personal
name admitted for the Master), he used the whole official name when he referred to. Many times the
mentioning of the disciples name is purely functional.
The text of the Analects translated into Romanian by Florentina Vian was segmented according
to the old classic tradition into 20 chapters, every chapter into paragraphs fixed according to the commentators from the dynasty Han. The selective bibliography contains only the works and translations
referring to Confucius and Confucianism.
Bibliography
Castellani, A. Dialoghi di Confucius. Firenze: Ed Sansoni, 1949.
Chen, J. Confucius as the Teacher. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1990.
Chong, Y. On Timelines in the Analects and the I Ching. Proceedings of the International Conference. Taiwan :
Academia Sinica, 1981.
------------. Confucius, Analecte. Trad. de Florentina Vian. Bucureti: Humanitas, 1996.
Couvreur, S. Les Quatre Livres : Entretiens de Confucius. Paris: Les Belles- Lettres, 1950.
Fingarette, H. Confucius the Secular as Sacred. New York: Harper Torch Books, 1972.
Lau, D.C. Confucius. The Analects. Londra: Penguin Books, 1979.
Legge, J.The Chinese Classics, vol. 1. Hong Kong. 1961, 1966, Li Ki or Collection of Treaties on the Role of
Propriety of Ceremonial Usages, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
Leslie, D. Confucius. Paris : Ed. Seghers, 1970.
Lin, Y. My Country and My People. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1935.
Maspero, H. China in Antiquity. Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 1978.
Qian, Mu. Lun yu xin jie, 2 vol. Hong Kong: New Asia Research Institute, 1963.
Ryckmans, P. Les Entretiens de Confucius. Connaissance de lOrient. Paris: Gallimard, 1987.
Waley, A. The Analects of Confucius. Londra: Allen and Unwin, 1938.
Wilhelm, R. Confucius and Confucianism. Londra, 1941, Kungfutze: Gesprache, Yena. 1931
Yang, Bojun. Lun yu yi zhu. Beijing: Xinhua, 1958.
93
THE CONCEPT OF AESTHETIC SENSE AS A TOOL OF COMPARATIVE RESEARCH:

CASE STUDY OF PU SONGLINGS AND M. BULGAKOVS TEXTS
Jozefina CUNIR
Acadeof Sciences of Moldova
The category of aesthetic sense is an efficient tool for the comparative research. Thus, both for Pu Songlings
stories and for M. Bulgakovs novel The Master and Margarita aesthetic sense is the worlds interweaving, but its
essence is different for these two authors literary universes. In Pu Songlings stories it reveals itself as intercommunity of human and supernatural beings worlds, where both of them are interested in contacts, often helping each
other intellectually, spiritually or physically; there are some elements in these stories plots that can be described,
following T. Mann, as humanization of the myth. For instance, a student teaches some spirits literacy, and they
prepare food for him. Human and supernatural beings can solicit the authorities to protect each other, release each
other from prison, get married to each other, and even help their companions to incarnate. (However, they can play
mean tricks on each other, too). Ethical principle their Universe is subjected to is actually a cosmic sympathy. In
Bulgakovs novel the worlds interweaving is some subordination, hierarchy. Yeshuas and Wolands world represents a sort of authority the human world succumbs to. The ethical principle of this Universe is perhaps the
principle of justice, understood not too ethically: the Master hasnt deserved the light, but quietude he has deserved; Wolands numerous victims are so ignoble that they deserve their fate. But in this world there is a powerful, unstoppable intention to create and love there are the Master and Margarita an intention half martyred,
devoured, but suddenly receiving help from above; achieving some degree of myths humanization the author has
enough strength for it is exactly what that hierarchy is needed for.
Key-words: humanization of the myth, concept of aesthetic sense, mimesis, catharsis, apokatastasis, literary
universe, comparative research.
Categoria de sens estetic este un instrument eficient pentru cercetarea comparativ. Astfel, att pentru povetile
lui Pu Songling, ct i pentru romanul lui M. Bulgakov Maestrul i Margareta sensul estetic este mpletirea lumilor, dar esena ei n universurile literare ale acestor doi autori este diferit. La Pu Songling ea se reveleaz ca
comunitatea lumii fiinelor umane i a celor supranaturale, n care caz ambele sunt interesate n contacte, deseori
ajutndu-se reciproc n mod intelectual, spiritual sau fizic. n subiect sunt de fa nite elemente pe care le putem
caracteriza, n urma lui T. Mann, ca umanizarea mitului. De exemplu, un student i nva carte penite spirii
analfabei, iar ei i pregtesc mncare. Fiinele umane i cele supranaturale pot solicita unele pentru altele fa de
autoriti, s se elibereze reciproc din nchisoare, s se cstoreasc i chiar s-i ajute prietenilor a se ncarna. (Cu
toate acestea, ele pot urzi i nite ticloii unii fa de alii). Principiul etic crui i se supune Universul lor este, de
fapt, simpatia cosmic. n romanul lui Bulgakov mpletirea lumilor este o subordonare, o ierarhie. Lumea lui Yeshua i a lui Woland reprezint o putere fa de lumea omeneasc. Principiul etic al acestui univers este, probabil,
principiul dreptii, neles nu prea etic: Maestrul nu a meritat lumina, dar linitea a meritat-o; numeroasele
victime ale lui Woland sunt att de josnice, c merit soarta lor. ns n aceast lume exist o intenie puternic,
de neoprit pentru creaie i dragoste sunt Maestrul i Margareta o intenie martirizat, chinuit, dar care primete
deodat ajutor de mai sus; anume pentru a atinge acel grad de umanizare a mitului, pentru care autorul a avut
suficient putere, era necesar toat aceast ierarhie.
Cuvinte-cheie: umanizarea mitului, conceptul sensului estetic, mimesis, catharsis, apocatastasis, univers literar, cercetare comparat.
Our concept is based on the idea that arts essence is elicitation of aesthetic sense, i.e. a part of
sense per se, a part that can be contacted during the processes of creating or perceiving a work of
art. Such elicitation (manifestation) of aesthetic sense is mimesis, and its harmonizing and transforming effect is catharsis. The number of aesthetic senses interpretations possessing the quality of truth
is indefinite for each concrete text.
The category of aesthetic sense can be used as an efficient tool for the comparative research.
We will demonstrate it on the basis of such texts as Pu Songlings stories (mostly based on the
story The Spirit Xiaosi quite typical for the creative works by this author) and M. Bulgakovs novel
The Master and Margarita.
94
To start with, we will identify the general feature that characterizes both the aesthetic senses of
Bulgakovs novel and of the Chinese classics story at the intuitive level.
That is, from our point of view, phenomenon of interweaving of the human and supernatural beings worlds. Mimesis of aesthetic sense in both cases is carried out through the widespread use of
mythological images and motives. Now we will intuitively identify what is, in essence, the main
difference between these two typologically similar literary worlds. And then we will confirm and
reinforce our assumptions using comparative proofs.
In Pu Songlings stories the worlds interweaving is some sort of a special community, special
integrity of the space, where both human and supernatural beings are interested in contacts, often
helping each other intellectually, spiritually or physically.
For example, there are some elements in The Spirit Xiaosis plot that can be described, following
T. Mann, as humanization of the myth (706).
At first the relations between man and spirits2 in this story are far from being idyllic. The story
begins with a brief message: in a house of Jiang, a ministrys secretary, the masses of spirits and hobgoblins began to appear fooling and harassing people, so the house had to be abandoned.
Then, however, a poor student interferes in this affair: because of the closeness of his own house
and impossibility of working over his studies there he requests the secretary to lend him this abandoned house for some time. The spirits two lovely girls immediately begin to tease the student. He
manages to harmonize this situation: the student is a merry, well-educated, and ethical man; the spirits
begin imitating him. And here already the student teaches the spirits literacy, and they prepare food
for him. Then this small community is joined by another spirit Xiaosis young brother named the
Third One. So there occurs a real marquee (a school) for spirits. They have lost any aggressiveness
and delightfully learn to compose poems.
Firstly only one thing overshadows their lives. The girls begin to feel for the student not only apprentices gratitude as to their teacher, but also tender matrimonial feelings that resonate in his soul.
But they cannot follow their feelings: sexual relations with a spirit are lethal for a man. The student
strives to take the exam for the title of official, but because of a false accusation he is imprisoned
and nearly perishes there. The spirits devotedly seek to help him: they carry food to his prison; they
solicit the authorities to protect him, although the law does not give them such rights. As a result,
all these spirits themselves fall into misfortune: in a disease or in prison. But thanks to their mutual
faithfulness in friendship, their misfortunes end well. Heaven in the person of a merry immortal
Taoist magician helps spirits to incarnate, and the student gains two beloved wives. After all they
have been through, these girls are no longer jealous of him to each other.
Pu Songling, the historian of these oddities, resumes them in the following way. The beauty that
is worlds exceptional is very hard to be found; and how could the student get two of them? Such a
thing may be observed only once in a thousand years, and can occur only with a very ethical person.
So, in this literary universe human and supernatural beings can, despite all the obstacles, solicit
the authorities to protect each other, release each other from prison, get married to each other, and
even help their companions to incarnate, to grow spiritually. However, they can play mean tricks on
each other, too. It all depends on their choice. Ethical principle subjected to their Universe is actually
a cosmic sympathy. And in Bulgakovs novel the worlds interweaving is some subordination, hierarchy. Yeshuas and Wolands world represents a sort of authority the human world succumbs too.
The main principle of this Universe is perhaps the principle not of love, but of justice, understood not
too ethically.
As we assume, the reasons of such an effect are circumstances of antemortem hell (Stalinist times)
in which this novel has been created, the circumstances which despite the authors yearning for
metaphysical truth yet have affected his worldview quite unfavorably.
In fact, in our time (this time can be described as The Third Achsenzeit by K. Jaspers) the ethics
with the necessity involves the idea of apokatastasis Origens idea of the final and general (i.e. of
95
all the beings) salvation3.

And in Bulgakovs novel perhaps only three characters attain Paradise (i.e. contact in eternity with
Yeshua, with the universal love). They are Levi Matvei, Pontius Pilate, and his dog.
Levi Matvei is inseparable from Yeshua because of his love to Him. Pilates dog is inseparable
from this hero also because of its love. And Pilate, a repentant sinner, has won the Eternity indivisible
from the light-Yeshua already in virtue of apokatastasis, hallowed by the smile of God4.
Paradise is somehow unattainable even for the Master, this courageous visionary. The Miracle
appears in his selfless and joyous creativity: in the space of his text one of the texts that does not
burn, i.e. the sacred text, Yeshua arises. Nevertheless, the author makes Levi Matvei to sentence
the Master such a verdict (on behalf of Yeshua and sorrowfully)5. As for Wolands numerous victims,
the text often seeks to persuade the reader: they are so ignoble that deserve their miserable fate,
moreover, they deserve it without any hope for a different one.
Fortunately, these motives in the novel do not determine the essence of the universe created by
Bulgakov.
This essence is defined by the following: there is a powerful, unstoppable intention to create and
love in Bulgakovs universe there are the Master and Margarita.
This intention is half martyred, devoured, but suddenly it still receives help from supernatural and
therefore more powerful reality. Just this underlined power, we suppose, is exactly what that hierarchy
between humans and supernatural beings, between the individual and the mythological is needed
for. It was necessary to identify the unreal, fallen world in all its merciless force and defeat it. But
this victory could only be partial. The true victory looks like a transformation, and that is only love,
not Woland, who can achieve it. Yet in Bulgakovs novel some force irresistible even for the NKVD
invades the city crippled by meanness, relieves its captives (the Master and Margarita) who cannot
live in this lethal environment any longer, and disappears to another reality together with them.
In other words, this hierarchy of worlds was necessary for achieving some degree of catharsis
longed by Mikhail Bulgakovs tortured heart and for achieving some degree of myths humanization6
the author had enough strength for.
Bibliography
, . . : , 1993.
, . . : , 1986.
, . .. . : , 1995.
, . . : , 1993. c. 27-82.
, . , 2 . : , 1991.
, . . : , 1988.
96
Notes
See also: , . - :
. : Elan INC SRL, 2010; idem. ( ). Anuarul Institutului de Cercetri
Interetnice 6 (2006): 169-73; idem. --. Revista de Etnologie
i Culturologie 4 (2008): 183-88.
2
See: , . ()
XII .. : . : - , 1994. .
1: 176-243; idem. . XX
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, , (, 234).
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1
97
MIC GLOSAR DE TERMENI I CUVINTE-CHEIE UTILIZAI N ANALECTELE LUI

CONFUCIUS: DE LA ESEN, RDCIN (BN) PN LA A MERGE PE URMELE
CUIVA, A URMA (ZHU)
Ion MANOLI
Lucrarea de fa reperezint un glosar care conine cei mai valoroi termeni din textul Confucius al lui Lun Yu,
care au fost extrai din dialogurile dintre Master Kong i ucenicii si. Majoritatea termenilor au rolul de concept.
Avnd scopul de a facilita progresul de interpretare a termenilor, am considerat productiv metoda de transmitere
a structurii antologice.
Cuvinte-cheie: antologie, termen filosofic, lexicografie terminologic, Confucianism, paradigm cultural-filosofic, glosar, concept.
The present paper represents a trial to provide a glossary encompassing the most valuable terms of the Confucius
Lun Yu text which were extracted from the dialogues of Master Kong with his disciples. The most of the terms
acquire the status of a concept. In order to smooth the progress of term interpretation we considered as productive
the method of providing the structure of the anthology.
Key-words: anthology, philosophic term, terminology lexicography, Confucianism, cultural-philosophic paradigm, glossary, concept.
Lun yu (Analecte) este cartea care i-a adus gloria i nemurirea lui Confucius (551 a.Chr. 479
a.Chr.). Graie acestui studiu Confucius cunoate anvergura i ascensiunea n filosofie, culminnd
cu atribuirea titlului Cel mai mare nelept din tate timpurile. Cartea sa Lun yu este permanent
comentat i interpretat, devenind matricea unei impresionante paradigme cultural-filosofice, care
dinuie i azi sub cunoscuta sintagma elogioas c o n f u c i a n i s m (Vian, 1996). Lun yu nu este
o narare despre acte rituale, morale, etice, ci se refer la reprezentarea lor.
Ar fi de bun augur ca i cititorul nostru basarabean s cunoasc (fie i parial) care sunt cei mai
frecveni termeni i cuvinte-cheie din opera de renume Lun yu.
Glosarul cuprinde cei mai valoroi termeni ai textului, extrai din dialogurile Maiestrului Kong
i discipolii si, din mrturisirile filosofice ale autorului: mare parte dintre termeni capt statutul de
concepie.
Pentru a facilita compresiunea acestora considerm c va fi binevenit s dm structura Analectelor
ca cititorul s poat vedea din ce compartiment vine cutare ori cutare termin.
Capitolul I XUE ER (Despre nvtur)
Capitulul II WE ZHENG (Despre guvernare)
Capitolul III BA Y (Despre rituri i muzic)
Capitolul IV L REN (Despre virtutea omeniei)
Capitolul V GONG YECHANG (Despre omul ales)
Capitolul VI YONG YE (Despre rituri i guvernare)
Capitolul VII SHU ER (Despre arta de a fi Maestru)
Capitolul VIII TA BAO (Despre cei vechi)
Capitolul IX Z HAN (Despre pstrarea regulilor)
Capitolul X XANG DANG (Despre postura corect)
Capitolul XI XAN JN (Despre discipoli)
Capitolul XII YAN HU (Despre virtui i punerea lor n practic)
Capitolul XIII Z LU (Despre calea aciunii)
Capitolul XIV XAN WEN (Despre calea omului)
Capitolul XV WE LNG GONG (Despre noima bunei aciuni)
Capitolul XVI J SH (Despre modelarea de sine i despre calea guvernrii prin rit)
98
Capitolul XVII YANG HUO (Despre calea guvernrii cu virtute, prin rituri i muzic)
Capitolul XIII WE Z (Despre pregtirile Maestrului n cutarea unui Principe Model)
Capitolul XIX Z ZHANG (Despre nvtur i depre meritele Maestrului)
Capitolul XX YAO YUE (Despre spusele celor vechi)
Glosarul cuprinde cei mai importani termeni din Analecte (termeni referitori la principiile sistemului de gndire confucianist i la atributele Omului ales, precum i o serie de verbe de evaluare i
performare), dintre care o mare parte obin statut de concepie.
S remarcm c Analectele ca micro i macro texte se ocup de cu totul altceva dect de religie;
n fond ele se ocup de ntreaga cultur chinez ca form a societii i a perfectei sale integrri n
ntregul univers, plecnd de la concepia despre om i lume, despre edificarea valorilor i a moralei,
despre organizarea instituiilor i economiei, pe care China i-a ntemeiat tradiia (Vandermeersch
549). De aceea termenii i pseudo-termenii inclui n acest glosar aparin tuturor domeniilor: moral,
nvmnt, norm, politic, filosofie, economie, etic i estetic, etc.
Esena; Temeiul; Rdcina; Matca Bn
A compara; ceea ce este comparabil; ceea ce este parial B
A se ndeprta (n opoziie cu jin- a se apropia) B
A diferenia; diferen Bl
Erudiia: A-i extinde sfera studiului B xu
Prefix negativ cu care se formeaz termenii antonimici B
A nu dori, nedorin b y
A nu reaciona; a rmne de neclintit b xing
De necorectat; de neschimbat b gi
A nu fi nefericit b yu
A nu fi nspimntat b j
A nu avea ndoieli; a nu fi nehotrt b hu
Ruinea (contiina abaterii de la Norma de conduit) Ch
A urma tradiia Cng
A fi ager Cng
A urma) Cong
A urma tradiia Cng
A transmite, a propaga tradiia Chun
Principiul suprem al Ordinii;Legea maxim a Armoniei;
Calea; Modelul; Metoda Do
a avea principiul Dao (8) you Dao ze
Calea dreapt (opus cii ocolite Wan Dao) Zh Do
Calea ocolit Wn Do
Lucrarea lui Dao Mu Do
Virtutea suprem (principiul suprem n manifestrile sale) Do D
Virtutea(ca for de manifestare a Principiului; for interioar cu valoare magic, opus
forei fizice Li) D
A atrage Valoarea suprem (verb al depirii de sine, al desvririi); A avea putere
de patrundere D
Marile Virtui D D
Codul moral; Legea relaiilor interumane D ln
Marele Plan; Marea Lucrare (n opoziie cu Xiao Shi lucrrile mrunte.
Vezi i Mou Dao
[supra]) D Mu
Respectul pentru fratele mai marea (Variant:Ti) D

nvcel; Discipol D zi
Dinamismul; Micarea (vezi Hai [infra]) Dng
A nu fi bun; a fi de dispreuit, de condamnat
A fi de o mare fermitate Gng
A corecta; A transforma ( n bine) Gi
A fi politicos Gng
Ceea ce este vechi; crile vechi G
Lucrurile ciudate, stranii, anormale Gui
Spirite inferioare; Duhurile; Demonii Gu
A depi limita; A ntrece msura Gu
Marea; Calea ctigului vulgar (Metafora egoismului); Spaiul omului ntreprinztor
Zhi zhe a crui calitate este dinamismul dong. (n opoziie cu shan muntele) Hi
A fi bun; A fi plcut; A aprecia (verbul principal al evalurii, n opoziie cu e a nu fi bun
[supra]) Ho
A iubi ceea ce este vechi Ho g
Armonia; Ordinea; Ierarhia H
Armonia e cea care d (Ritului) preuirea cea mare (1) He wei gui
A fi potrivit, adecvat H
A fi mrinimos, mrinimia Hu
A fi ndoit,ndoiala; A fi nehotrt Hu
A-i recunoate rtcirea bin hu
A nu avea ndoieli; A avea ncredere n funcionarea Modelului Maxim b hu
A oficia sacrificiile J
Oficierea sacrificiilor cu maxim implicare (ca i cum spiritele ar fi de fa) j ru zi
A fi simplu i aprobat de popor Jin
A nva pe cineva; A instrui Jio
Intolerana, a fi intolerant Jio
A se apropia (verb al modalizrii spaiale) Jn
Pentru a te apropia, trebuie s reueti a te ndeprta (6) Neng jin qu bi
A fi ptruns de respect; Gravitatea calm (postura ritual a spiritului); Seriozitatea i respectul
de sine n aciune; Disciplina Interioar Jng
Staticul; Nemicarea Jng
Omul ales; Omul nobil; Omul superior(Sinonime: xian zhe; shang she);Principile Jn Zi
A avea putere de cuprindere i de nelegere; Tolerana Kun
A fi lipsit de msur; Nebunia Kung
Viitorul Li
A se bucura, bucuria (prin aprecierea frumosului); Plcerea estetic L
Muzica (Modelul superior de Ritualizare; una din Cele ase arte- Liu Yi) Yu
Riturile (cele religioase i normele de comportare) (Regula performrii cu respect ierarhic i
msur) L
A reface Riturile f L
Cizelarea de sine formul celebr Ke ji
Supune-te pe tine i Riturile se vor reface de la sine (12) ke ji fu Li
A nva Riturile (Modelul Ritualizrii) xu L
Dac nu nvei Riturile, nu poi sta demn n lume (16) Bu xue Li wu yi li
A fi fr Rit (fr Regul, fr Cod, fr Model de comportare) fi L
Fr Rit nu privi, fr Rit nu asculta Fei Li wu shi, fei Li wu ting
Fr Rit nu vorbi, Fr Rit nu fptui (12) Fei Li wu yan, fei Li wu dong
99
100 PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION
A sta n poziie ferm; A-i fixa poziia n ierarhia social; A fi demn n lume L
Fora fizic (inferioar forei spiritului) L
Profitul egoist; Interesul personal L
A fi credibil Ling
Cele ase Arte Li Y
Dezordinea; Haosul (n opoziie cu He- Armonia) (supra) Lun
Reprezentarea actelor rituale i morale Lun yu
Frumosul (Echivalent cu Binele i nelepciunea); A nfrumusea; A desvri Mi
Zelul; A fi plin de zel Mn
Poporul; Mulimea; Cei muli Mn
Datul; nscrisul; Programul; Soarta (Limita alegerii libere) si sheng you Ming Viaa i
Moartea au Datul lor(12) Mng
Vezi Dao Mu Do
A sta cu faa la sud (Postura ritual corect) Nn min
Interior, interiorul (Parametru al modernizrii spaiale, echivalent cu shang- superiorul.
Are drept metafor shi- sala interioar.Antonim: wai exteriorul) Nei
Deosebirea esenial (Vezi Bie) Q
Cedarea; Deferena; A te retrage n faa celuilalt Rng
Compasiune (budist) apropiat de omenia confucianist; rigoarea perfeciunii de sine Ren
Omul Rn
Omenia Ren
Calea Omului (Modelul cultural al Omului ca om social) Rn Do
Comportamentul uman superior; Virtutea suprem a Omeniei (libertatea asumat a alegerii) Rn
Cel omenos Rn Zh
Ajunge s doresc Omenia i Omenia apare (7) wo yu Ren si Ren zhi yi
A fi lipsit de Omenie b Rn
S fii Om i s n-ai Omenie (3) Ren er bu Ren
Crturarul (cu funcie pedagogic, social-politic i administrativ, care este instruit cu scrierile
clasice i se exprim n limbaj ales ) (Numele generic al confucianitilor) Ru
Confucianism Pentru ceea ce occidentalii numesc confucianism, chinezii folosesc o expresie
cu o conotaie mult mai cuprinztoare, i anume cultura literailor Ru Xue, expresie n care termenul literat Ru desemneaz n chinez partea foarte larg majoritar a elitei intelectuale, care,
instruit ntr-un mod foarte savant n tradiia canonic n-a ncetat de-a lungul ntregii istorii a Chinei
s dezvolte mereu aceast tradiie, att n literatur ct i n filosofie, moral, politic, att n domeniul
spiritualitii i al perfecionrii de sine, inclusiv n practica social (idem).
A fi sincer, transparent Qng
Suflu Qi
Aparena; Aspectul exterior S
Binele; A fi bun (n opiziie cu bu shan a avea defecte) Shn
A fi bun n a stabili relaii cu ceilali(5) Shan yu ren jiao
Omul bun; Omul superior shn rn
Calea Omului superior (11) Shan ren zhi Dao
Muntele (Spaiul predilect al neleptului a crui calitate este staticul jing) Shn
Omul superior Shng zh
Spiritele superioare; Divinitile Shng
neleptul (Cel care are cunoaterea dat i echilibreaz datul Cerului cu alegerea Omeniei superioare) Shng
101
Plinul; A fi plin (a avea referent concret, substanial) (n opoziie cu xu vidul, a fi vid) Sh

Intelectualul (provenit din mica nobilime) Sh
Crturarul (specializat n anale); Scribul wn sh
Termenul Shu, cap. VII se redefinete nu ca a transmite, a evoca, ci ca a povesti,
a reproduce (Verbul transmiterii, specific practicii intelectuale confucianiste) Sh
Reciprocitate; Solidaritate ritual; Deschidere i receptivitate Sh
A urma; A se conforma Shn
A gndi; A reflecta (A verifica valorile conform codului moral); Gndire pur, neaplicat S
A gndi aplicat, la obiect jn s
Pierdere Sn
a reda viu Shu
A atenua (Referitor la vorbire) Sn
Cerul; Instana suprem (Planul superior, reperul evalurilor) Tin
Bogia i cele de pre se afl la Cer (12) Fu gui zai Tian
Modelul Cerului Tin Do
Datul Cerului (Model nscris n firea omului); Menirea omului pe pmnt Tin Mng
A cunoate datul Cerului (2) Zhi Tian ming
Regele; Monarhul (care acioneaz prin fora Virtuii) Regii buni(13) Wng
Trecutul Wng
Exteriorul; Aparena; Formalul; Factualul (Metafora tang holul exterior) Wi
A fi rafinat, cult; Rafinament Wn
Codul cultural scris wn zhng
Crile vechi g wn
A asculta; A auzi Wn
Revelarea Cii (4) Wen Dao
A nu fi (ca prezen pozitiv n zona aparenei); A nu avea (Negaie ontologic) W
A nu avea Principiul w Do
A nu aciona ostentativ; Spontaneitatea; Fora moral (care se manifest de la sine) w Wi
A nu folosi comunicarea prin cuvinte w yn
A nu dori (n sens egoist) w y
Lipsit de credibilitate w xn
Omul ales (Vezi i Jun zi) Xin zh
Respectul (pentru cel superior ierarhic) Xio
Mic; Inferior Xio
Omul inferior; Omul de rnd Xio rn
Vezi Da Mou Xio sh
A fi meter n arta argumentaiei Xi rn
Noul Xn
Credibilitatea; Probitatea; A avea ncredere; A prezenta ncredere Xn
Mintea-inim Xn
Firea omului; Natura omeneasc Xng
Firea oamenilor i apropie, nvtura i ndeparteaz(17) Xing xiang jin ye xi xiang yuan ye
A aciona (actul care probeaz Virtuile) Xng
i asculi vorbele i-i cercetezi faptele (5) Ting qi yan guan qi xing
Pedeapsa Xng
A cizela; A modela (proces formativ) X
A se cizela pe sine x j
Vid, vidul (spaiul dezlocuit; lipsa de substanial) X
A nva (spontan); nvtura Xu
A studia scrierile clasice xu wn
Vorba; Vorbirea Yn
Vorba s aib centrare (s aib obiect, s fie aplicat, s aiba miez(11) Yan bi you zhong
i asculi vorbele i acorzi credit faptelor (5) Ting qi yan xin qi xing
Vorbele meteugite qio yn
A te exprima elegant; Vorbirea model yyn
Forma cea mai grandioas, Cerul (Opus lui yin forma cea mai grandioas, Pmntul) yang
A crete pe cineva, a-i asigura strictul necesar; A educa Yng
Dreptatea; Echitatea; A servi ceea ce corespunde interesului colectiv (n opoziie cu Li
profitul) Y
Ctigul; Folosul (n opoziie cu sun pierderea) Y
A fi talentat; Arta Y
Tratat de forme rituale Yi li
A se ascunde; A se retrage; Interiorizarea; Discreia Yn
Cei retrai din lume; Ermiii yn zh
A fi ndrzne, curajos; Curajul Yng
A fi mpreun, alturi (n opoziie cu ju a pstra distana) Y
A exista (prezena pozitiv n planul aparenei); A avea Yu
A avea Principiul (Dao manifest) yu Do
A avea ruine i a se comporta dup lege (2) You chi qie ge
Prietenia Yu
A fi prost; Prostia Y
A dori; Dorina (care influeneaz n mod negativ voina i aciunea) Y
A fi reinut (Sinonime: jin comportament reinut; jian moderaie; economie; jie
cumptare)Yu
A sta drept; Rectitudinea; A corecta; Corectitudinea; Adecvarea Zhng
Corectarea numelor zhng mng
Cu (Principiul) Dao te poi menine pe drumul drept (1) You Dao er zheng
A guverna; A se stpni Zhng
Voina (fora interioar a personalitaii) Zh
Mobilizarea voinei d zh
A ti; A cunoate (prin minte-inim); Cunoaterea (intelectual-sensibil); A recunoate
(ca valoare) Zh
Desfurarea contiinei prin ptrunderea raiunii lucrurilor Zhi zhi ge wu
A nu fi recunoscut de oameni(1) Ren bu zhi
Cunoaterea mrunt, inferioar (n opoziie cu da shou marea investitur) xio zh
Omul inteligent; Omul ntreprinztor zh zh
Drept; Vertical; A fi drept (n opoziie cu wong strmb) Zh
Natura (Antonimul culturii wen) Zh
Mijlocul (ca reper al modalizrii spaiale); Mijlocul (ca moderaie) (n lucrarea Zhong Yong:
starea de armonie i de echilibru) (Sinonim cu heng constana) Zhng
A fi nelept; nelepciune Zh
Loialitatea; Credina; Integritatea Zhng
ntregul (Antonim: bi comparabilul,parialul) Zhu
A urma; A merge pe urmele cuiva Zhu.
Majoritatea terminilor din glosar sunt prezentai dup materialele Florentinei Vian nserate n ediia (Confucius, Analecte 297 303). Acest mic glosar ar putea servi ca punct de reper n elaborarea
eventual a unui dicionar exhaustiv al operei lui Confucius i al Confucianismului, care mai deine
i azi supremaia n gndirea filosofic i religioas.
103
Bibliografie
Confucius. Analecte.Trad. de Florentina Vian. Bucureti: Humanitas, 1996. 320 p.
------. Confucianismul de Lon Vandermeersch. Delumeau, Jean, Religiile lumii. Bucureti: Humanitas, 1996.
p.548-577
Etiemble, Ren. Confucius. Paris : Gallimard, 1956.
Ryckmans, P. Les Entretiens de Confucius. Connaissance de lOrient. Paris : Gallimard,1987.
Taylor, R.L. The Religious Dimensions of Confucianism. New-York: The State University of N.Y. Press, 1990.
Vandermeersch, Lon. Le nouveau confucianisme, Le Dbat 66 (sept.-oct. 1991) : 7-16.
THE BEGINNING OF TRANSLATION SCIENCE

Tatiana PODOLIUC
This article is devoted to the problem of the beginning of translation in the world and particularly in China.
Up to our days there is a debate about the nature of translation, about its being an art, craft or a science. But
there are many prerequisites that prove the idea of translations being a science. As any other science the translation science has its own area for investigation. It has its own terminology. Moreover it has its own laws and norms.
And as any other science it has its own history. There have been two great historical examples of how translation
introduced one culture to another. One is the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from various Indian languages
into Chinese. The second is the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific works from Greek and Syriac into
Arabic, thereby introducing them to the Islamic world. A history of world culture from the perspective of translation reveals a constant movement of ideas and forms, and of cultures constantly absorbing new influences because
of the work of translators.
Science translation in ancient China, especially in Sui and Tang Dynasties was often included in the translation
of religious documents. Nowadays it is strongly believed that if you want to teach yourself simple English you
could start with the Chinese language. For Western people Chinese is an exotic language written in Oriental characters and spoken in a sort of sing-song. The translation between these two languages is difficult because of the vague
connotations of ancient Chinese and the difficulty in choosing equivalence between Chinese and English words.
Key-words: prerequisites, Buddhist scriptures, vague, connotations, marginal, textual translation, metatextual
translation, intratextual translation, extratextual translation, plain Sanskrit, flowery Chinese, repetition, sutra,
ancient Sanskrit, rhythmical prose, ornateness, accuracy.
Acest articol este dedicat primilor ncercri de traducere aprute n lumea civilizata i, n particular, n China.
Pn n zilele noastre mai continuau discuii despre esena traducerii: fie c e o art, o meserie sau o tiin. Exist
multe premise ce dovedesc c traducerea este o tiin. Ca i orice alt tiin traducerea are domeniul su domeniu
de cercetare, posed propria sa terminologie. Pe lng aceasta traducerea mai are propriile sale norme. i ca orice
tiin i are istoria sa. Au existat dou exemple extrem de importante care au demonstrat cum prin intermediul
traducerii o cultur poate fi prezentat unei alte culturi. Ca primul exemplu poate servi traducerea manuscriselor
Budiste Indiene n limba Chinez. Un al doilea exemplu este traducerea tractatelor filozofice i tiinifice din limbile Greac i Sirian n limba Arab i n acest mod prezentndu-le lumii Islamice. Istoria culturii universale privit
prin prizma traducerii reveleaz o permanent desvoltare de idei, forme i culturi, care n continuu snt supuse
noilor influene datorit activitaii translatorilor.
n China Antic n perioda domniei dinastiilor Sui i Tang traducerea documentelor religioase erau efectuate din
punct de vedere tiinific. n prezent exist o convingere ferm c pentru a nsui Engleza la nivel elementar ar fi
bine s ncepi cu studierea limbii Chineze. Pentru lumea occidental limba Chinez e o limb exotic ce folosete
caractere Orientale i n vorbire e trgnat (monoton). Traducerile dintr-o limb occidental n Chinez i invers
e dificil din cauza conotaiilor vagi din limba Chineza din perioada antic; o alt cauz fiind dificultatea n alegerea
echivalenei corespunztoare ntre cuvintele Chineze i Engleze.
Cuvinte-cheie: premis, manuscrise Budiste, vag, conotaie, subtext, marginal, traducere textual, traducere
metatextual, traducere intratextual, limba Sanscrit simpl, Chineza nflorat, sutra, proz ritmat, ornamentaie excesiv, precizie.
Up to our days there is a debate about the nature of translation, about its being an art, craft or
a science. But there are many prerequisites that prove the idea of translations being a science. As
any other science the translation science has its own area for investigation. It has its own terminology.
Moreover it has its own laws and norms. And as any other science it has its own history.
Many people say that (interlingual) translation is one of the oldest activities in the world. The Bible
is a good example of translation: in fact its oldest versions contain words in Aramaic, parts in Hebrew
and, in what is often called the New Testament, parts in Greek. In spite of that, until the 1980s there
was no specific discipline dealing with translation and/or its problems.
105
One could suppose that, just because translation has always existed, for centuries it simply went
unobserved, as an element of the cultural landscape to be taken for granted, and, even though, from
Cicero's day on, a number of writings were dedicated to that subject, nobody felt or expressed the
need to create a specific discipline.
On the other hand, many arts or sciences have dealt with translation in a more or less marginal
way, from rhetoric to linguistics. Until recently, however, nobody thought that the landscape could be
turned upside down, that a Ptolemaic revolution could be made, in order to place interlingual translation, which has always been in the position of a transitory and an unauthorized satellite of the other
sciences holding a stronger position. Translation can be qualified as a system having the broader
concept of (total) translation at its center, and the various types of translation in satellite positions:
textual, metatextual, intratextual, extratextual translation.
The ancient Greek word for translator-interpreter is Hermeneus, directly related to the name of
the God HERMES. The verb Hermeneuo means to interpret a foreign tongue, translate, explain,
put into words, express, describe, and write about. The many further meanings of the Greek word
for translator-interpreter (mediator, go-between, deal-broker, marriage-broker, tolmach) suggest that
interpreters almost certainly had to exist during prehistory the period before writing was invented.
In ancient times ideas and insights used to be transferred from culture to culture primarily through
travelers and tradesmen. Gradually, translation began to play and continues to play a key role in the
development of world culture. For example, translation has played a major part in the movement of
knowledge from Ancient Greece to Persia, from India to Arab nations, from Islam to Christianity and
from Europe to China and Japan.
There have been two great historical examples of how translation introduced one culture to another. One is the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from various Indian languages into Chinese.
The second is the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific works from Greek and Syriac into
Arabic, thereby introducing them to the Islamic world.
A history of world culture from the perspective of translation reveals a constant movement of ideas
and forms, and of cultures constantly absorbing new influences because of the work of translators. It
dispels the assumption that everything starts in the West and undermines the idea of rigid boundaries between East and West. Translators have invented alphabets, helped build languages and written
dictionaries. They have contributed to the emergence of national literatures, the dissemination of
knowledge and the spread of religion. Importers of foreign cultural values and key players at some
of the great moments of history, translators and interpreters have played a determining role in the development of their societies and have been fundamental to the unfolding of intellectual history itself.
Major periods in the history of translation tend to coincide with eras when a major differential or
inequality exists or is perceived to exist-between two cultures or two peoples speaking different languages. One of these peoples perceives the need to absorb greater or higher knowledge from another
whether this knowledge is conceived in political, religious or scientific terms. There is the following
classification of the main periods in the development of translation science:
prehistory: predominance of interpreting and mediating (marriage-brokers, deal-makers, peaceseekers, etc);
Greeks: the need to understand the Egyptian civilization;
Romans: the need to understand Greek civilization;
Chinese (seventh century A.D.) the need to understand Indian civilization, especially Sanskrit
and scriptures;
Irish (eighth century A.D.) : the need for a decisive mediator between the antiquity and the Western Middle Ages, the conquest of Spain by the Muslims resulted in the decline of Latin influence in
Europe;
Western Middle Ages: the need to reabsorb and integrate Arabic, Hebrew and Greek knowledge
into medieval Europe;
Renaissance: reintegration of Ancient Greek culture in the West;

conquest and colonization : the need to understand American, African and Asian languages and
dialects;
age of Enlightenment and the nineteenth century: decline of Latin, emergence of modern national languages as the measure of human knowledge;
modern times: many competing major and minor national languages.
The Ancient Chinese Schools
Han Dynasty (206 BC-220) in China consists of Western Han (206 BC-24 AD) and Eastern
Han (25-220), during which China had economic and cultural exchanges with West Asia, East
Asia and South-East Asia by land and by sea. In Three Kingdoms (220-280) China had some
exchanges with some foreign countries such as Japan and Da Qin (ancient Rome). In Northern
and Southern Dynasties (420-589) China sent its craftsmen and painters to Bai Ji (an ancient
country in Korean Peninsula) and introduced musical instruments from Korea. Chinese techniques such as architecture, paper-making, textile, etc. were exported to Viet Nam, and Chinese
silkworm breeding to Europe through Persia, while China imported the arts, medicine and phonology from India (Jianzhong Xu. http://id.erudit.org/iderudit).
Oral translation of Buddhist sutra in China began with Yi Cun, doing the interpretation work
around 2 BC, and written translation of it with An Shi Gao in Eastern Han Dynasty, his translation
work lasting from 148 to 172, the translation of important classics with Fa Hu his translation work
lasting from about 230 to 308, and translation studies with Zhi Qian , his translation work lasting from
222 to 254 and Dao An (314-385). Zhi Qian, a monk coming to China in late Eastern Han Dynasty,
was the first in China to probe into translation theory and techniques. His translation principle is being expressive and elegance and being acceptable to the readers. Dao An knew little about Sanskrit,
but through the comparison of different translated versions he explored the law of translation such as
complicated and concise, literal and liberal techniques, and proposed his theory Five Adaptations
and Three Difficulties. The five adaptations are 1) adapting in the light of the order of Chinese, 2)
doing some polishing because of the plain Sanskrit and flowery Chinese, 3) not deleting the repetitions of the same thing in the original, 4) deleting the unnecessary repetition in the end of sutra, and 5)
deleting the re-expressions of the things expressed previously before coming to other parts. The three
difficulties are 1) it is hard to properly translate the ancient Sanskrit by using the Chinese rhythmical
prose (characterized by parallelism and ornateness), 2) it is hard for the later generation to master
the delicate philosophy of the ancients, and 3) it is hard for people at present to achieve accuracy in
translating materials of the old days.
The earliest historical records show sporadic translation activities in China in the eleventh century
B.C. Documents from that time indicate that translation was carried out by government clerks, who
were concerned primarily with the transmission of ideologies. In a written document from the late
Zhou dynasty, Jia Gongyan, an imperial scholar, wrote:
Translation is to replace one written language with another without changing the meaning for
mutual understanding. This definition of translation, although primitive, proves the existence
of the translation theory in ancient China. Serious discussions on translation, however, did not
begin until the introduction of Buddhism into the country during the Six Dynasties (222-589),
when Buddhist monks began translating classics of Buddhism into Chinese. By the end of the
fourth century, translation was officially organized on a large scale in China. A State School
of Translation was founded for this purpose and Dao An, an imperial officer, was appointed
its director. In 379 Dao An was abducted to Changan (Xian) where he started the famous
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Changan School. It was at this time that monks from Kashmir began to enter China in large
numbers, bringing with them many texts from their homeland, which they translated into Chinese and making the school one of the most important translation centers of the time. Three of
the most accomplished translators of the Changan school adopted different theories regarding
translation. Dao An insisted on a strict literal translation i.e., the source text translation word
for word (idem).
Kumarajiva (350-409), based on Dao An's theory, founded the school of liberal translation, the
first in China. Different from Zhi Qian's liberal translation of somewhat faithfulness to the original,
he thought translation should be faithful to the original, but that didn't mean to copy the form of the
original. Kumarajiva advocated a completely free translation method for the sake of elegance and
intelligibility in the target language. In his own translation practice, Chinese Buddhist scholar Xuan
Zang combined the advantages of both Dao Ans respect for the form of the source text, and Kumarajivas free style of translation. Xuan Zang aimed to achieve an intelligibility of the translation for the
target language readers, and developed his criteria that translation must be truthful and intelligible
to the populace. It might be during this period of time that there was the first discussion on literal
translation vs. free translation - a core issue of translation theory.
Sui Dynasty (581-618), Tang Dynasty (618-907) and Five Dynasties (907-960) saw the exchanges between China and the countries in Korean Peninsula such as Gao Li, Bai Ji and Xin
Luo, not only in trade but education. Japan sent its students to study in China (Tang Dynasty)
and returned with Chinese rites, calendar and music.
Science translation in ancient China, especially in Sui and Tang Dynasties was often included in the translation of religious documents. From Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty, about
six hundred years, saw the flourishing age of the translation of Buddhist sutra, especially in the
period of two hundred years from early Tang to Mid-Tang Dynasty. The formal translation of
Buddhist sutra covered three important periods: 1) from Eastern Han (25-220) to Western Jin
(265-316), 2) from Eastern Jin(317-420) to Southern Dynasty (420-589) and Northern Dynasty
(386-581), and 3) Tang Dynasty (618-907) (with the most important translator Xuan Zang,
the great monk in Tang Dynasty who devoted all his life to the study and translation of Buddhist sutra from Sanskrit to Chinese). Song Dynasty (960-1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1721-1368)
strengthened the relationship with the neighbouring countries, and the economic and cultural
exchanges were very active. At the same time China kept the good relations with some countries in the Middle East and Africa. The feature of this period is more individual translation,
more translations from foreign languages to Chinese, and more edited translations and reported
translations.
Great monk Yan Zong (557-610) in Sui Dynasty proposed Eight Requirements for Translators: 1) Love Buddhist sutra and make nothing of hardships, 2) be faithful and trustworthy,
3) master the theme and leave no doubt, 4) be knowledgeable, 5) be magnanimous and not
arbitrary, 6) be indifferent to personal fame and wealth, 7) be good at Sanskrit and master its
argumentation, and 8) be good at Chinese and be accurate in translation.
Great monk Xuan Zang (about 600-662) was against Kumarajivas liberal translation, he
blended the literal and liberal techniques. To him, faithfulness is the main concern. His criterion
was being faithfulness and expressiveness. Besides, he put forward in his translation of Buddhist sutra the so-called Five Non-translatable Categories: 1) mysterious ones, 2) polysemic
ones, 3) non-existent in China, 4) following the customary saying, and 5) non-translatable ones.
Actually he referred to transliteration (idem).
The Passage to India

The most notable of the Indian translators was the scholar-monk Kumarajiva. By the end of the
fourth century, Indian culture had penetrated into China from both the north and south of India, giving
Kumarajiva the opportunity to learn Chinese as well as his native Sanskrit. Kumarajiva began working to correct the imperfections of the provincial dialect and later to translating Buddhist texts and
correcting earlier translations. A Bureau of Translators was set up under his supervision, with over
800 scholars on staff. The wealth of India, with its fine cities and prosperous villages, attracted the
attention of foreign invaders, including Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia. This was a period
of great scientific discovery and intellectual triumph for Sanskrit learning. Brahman language scholars worked out all the major rules regarding the science of language and sounds (phonetics). Sanskrit
grammar was standardized and Indian script was formalized, well able to represent all the sounds
produced by the human voice.
Eventually, the translation of sutras lost importance in China and rulers directed their attention
westward. Arabs began to settle in China, with some even becoming mandarins or merchants. Having
learned the Chinese language, some of these erudite high officials began translating scientific works
from Arabic or European languages. By the eighth century, conversion to Islam had already started
in Central Asia.
From the 16th century China's science and technology began to fall behind the West. At the end
of Ming Dynasty it was far behind. Matteo Ricco (1552-1610), due to the failure in doing missionary work in China, came up with an idea of doing it by way of disseminating science. He interpreted
and Xu Guangqi (1562-1633) recorded some mathematical works, which was a great step forward
in achieving his goal, thus beginning the first science translation climax in China. Many missionaries participated in the work. Receiving instructions from the government Xu Guangqi (1562-1633)
established Li Ju (Almanac Bureau), the first science translation organization in China, in which Xu
Guangqi, Li Zizao (1565-1630), etc., together with some foreign missionaries, translated and edited
some astronomic works.
Over seventy famous missionaries came to China in late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty.
They translated or translated and edited over 300 books, among which about 120 were science works.
Since 1722 Ming Dynasty stopped doing missionary work in China, thus the next over 100 years saw
little translation of science works.
In late Qing Dynasty Lin Zexu (1785-1850), Wei Yuan (1794-1856) and Xu Jishe (1795-1893)
were the pioneers of translating scientific documents and had great influence on the history of modern
China. They knew nothing about foreign languages, but they organized the translation activities (usually selective translation and edited translation) in order to know the outside world. Li Zexu organized
the translation work to resist opium and to introduce international law. Wei Yuan, based on the trans
lated materials, wrote a book on world history, geography and the foreign policies China should take.
Xu Jishe, based on the translated and foreigners oral materials, wrote a book of world geography.
The 19th century witnessed the translation activities of foreign missionaries. Some missionaries
even set up translation organizations, among which the earliest and most influential was Mo Hai Shu
Yuan (The London Mission Press) that was established in 1843. Other organizations are Yi Zhi Shu
Hui (The School and Text Book Series Committee), Guang Xue Hui (Society for the Diffusion of
Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese), etc.
The late Qing set up Tongwen Foreign Language School in order to foster translators and foreign
affairs officials. 1867 saw the translation centre of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, a translation
and publishing agency, to develop modern Chinas war industry, which was initiated and founded by
famous scientists Xu Tao (1818-1884) and Hua Hengfang (1833-1902). Xu Tao dealt mainly with
chemistry and Hua Hengfang mathematics. The centre also invited foreigners in China as translators.
1901 saw another translation centre, Jiangchu Compilation and Translation Bureau in Wuchang, with
109
Zhang Zhidong (1837-1909) as its head.

The late Qing Dynasty sent Chinese students to study in foreign countries. When returned they
became good translators of science translation. Many translation and publishing houses were established in late Qing Dynasty such as The Shanghai Commercial Press and Shanghai Translation
Bureau.
The science translation in late Qing Dynasty is the second science translation climax in China. The
government and some people of insight thought it necessary to train translators, so they set up some
translation organizations and translation centers, and offered translation courses. Yi Xue (translation
studies) appeared first in the rules of Si Yin Guan (Translation School) established in 1644.
Science translation technique was one part of translation studies at that time. The theorists were Ma Jianzhong (1845-1900), Liang Qichao (1873-1929), Yan Fu (1853-1921) and Wang Guowei (1877-1927). Ma
Jianzhong thought that only by understanding tacitly every link of the translation process can target readers
have the same resonance as these of the original. Liang Qichao laid stress on liberal translation and thought
that, taking consideration of the circumstances, science translation needs some kind of creation. Yan Fu,
by studying the successful experience in translating Buddhist sutra from Sanskrit into Chinese and summarizing his own translation practice, put forward the three-word criterion, i.e. faithfulness, expressiveness
and elegance, which were widely accepted in Chinese translation circles, and now which still has practical
significance. His other contribution is using translation variation (there was no such term at that time) in his
translation practice, which has long been ignored by the translation circles. His three-word criterion makes
clear the translation orientation, and his practice of translation variation supplies a guide to the down-to-earth
translation practice. By translation variation, we mean it is an activity aimed at deriving the theme or partial
content of the original by using the appropriate adaptations such as expansion, deletion, summarization, explanation, supplement, combination and remolding in the light of the special needs of the readers.
The rise of science translation promoted the translation and compiling of bilingual science dictionaries,
the first being bilingual scientific words and phrases, and bilingual dictionaries of science terms, which was
pioneering and laid a solid foundation for the later compiling of various dictionaries.
Liang Qichao thought that quality translation needs appropriate source text, proper translation laws and
techniques, and qualified translators, that two mistakes easily made in translation are distorting the meaning
of the original in order to follow the Chinese norms and trying to follow the norms of the source language
but making the translated version hard for target readers to understand, and that translators should grasp the
real meaning of the original and express it in the light of Chinese norms in order to satisfy the need of the
readers. His book How to Read Western Books was considered one of the most important books on translation critique, in which he commented on the content and quality of hundreds of translated books, and he
also introduced translation organizations and translators. Wang Guowei, a translation critic, believed that it
is hard to do a perfect translation because of the vague connotations of ancient Chinese and the difficulty in
choosing equivalence between Chinese and English words (idem).
Some Peculiarities of the Chinese Language

Nowadays it is strongly believed that if you want to teach yourself simple English you could start
with the Chinese language. For Western people Chinese is an exotic language written in Oriental
characters and spoken in a sort of sing-song. Besides, the Chinese cant pronounce r. It is so because
their language does not have the r sound. It is also true that the meaning of the spoken Chinese
words depends on musical tones which make it hard for the Europeans to learn spoken Chinese.
Whats more, their writing is based not on the alphabet but on the graphic symbols that stand for
whole words. In other words, Chinese is hard to approach; it has a sort of Chinese wall around it
(Flesh, 1946).
But if we look behind the wall we find that Chinese is really simple. Chinese, however, is known as a grammarless tongue. The list of the things it does not have is amazing: it has no inflections, no cases, no persons, no genders, no numbers, no degrees, no tenses, no voices, no moods, no infinitives, no participles, no
gerunds, no irregular verbs, and no articles. There are no words of more than one syllable, every word has
only one form, and all you have to learn is how to put these one-syllable words in their proper order. To make
it still easier for you, this proper order is the same as the usual order in English: subject, predicate, object.
Some linguists believe that Chinese is the baby talk of mankind. But they are wrong: it is the
most grown-up talk in the world. It is the way people speak who started to simplify their language
thousands of years ago and have kept at it ever since.
For, thanks to research, we know now that thousands of years ago the Chinese language had case
endings, verb forms, and a whole arsenal of unpleasant grammar. It was a cumbersome, irregular,
complicated mess, like most other languages. But the Chinese people, generation after generation,
changed it into a streamlined, smooth-running machine for expressing ideas. This isn't just a figure
of speech: the main principle of modern Chinese is exactly the same as that of modern machinery. It
consists of standardized, prefabricated, functionally designed parts.
In other words, Chinese is an assembly-line language. All the words are stripped to their essential
meaning and purpose, and put together in a fixed order. Word order is as all-important as the order of
operations on the assembly line: if you line it up in any other way it doesnt work (idem).
So what did the Chinese do after they had got hold of the assembly-line idea? Simple: they threw
out all the affixes. It was the logical thing to do. Soonthat means in Chinese after many thousands
of yearsthey got rid of everything that fills our grammar textbooks and were left with a few thousand little syllables and rules for putting them in order. Now, if they wanted to say A man bites a dog
they said Man bite dog; for Two men bite two dogs they said Two man bite two dog; for Two men
bit two dogs, Two man finish bite two dog; and so on all through the language.
That was long before the time of Confucius, 500 B.C. Ever since, no Chinese school child has been
plagued by grammar. In fact, the Chinese never knew that there was such a thing as grammar until they
heard about it from us. The only thing they did was to sort out full and empty words and let it go at that. Full
words say something, empty words do not. They are just there to tie the full words together. After that they
discovered that they could do without many of the empty words, and out they went. Why should anyone say A
dog is an animal, if the same idea can be expressed by Dog: animal? Articles have no place in an assemblyline language. Neither has the verb to be wherever it is just filling the space between subject and predicate.
But all this was just the first step in simplification. The Chinese never heard about nouns, verbs, and adjectives. To them, a word is just a word, and you use it where it fits in and makes sense. If a Chinese says Sun
shine, he may mean sunshine, or The sun is shining, or The sun is bright and shiny. Or, to be more exact, he
doesnt mean any of these things, because his language doesnt work that way; he means that the sun (subject) has something to do with shine (predicate), and thats all. Try, for instance, to use complex sentences,
or qualifying clauses and phrases. You will find that Chinese makes it hard to be hard. Can you start a sentence like this: Biting a dog, a man . . .? You cant. You have to stick to the good old assembly-line word
order and say: A man bit a dog. Then he . . . Or how about the passive voice: A dog, bitten by a man . .
.? Not in Chinese. Back to the assembly line: A man bit a dog. The dog . . . Chinese does more than just
simplify grammar constructions. It simplifies the ideas. Not only that, Chinese never loses the human touch.
It is necessary to remember that in Chinese you always have to express subject and predicate, otherwise the
words make no sense. Also, there is no passive voice. Therefore, in Chinese, you have to say clearly Who
Did What. You cannot say things like It is reported by reliable authorities . . . You have to say People I rely
on say . . . (idem).
But at the same time Chinese has many ways of expressing abstract ideas. It should be known that
the Chinese were talking and writing about religion and philosophy long before our own civilization
started. If they had no exact word for an abstraction, they used the concrete word, or words, that came
nearest to the idea. So, naturally, instead of using words like institutionalization or antiprogressivism,
as the Western thinkers do, they formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and allegories, in short, by every known device for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.
This is the feature of Chinese that is almost impossible to explain without going into the language
itself; its the flavor, the overtones that are usually lost in translation.
111
Bibliography
Flesh, R. The Art of Plain Talk. New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1946.
210p.
Jianzhong, Xu. Brief History of Science Translation in China. Meta : journal des traducteurs . Meta:
Translators Journal 3, vol. 50, (2005): 1010-1021. http://id.erudit.org/iderudit.
DIMENSIUNEA PEDAGOGIC N TRADUCEREA DIN CHINA

Zinaida RADU
Lilia STRUGARI
n acest articol, noi prezentm o analiz a publicaiilor despre traducerea n China, noi vorbim despre etapele
dezvoltrii traducerii n aceast ar. Am considerat cele mai importante subiecte ale traducerii, am analizat importana i rolul traducerii n cultura i civilizaia chinez, despre traductorii chinezi i experiena lor, am adunat
date utile despre efectuarea studiilor teoretice, traducerile fcute n limbile celor mai renumii scriitori, care au scris
n limbi de mare circulaie, am analizat lucrri din literatura englez, spaniol, francez, italian, rus, japonez,
indian.
n aceast lucrare am analizat metodele de traducere, dificultile de traducere, reflectrile celor mai faimoi traductori chinezi. Valoarea conceptului teoretic i practic referitor la traducere: dezbateri, proiecte de studiu, chestionare
elaborate i susinute de autoritile statale i alte experiene formeaz un model semnificativ. Toate acestea sunt reflectate n exemple i sugestii de baz.
Fidelitatea, ca problem esenial n procesul de traducere reflect succesul distinct n definirea celor mai specifice caracteristici ale procesului de traducere.
Am acordat o mare atenie la retraducerile literare, renovarea traducerilor literare, un fenomen care transform
traducerea ca subiect ce suscit dezbateri la nivel naional n dezbateri calitative, ca i un eveniment foarte important al epocii contemporane, ca un point chaud ntre fenomenele culturale ale Chinei de azi sau de mine. Noi ne
vom axa pe retraducerile din francez n chinez. Noi aducem multe exemple de colaborare care devin mai ample
ntre China i Republica Moldova, China i Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova, prin participarea publicului la discuiile rezultatelor obinute.
Cuvinte-cheie: dimensiune pedagogic, note explicative, activitate n echip, traducere simplificat.
In the paper we present an analysis of the publications about the translation in China, we talk about the stages
of translation development in China. We register in the review the principal subjects of translation. We discuss the
importance and the role of translation in the Chinese culture and civilization, translations with actual experience,
useful database for the effectuation of theoretical studies, translation made in languages of the most famous writers
who wrote in languages of a great circulation, works from English, Spanish, French, Italian, Russian, Japanese,
Indian literatures.
The methods of translation, the difficulties in translation and the opinion analysis, the reflections of the most
known translators from China are exposed in this article. The wealth, the values of theoretical and practical conceptions about translation: debates, study projects, elaborated questionnaires supported by the state authorities and
other experiences form a significant model. All this is reflected in the examples and basic suggestions.
The fidelity as a main problem in the process of translation reflects the distinct success in the definition of the
main specific features of the translation act.
We pay a special attention to the literary retranslation, renovation of the previous literary translations, a phenomenon that transforms the translation as a subject of debates at a national level into qualified debates, as one of
the most important events of the contemporary epoch, a point chaud among the cultural phenomena of today and
maybe tomorrow China. We will concentrate our attention on the retranslations from French into Chinese.
We present a lot the examples of collaboration which become more ample between China and the Republic of
Moldova, China and the Free International University of Moldova, through the participation of the public at the
discussion of the obtained results.
Key words: pedagogical dimension, explanatory notes, team work, simplified translation.
Experiena, coninutul traducerii n China i preocup pe muli cercettori, care au manifestat i

manifest mereu interes pentru traducere. Personaliti marcante ale Chinei consider c vitalitatea
valorilor spirituale ale acestei ri se datoreaz i rolului determinant al traducerii (6, p. 788).
Istoria traducerii n China este bogat i de lung durat. Dup opinia unor savani se nregistreaz
patru perioade n dezvoltarea ei:
traducerea aforismelor indiene;
113
traducerea n epoca dinastiilor Ming i Qing;

traducerea de la nceputul secolului al XX-lea;
traducerea dup 1949, data fondrii Republicii Populare Chineze (5, p. 47);
Exist i surse n care sunt evideniate doar trei perioade de nflorire a traducerii:
traducerea operelor canonice ale budismului (de la dinastia Han pn la dinastia Song);
traducerea operelor tiinifice i tehnice (de la sfritul dinastiei Ming pn la dinastia Qing);
traducerea cunotinelor Occidentului dup rzboiul Opium pn la fondarea Republicii Populare Chineze (8, p. 209).
n principiu, clasificrile reflect aceleai perioade, difer doar formulrile i criteriile de determinare.
Traductorii chinezi insist c traducerea este o activitate complex care nu poate fi redus doar
la aspectele lingvistic i literar. Analiznd fenomenul fidelitii, Xu Jun se ntreab: fidelitatea formei
sau coninutului?; fidelitatea aspectului lingvistic sau literar?; fidelitate limbii sau culturii-surse, a
limbii sau culturii-inta?
Acelai autor explic Pentru noi traducerea nu este doar cea a limbii, ea este o cale ce duce la accesul autentic al gndirii, un caz particular de comuni-care interlingvistic, intercultural, interliterar
i un mod de textualizare. (5, p. 58).
Actualmente n traducere cantitatea i varietatea de aspecte devine un imperativ al timpului. Unul
dintre aspectele dezvoltate de realitatea modernizat este cel pedagogic: traducerile ca stimulent de
dezvoltare al cercetrilor tiinifice, traducerile care au condiionat mbogirea cunotinelor utilitare i de elit. Cest la traduction que toute science doit ses dveloppe-ments, La traduction
a t la cl du progrs scientifique, ...la traduction a t la grande pollinisatrice de la science. (2,
p. 2002).
Traducerea e tiin, art, pedagogie sau toate ntr-o anumit msur?
Potrivit unor savani, activitatea de traducere, ncepnd cu Renaterea, dar mai ales n secolele
XVII-XVIII, domeniul tehnico-tiinific s-a dublat cu o dimensiune pedagogic. Traductorul devine
vulgarizator. El ajut nespecialitii s neleag cele traduse, s se informeze, contribuie la formarea i instruirea lor. n farmacologie, n chimie, n fizic traductorii au fost n mare msur nvtori,
exponeni ai operelor pe care le traduceau. Lucrnd asupra operelor de chimie destinate elevilor, traductorii simplificau materialul, descriau procedeele chimice pe etape. Se simplificau i documentele
tiinifice traduse pentru oameni de rnd cutnd s se lichideze monopolul asupra profesiei medicale,
spre exemplu. Muli traductori se vedeau n rol de nvtori. (2, p. 107-108).
n traducerea textelor budice s-au evideniat dou stiluri: la sfritul dinastiei Han ...traducerile au
elaborat un idiom convenional care rspundea la obiectivul destul de sumar de a reda textele sanscrite ntr-o manier simpl, liber i inteligibil. n secolul al IV-lea la sudul rii ncepe a se dezvolta un
stil mai rafinat, chiar literar, propriu traducerii textelor scurte sau narative susceptibile de a interesa
un public mai cultivat. (1, p.360).
Observm dou aspecte ale dimensiunii pedagogice: simplificarea textelor traduse pentru un public puin instruit; traducerea ntr-un stil ngrijit, rafinat pentru a ridica interesul unui public cultivat.
Traducerile textelor budice au reprezentat un efort de transfer cultural pe scar larg, au jucat un
rol de catalizator. Crile traduse erau i manuale de nvare. O caracterizare semnificativ din punct
de vedere pedagogic poate fi atribuit unui mare erudit Kumrajva care pe la nceputul secolului al
V-lea se lanseaz n activiti de exegez i de traducere direct din sanscrit pentru realizarea cror
face apel la clugri venii din India. Cunoscnd mai multe limbi, Kumrajva a tradus o serie de texte
budice de aforisme. El deschide birouri de traducere sub auspiciile imperiale, inaugureaz o coal
de traducere. A creat o bogat terminologie religioas care a nlocuit-o pe cea taoist. A organizat
nenumrate conferine cu participarea a mii de persoane despre textele traduse, contribuind astfel la
formarea intelectual a societii, la aprecierea, elaborarea i extinderea cunotinelor.

Experiena pedagogic exercitat n procesul de traducere a textelor sanscrite n China este recurgerea la modalitatea urmtoare: ...un crturar (un nvtor) strin recitea textul i cu ajutorul unui
interpret se stabilea o traducere rudimentar. Colaboratorii chinezi transcriau versiunea, ncercau s-o
revad, s-o controleze, s-o amelioreze, s-o nfrumuseeze. (2, p. 197-198).
Traducerea n echip, maniera de a explica noiunile budismului a facilitat rspndirea i asimilarea
lui rapid de ctre cultura chinez. Astfel eficacitatea traducerii n echip este evident. Mai adugm
aici un aspect pedagogic al traducerii: textele sacre n limbile occidentale erau efectuate n scopuri
de erudiie, dar nu religioase. Traducerea nu reprezenta, n anumite cazuri, o activitate servil, ea
ndeplinea funcia de trambulin pentru cerecetrile ulterioare: Pour faciliter leurs rapports avec les
fonctionnaires et les lettrs, des missionnaires traduisaient des livres dinspiration chrtienne ainsi que
des ouvrages scientifiques occidentaux. Entre 1582 et 1773 soixante et onze missionaires dorigine diverse se sont adonns ce genre de travaux. Parmi eux taient : 5 Italiens, un Portuguais, un Suisse, un
Polonais, deux Franais, etc. Ces trangers sont gnralement assists de collaborateurs chinois pour
effectuer leur traduction. (2, p. 111).
n favoarea metodelor de simplificare, de redactare rafinat i munc n echip, se pronun mari
traductologi din epoca modern, mai ales n cazul traducerilor din limba matern spre limbile strine:
Etant donn le grand nombre de traductions qui se font effectivement vers des langues trangres,
les faiblesses spcifiques de locuteurs non natifs en fonction de leur langue maternelle et de la langue
active trangre concerne mrite dtre tudies dans le cadre de projets de recherche fondamentale,
pour permettre la mise au point de programmes denseignement, de perfectionement efficaces.
Dans certains pays ou environnements o le march exige un travail dans les deux sens, il nest
pas exclu de former galement les tudiants une traduction vers une langue trangre, mais en soulignant les risques et limites y affrant et en proposant des stratgies doptimisation, notamment le
travail en quipe avec un locuteur natif . (4, p. 183-189).
Colaborarea n traducere se axeaz pe dimensiuni din ce n ce mai modernizate.
n anumite cazuri traducerile, mai ales din chinez spre alte limbi, nsoeau textele originale, erau
mbogite cu multiple note explicative, care au ajutat la cunoaterea patrimoniului chinez.
Alegerea materialelor (manuale de chimie, geografie, medicin, religie, i altele) pentru a fi traduse
reflect o dat n plus dimensiunea pedagogic a activitii de traducere.
Actualmente n China exist aproximativ un milion de traductori i interprei (profesioniti i
amatori), activnd n diverse organisme guverna-mentale, care traduc din domeniile tiinific, tehnic,
literar, artistic, cultural, educaional, economic, comercial, etc. Ei reprezint un contingent important
n armata de traductori din lume.
n prezent funcioneaz Asociaia traductorilor care este condus de un Consiliu Naional compus
actualmente din 242 de membri.
Traducerea n aceast ar a gsit o motivaie n atitudinea aleas din partea marilor demnitari pe
parcursul istoriei. n timpul dinastiei Tang, spre exemplu, Xuan Zang, mare intelectual, aduce din India numeroase manuscrise, o inestimabil avere. Imperatorul Tai Zong l ntlnete cu cldur, ntr-un
mod triumfal i supravegheaz s-i fie asigurate cele mai bune condiii materiale. La cerina acestui
clugr i construiete o pagod unde el va petrece restul vieii, traducnd preioasele documente budice, fiind ajutat de colaboratori chinezi (2, p.110). A fost o munc de traductor dintre cele mai considerabile ntreprinse cndva, de trei ori mai important dect cea realizat de Kumrajva. (1, p 388.)
Atitudinea, participarea marilor demnitari n organizarea i ameliorarea activitii de traducere
trezete admiraie i poate servi drept model pentru responsabilii de instituii i oamenii de stat din
alte ri, inclusiv din Moldova.
Prin traduceri au ptruns n China mai mult de 8000 de opere literare reprezentative ale celor mai
renumii scriitori ai planetei din aproximativ 80 de ri ale lumii pe parcursul a 2000 de ani. Traducerile au exercitat o influen activ, pozitiv, modificatoare asupra literaturii i culturii. Asociaiile
115
organi-zeaz dezbateri asupra operelor traduse. Dezbaterile sunt susinute i sponso-rizate de mari
demnitari, de instituii de stat, de instituii educaionale. Ele ajut la dezvoltarea concepiei teoretice
i pedagogice despre traducere i retraducere.
Astfel au avut loc dialoguri ale cror rezultate au fost sistematizate, publicate n Teoria i practica
traducerii literare: dialoguri i reflecii. (2, p. 2). Drept motiv n organizarea acestei dezbateri au fost
numeroasele retra-duceri ale romanului Rou i Negru de Stendhal. La aceast dezbatere, calificat
drept dezbatere a secolului, au participat traductori experimentai, critici din domeniul traducerii,
savani, jurnaliti, profesori i studeni, crora li s-a cerut rspuns la ntrebrile urmtoarei anchete:
1. Rou i Negru n mai multe versiuni chineze, ce credei despre acest fenomen?
2. Traducerea literar contribuie la schimb de opinii culturale sau mai mult ale celor literare?
3. Ca s traduc o oper literar, traductorul ar trebui s ncerce s redea stilul originalului, sau
s se ascund pentru a prezenta caractere specifice ale originalului?
4. Traducerea literar ar trebui s transmit valorile exotice, pstrnd specificul lor strin sau mai
mult s le naturalizeze?
5. Cum apreciai opinia conform creia traducerea literar ar trebui s caute frumuseea mai mult
dect exactitudinea?
6. Ce credei despre ideea c traducerea n chinez a unei opere literare ar trebui s intrebuineze
cel mai frecvent expresiile quadrisilabice, un mijloc de exprimare caracteristic pentru limba chinez?
7. Traducerea literar ar trebui s fac s prevaleze avantajele limbii-int pentru a depi originalul?
8. Ce credei despre punctul de vedere, despre traducerea literar ca recreare, a crei cel mai
mare criteriu este naturalizarea ?
9. Apreciai traducerea apropiat de structura sintactic a originalului sau mai mult cea care
schimb structura originalului, care red specificul limbii chineze pure? (8)
Au fost recepionate 316 rspunsuri la ntrebrile acestei anchete din partea cititorilor de vrste
diferite, de nivel cultural diferit: studeni, profesori, muncitori, tehnicieni, ingineri, lingviti, sociolingviti, scriitori, traductori i teoreticieni ai traducerii.
Rspunsurile la ntrebrile anterior indicate i formulate pe baza retradu-cerilor romanului Rou
i Negru constituiau analize fine i reflecii instructive.
n baza rspunsurilor au fost evideniate zece probleme, fiecare avnd o valoare teoretic inestimabil, fiecare fiind problem de rang socio-pedagogic n formarea traductorilor:
Natura traducerilor;
Factorii ce determin alegerea operelor de a fi descrise;
Criterii i principii ale traducerii;
Procesul traducerii proces de cercetare;
Traducerea fotocopie sau re-creaie a originalului;
Subiectivitatea traductorului;
Reexprimarea stilului;
Gndirea imaginar i re-crearea imaginilor;
Coninutul i forma, asemnarea de spirit, asemnarea de form;
Critica traducerii (7, p. 6).
Subiectele menionate i nelegerea lor de ctre traductorii chinezi devine foarte actual pentru
toi cei iniiai n traducere, nzestrndu-i cu competene tiinifico-pedagogice.
A sosit timpul cnd rile ce posed experien n domeniul relaiilor traductologice s se deschid
mai larg i activitatea traductorilor s devin mai intens. Aceasta va favoriza o dezvoltare general
mai rapid a rilor i comunitilor diferite. Va contribui la nsuirea i sporirea la timp a transformrilor inovatorii din tiin, via social, pedagogie.
Exemplele descrise, ilustrnd dimensiunea pedagogic n traducere, sunt doar cteva din marea experien obinut n aceast ar din tezaurul de rezultate nregistrate. Astzi se multiplic relaiile Republicii Moldova cu China, relaiile dintre instituiile de nvmnt superior. Academicianul Andrei
Galben relateaz: Universitatea este o entitate meritocrat, o comunitate de erudii, iar identitatea
moral a universitii se bazeaz pe angajamentul nvrii i cercetrii, erudi-iei i cutrii adevrului, indiferent de aplicabilitatea imediat, prioritile politice sau beneficiile economice. Universitatea
este menit s serveasc societatea n ansamblu, contribuind la dezvoltarea ei durabil. (4, p. 6).
Este de valoare colaborarea acestei ri cu ULIM: schimb de opinii, de publicaii, de lucrri tiinifice n care gsim informaii suficiente pentru a ne familiariza cu realitatea celor dou ri, cu
succesele de prestigiu.
Experiena Chinei n nvmnt, tiin, traductologie, ar care n prezent investete mult n aceste domenii, prezint un mare interes pentru cercettori i traductologi.
Traducerii n China i se prezice un viitor glorios, se planific plasarea limbii chineze printre celelalte limbi folosite n activitatea ONU, cnd va fi realizat recrutarea interpreilor pentru aceast
limb. (2 p. 284). Valorificarea traducerii n China este ilustrat i de reputaia Chinei pe arena mondial, ca ar-generatoare a economiei planetare, ar cu o cultur secular, cu o limb avnd multiple
dialecte i caligrafie foarte complicat despre care Serge Gainsbourg scrie: Les femmes cest du
chinois/ Les comprenez-vous? Moi pas. (3, p. 1514).
O atare stare de lucruri subliniaz importana de a continua studierea dimenisiunii pedagogice n
baza unor materiale i exemple noi, reflectnd experiena de traducere i a altor ri.
Bibliografie
1. Cheng A. Histoire de la pense chinoise. P., Editions du Seuil, 2009.
2. Delisle J., Woodsworth J. Les traducteurs dans lhistoire. Ottawa, Les Presses de luniversit, Edition UNESCO,
1987.
3. Dictionnaire culturel en langue franaise. P., Le Robert, 2005.
4. Galben Andrei, Globalizarea nvmntului superior contemporan, exemplu ULIM, Republica Moldova. LA,
n 35 (3443), 1 septembrie 2011.
5. Gile D., La traduction. La comprendre, lapprendre. P., PUF, 2005.
6. Hun Xu. Reflexions sur les tudes des problmes fondamentaux de la traduction. Meta, volume 44, nr.1, mars
1999.
7. Jun Xu, Heping Liu. Experience et thorisation de la traduction littraire en Chine. Meta, volume 49, nr.4, decembre 2004.
8. Xiaouyi Yuan. Dbat du sicle: fidlit et traduction. Meta, volume 44, nr.1, mars 1999.
9. Xiebin She. Les institutions du traducteurs et dinterpretes chinois, leurs activites et leur publication. Meta,
XLIV, 1, mars 1999.
10. Xinmu Zhang. Les signes sociaux et leurs traductions. Meta, volume 44, nr.1, mars 1999.
11. WEI Chen. Contexte, comprhention, traduction. Meta, volume 44, nr.1, mars 1999.
12. ZhangXinmu. Les signes sociaux et leurs traductions. Meta, XLIV, 1, 1999.
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TANGENE STRUCTURALE N POEZIA CHINEZ I CEA BASARABEAN:

NTRE ORIGINAR I GLOBALIZARE
Timofei ROCA
Universitatea Pedagogic de Stat Ion Creang
Globalizarea i asigurarea originalitii literaturii, att de acut dezbtut n timpul de la urm, depinde, n mare
msur, de contactul dintre scriitori i literaturi, cu att mai mult dac ne referim la cele ndeprtate una de alta, cum
e cea chinez i cea basarabean. La o analiz atent a structurilor lirice atestm inovaiile comune att n fondurile
originare: explorarea simbolurilor arhetipale (soarele, lumina, apa, vntul, pasrea, cntecul etc.), ct i la nivelul
viziunilor i tehnicilor moderne: strile mesianice, formulele satirice sau esopice, panteismul, revalorificarea, digitarea gamei memoriei etc., care n cadrul fiecrei generaii de poei se manifest prin coloraturi specifice.
Cuvinte-cheie: structur, nsingurare, globalizare, evoluie, sincronizare, revoluionarism, vizionarism, ermetism, liberalizare, modernizare, democratizare, originar, arhetipal, inovaie, perspectiv, tradiie.
The globalization and the ensurance of the originality of the literature discussed so acute during the latter time,
this depends largely by the contact between writers and literature, especially if we refer to those distant one from
another like is those Chinese and Bessarabian. In a careful analysis of the lyrical structures we attest common
innovations both in original fonds: the explotations of archetypal symbols (sun, light, water, wind, bird song, etc.)
and also in the level of the views and modern techniques: the messianic moods, satirical or Aesop forms, pantheism,
digiting memory range etc which in every generation of poets is reflected in the specific colors.
Key-words: structure, loneliness, globalization, development, synchronization, revolutionism, visionary,
hermetism, liberalization, modernization, democratization, original, archetypal, innovation, perspective, history.
nceputurile i evoluia poeziei moderne chineze amintesc oarecum de destinul i performanele poeziei romneti din Basarabia i din RSSM. Familiarizndu-ne textele i comentariile acestei
poezii, ne rentlnim cam cu aceleai obstacole, confruntri de ordin ideologic, politic, estetic etc.
Termenul, care ar generaliza ntregul proces cultural, artistic, liric inclusiv n spaiul chinez, ar fi,
probabil, acela de revoluionism i care include n sine ameliorarea originarului ca o tendin spre
globalizare. El n spiritualitatea vizionarilor din ara Extremului Orient comport o conotaie specific
i se refer la marea dorin de prefacere n toate domeniile, inclusiv n modul de a gndi i a simi, a
atinge cotele poeziei universale.
Pe aceast linie ntre cele dou literaturi pot fi depistate mai multe coincidene sau apropieri pragmatice i socioculturale, cum ar fi sursele preistorice, folclorice, cantabilitatea sau muzicalitatea cuvntului ( 146-147), Micarea de la 4 mai 1919 din China i actul unirii Basarabiei cu Romnia n 1918, o serie de impedimente i aciuni reformatoare n planul culturii, al literaturii, al poeziei,
inclusiv, cum ar fi problema limbajului i a expresivitii mesajului poetic; ermetismul sau purismul,
att n lirica chinez, ct i n poezia romneasc din Basarabia interbelic. Pe de alt parte, i la
noi, ca i la chinezi, poezia suferise pedantismul clasicist, dar care, tot el, a asigurat tranzitivitatea i
continuitatea promovrii valorilor spirituale naionale, eliberarea de canoanele vechi, ilustrat de culegerea ncercarea a lui Hu Shi, sau lirica epicizat a lui Lu Xun, considerat o revoluie poetic.
O situaie similar poate fi recunoscut i n planul micrii avangardiste: orientri, coli, grupri,
curente, tendine. Aa cum n perioada interbelic asistam la depirea romantismului printr-un simbolism modernist, dadaism, ca s nu amintim i de smntorism cu impact pur local, tot astfel n
poezia chinez semnalm curentul nsufleit de Societatea de studii literare, din care fceau parte
poeii Lin Fu, Bing Xin, Zheng Zhenduo individualiti creatoare care fac primii pai spre lirica
universal i adncesc sensibilitatea artistic.
Alte grupri revoluionate ca cenaclul Creaia, sau gruparea Luna Nou reclam o alt structur a eului poetic, antrenat spre viziunile largi, universale, de tip whitmanian, ca n poemele lui
Guo Moruo, de exemplu, despre care amintesc i titlurile: Cerul nstelat. Zeia .a. Liberalismul,
propagat reticent de gruparea Luna nou, ntrevede similitudini cu romnul Al. Macedonski care
mbria simbolismul, dar care nu se putea rupe de romantism, fie n rondeluri sau n memorabilele sale nopi. O noapte la Florena sau Tigrul aprig de Xu Zhimo ne ilustreaz tocmai acea
simbioz de parnasianism i tradiionalism. Totui, primii poei moderniti ai Chinei sunt considerai
cei de la cenaclurile Malul lacului i Clopoelul deteptrii. Cei din prima grupare, Feng Xuefeng, Pan Mohua .a. negau dogmatismul societii perimate i ddeau glas sentimentelor tari, curate,
drept model sau catalizator servindu-le natura, tot astfel cum cei din a doua grupare, mai cu seam Zi
Jinfa sau Dai Wangshu, care pe lng cultul valorii umane, pledeaz i pentru expresia autenticitii
artei poetice.
Condiia revoluionar a poeziei chineze a mobilizat individualitile creatoare, dar i le-a stagnat, cci o poezie, programat oamenilor simpli, punea pe prim plan principiul accesibilitii. Poetul, din norii fanteziei novatoare, dictatoriale, era obligat s adopte o formul pe nelesul tuturor,
din care cauz, deseori, chiar cei mai nzestrai poei, fie de dreapta, fie de stnga, lunecau spre
contrafcut, ceea ce se ntmplase i cu poezia romneasc a primului deceniu postbelic din RSSM.
n pofida principiilor inoculate cei mai talentai poei, ca Zang Kejia, Ai Qing sau Tian Jian au tiut
s-i pstreze nealterat stilul, s rspund la comanda social n spirit maiakovskian i s asigure
extensiunea procesului de creaie poetic.
Ca i poezia romneasc, lirica chinez a cunoscut mai multe traume morale i estetice din cauza
regimurilor i a seismelor sociale. Rzboiul cu Japonia din 1931 a slbit spiritul revoluionar al
poeziei, tot aa cum conflagraia din 41-45 a fcut ca muzele s tac. Poezia e n cutarea unui
limbaj ca cel esopic de la noi, sau accept stilul umoristico-satiric fr adres concret, ca n poezia lui A. Lupan. Este vorba de scrierile poeilor Juan Shipei, acelai Zang Kejia, Zou Difan, Chen
Jingrong, Tang Ji, Juan Kejia .a.
Odat cu proclamarea Republicii Populare Chineze, lirica chinezeasc trece printr-o stare de jubilaie. Poezia rezist graie experienei ei clasice, prin care se modela entuziasmul zilei. Perioada
aizecist e asemntoare cu cea basarabean. Potenat politic, ea dobndete o oarecare libertate a
gndirii. Sunt notabile scrierile lui Wen Jie, ale lui Li Ji .a.
Marea Revoluie Cultural, cum menioneaz i Zou Difan, prefaatorul unui volum antologic de
poezie chinez modern i contemporan (XI), a avut un impact negativ asupra autenticitii spiritului
de creaie. Poezia cu greu i revine dup necrutorul deceniu 66-76. Doar la sfritul deceniului
al aptelea i nceputul deceniului al optulea se resimte o oarecare ameliorare. Poezia se democratizeaz n sensul c fiecare talent veritabil i gsete i i manifest stilul conform temperamentului
i vigorii sensibilitii proprii; nu se supune unor anumite canoane. Talentul vine n dreptul su. Revoluionismul chinez trece printr-o etap premodern: poetul are acces nu numai la critic, nu numai
la ndreptirea adevrului, dar i la propriul experiment, la invenie i la inovaie, fr s renune
totalmente la elogiere i entuziasm n contul noii tendine.
n continuare ne vom referi doar la unele exemple, att ct ne este rezervat spaiul articolului de
fa, care au tangene cu tendinele nnoitoare ale poeziei romne de pretutindeni, i care se include
ntr-o continuitate fireasc global a marii poezii universale, cum just afirma pe coperta crii cei
doi traductori i ngrijitori de ediie a volumului antologic menionat, Alexandru Andrioiu i Ioan
Budura.
O poezie necunoscut atrage atenia, n primul rnd, prin spiritul ei de observaie, adic prin felul
sau modul cum se orienteaz ntr-un timp i spaiu, prin culorile originare, specifice, deci cum i
determin parametrii, cum i alege perspectiva din punctele de pornire, cum i strunete vocea.
Exist n China realiti fr de care poezia nu se poate nate: marea, munii, cerul, pasrea, cntecul
i altele, dar, mai nti de toate, fiina uman nsingurat, care sfideaz dramaticul destin. ntre om i
fenomenele naturii se leag relaii dintre cele mai semnificative, iar poetul le citete ca pe o carte
a suferinei i a nvingerii, ca n poezia Refugiaii de Zang Kejia. Profilul spiritual al refugiailor
este pictat n culorile crepuscularului perspectiv ce-i ofer poetului s sesizeze ntunecarea nzuinelor, pacostea omeneasc: Soarele-i, iat, czut n cuibul de psri / Amurgul n rae slbatice
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se-ntoarce-n perechi / Drumul strin nu-i gsete nicicum nnoptarea / Ce i-a adus pe oameni n
trgul strvechi....
Pasrea i cntecul obin valori simbolice supreme, universalizatoare, ca i la poeii basarabeni, G.
Meniuc, G. Vieru sau I. Vatamanu. La poetul chinez cntecul de pasre a primverii prefigureaz,
metaforic, principiul venicei sau continuei nnoiri a fiinialitii, neles n sens heideggerian. El consun cu micarea iregulat a vntului de rsrit, cu btile de inim din vise i atunci: Atunci
melodia ta e adevrul / nct rsuflu lung i uurat. / mi pipi bustul....
Asemenea condiie fiinial a cntecului de pasre e destul de activ conceptualizat i de ctre
poeii basarabeni aizeciti, urmnd exemplul predecesorilor, N. Costenco, M. Isanos, G. Meniuc
.a. I. Vatamanu se apropie de viziunea lui Zang Kejia mai cu seam prin concepia Psrii Eu.
n poemul cu acelai titlu, autorul pretinde s consemnifice metodic, dup ideea biblic a crerii
lumii, condiia existenial a fiinei umane, simbolul titular servindu-i, totodat, ca relaie a eului
poetic nsui cu lumea, cu fiinialitatea i prin care se relev virtualitile muzei visarea, libertatea,
accesibilitatea etc., inclusiv, confruntarea cu abisalul sau neantul, cu timpul etern. n prefaa la volumul antologic Nimic nu-i zero de I. Vatamanu, academicianul M. Cimpoi meniona n acest sens:
Poezia nu e, n aceast viziune, dect ora permanentizat i universalizat a psrii. n lucruri ca n
oameni i noiuni, se aude o pasre cntnd, existena se supune acestui cnt de pasre. Psrii
Eu, a poetului i-ar corespunde, aa dar, o Pasre Noi, ca imagine a cntecului unic, identificat cu
ntreaga fiin(Cimpoi 3). Fiina e conceput ca afirmare prin zbor, deci prin efort i predestinare,
cu norocul care ne petrece, dar i prin cntec, ca esen tainic, providenial a existenei i care
unific sufletele, inclusiv pe cele nzestrate cu vocaie sporit, chemate.
n acest sens, att poeii chinezi, ct i cei basarabeni se integreaz prin cutarea strilor primordiale, fiiniale, se nvedereaz o cointeresare fa de genez i metamorfoz, o viziune a regsirii de sine,
ca element al osmozei: fenomenul e contemplat din perspectiva propriului element sau stri cu care
este identificat nsui eul poetic. El se surprinde, ca s zic aa, ca element al evoluiei o hipersensibilitate care ne amintete de L. Blaga, cel din Gorunul, de exemplu, unde autorul aude picurile de
linite ce cad peste sicriul meu. Surprins dincolo de hotarele pregenetice, poetul triete n cadrul
altor structuri arhetipale. Din pregenetic Zang Kejia adulmec senzaia de jilav care prefigureaz
marea cu toate posibilele ei semnificaii arhetipale: Eu, din albastrul strveziu vzduh / Vzui
culoarea ta. / Eu, din decurgerea de vnt curat / Simii mireasma ta. / i ating dunga hainei jilvite,
/ Trupului tu i simt temperatura. / Se adncete noaptea. Iat, stelele! / La urechi mi ajunge ecoul
respiraiei tale puternice (Marea).
Arhetipalul, admite, la rndul su, cele mai diversificate semnificaii, inclusiv cele catarsiace sau
mesianice, ca i la G. Vieru: Arunc, arunc / De pe suflet i trup apsarea. / Mare, lume verde, mare!
/ Trupuri iui i uoare / Se-arunc la snul tu ce se ridic i se las (Arunc).
Alchimizarea pregeneticului la G. Vieru e i mai intimizat, nclzit, se tie, de nuclearul matern,
care n poezie, ca i n lume, devine principiu de transcendere, nlare a amalgamului, a lichidului existenial: Jilav este i ea / Inima mea / Precum crucea eroului / Plns de mama. / i umezi
ochii mi sunt / nc de la naterea noastr (nla-mi-a lacrima).
Tangene ale poeziei basarabene cu lirica poeilor chinezi pot fi depistate i la nivelul tehnicilor
strategice, cum ar fi dialogismul, forma de anchet. Poezia Dialog cu crbunele a poetului Ai Qing,
care ne amintete de G. Bogza, se apropie de Formular-ul lui G. Vieru. Rolurile sunt schimbate: n
locul poetului rspunde crbunele: Rspunde-mi: unde locuieti? / Eu locuiesc n munte de zeci
de mii de ani... / Ci spune-mi: care-i este vrsta? / Ca vrst eu sunt mai btrn ca munii... / De ct
vreme dinui n tcere?... / De cnd dormeau n codri dinozauri... / i ai murit de prea mult chin? /
Murit? O, nu! Eu mai triesc i astzi / Deci, dai-mi foc s ard! Deci, dai-mi foc. La poetul basarabean poezia avea ten politic, era vizat birocratismul securist. La poetul chinez este invocat eternul,
activismul, arderea, sublimul, referit fie la sensul de meleag, fie la cel de neam sau popor.
De altfel, Ai Qing cultiv, ca i ceilali confrai din diferite generaii, i poezia cu motive sociale,
insufl cititorului su ncredere n ziua de mine (Vestire zorilor, Soarele), sentimentul patriotic
(Iubesc acest pmnt), glorific eroismul omului muncii (Roaba), ncurajeaz stoicismul (Stnca). Poetul mizeaz nu att pe faptul real, divers, ct pe trirea inconfundabil, care la poporul chinez se identific cu sperana i fapta cum le sugereaz un alt renumit poet chinez pe nume Zou Difan
ntr-o poezie cu un generic tot att de semnificativ Fr titlu: Noi vom cdea-n aceast avalan
de nea? / Da, vom cdea. / Dar sngele nostru fierbinte se va topi / Odat cu omtul? Nu... / Cmpia
dup aceast zpad / Se va-nfia foarte neted / Cerul va fi foarte albastru, / Apa curat i limpede.
/ Psri frumos vor zbura / Petii vor nnota / Cnd vntul va mngia mormintele noastre.
Dou sentimente strjuiesc poeziile din aceast categorie: regretul i sperana. Regretul cauzat de
inconsecvenele istoriei, sau, cum se ntreab acelai personaj liric al lui Ai Qing: De ce ochii mei
lcrimeaz, plngnd? / Cci doar iubesc att de mult acest pmnt... (Iubesc acest pmnt). Un
poet dintr-o generaie mai tnr vine, se pare, cu un contraargument: Mare-o, tu ai un defect / C
eti amar / Da ns nu-i doar al meu / marea a zis / ncruntndu-se (La taifas cu marea).
Ca nici ntr-o alt poezie din literatura universal, eul poetic din lirica chinez este unul rbdtor,
dar care se zbucium latent, viseaz, nzuiete, iar nzuinele transpar, de cele mai multe ori, prin
sugestiile oferite de natur. ntlnim numeroase situaii poetice sau parabole poematice, ntregi cu
funcia de a recompleta acest axial sentiment, cum ar fi, de exemplu, n poezia Un copac de Li Ving:
El niciodat nu i-a blestemat nenorocul / cci rdcinile lui se-ajutorar n devlmie. / El ctre
furtuni i nisip i podi artndu-i voina / poate-nelege ce-i suferina i ce-i bucurie.... Ct privete
sperana, ea e definit de poetul Van Vi n urmtorii termeni: Nu e fruct, nici floare, / Nici toamn
i nici primvar n-are. / Sperana e-n cea mai geroas iarn / ... De-aceea cnd pmntul ngheat /
Ce frunze verzi, flori roii a sperat (Sperana), ceea ce trebuie s nelegem c sperana presupune
rezisten i inevitabila regenerare.
Natura n lirica chinez, ca i n cea basarabean, nu este doar un izvor de inspiraie, aa cum o
cunoatem nc din poezia folcloric sau din cea clasic, i nici doar mod sau prilej de regenerare a
poeziei nsi, de transcendere a esenelor, ca la moderniti, T. Arghezi sau L. Blaga. Natura e ceva
mai mult: este agentul conspirativ prin care poetul poate spune ceea ce era interzis sau condamnat
de regimul social, sau i mai mult: prin ea se apropie de tainele existenei. n expresia naturii, ca i
la poeii basarabeni, ncepnd cu aizecitii, recunoatem tnga, regretul, durerea, sperana, n cadrul
timpului social dar i al celui etern. E ca acel ceva care n operele cronicarilor (n letopisee) putea fi
doar intuit printre rnduri, cci amarul spune un alt poet chinez, Bai Hua, este... / Cnd cu propriile
mini / S-mi gtui cntecele, n gtlej (i oftatul are ecou).
Senzaia, pe care o avem la lectura unor astfel de poezii, e ca la citirea n zodii. Pe imaginea fenomenelor naturii st codul nelepciunii i al ordinii universale. Personajul liric din creaia aceluiai
poet se ntreab i constat uimit: Apoi, am ntrebat cu greutate, stelele, pe rnd: / eu cu ce-am
greit? / Iar ele, toate, au rs (Stelele toate au rs). Marea, soarele, norii, ploaia, vntul etc. sunt,
cum am spus, agenii conspirativi, att n plan ideologic, social-politic sau filozofic, ct i n sensul
ineditului artistic. Prin imaginea ploii, adic prin acel simbol al umedului, lichidului sau al jilavului, de care aminteam, poeii din diferite ri i culturi i dau mna, conspirativ, printr-o organicitate genetic, fiinial, printr-o intertextualitate freatic, intuitiv. Fenomenul se remarc pn i
prin temperament, cum ar fi n cazul poeziei Noapte cu ploaie de Bei Dao i Ploaie fierbinte de
Gh. Vod. Ambii sunt preocupai de problemele etice i politice, i tot ei se apropie i prin structura
imaginarului artistic: n prima pies avem textul: Pe lumina becurilor niruia / boabe de rou / ce
i mpodobeau, iubito, umerii / apoi, sclipind, cdeau ctre pmnt, & tu ai spus nu / i glasul tu era
att aspru / Dar zmbetul fin ddea-n vileag / taina din inim. // Norii cobori, cu palme umezite-i
/ dezmiard pletele / se-amestec cu-aroma florilor. / Respir fierbinte.... Sentimentul intim este nvluit aici ntr-o gravitate moral, dictat de o condiie istoric, pe care o triete personajul liric n
peisajul socio-politic chinez.
Un mod similar de participare spiritual, cu un suport imaginar pluvial, sugestiv recunoatem i la
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poetul basarabean: Ploaia ne sttea n fa, / ca o perdea, / i prin ochiurile ei / eu priveam / la lupta
norilor, / iar tu la apa care se ducea. / Fulgerul pe lng umerii notri trecnd, / ne arta / ct de
aproape suntem. / Noi n-am vorbit, / ochii i buzele au rs, / au vorbit minile... / Tu ai zis c ploaia
e fierbinte / i ai alergat cu ea la vale. / n urma ta, / pe parabola dealului, / fulgerul, jos cobornd,
/ lng mine te cuta. Bineneles, Gh. Vod triete alt dimensiune de timp, pluvialul sugereaz
ideea consfinirii legmntului de neam, ncrustat pe postamentul statuii carpatine, seculare. Ambii
poei, ns, sunt tentai de aceeai strategie structural, cu perspective destul de apropiate: elementul
naturistic, n mantie simbolic, este agentul confidenial, prin care se direcioneaz nzuina, sperana, n sensul amintit.
Optzecitii nu au renunat la tradiie, dar i-au propus o continuitate, accentul fiind pus pe cuvntul
care nu att exprim adevrul, ct pe cuvntul care deschide sau prefigureaz raporturi inedite cu
timpul i realitatea, cu marile sensuri ale existenei, ale fiinei, pe forma coninutist, aproape egal
cu suficiena de sine a poeziei. Aceleai motive prefer un limbaj cu valene metaforice ori simbolice
modelatoare. Simbolul clopotului, de pild, destul de frecvent n lirica lui I. Alexandru, A. Punescu sau a A. Blandiana, nu numai c inaugureaz relaii directe cu infinitul, el nscrie, digiteaz, totodat, gama memoriei, adic traiectoria destinal a fiinei umane cu toate sinuozitile ei, a
poetului, inclusiv, care e unic, irepetabil, ca n lirica poetei chineze Shu Ting: Degetele memoriei
fr ngrdire / digiteaz-n trecutul tu lung cercetnd / poate s scoat frnturi / de corzi rupte. Apoi
/ cu prize s le rnduiasc. / Acesta e clopotul tu... (Clopotul somnului). Prin gestul respectiv poeta nu risc nfrigurarea, izolarea de cititor, cu toate c nu o prsete gndul: Poate c gndurile
noastre / n-au niciodat nici un cititor, / poate c de la nceput greisem drumul, / iar rezultatul e i
el greit... (Poate. Rspuns la singurtatea unui scriitor). Cugetarea ipotetic nsi este o form
coninutist a rspunsului ateptat la ntrebarea singurtii i a globalizrii: Poate c lacrimile n-au
curs toate / or s ne fac mai fecund pmntul / poate c noi cntm n slav soarele / iar soarele, la
fel, pe noi ne cnt / poate povara ce ne-apas umerii / ne face mai puternic credina / poate strignd
despre durerea altora / tcem n faa suferinei noastre. // Poate c datorit / unei chemri irezistibile
/ noi nu avem nicicum alt alegere.
n orice caz, acest poate c vorbete de o ezitare n deciziile eului care devine o enigm siei.
nsi evadarea ntr-o arcadie iluzorie e problematic, cci e dictat de imperfeciunea echilibrului
dintre materialitatea i spiritualitatea fiinei poetului motiv reluat frecvent i n lirica lui A. Suceveanu: Umbra i lumina-mi snger pe muchii / i nv s nu fiu, i nici nu sunt chiar! (Echilibru imperfect); Tot mai al morii mele sunt... (Scrisoare mamei); De trupul meu m lepd n netire...
(Reintegrarea n natur); Sunt trist, i e trziu, i-a vrea s mor... (n mine, judecata de apoi).
Ct privete motivul clopotului, la A. Suceveanu, el se manifest de asemenea printr-o formul
dramatic-turbulent-decepional ca n majoritatea poeziilor din volumul Arhivele Golgotei. Poetul
triete condiia apocalipsului, a trecerii (panta rhei) ca desfiinare viziune care se raport la un
timp contabilizat: E o desprire parc n toate, / Pier atrii nopii din trei n trei. / Clopot de tain
bate i bate: / Panta rhei, panta rhei, panta rhei... (Mortul din tmple).
Cele cteva structuri tangeniale denot nu numai o continuitate stilistic, universalizatoare, original colorat de sensibilitatea naionalului, dar i o integrare spiritual n viaa lumii. Ea nu determin
secarea originarului, cum am vzut. Din contra: este impulsul care mobilizeaz resursele, care genereaz relaii de la alte nivele de civilizaie i cu alte cote de participare artistic. Ultimul iz al poeziei,
cum deducea M. Sorescu, este amrciunea, dar tot ea ne insufl ideea circuitului fiinial, sugerat
i de pictorul Wu Fan n opera sa, Ppdia, expus pe frontispiciul volumului antologic respectiv.
, . . . . B .
. . . . M. Top.
. . (o ), H. . , M. . , . A. Tp. Moc:
, 1983.
Zou, Difan. Prefa. Antologie de poezie chinez modern i contemporan. Trad. de Alexandru Andrioiu i Ioan
Budura. Biblioteca pentru toi. Bucureti: Editura Minerva, 1990.
Cimpoi, M. Cunosctorul de toate, poetul. Ion Vatamanu. Nimic nu-i zero. Poezii, balade, poeme. Chiinu: Literatura artistic, 1987.
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the concept of woman in Chinese, English, Romanian

and russian paremyology
Inga STOIANOVA
Free Internacional University of Moldova
Of all things upon earth that bleed and grow,
A herb most bruised is woman.
Euripedes, Medea
The place of women in society has been constantly changing during the historical development of each country,
having a position of a slave in Antiquity and the Middle Ages to an equal partner of men nowadays. All these social
modifications were reflected in the language which is known to be the mirror of culture. Proverbs as a type of
oral culture represent a form of collective consciousness which has evolved in the language based on traditional
experiences. The author makes a comparative study of the image of women in Eastern and Western proverbs and
sayings, taking into consideration historical and social aspects of China, Great Britain, Romania and Russia. It is
stated that in all cultures the woman was positively viewed as mother and wife, as the home keeper. However, her
second place in the house (dominated by men, absence of social life, education etc) was clearly rendered by the
contents of the proverbs.
Key words: proverb, paremyology, Chinese culture, Confucius, woman, wife, mother, Christian countries,
internal/external/social aspect
Pe parcursul evoluiei istorice a oricrei ri locul femeii n societate se schimba permanent, de la situaia aproape sclavagist din Antichitate i Evul Mediu la un parteneriat egal cu sexul masculin din zilele noastre. Aceste
modificri sociale i-au gsit reflectarea n limb, cunoscut drept oglind a culturii. Proverbele ca un tip al culturii orale reprezint o form a contiinei colective ce apruse n limb ca consecin a experienelor tradiionale.
Lund n consideraie aspectele sociale i istorice ale Chinei, Marei Britanii, Romniei i Rusiei, autoarea efectuiaz
un studiu comparativ al imaginii femeii n proverbele estice i vestice. Se atest c n toate culturile femeia este
privit n mod pozitiv drept mam i soie, pstrtoare a familiei; pe cnd, locul n cas, cel secundar (dominarea de
ctre brbai, absena vieii sociale, a educaiei etc), este elocvent redat n mesajul proverbelor.
Cuvinte-cheie: proverb, paremiologie, cultura chinez, Confucius, femeie, soie, mam, ri cretine, aspect
intern/extern/social.
Proverbs are used for some practical, pragmatic purposes in various circumstances of everyday communication. The changes in society and consciousness can be seen especially in such aspects of
communication and association between individuals, because those human relations are formed very
easily. As Prof. V. Mihalev states it is in the structure of those individual relations and associations
that the change of proverbs can be seen clearly in their function. (Mihalev V.)
The proverb used to be a form o collective consciousness and has evolved in the language being
based on traditional experiences. Different people share with each other such features as proverbial
forms and contents, because they share practical experiences and wisdom for human beings in order
to survive. Thus, the proverb is rooted in the soil on which people live and is realized as formulaic
phrases in its language system (Wang Qin).
Modern paremyology includes a number of definitions of the notion of proverb. In our investigation we follow the definition given by W. Mieder as it is most applicable to the purpose of the
research: A proverb is a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth,
morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorizable form and which is handed
down from generation to generation (5).
This paper attempts to classify and analyze proverbs about women in the Chinese, English, Russian and Romanian culture; the proverbs were collected through the World Wide Web. However, in
order to understand the way the women were reflected in multicultural proverbs we should observe
them in such conditions as history, economics, culture, customs and mentality.
As the roots of modern proverbs and the causes of certain reflection of women in paremyology
are in the past, it is necessary to make a brief survey of the womens place in historical and social
development of China, Great Britain, Russia and Romania. Generally taken the place of women in
historical evolution of each country was almost alike: women were dominated by men: no social life,
no passage of wealth, no personal development, no education; the role of women had to be wife and
mother /the acceptance of the society was obligatory!/. Nevertheless, some small details-exceptions
can be found.
Women in the Chinese society occupied a low and degraded status. Prior to the 1949 Communist
revolution, society was structured following the teaching of Confucius. According to the Confucian
Classics, the role of women was secondary to the men. Women had to be passive and submissive
and to acquiesce to the wishes of the men of the household. One of the pre-republic scolars wrote:
Womens place in the classical cannon was not determined by the fret of any supernatural force or
piety, but rather by the Confucian certainty that order and harmony were supreme values and that
only in hierarchy were they preserved (Guisso, 48). Although in their families women had no values
/ unless they gave birth to a son/, on social level they participated actively in farming, manufacturing
and trade, but legitimate public roles were very few.
The founding of the Republic in 1911 saw a nascent feminist movement, which focused on equal
rights for men and women including the right for women to activate in political affairs. In June
1949, Mao Zedong encouraged women to unite and take part in production and political activity
to improve the economic and political status of women (cit: Croll 73). The traditional customs and
practices that penalized women were gradually being replaced by new marriage / the Marriage Law/,
labour and land legislation which emphasized womens rights and the equality of sexes.
In England the situation of women was almost the same: they lived in a state little better than slavery. Total obedience to men, no independent means of subsistence, marriage as the single means to
survive /single women attracted social disapproval and pity/, impossibility to follow a profession as
girls received less education than boys, the ability of husbands to take children away etc - that was the
image of the average English woman up to the beginning of the XXth century, on one hand, and fitting
in rather uncomfortably, even hypocritically, with this state of affaires was the concept of woman as
a goddess placed on a pedestal and worshipped, on the other hand.
In the history of Russia the role of women was double-sided. In the times of Kievan Rus women
had a certain degree of freedom and independency both in legislative and social plan. They governed
the state /Saint Olga in the 10th century, Queen Katherine I and II/, opened schools for the girls within
the monasteries, made part of ambassadorial delegations to Constantinopol. Full obedience to men
and almost imprisonment of women is characteristic to the royal /tsarist/, boyar and tradesmen
families, meanwhile the women of the lower levels of the society were treated almost as the man of
the same social layers. The vision on the womans place in society was determined by the Orthodox
Church Canons according to which she was viewed as a means of seduction as well as the keeper of
home, a mother, and a good wife also submissive to her husband. The situation of Romanian women
was not an exception.
Nowadays there is little argument that roles for women have changed. From being granted the
right to vote, the Womens movement, equal pay for equal work legislation, and the slow but sure dismantling of the glass ceiling in organizations and corporations, womens roles are much expanded
and more diverse than they were 100 years ago. Historical and cultural changes as well as the world
outlook have constantly been modified subsequently influencing the representation of women in the
social framework.
The next aspect to be investigated deals with the proper goal of our investigation, namely, the approaches how the concept of woman is reflected in modern linguistics. Here one has to discuss the
contents of the concept of woman and its rendering by various language means. Taking into consideration the specificity of the investigated material, the structure of the concept of woman can be
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represented as a hierarchical interrelationship of elements of various levels of abstraction. Taking for

granted that a human is a complex being, it is necessary to distinguish the following microconcepts
within the concept of woman , namely, external, internal and social aspects, each of them being
subdivided into several submicroconcepts / see the scheme/.
WOMAN
External aspect
Biological
traits /age/
Appearance
Internal aspect
Psychological
features
Social aspect
Family
status
Moral traits
daughter
Intelligence
bride
Social
position
wife
mother
Further we perform the analysis of the image of women in different cultures following the above
mentioned microconcepts.
1. External aspect /age and appearance/
In any culture appearance was one of the most discussable items as each culture had and has its
own written criteria. Even Confucius stated that everything has its beauty but not everyone sees it.
Nourished by the five thousand years of history, China formed distinctive viewpoints about the
feminine beauty. In general , the standard of the ancient Chinese was: tender, tiny, pretty and smallboned with white-skin, bright eyes and white teeth. However, in different historical periods, the beauty
standards varied in terms of their emphasis. Chinese folklore mentions four the most beautiful women
of China: Xishi daughter of a tea trader /497BC/ who has been described as equally charming in both
heavy and light make-up, as appealing when she frowns as when she smiles; Wang Zhaojun is
the best known of Chinas political brides being the loveliest woman in the harem of the Emperor
Yuan; Diaochan , whose name is not to be found in official history books, was Chinese Helen of Troy
during Dong Zhous monopolization of power; and Yang Guifei / AD 713-756/ the daughter of a census official in Sichuan (www. chinatown online.com)
According to a survey performed in 1997 73% of Chinese agreed that a youthful appearance was
important, compared to 35 % of Americans. Nowadays large eyes, a small nose and a petite frame
as well as a shaped like a goose egg or sunflower seed are regarded as attractive on woman (www.
factsanddetails.com).
Here are some Chinese proverbs reflecting this idea:

The woman who tells her age is either too young to have anything to lose or too old to have
anything to gain.

A pretty girl should have an eyebrow like a willow-leaf, an eye like the kernel of an apricot, a
mouth like a cherry and a waist as thin as a poplar.

Never marry a woman with big feet /referring to foot binding which aims to make a womans
feet look tiny and therefore desirable/.

A living Juan Yin / said of beautiful girl/.

A smile of hers was worth a thousand taels of gold.

A gracious woman will cause more strife than twelve armed men can quell.
Being parts of the East European countries, Russia and Romania had much in common on the
aspect of female beauty, with some minor difference. In Russian traditional culture a beautiful woman
should be blond, with long braid / /, big blue eyes, tall and healthy. In Romanian
folklore one can hardly find exact criteria of female beauty, anyway, some general features are mentioned (face, grace, smile, tears). All these are reflected in the proverbs:

Totdeauna feioara mrit pe fetioar.

Frumuseea fr graie e ca i crligul fr momeal.

Zmbetul unei fete frumoase este ca un ir de diamante; lacrimile unei fete frumoase sunt ca un
ir de perle.

Fata frumoas se mrit fr zestre.
English folklore is more reserved in the aspect of female beauty. We may find just Beauty if in the
eye of the beholder and Beauty is only skin deep.
The controversy between external and internal beauty is reflected in all 4 cultures. Thus, the Chinese say Beauty is the wisdom of women. Wisdom is the beauty of men. In Romanian folklore one
may find Mai bine un dram de minte dect un car de frumusee. Nu te luda cu frumuseea cci ea
trece odat cu tinereea / English equivalent Virtues live when beauty dies or Prettiness dies first/. The
English equivalent for Romanian Din afar e frumos, i nuntru gunos will be Fair without, foul
within referring both to the external and internal traits of women /as well as men/. Russian folklore
includes , .
2. Internal aspect
As it was stated above historically women were not viewed to be able to posses a certain level of
intelligence (A womans mind and a winter wind change often). The majority of proverbs speak about
lack of mind in women, giving them a rather negative appreciation. Thus, in Chinese, Romanian,
Russian and English paremyology one can find the following pieces of wisdom:
To cultivate virtue is the science of men; to renounce science is the virtue of women. / Chinese/
A clever man builds cities; a clever woman throws them down.
A clever wife always sleeps with a stupid husband.
/ / Russian
, , .
Dintele de minte la muiere tocmai dup moarte iese Romanian
Fata mare minte n-are.
Femeia daca nu e proasta e degeaba.
Never send a woman to do a mans job English.
Women have long hair and short brains.
3. Social aspect
In human context a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity or co-residence.
In most societies it is the principle institution for the socialization of children. A family group usually
consists of father, mother and their children. However, each culture has its own vision on family unit.
The principles of family were also implicitly reflected in the proverbs.
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It should be noted that all cultures give high value to the notion of family. Here there are some pieces of popular wisdom: Fiecare pasre i iubete cuibul / Rom/, .
, / Rus/,
A single tree grows hard / Chinese/. An
Englishmans home is his castle /Eng/.
In China pre-republic culture was a patriarchal with family succession and inheritance traditionally passed through the male line (e.g. A door to the backyard is not really a door, and a woman is
not really a human being). Male children were preferred over female ones ( e.g. A daughter will be of
value if her parents have no son - in case the family does not have other children or A family of elegant
daughters is the worst thief of all/.
As for the female child, she had to endure multiple hardships, like the binding of her feet in order
to cripple her from running and other customs / e.g. Never marry a woman with big feet/. It was customary for boys to have a clan name, a generation name, while girls were usually given an informal
child name.
Women were usually addressed as daughters, wife, mother of a particular male in the household.
Women married out of their families and into their husbands family (e.g. A boy is facing in; a girl is
facing out meaning that the boy will remain in the house he was born in; but the girl will leave it and
go to her husbands), where they were subordinate to the men of the household and to the mother-inlaw and any older sister-in-law (e.g. A daughter-in-law mourning for her mother-in-law is false and
feigned.) The only possibility for the woman was to get married (e.g. A man fears a wrong profession,
a woman a wrong marriage. A man fears most a wrong trade, a woman a wrong match.) Chinese have
even a set of proverbs describing the role of married daughter: A married daughter is like a piece of
land that has been sold. A married girl is like water that has been spit out: no-one will drink it again/.
Social status was achieved only by the birth of sons /A pregnant woman is in more danger than
sailors and horsemen/. Nowadays Chinas family laws were changed by the communist revolution;
and in 1950, the People Republic of China enacted a comprehensive marriage law including provisions giving the spouse equal rights with regard to ownership and management of marital property.
In England, Russia and Romania as Christian countries the concept of family was based on the
canons of the Bibles according to which a wife should be a helper of the man, but one flesh, the man
shall rule over you / Genesis 3:16/ or Wives, submit to your husband as to the Lord / Ephesians
5: 22/. Hence, in these cultures the place of the woman was a submissive one.
Although most proverbs about women represent male interests, women have, unwillingly or willingly, agreed to the dominant perspective, as the interests and loyalties in womens lives have mostly
been connected with the men in their lives. The obedience and acquiescence as well as total respect
of women as wives is rendered in the following proverbs:
A wife is like a wall of mud bricks, take of one row and there is another below it. Chinese
A good husband makes a good wife. English
Maidens must be mild and meek, swift to hear and slow to speak. - English.
. . Russian
Femeilor le plac mncrurile acre i picante i soi autoritari. Romanian.
Brbatul este capul familiei.
It should be noted that both Chinese, English, Romanian and Russian proverbs have a negative
attitude to marrying a widow:
Cnd ai luat o vduv de nevast, deseori ti se va opri mncare-n gt din cauza rposatului. /
Romanian/
A widow is like a boat that has lost its rudder. /Chinese/
A maid marries to please her parents a widow pleases herself. / Chinese/
No fat mouse in a widows house /English referring to the financial situation of widows/
- / Russian/.
It would be improper to speak about women and not to mention their place in the family, as family
is considered as the best place to be in : My house is my castle. , .
It is nice to be one hundred days in your family; it is hard
to sped half a day out of the family.
Your family is your harbour. Fiecare pasre i
iubete cuibul
Traditionally the family has been the most important unit of society, and this is still true. The family is also an important economic unit. In rural areas, where about 74% of Chinas people live, the
traditional family consisted of the head of the household, his sons and their wives and children, often
living under one roof. Common surnames gave families membership in a clan in some villages all
families had the same surname, or four or five clans might account for most of the villagers.
Urban family life is different from that in rural areas. In the cities, families usually are smaller, often composed only of parents and children. Since both parents work, the children are left in day-care
centers or schools. Despite such problems, family life for most people in cities is stable and family
ties continue to play a major role in the lives of both parents and children.
A collective representation of lingvocultural similarity on the family experience is reflected in the
following admonitions and precepts on the topics:
family problems should not be shared to others:

Home scandals must not be known to the others,
even a capable state clerk cannot solve family problems / Chinese/,

. , . , .
a good wife should be chosen carefully:

If the wife is amiable, the husband has no troubles. Chinese;
- , . , . Russian.
Pnza i nevasta noaptea sa nu-i alegi niciodat. Nevasta bun e o comoar la casa omului.
Romanian
A horse, a wife and a sword may be showed but not lent. The foot on the cradle and hand on
the distaff is the sign of a good housewife. English
family life should be based on work, agreement and calmness:

If there is harmony in the family, ten thousand things are done.;
.
Cu o nevast bun grijile-s pe jumatate, iar bucuriile se-ndoiesc.
It should be noted that some proverbs contain an amount of information of culture and civilization, they are so-called lexical makers of locality. For example, the so-called family proverbs include
culinary lexis: Chinese- rice, Russian / a type of cabbage soup/: ,
, , . .
The couple
of rice and wood / poor young man and woman married as together it is easier to earn their living/,
Not to know that rice and wood are expensive means not to rule the family.
Romanian proverbs do not have such types of markers , but their message implicitly speaks about
the necessity of a woman to be a good house-keeper: La gospodin bun toi vecinii se adun. Supuii
au de suferit cnd regele nu tie s conduc, aa cum au de suferit cei dintr-o familie cnd gospodina
nu e priceput.
Unfortunately, Englsih proverbs do not have direct mentioning of cultural markers.
Speaking about the social position of women in society reflected by the proverbs it is evident that
the unique place where the woman had to be was her home. Both English, Romanian and Russian
proverbs mention this fact directly, in Chinese folklore this aspect is not mentioned either:

A womans place is at home.

i desteapt i frumoas i devreme acas.
129

a .
Thus, a comparative study of the Chinese, Russian, Romanian and English proverbs and sayings
about women has shown that on one hand all cultures have a lot of common aspects on womens
perception, on the other hand, each culture has its own peculiarities as a reflection of popular wisdom. As Mineke Schipper states consciously or unconsciously people still seem to feel pressured into
traditional behaviour. Even though there are encouraging changes, there are also continuities along
the lines of age old hierarchical legacies. The ways in which people relate to each other as men and
women, publicly and privately, reflect to a large extent the proverbial messages of what male and
female behaviour ought to be like (www.womeninproverbsworldwide.com )
Getting back to the proverbs makes people aware not only of the impact they still have, but also of
the ways in which they can change their lives as men and women today.
References
Croll, E. Changing identities of Chinese Women. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1995
Guisso, R.W. and Johannessen S. Women in China: Current Directions in Histrorical Scholarhip. New York:
Philo Press, 1981.
Mihalev V. Historical Change of Proverbs in Modern Russian Society. Abstracts of oral presentations at the
1996 Tokyo International Proverb Forum. <http// www.cogwebucla.edu/abstracts/TokyoForum.96. html>
Mieder, W. Proverbs are Never out of Season. Popular Wisdom in the Modern Age. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993
Wang Qin. Racial Characteristics of proverbs Abstracts of oral presentations at the 1996 Tokyo International Proverb Forum.< http// www. cogwebucla.edu/abstracts/TokyoForum.96. html>.
.., .
, (2009), 2: 79-81
. .
. : (2008) : 455-458
www.cinatown-online.com/cultureeye/common/four.htm (visited 02.02.2011)
www.factsanddetails.com/chinaphp?itemid=137&catid=11&subcatid=75 (visited 10.01.2011)
www.notable-quotes.com/w/women_quotes.html (visited 12.01.2011)
www.womeninproverbsworldwide.com/the-proverbs/proverbs-today/ (visited 03.03.2011)
LINGVISTIC, LITERATUR
I COMUNICARE
CULTURAL IMPACT INTO LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Natalia AZMANOVA
In the English language, there are many loanwords that have been borrowed from Chinese languages and dialects. A loanword is not the same as calques, which is an expression from one language that has been introduced
into another language as a direct translation. Many English-language calques also have origins in Chinese. Loanwords and calques are useful to linguists in examining when and how one culture processed its interaction with
another. So, this article suggests you to follow some widely used examples of Chinese slang which, nowadays,
entered English and is used by many people.
Key- words: slang, culture, style, language, translation, usage.
n limba englez exist multe cuvinte, care au fost mprumutate din limba chinez i dialectele ei. Un cuvnt
mprumutat nu este la fel ca calchierea, care este o expresie luat dintr-o limb introdus n alt limb printr-o
traducere direct. Cele mai multe calchieri ale limbii engleze i au origine din China. Cuvintele mprumutate i
calcheirile sunt utile pentru lingviti, atunci cnd examineaz cnd i cum o cultur i are interaciunea cu o alt
cultur. Aadar, acest articol v propune s urmrii cteva exemple folosite n mare parte n argoul chinez, care au
intrat n limba englez i n prezent sunt folosite de muli oameni.
Cuvinte-cheie: argou, cultur, stil, limb, traducere, utilizare.
Its no secret, China is experiencing a fast development. A few years ago, the country initiated its
take-off, like most developing countries did in their times.Though this take-off is bringing up many
concerns because of the size of the country, its model of development (export-led growth) and the
time when it takes place (advanced globalization era) make it a unique event. The progress takes
place not only at the economical market of the country, but it also develops greatly in the domain of
the science and namely, it is observed in the language development.
And for an experienced philologist it is clear enough that a sentence is the first complete unit of
a language, the first stepping of language from micro to macro sphere. Perfect sentence translations
ensure apposite translation. Correct Chinese sentence translation is the first full concrete stepping
stone of Chinese translation.Chinese is a large family of language, different versions spoken in different regions. Mandarin is considered the standard version. The translator breaks the text into micro
units so that the search for idiomatic equivalences becomes easier. These micro units like words and
phrases coalesce perfectly in a perfect sentence. So a perfect Chinese sentence translation is a giant
leap towards right translation of the whole text. A Chinese translator must correctly translate Chinese
sentences to make the whole translation appropriate.
Chinese, the language seasoned with a distinct Asian flavor and English, one of the strongest West
Germanic languages come closer through English-Chinese-English translation. Chinese boasts of a
gigantic number of users and English is the lingua franca of today's globe. The interaction between
these two languages, translation from English-Chinese-English creates a magnum bridge between the
orient and the occident.
Be it translation from Chinese to English or translation from English to Chinese, the ChineseEnglish translator must have clear perceptions of the different cultures that shaped the two languages
in unique ways. Translation from English-Chinese-English must convey the distinct cultural aura of
the target language to the source language.
The standard language discourse is attired formally. Slang stems form the grass root levels of
popular culture and carries the tang of the place of its origination. With time this informal discourse
pervades the upper strata of the society. Chinese, a macro language with numerous regional versions
has vast and diverse repertoire of slang. Chinese slang translation makes you enter this amusing world
and learn about Chinese local cultures.
133
Among different Chinese translations Chinese slang translation is a delicate field. The Chinese
slang translator requires profound understanding of the root culture of the slang. As Chinese has
many regional diversions Chinese slang differs too. The translations of Chinese slang of different
lands require special skill and understanding.
Slang, as a colloquial spoken language, is vividly flavored with local color. Although it is both informal
and vulgar, many of the slang expressions commonly used are direct, simple and apt. People tend to like the
frankness, the satire and the humor of slang. In fact, it can be considered as a living part of the Chinese language.
Slang, like other languages, continues to emerge, develop, and change. To a certain extent, it reveals
various changes in to economy, culture, and standard of living of a society. We compiled this dictionary to meet the needs of readers book to study, research, and master, as well as providing a tool for
translators.
And in our article, we would like to present some examples of Chinese slang usage in the English
language. Most of them are made for the famous English proverbs. They are the following:
[ mo gu]idiom.anyone and everyone; every Tom, Dick, and Harry (lit.: Mr. Cat
and Mr. Dog)
[icr] v. be bawled out; be scolded.
[i shi shi] idiom.whoever; whoever you want/like; whatever.
[o ch tur le]idiom.see the light at the end of the tunnel; tough it out (to the end);
gut it out.
[o zhe ch]v.go crazy; be off ones rocker; be nuts.
But, the great interest is concentrated, in the modern society, to the Internet slang, which is used
everywhere, by different people who would like to get acquainted with the Chinese ladies or gentlemen.
Chinese internet slangfollows similar rules to English slang. It is either direct abbreviation like
BRB (be right back) or phonetization of certain symbols which produces a different meaning like
c u (see you).
Lets begin with the most widespread expression used in the usual chat between two people,one of
them is Chinese but the other knows Chinese a little.
88.Easy, right? 8 in Chinese is ba. Two eights stand for ba ba or bye bye .
This is quite straightforward and its easy to see the link. A little bit more difficult to understand
why an affectionate way to say bye bye has 6 (liu) in the end and is written as886.
The second most popular abbreviation is 520. These numbers are pronounced as wu er ling,
and due to some similarity to wo ai ni (I love you) one can use them to express love
However, you should be very careful and not forget the correct order. Otherwise
saying you risk to make a shameful mistake, since 250 is used to label someone as idiot.that
a girl is beautiful can be reduced to just four letters PLMM ( piao liang mei mei). And
sharing the information about family is even shorter. Elder sister is just JJ ( jie jie) , while elder
brother is GG ge ge.
If you would witness two onliners exchanging the following codes
- 5376
- 8147
you shouldnt think that they are playingbulls and cows game. In fact, they are having a meaningful conversation.
5376 is translated as I am angry> wu san qi liu ( wo sheng qi le). And the answer
8147 is Dont be angry> ba yao si qi ( bu yao sheng qi).
Another example of a dialogue could be
- 596
- 098
where 596 stands for I have to go > wu jiu liu (wo zou le) and 098 for Okay,
go!> ling jiu ba ( ni zou ba).
They, Chinese have their own way to sayXOXO. It goes like that:770880, qi qi ling ba ba ling
( qin qin ni bao bao ni) and means kiss and hug you.And instead miss you you
can just type 360, san liu ling ( si lian ni). If you feel that the girl is your only one, why
searching for words when five digits are going to express it better? 04551 or ling si wu wu yi will
tell her you are my only one! ( ni shi wo wei yi). Finally, when you are overwhelmed
with emotions and ready for commitment look no further and bravely type 5170, wu yao qi ling
( wo yao qu ni)> I want to marry you.
And in conclusion, we can say that the language is a non-stable thing, it doesn't stay on one place,
but it develops all the time together with people. They are new creators in a very real sense, answering
to the slow, but, nevertheless, inevitable development of institutions and conditions under which people live. The most striking feature of the English language innovations is their close correspondence
to the temperament and life styles of these people who developed them. We observed that the influence of Chinese and especially English Chinese slang will still continue spreading all over the world,
and mainly because of the worldwide dominant political and economical position of these countries .
Bibliography
Adams, D. Universal Studios and Dreamworks. London: Oxford, 2002. 364p.
Brasch, W.M. Slang English and the Mass Media. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981. 387p.
Broadus, C. Late Night with Conan OBrien. New York: Helsinki, 2005. 473p.
Carter, Sh. Late Night with Conan OBrien. New York: Helsinki, 200. 361p.
Diorck, F. The Diplomats. About Diplomats. London: Oxford, 2005. 280p.
Fasold, R. W. Tense Marking in Chinese English. London: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1992. 549p.
Ferguson, Ch. A. Language in the USA. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. 328p.
Labov, W. Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992. 429p.
135
CONTEMPORARY GLOBALIZATION AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES

OF LANGUAGE LEARNING IN CHINA
Margarita DAVER
This study investigates Chinese university students motivation to learn languages and the correlations of this
one with the students strategic competence. The study reveales that the students positive attitudes toward learning
foreign languages are very important for their motivation, that the students are more instrumentally than integratively motivated to learn Russian, and that the students attitudes and motivation are positively correlated with their
proficiency and strategic competence. Being based on these findings, some pedagogical implications are discussed.
Key-words: learner-centered approach in China educational context, instrumental motivation, strategic competence, teaching innovation.
Cet article a pour but de rflchir sur la problmatique de la motivation des tudiants des facults des langues
aux universits chinoises et sa corrlation avec la comptence stratgique des tudiants. Cette recherche a prouv
que lattitude positive a lgard de ltude de la langue est trs importante pour la motivation des tudiants des
luniversits chinoises qui tudient le russe. Cette motivation est plutt instrumentale que lintgrative. On a dcouvert que les attitudes et la motivation sont troitement lies aux progrs des lves ainsi que leur comptence stratgique. Ensuite, on examine des facteurs qui influent la motivation des tudiants pendant les activits pdagogiques.
Mots-cls: pedagogie centree sur leleve, motivation instrumentale, competence strategique, innovation pedagogique.
In China, the geographical scale of the country and the speed and extent of contemporary socioeconomic evolution, allied to long-established and distinctive cultures of learning, make the interface
of new technologies and intercultural learning objectives particularly interesting and significant especially in higher Education.
Foreign language teaching has been playing an important role in Chinas curriculum reform, very
significant for the present globalization of Chinese society and economy. However, the insufficient
research into foreign language teaching and blindly adopting western theory demand China learn
from its own experience and also adopt western foreign language teaching theories that innovate and
promote its education system and research.
Contemporary intercultural education in China tends to implement more student-centered, activitybased, integrative curriculum and teaching approaches to promote language learning. The curriculum
philosophy is derived from holistic models of language learning stressing language skill development
and vocabulary acquisition within whole units of meaning, integration of language strands (writing,
speaking, listening, reading, viewing, representing), and learning to communicate in meaningful,
natural, authentic language activities relevant to the learners contexts and background experiences.
The pedagogical philosophy is student-centered, following communicative language learning theory.
In contemporary theory on language learning and teaching, the identity of the language learner
addresses the ways in which language learners understand their relationship to the social world, how
that relationship is constructed across time and space, and how the learner understands possibilities
for the future. There is an increasing interest in the ways in which the forces of globalization are implicated in identity construction.
The identity of the language learner is theorized as a subject to change. For this reason, every
time language learners interact in the second language, whether in the oral or written mode, they are
engaged in identity construction and negotiation. The most important components of successful language learning are students motivation and attitudes and also his strategic competence.
Strategic competence is one of the components of communicative competence defined by Canale
and Swain as 'the verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action to
compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or to insufficient com-
petence'(30). Strategic competence knows how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns,
how to work around gaps in ones knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language in the communicative context. Communication strategies and learning strategies can overlap
and should be considered as 2 components of this ability to solve problems that arise not only in the
communication process but also in the language learning, especially in communicative language
learning. Learners contexts and background experiences in learning and communication enrich their
strategic competence.
A small-scale study of university teachers and learners perceptions of intercultural classroom
instruction, with a special focus on motivation and strategic competence, was conducted in 20082009, using teaching experience to explore the professional and personal issues associated with the
students motivation to learn languages and the correlations of this one with the students strategic
competence and their proficiency. The survey and interviews were carried out in two pedagogic universities of Harbin. Language classes were rather big ones, usually 30-35 students. Teaching focused
on cultivating the students oral and written abilities in the Russian language but intercultural learning
objectives were carried out in the courses of Russian literature and reading of Russian newspapers
and Runet. Selective courses in foreign language study (Newspaper Reading in original, Foreign Literature, Foreign History etc) were very important for increasing instrumental motivation. The most
of the teaching activities were conducted by foreign experts. The universities were equipped with
audio-visual equipment.
The results show that the textbooks remain the predominant authority. Findings suggest recognition by teachers and students of the potential of the strategic competence, and of the validity of intercultural goals for foreign language classes, although there are some divergences between the views of
teachers and students. But the survey suggests that university students strategic competence is still
insufficient and needs special development to acquire new communication and learning strategies.
It is acknowledged that learners and teachers are the key elements to influence modern educational
technology assisted foreign language teaching and learning. But somehow high authority of teacher
in Chinese education is the reason of the insufficient use of original language learning strategies in
foreign language classroom, especially the initiative ones. Sometimes even students are discouraged
from asking questions. The entire educational system in China doesnt encourage students for speaking out, asking questions, or taking exceptions with the presented material. Consequently, as a direct
result of the school educational system, Chinese students have a great deal of trouble engaging in
creative and intuitive thinking. Conversely, their analytical thinking is perhaps among the best in the
world for the majority of students. Their learning strategies are usually adaptive and reactive. The
communication strategies are more active and productive.
However the study confirms that the positive attitudes and high motivation can compensate the
lack of strategic competence in learning and communication. Some Chinese students are highly motivated, either intrinsically or extrinsically, to learn Russian. Among those who are intrinsically motivated are students who may truly enjoy learning Russian as an academic subject, or derive satisfaction from exploring new information about cultures other than their own. However, this group does
not constitute the majority of Chinese students. Most are, in fact, extrinsically motivated and can
be further divided according to whether they are either attempting to achieve a positive outcome or,
much more commonly, to avoid a negative one.
In foreign languages teaching, besides the emphasis on cultivating students' ability in all kinds of
practical activities, the way of going out and inviting in is practiced. The so-called going out
means that a number of students are provided with the opportunities to study abroad, in Russian
universities. Usually students from Harbin study one year in Habarovsk or Vladivostok, but the
best students are highly motivated by the fact that they can study in Moscow or Petersburg. This
opportunity is very important for increasing the integrative motivation, but the most important motivation remains instrumental rather than integrative.
137
Instrumentality refers to the student's belief that good performance, i.e., working hard at something, will in fact lead to obtaining a positive outcome, i.e., reward or benefit. In regard to Russian
as a foreign language in China, instrumentality will be directly related to how useful the student believes good Russian skills will be in obtaining what he or she values the most from the society. For
the most part, the majority of students will be motivated to learn Russian because it is important for
the job after graduation. The students who plan to study ore work abroad and perceive a real need to
acquire functional language skills will be the most motivated students. Others will use the presence
of a foreign teacher in the classroom to learn as much about the Russian culture as they possibly can.
The most direct way to create or induce intrinsic motivation in Chinese students is to make learning Russian more instrumental. It is the most effective way to create intrinsic motivation. As their
acquisition of Russian increases, so too will their degree of expectancy as well: that is, the better their
skills become, the more confident they will feel and, in turn, the more motivated they will become
to continue. For developing initiative strategies, the teacher needs to create an atmosphere that is
completely safe, i.e., free of criticism, and relaxed. Some practical issues related to lack of strategic
competence in the classroom, that can be used to improve the situation, can be outlining a new approach to implementing language strategies training and classroom work in small groups with mutual
teaching with the leadership of highly motivated students where every initiative speaking will be
stimulated with complementary marks. And the best students will be motivated with such things as
improved self-esteem, spiritual growth, as well as a heightened sense of selfefficacy and competency among others.
Bibliography
Allen, E.D. The Teacher as a Catalyst. Motivation in the classroom. Student Motivation and the Foreign Language Teacher. Illinois: National Textbook Company, 1974.
Bialystok, E. Some factors in the selection and implementation of communication strategies. Strategies in
Interlanguage Communication (1983): 100-118.
Canale, M. and M. Swain. Theoretical basis of communicative approaches to second Language teaching and
testing.Applied Linguistics 1 (1980): 1-47.
Cohen, A.D. and K. Scott. A synthesis of approaches to Assessing Language Learning Strategies. Language
Learning Strategies around the World. (1996): 89-109.
Chamot A.U. and J.M. OMalley. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach: A Bridge to the
Mainstream. TESOL Quarterly 2 (1987): 227-250.
Dansereau, D. Learning Strategies. Learning Strategies. N.Y. by ONeil .(1978): 1-29.
Deci, E.L. Intrinsic motivation. N.Y.: Plenum Press, 1975. 324 p.
Dornyei, Z. and K. Csizer. Some Dynamics of Language Attitudes and Motivation.Applied Linguistics 4
(2002): 421-462.
Gardner, R.C. and W.E. Lambert. Attitudes and motivation in Language Learning. Rowley. MA: Newbury
House, 1972. 146 p.
Littlemore, J. An empirical study of the relationship between cognitive style and the use of communication
strategy. Applied Linguistics 2 (2001): 241-265.
Littlewood, N. Defining and Developing Autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics 1(1999): 7194.
Oxford, R. Why is Culture important for Language Learning Strategies? Language Learning Strategies
around the World. Hawai, 1996. P. IX-1.
Wenden, A. Learner Development in Language Learning.Applied Linguistics 1 (2002): 32-55.
Vandergrift, L. Relationships among Motivation Orientations, Metacognitive Awarenss and Proficiency in L2
Listening.Applied Linguistics 1 (2005): 70-89.
RAFINAMENTUL I ELEGANA COMUNICRII CHINEZE

Valentina ENACHI
n articol sunt investigate faetele comunicrii n civilizaia chinez. Contextul comunicaional autohton
este deosebit de interesant.Cultura chinez este colectivist i cere o subordonare familiei i grupului.Normele
comunicrii sunt fixe i rigide, ceea ce se manifest n sute de ceremonii i mii de reguli comportamentale. Omul
acestei culturi tie cnd trebuie s zmbeasc, cnd s schimbe vocea, cnd s ngenuncheze. Filosofia DAO i-a
lsat amprenta pe valorile comunicaionale chineze.Demnitatea, respectul, prietenia sunt omniprezente n purtarea
partenerilor negociatori. Universul simbolistic se manifest n stilul comportamental local. El trebuie descifrat.
Cuvinte-cheie: rafinament, respect, comunicare, simbolism, ritual.
The article analyses the communication in the Chinese space according to the typology of Hofstede. The role
of the context of the communication will be appreciated. In the following order of the ideas there will be described
the appearances of the nonverbal, gesture and mimic. The second area of the communication will be centered on
the values of the education which grants an exquisite to the communication in a Chinese family. In the culturologic
literature a distinct interest is given to the Chinese ritual. The norms of communication have been rigid, static,
concrete and not at all simple. In the Chinese documents there are established 300 kinds of ceremonies and 3000
rules of worthy behavior. The administrative, military and bureaucratic apparatus, the family and work behavior,
holidays, and ways of saluting are strictly regulated. The man from this civilization knows when to smile, when to
change his voice, when to kneel. The ritual is seen in the Chinese culture as a way to discipline the spirit.
Key-words: refinement, respect, communication, symbolism, ritual.
Simbolul comunicrii chineze poate fi exprimat n fraza lui Lao Tse Dup ce Tao a fost pierdut,
rmne virtutea, dup ce virtutea este pierdut rmne omenia, dup ce dispare omenia rmne dreptatea, cnd aceasta este pierdut rmne amabilitatea.
Cultura chinez i-a lsat amprenta att asupra comunicarii verbale, prin intermediul limbii vorbite, ct si asupra comunicarii non-verbale. Ea a determinat anumite comportamente non-verbale care
reprezinta sau simbolizeaza gnduri, sentimente, stri specifice ale comunicatorului.
Comunicarea n China are infinite nuane i multiple subtiliti eseniale. Ea poate fi exprimat n
termenul Guanxi. Termenul Guanxi este intraductibil i presupune o relaie de prietenie ce semnific
respectarea promisiunilor, ntoarcerea favorilor, diferena n relaia dintre parteneri, socializarea i
constituirea unei reele de cunotine i relaii bazate pe reciporocitate. Pentru un neavizat Guanx
nseamn riscuri nebnuite pn la deteriorarea unei relaii.
Comunicarea chinez se bazeaz pe ideea unui proces de rafinare i cultivare reciproc. Avem cu
toii tot un fel de ataament i de gnduri umane. Punctele de vedere i comportamente sunt diferite ,
conflictele ating propriile gnduri i ataamente.
Dac noi nu nelegem procesul ca o oportunitate da a cultiva i de a vedea dincolo de fenomen
pentru a sesiza esena, nu vom fi capabili sa-i nelegem corect pe alii i sa recunoatem opinii juste.
Asta ar putea s intensifice conflictele i contradiciile dintre practicani. n gndirea chinez trebuie
s percepem conflictul drept o oportunitate de a privi n interiorul nostru i de a ne nltura gndurile
i ataamentele umane. A folosi piatra brut a altor practicani pentru a lefui i a rafina ideile ca o
piatra preioas proprie.
n comunicarea chinez se manifest respect pentru opiniile i propunerile partenerilor mai vrstnici i de un rang superior. O asemenea atitudine este considerat de chinezi ca un gest de respect i
o dovad de sinceritate. O particularitate a comunicrii chineze este i consideraia fa de cei mai
vrstnici.
Se ateapt ca numai persoanele n vrst din grup s vorbeasc. ntreruperile de orice fel din par-
139
tea subordonailor sunt ocante pentru chinezi.

Demnitatea este principala msur a prestigiului unei superioare personaliti. Chinezii fac eforturi mari pentru a nu se face de ruine, ncercnd n acelai timp s sporeasc prestigiul altora. Orice
rspuns negativ este precedat de mii de scuze.
ntr-un studiu de referinta cu privire la culturile nationale, Geert Hofstede (un reputat specialist
olandez din domeniul managementului i organizatiilor internationale)menioneaz particularitile
culturale locale. Rezultatele obtinute de Hofstede categorisete cultura Chinei ca fiind profund colectivist, individul n acest spaiu fiind dependent de grupul su. Laudele individuale nu sunt acceptate .
Dac indici pierderea demnitii unei persoane poi fi sigur c respectivul nu i va fi aliat. Pierzi
ansa de a face afaceri cu firma lui i cu altele din acelai domeniu.
Elogierea partenerilor n faa superiorilor pentru contribuia lor deosebit la succesul grupului este
o modalitate de sporire a prestigiului. Orice aciune pentru sporirea bunei reputaii a celuilalt se va ntoarce n final asupra primei persoane n mod favorabil. Cuvintele n acest spaiu semnific mai puin.
Accentul se pune pe comunicarea n scris, pe documentaia scris, pe discutarea amnunit nc de
la nceput a tuturor aspectelor.
Occidentalii pun accent pe exprimarea emoiilor, opiniilor cu privire la subecte intime i afeciune
n comparaie cu chinezii sau japonezii care mascheaz sentimentele personale. O alt caracteristic
a comunicrii chineze este simbolistica. Istoricete s-a constituit o tradiie conform criea portul exterior oferea ideea, de templu n miniatur. Fiecare strat social i avea costumul propriu. Autoritile
spuneau ce i cum trebuie purtat.
Principalul n costumul chinez, haina tradiional, este halatul. Halatul are un cord. Pe spatele
halatului erau imprimate imagini cu psri la persoanele civile i respectiv animale la cele militare.
Unghiile erau o modalitate de a demonstra cu ce se ocup stpnul casei.
Culorile posedau semnificaii diferite comparativ cu cele occidentale. Dac verdele la europeni
semnific invidie, n China sinceritate. Galbenul la europeni simbolizeaz laitate, gelozie la americani, la chinezi intelectualiate. n China, culoarea alba i ceasul sunt simboluri ale doliului i morii.
n cultura chinez umilina este o virtute. ncearc s ptrunzi n simplitate, identificte cu lipsa de diferen, urmeaz natura lucrurilor i renun la orice impuls personal i astfel lumea va fi
armonioas. (Zhioan Zi). Ideea este prezent n modelele de comunicare. Afirmaiile exagerate sunt
tratate cu suspiciune i ,n cele mai multe cazuri, vor fi cercetate cu atenie.
Chinezii au tendina de a prelungi negocierile cu mult dup termenul sau data oficial de terminare
a acestora , pentru a-i adjudeca noi avantaje.
Ritualul n comunicarea chinez reprezint o modalitate de a stvili pornirile rele ale comportamentului uman. Ambiana este uneori mai important dect mesajul verbal propriu-zis.
Cuvintele nu conteaz, important este ritualul. Succesiv normele comunicrii s-au constituit static i concret. Ritualurile erau obligatorii pentru fiecare chinez. Lor li se subordonau i mpraii,i
oamenii de rnd. n documentele chineze sunt fixate 300 de ceremonii i 3000 de reguli de comportament destoinic.Totul a fost reglementat n ritual:comportamentul n aparatul administrativ de stat,
n organizarea militar, n familie. Srbtorile, culorile hainelor, modalitile salutului au fost strict
organizate. Omul acestei civilizaii tie cnd trebuie s zmbeasc, cnd s schimbe vocea, cnd s
ngenuncheze.
Globalizarea, prin care trece i China i-a pus amprenta asupra comunicrii. Tinerii de azi privesc
altfel lumea i comunic diferit. Comunicarea chinez ns rmne o tentaie i o cltorie miraculoas spre un trm fascinant i exotic.
Bibliografie
Perreti, A., J.-A. Legnand i J. Boniface. Tehnici de comunicare. Iai: Polirom, 2001.
Prutianu, S .Manual de comunicare si negociere n afaceri. Iai: Polirom, Vol.I. 2000.
Rees, W.D. Arta managementului. Bucureti: Editura Tehnica, 1996.
Scott, B. Arta negocierilor. Bucureti: Editura Tehnic, 1996.
Stanton, N. Comunicarea. Bucureti: Societatea tiina si Tehnica, 1995.
Serb, S. Relaii Publice si Comunicare. Bucureti: Teora, 2001.
Thomas, J. M. Manual de Marketing. Bucureti: Codecs, 1998.
Ury, W. Dincolo de refuz.Timioara: Editura de Vest, 1994.
----------. Comunicarea chinez. Surse de internet htpp://www. Google/ communicare china% c85483.
141
PIANJENIUL CONEXIUNEA SIMBOLIC DINTRE WWW. I

Victoria FONARI
Universitatea de Stat din Moldova
Simbolul comunicrii n secolul al XXI-lea este semnul www (world wide web o lume larg pnz/ pienjeni).
Reeaua de internet are drept prototip funcional pienjeniul. Este semnificaia reelelor de transmitere a informaiei. Pienjeniul are reeaua sa de colaborare prin firele ce leag spaiile cele mai ndeprtate i la care pot s se
conecteze toi cei ce aparin acestui sistem. n aceste condiii devine opac frontiera de a fi n postur de pianjen
sau jertf. n jocul interpretrii conceptele ar putea s ia locul unui altuia n calitate de subiect i obiect. Iinformaiaprim ia ipostaza de jertf sau poate persoana care accede orice informaie, indiferent de utilitate, este sacrificat n
defavoarea timpului su.
nacestcontext,simbolnetweb de pnz de pianjen se apropie de conotaiechinez,n careesteperceputrelaiadintrevia icosmos,astzise ates i oviat diferit realitatevirtuala.Cumse determinaceastexistena pienjiniuluiuman?Esteun aspect complicat la care se poategsirspunsn special n culturachinez.
Globalizareacombinelemente disparate dinculturidiferitede a percepe paradigme, de a facilita fenomenul de
coagulareeuropean,precum ichineza.WWWofer un camuflaj al ascunsului, pe care incontientul nu-l prezint
contientului fenomen care ar putea fi propriu doar celui iluminat.
Imaginea de pianjen din filmul Spiderman, de exemplu, promoveaz globalizarea ca o valoare, sugernd lupta
dintre comun i individual. n acest concept globalizarea nu nseamn negarea individualului, dar acceptarea i
promovarea argumentat. Comunul nu include obligatoriu valorile globale, el pledeaz pentru ieirea din parametrii intimi ai omului. Pe cnd globalizarea ar putea oferi un camuflaj de scenarii dorite, care are fora de a manipula
publicul.
Cuvinte-cheie: cultur, globalizare, informaie, pianjen, pnz, pienjeni, valoare.
The symbol of communication in the 21st century is the acronym www (World Wide Web). The functional prototype of web system is network. Its importance consists in conveying information. Web has its cooperation system due to the cables which join the farthest areas and connect all those who belong to this system. In this context
netweb symbol approaching Chinese connotation, which is best seen the relationship between life and the cosmos,
today is a reality separate virtual life. How do you determine this pienjini human existence? It is a matter which
may find particular response in Chinese culture.
Globalization combines elements of different cultures to perceive the phenomena it is necessary to know the
symbolism of both the European coagulation, as well as the Chinese. WWW offers a camouflage of discretion, that
the instinct doesnt disclose to awareness- phenomenon that could be proper to that illuminated.
The image of spider in the film Spiderman, for example, promotes the globalization as a value, it is identified
the battle between the common and individual. From this point of view, globalization doesnt mean the negation of
individuality, but the acceptance and argued promotion. The common not always includes global values, it pleads
not to intimidate the people. At the same time, globalization could offer a camouflage of expected results, which
has the force to manipulate the public.
Key-words: culture, globalization, information, web, value.
Pienjeniul reelei de internet

Comunicarea secolului al XXI-lea este semnul www (world wide web). Reeaua de internet are
drept prototip funcional pienjeniul. Este semnificaia reelelor de transmitere a informaiei. Or,
puterea acestui secolul nu constituie tiina sau banii, ci informaia transmis indiferent de distane,
de circumstane mesajul receptat subzist ca un corp autonom de cel care l-a comunicat. Pienjeniul, cu forma sa specific, care se centralizeaz, ofer o proiecie aparte dac proprietarul su se afl
n mijlocul pnzei. Interpretarea psihanalitic, n acest caz, face referine la imaginea sinelui. Dar
ideea de capcan nu este absent i cel care viseaz este avertizat cu scopul de a nu mai admite
o influen care s-l duc n burta pianjenului. Astfel spus, eul nu trebuie s cad n capcana de a
se identifica cu Sinele (de la Rocheterie 176). Pienjeniul are o reea de colaborare prin firele ce
unete spaii din cele mai ndeprtate i la care pot s se conecteze toi cei ce aparin acestui sistem. n
atare condiii devine opac frontiera de a fi n postur de pianjen sau de jertf. n jocul interpretrii
conceptele ar putea s ia locul unei altuia n calitate de subiect i obiect. Informaia-prim ia ipostaza
de jertf sau poate persoana care accede orice informaie, indiferent de utilitate, este sacrificat n
defavoarea timpului su.
Orice pienjeni este construit de un pianjen. Revelaia arhetipal o ntlnim n mitul Arachne,
estoarea care a ndrznit s o provoace la ntrecere pe nsi zeia Atena.
Imaginea pianjenului n Metamorfozele lui Ovidiu
Mitul Arachnei este unul ce se opune forei de a depinde, de a se lsa comparat. n linii mari
grecii au ncercat poate prin acest mit s determine modul de via al pianjenilor: plin de independen, singurtate, srguin, meticulozitate i insisten. Dar s revenim la personajul care a suferit
metamorfozarea. Voina, libertatea, spiritul critic i autoaprecierea nalt totul invit la o provocare.
Arachne are spiritul libertii feminine pentru care au i votat probabil cndva femeile Atenei. Ea este
dornic de adevr: Fata meon esu pe Europa-nelat de-un chip de / Taur; credeai-n adevr c-i
un taur i-o adevrat / Mare ... Mai / Face i pe-Asteria n lupt c-un vultur ce-o strnge, / Face pe
Leda, culcat sub aripi de lebd; -arat / Cum, preschimbat ntr-un satir, Iupiter nsrcinase / Cu cei
doi gemeni pe Nicteida cea frumoas (Ovidiu 103-111). n duelul artelor de a ese, sacrificat din
cauza ndrznelii, a curajului, a adevrului nedorit, este laborioasa i directa Arachne.
n acest mit sesizm prezena a dou concepte despre art:
I. cel al Atenei: deschis, glorios, nltor, luminos se axeaz pe latura primar;
II. cel al Arachnei: nchis, tenebru, josnic, la relev consecinele.
Este un transfer de la art prin conceptul de frumos Kalon este ceea ce place, ceea ce trezete
admiraie, ceea ce atrage privirea(Eco 41) la arta determinat de estetica urtului de a releva i
lucruri neplcute moralei. ndrzneala de a analiza faptele zeilor este un prometeic. E similar cu
furtul focului sacru aceast contientizare a modelelor de antimodel. Dei zeilor greci le sunt proprii
aceleai pasiuni, plceri, metehne ca i oamenilor, acetia nu au dreptul s concureze (Afrodita i Psiheea, Hera i Semela, Latona i Niobe etc.). Misterul atitudinii fa de aceast fiin pianjenul e
bizar prin metamorfozarea unei tinere. De fapt doar zeii preferau s ia chipul de btrni, iar muritorii
erau transformai de tineri fie n trestie, fie n narcis sau pin...
n mitologia antic, n Elada, nelepciunea era ntruchipat anume de aceast zei. Este clar reprezentat portretul Atenei att fizic, ct i cel spiritual. Simbolistica ce o determin e bine sesizat
de epitetele care i sunt specifice: temuta fecioar, zeia rzboiului (Ovidiu, Metamorfozele),
Atena cea cu ochi de bufni (la Homer), simbolul terestru arpele descifrarea misterului, semnul
aerian e cioara care mai trziu va fi nlocuit cu bufnia, aceast alegere a fost motivat c a povestit
taina zeiei: C de-ocrotirea Minervei eu fi-voi lipsit i-n urma / Psrii nopii voi trece (ibidem:
307), semnul vegetal mslinul.
Cu toate c este numit August-Atena n piesa Troienele de Euripide din motivul simului de
echilibru i al dreptii, observm n aceast idealitate i alte caliti: invidia, rzbunarea, neacceptarea concurenei. Subaprecierea, aruncat de Arachne, o face extrem de periculoas, devenind rzbuntoare, viclean, plin de cruzime. Dei similare prin spiritul de lupt, prin faptul c ambele-s fr
mam, brave estoare, cu un sim deosebit al culorii, Atena se plaseaz n antitez cu Arachne:
143
Atena
Arachne
statutul social
e fiica zeului suprem Zeus e fiica lui Idmon din Colofon, care vopsete ln nici
prin rang i prin neam e vestit (Ovidiu, Metamorfoze
VI:8, p.391)
modul existenial
Etern
muritoare
conceptul de frumusee mitul cum Atena l nvinge imagini din miturile n care zeii neal muritorii
n imaginile esturii
pe Poseidon
Mesajul
glorios, nltor
lucid, crud
Pentru a nelege conflictul considerm important a ne referi la legenda pe care a esut-o Atena.
Predilecia locuitorilor din polisul din centrul Eladei relev primul mit politolog. ntr-o epoc a
patriarhalismului grec te surprinde s ateti calitatea de nelepciune proprie unei zeie, i nu unui zeu.
Or, raionalismul tradiional ine de nceputul masculin, dar n tot panteonul olimpic anume Atenei i
aparine fermitatea, mintea lucid, detaarea de sentimentul erotic, conexiunea ce realitatea social,
ordinea militar. Totui nu putem afirma c e asentimental.
n mitul electoral se nainteaz doi candidai pentru funcia de protector al polisului: Atena i Poseidon. Oferim promisiunile i siglele candidailor n schema urmtoare:
Atena
Mslinul
sigla

Protejarea rii de invadatori;

dezvoltarea industriei mslinului;
promovarea pcii;
ocrotirea familiei prin dezvoltarea agriculturii;
brbaii s rmn acas pentru a cultiva
pmntul pentru prosperarea rii.
Poseidon
calul
Ocrotirea luptelor pe mare;
vnt favorabil corabiilor;
valuri dure pentru dumani;
mbogirea n urma rzboaielor pe mare i pe
alte rmuri;
ferarea jafurilor, gloriei n luptele de cucerire.

Lista ar putea fi completat. n perioada de argint, n care se atest o egalitate a drepturilor ceteneti din perspectiva opticii de gender (dup cum observm ideea de gender i face loc mai mult de
2500 ani i nc nu i-a vzut realizarea social!), toate femeile au votat unanim pentru Atena i toi
brbaii, vzndu-se navigatori mbogii, au votat pentru Poseidon. Conform legendei, deoarece cu
o femeie era mai mult, cu un singur vot a nvins Atena. i dei versurile lui Marin Sorescu reflect
un rs homeric considerm c n acest context sunt necesare de le include exact aici: Nimic nu e
cum i face omul admind c am descifrat bine / Nimic nu e cum i face femeia cu mna ei
(Marin Sorescu, Transformarea). n consecin femeilor, cetene ale acestui polis, li se interzice
s mai voteze. E reflectat perioada trecerii de la sistemul matriarhal la cel patriarhal. Dei acest mit
motiveaz n parte dorina femeilor de a-i vedea prinii, soii, feciorii acas, ataamentul pentru ar
a fost i un specific brbailor greci. Se cunoate c Socrate a prsit oraul numai pentru a participa
la rzboi pentru a-i realiza astfel obligaia militar.
Probabil anume cultul de a cunoate ct mai multe, de a nu fi indiferent de societate, a generat i
un centru de arte, de tiine, puternic dezvoltat. Vorbind despre atenieni (numii i erechtheizi), dramaturgul grec Euripide poetizeaz n Medeia:
Erechtheizii au fost din vechime prosperi:
odrasle de zei fericii, n sacre trmuri
necotropite vreodat,
hrnii cu tiina cea mai nalt,
umbl pururi, senini, n aerul limpede... (Euripide 119).
Atena reprezint nceputurile jurisprudenei. Ea revine asupra conceptului de pedeaps. Contribu-
ie la transformarea eriniilor (gr. , pl. Erinnyes dedicate) n Eumenidii (care au mil). Este
probabil prima interpretare a pedepsei. Intervenia Atenei constituie o revenire asupra conceptului de
condamnare. Dorina nesbuit de a nclca preceptele pot continua la nesfrit prin blesteme. Ura
nate ur, omorul creeaz blestemul. Eriniile, care semnific pedeapsa n spaiul terestru, sunt oprite
de nelepciunea Atenei. Dup toate suferinele lui Alkmeon, care i-a ispit de fapt pedeapsa, zeia
i ofer un spaiu al linitii.
Dar s revenim la pedeapsa Atenei pentru Arachne, simindu-se jignit zeia distruge pnza muritoarei. Concursul de a realiza cea mai frumoas estur nu este suportat de Atena, moment expus de
Ovidiu n Metamorfoze:
Puin e s lauzi; i eu ludat
Vreau s m vd; nu se cade ca eu o zei, s-ngdui
Dispreuit s fiu i s nu pedepsesc. La pieirea
Meonienei Arachne gndea... (Ovidiu 391).
n aceste circumstane Arachne decide s-i pun capt zilelor, dar Atena nu-i permite s se sinucid, pedeapsa ei va fi alta s o transforme n pianjen:
Pru-i czu i, cu el, nas, urechi; al ei cap i se face
Mic, iar trupul ntreg de asemeni i se micoreaz; [...]
... Chiar schimbat-n pianjen, lucreaz ntruna la pnz (ibidem: 395).
De fapt poate aceast imagine, care ne-a rmas frumos descris de poetul latin, este o prim caricatur la adresa celor sus-pui. ine de estetica urtului, care difer de gustul grecului de a fi frumos. Dar e important s fie art nu numai frumosul, dar i adevrul, iar adevrul nu de fiecare dat
este n conexiune cu frumosul, mai de grab c este n acord cu incomoditatea.
Pianjenul n conceptul chinez
Globalizarea transferat n emblema metamorfozei i ofer un camuflaj al ascunsului, pe care incontientul nu-l prezint contientului fenomen care ar putea fi propriu doar celui iluminat.
n secvena aleilor pianjenul este prezent n legende ce nu au tangene cu stereotipul civilizaiei noastre, cum ar fi cele asimilate cu marile zeie estoare, cele care es lumea, aa cum la greci
(Rhea), la maiai (Ixazalnoh), la chinezi (Tcehe-niu), la hindui (Maya) etc. Pianjenul apare atunci
drept o centralizare inteligent a energiilor psihice care i permite s creeze pornind de la propria sa
via (de la Rocheterie 175). Astfel firul este energia existenei, modalitatea de supravieuire n continua lucrare, n continua creaie.
este un simbol al fericirii pentru chinezi. Este un cult fa de destinul creat de
Pienjeniul
marea estoare universal mama pianjen. Uneori i se acord i funcia de tat universal. La chinezi
pianjenul concentreaz conceptele despre soart, predestinare, ghicitul i darul de a percepe trecutul
i viitorul.Din aceast motiv pianjenul, vzut ntr-o gospodrie, este adesea considerat un mesager
al norocului, bogie i bogie natural (de ploaie).Pianjenul suspendat pe fir semnific prezicerea
darurilor divine.Atitudinea binevoitoare se datoreaz i simbolisticii formei pienjeniului. Centrul
solar este similar cu viziunea cosmic a lumii. Concomitent pienjeniul ine i de tainele nopii.
Aceast comuniune dintre solar i selenar este ntlnit n aceste fire, care de obicei indic focalizarea
forelor diurne i tenebre n pienjeniul cosmic. Acest simbol conceptreaz o conotaie cosmic ce
ine de gnosticismul universal.
145
Pienjeniul i firul destinului n cultura european i n cultura chinez

Firul tors este unul din elementele fundamentale ale vizualizrii existenei umane prin cele trei
Moyre (gr. parte): Klotho (naterea) toarce firului, Lahesis (zilele vieii) face ghem i Atropos (moartea cea care nu se mai ntoarce) tie firul vieii. Ele ntruchipeaz trecutul, prezentul i
viitorul. esutul nu este realizat; simbolul toarcerii, a ghemului i a firului de a tiat este asociat cu
existena uman. n mitul antic grec ele simbolizeaz fora impersonal care nu se supune modificrii,
contribuind la ocrotirea ordinii cosmice.
La romani zeiele destinului erau numite Parce, din latin cea care nu cru. Atestm aici simplitatea numelor feminine n tradiia latin: Nona (a cincia) cea care vegheaz naterea, Decuma a
zecea parte, Morta participiu arhaic de la verbul a muri.
Atitudinea fa de acest mit l atestm n nfiarea lor: btrne, singuratice, scabroase, avnd doar
un ochi pentru toate trei trei oarbe, care i pot lua n chirie ochiul cu acordul celorlalte dou, dein
fora mplinirii destinului.
O asociere de fatum n spaiul nostru sunt Ursitoarele, care n unele variante sunt trei: Ursitoarea,
Soarta, Moartea. n mitologia romneasc se acord o libertate n existen, dac se trece de cumpna
destinului. Cea mai naintat n vrst e ultima, dar, n unele variante, se atest i o generalizare de
trsturi: fecioare btrne, taciturne, incoruptibile.
Similar cu urzirea Mamei-Pianjen n conceptul chinezesc, care are menirea de a ese destinul
universului. Aceast zeitate trezete diverse atitudini i de respect, i de fric. Prin firele sale se ese
sursa vital, dar n acelai timp este i generatoare de moarte. Misterul acestei conotaii apare din firul
pianjenului, perceput ca un simbol al aderrii tranzitorii cu venicia. Acest sens presupune perceperea gnostic a lumii. Ambiguitatea se ntrevede n percepia sa de creator care se creeaz din propria
fiin.
Cuvntul text are o referin la subiectul nostru de cercetare. Or, provine din latinescul texere, ceea
ce nseamn a ese. i, ntr-adevr, cel care creeaz texte, ese i din empirismul personal, i din cunotinele sale proprii, imprimnd individualitatea sa n mesajul scris/ gndit/ conceput. Revenind la
pnza de pianjen, observm c este un prezent esut, care la rndul su este ascuns prin posibilitatea
de a ascunde iluzia, i nu o realitate.
Pienjeniul i optica globalizrii
Interferene ale acestui mit sesizm i n Spiderman. E ntr-adevr imprevizibila atitudinea fa de
acest personaj care este adorat de copii. ine i el piept duelului cu societatea. Aceste fire de pianjen
l fac sigur.
Dar ce reprezint firele lui Spiderman? O modalitate de a supravieui n oraele mari, o ipotez de
a fi liber n micare fr tehnologiile actuale, o surs de a fi modern, nefiind ca toi, o rezisten de
a nu fi descoperit. De multe ori mi-am pus ntrebarea: de ce place acest film? Pentru c e promovat.
Poate omul a evaluat n vise i deja nu va mai pleda pentru zborul cu aripi de pasre (considernd
o imagine demodat), dar sriturile rapide de pe un bloc pe altul promovat azi i de unele probe sportive. Neordinarul atrage, aa cum dublarea de la centaur, femeie-pasre, sfinx, sirene, a rvit o alt
imaginaie a omenirii, cea de om-pianjen.
Deprecierea valorii ncepe atunci cnd personajul repet acelai subiect ca i Superman, Oamenii X .a. Oare aici se termin imaginaia? La greci, cu metamorfozele se terminau legendele, iar
la noi, metamorfoza este o etap de iniiere. Motivarea de a extazia nu mai rezist dect de a umple
restul timpului cu bti i conflicte ieftine.
Imaginea de pianjen din filmul Spiderman promoveaz globalismul ca o valoare, se identific
lupta dintre comun i individual. n acest concept, globalismul nu nseamn negarea individualului,
ci acceptarea i promovarea argumentat. Comunul nu include de fiecare dat valorile globale, el ple-
deaz pentru ieirea din parametrii intimi ai omului. Pe cnd globalismul ar putea oferi un camuflaj
de scenarii scontate, care are fora de a manipula publicul.
Conceptul postmodernismului constituie o ntoarcere a filei de la promovarea unui altruism la un
egocentrism. i aici, n fluxul gndirii, apare modelul conflictului grecesc, unde eroii sunt idealizai.
Aceast alur de ideal este relevat fie de netire i cutare a adevrului de ctre Oedip, fie din dragostea Medeei pentru Iason sau al lui Orfeu pentru Euridice, fie de sacrificiul prometeic sau... Dac ar
fi s extragi sau s negi acest factor din eroul ideal ai putea ntrezri un monstru focusat n violen,
obsesie, fric, posesivitate.
n epoca globalizrii se creeaz impresia c acest element fragil, care permite opticii s releve idealul, se distruge intenionat, pentru o convieuire a montrilor i a monstruozitilor. Deziluzia,
atotcunoaterea proclamat de psihanaliz, antidogmatismul tiinei, care contribuie la divagaii informaionale nesistematizate, ofer omului o bizar alegere plin de libertate, unde prins ntr-o reea
din ce n ce mai extins de relaii sociale, individul e constrns s-i redefineasc mereu identitatea
personal (Troc 185), n aceste obsesive transformri ar putea s piard tolerana i pentru propriile
sale concepte.
n acest mod nu se cunoate care-i va fi alegerea: de a muta scaunul pentru a vedea asfinitul, asemenea personajului lui Antoine de Saint-Exupry, sau va accepta s stea ntr-un spaiu nchis, despre
care nu puteam nici mcar presupune ce e: cldire, grot, sicriu (Lari 103), care de fapt era trupul
unui pianjen uria (ibidem: 105) sau s creeze dumani pentru a se putea manifesta prin for, raiune, politic.
Paianjeniul manipulrii se ntrevede prin aceast dezagregare etic n relaiile interumane, i invers subtituirea sau gsirea expresiilor prin net, mobil. Expresia tehnica inteligent, auzit destul de
des, poate s distrug sau s fie invers proporional cu inteligena posesorilor.
Foarte des apare conceptul de inteligen a personalitii. Secolul nostru se confrunt cu o inteligen a comunului care provoac dependene, creeaz frustrri, dar i impune colaborri, proiecte,
investiii, creditri. Astfel, drnicia este vzut ca o superioritate obligat de a oferi pentru a-i etala
bunurile materiale; comunicarea este rezervat doar pentru manipulare; tolerana este faada aprrii i supravieuirii, i nu vizeaz acceptarea sau accederea. Este i o confirmare a camuflrii fricii/
angoasei. Constana este perceput ca posesivitate, dictatur, suspiciune; frumosul se transform n
oribilul definit, iar urtul indefinit preia locul frumosului.
n contextul globalizrii se distruge contextul uman, impunndu-se cel al tehnicii. Predilecia pentru etic poate deveni o trstur improprie a omului, dar una cultivat n lumea firelor, a automatismelor... apropae toat producia n prezent ine de mbinarea de cuvinte Made in China. Probabil c
anume conceptul chinez de pienjeni ofer rspuns la multe ntrebri economico-politice.
Bibliografie
de la Rocheterie, Jacques. Simbologia viselor. Natura. Trad. de Lucia Postelnicu Pop. Bucureti: Artemis, 2006.
Eco, Umberto. Istoria Frumuseii. Trad. de Oana Sliteanu. Bucureti: Enciclopedia RAO, 2006.
Euripide. Teatru Complet. Chiinu: Gunivas ARC, 2005.
Lari, Leonida. Lira i pianjenul. Chiinu: Hyperion, 1992.
Ovidiu. Opere. Chiinu: Gunivas, 2001.
Troc, Gabriel. Postmodernismul n antropologia cultural. Iai: Polirom, 2009.
147
LECTURA CA FOR TRANSFORMATOARE N ROMANUL

BALZAC I MICUA CROITOREAS CHINEZ DE DAI SIJIE
Maria ABRAMCIUC
Universitatea de Stat Alecu Russo
Inspirat din realiti terifiante, relevnd i evidente origini autobiogrfice, naraiunea romanului Balzac i Micua
Croitoreas chinez de scriitorul i cineastul Dai Sijie, ilustreaz o tem incitant, care se rezum la conceptul de
lectur ca for transformatoare i ca modalitate de supravieuire a intelectualului ntr-o lume degradant. mpins
pn la paroxism, ideologia epocii maoiste, mutileaz contiina i transform oamenii n marionete docile, ns nu
poate stvili infuzia de spiritual, parvenit dinspre literatura clasic francez. Traduse n limba chinez de Fu Lei,
romanele lui Balzac i Flaubert le creeaz celor doi adolesceni, trimii pe Muntele Fenexului Ceresc la aa-zisa
reeducare, un veritabil festin spiritual. Povestit zilnic de ctre Luo, proza balzacian o transform ntr-un mod
miraculos pe fat semianalfabet, supranumit Micua Croitoreas. Autorul, el nsui narator i protagonist, evoc
retrospectiv aceast experien autentic, demonstrnd cum ficiunea substituie treptat lumea real a tinerei fete:
n final, sub impulsul lecturilor, ea prsete satul natal i pleac n ora, convins c frumuseea unei femei este o
comoar nepreuit.
Romanul cucerete prin implicaiile mitico simbolice (sesizm trimiteri la mitul despre Pygmalion i Galateea), prin expunerea dinamic i prin formula ideatic.
Cuvinte-cheie: roman, fabul, narator, naraiune, lectur, lector, imaginar.
Inspired from terrifying reality and showing obvious autobiographical origins, the narrative of the novel Balzac
and the Little Chinese Dressmaker written by Dai Sijie, illustrates an inciting subject which resumes to the concept
of reading as a transformative power and a way of surviving of the intellectual in a degrading world. Driven to
paroxysm, the ideology of the Maoist epoch mutilates the conscience and transforms people into meek puppets, but
cannot obstruct the infusion of the spiritual that comes from French classic literature. Translated into Chinese by
Fu Lei, the novels of Balzac and Flaubert are a genuine spiritual feast for two young people sent for the so-called
re-education to Heavenly Phoenix Mountain. Narrated daily by Luo, the prose of Balzac miraculously transforms
the illiterate girl, called the Little Dressmaker. The author, both narrator and protagonist , retrospectively evokes
this authentic experience, demonstrating how fiction gradually substitutes the real world of the young girl. Finally,
under the impulse of these readings , she leaves her native village for the town, strongly convinced that a womans
beauty is an invaluable treasure .
The novel overwhelms by its mythical and symbolic implications (as some references to the myth of Pygmalion
and Galatea could be perceived) , as well as its dynamic narrative and ideational formula.
Key-words: novel, fable, narrator, narration, reading, lecturer, imaginary, message.
Elaborat sub impulsul memoriei, debutul romanesc al cineastului francez de origine chinez, Dai
Sijie, Balzac i Micua Croitoreas chinez, prezint secvene ale unor evenimente reale, ntmplate
n perioada cnd societatea chinez s-a situat sub semnul, mai mult dect absurd, al aa-zisei revoluii
culturale. Programul maoist presupunea exterparea morbului burghez din contiina tinerilor provenii din familii de intelectuali. Confruntat el nsui cu aceast realitate teribil, autorul, la distan
de trei decenii, i pune n valoare experiena celor trei ani de aflare, mpreun cu prietenul su Luo,
ntr-o ndeprtat localitate rural, un sat izolat n muni, unde cei doi, ca i muli ali tineri din orae,
au fost trimii la aa-zisa reeducare. Imediat dup evocarea, n scena iniial, a ntlnirii celor doi cu
primarul i stenii, cititorului neavizati i se explic fenomenul propriu unui sistem totalitar, cu grave
rezonane sociale, dar i morale:
n China comunist, la sfritul lui 1968, Marele Crmaci al Revoluiei, preedintele Mao, a
pornit o campanie care avea s transforme din temelii ara: universitile au fost nchise, iar
tinerii intelectuali, adic elevii care-i terminaser gimnaziul, au fost trimii la ar, pentru
a fi reeducai de ranii sraci (9).
Noul statut, de cobai, al celor doi prieteni le va releva o realitate pe ct de sumbr, pe att de
incitant: pe muntele Fenixului Ceresc, la cellalt pol al civilizaiei, tinerii, fii de medici din oraul
Chengdu, vor descoperi cu stupoare mentalitatea, deformat grav de ideologia maoist, a localnicilor,
dar i vor savura o aventur intelectual inedit. n satul situat ntre stnci uriae, spre care niciun
drum nu urc, cocoat pe vrf i cel mai srac dintre toat, nimeni nu vzuse pn atuci un detepttor, iar o sonat de Mozart, interpretat la vioara, cutremur contiina intoxicat a localnicilor:
Chipurile stenilor, att de aspre cu numai cteva clipe n urm, se nmuiar sub muzica de cletar
al lui Mozart, ca pmntul uscat sub picturile de ploaie i, n lumina jucu a lmpii cu gaz, i
pierdur treptat conturul (8) .
Vocea naratorului se suprapune peste cea a personajului central, elementul documentar fiind ntreinut de secvene cronologice autorul fixeaz aciunea n timp i n spaiu, indic exact anul exilului, vrsta sa i a prietenului su (Luo avea optsprezece ani, eu aptesprezece), descrie n detalii
amplasarea geografic a locului. Autenticitatea faptelor nu poate fi contestat, cu att mai mult c ele
sunt confirmate i de articolul biografic, ce precede romanul lui Dai Sijie. Evocarea unor evenimente
din trecut (starea dramatic a nvmntului n colile chineze, condiia umilitoare a intelectualilor
etichetai drept dumani ai poporului, condamnarea public a dentistului etc.), intercalate n debutul
fabulei, au rolul de preludiu la cele ce vor urma, fiind i un truc auctorial, prin care se atrage atenia
asupra antecedentelor aciunii propriu-zise.
Fabula romanului Balzac i Micua Croitoreas chinez cucerete prin dezinvoltur, dar, sub paravanul unor aventuri de natur erotic, identificm lesne apologia literaturii i lecturii, ale cror
finaliti, de mntuire i transformatoare, sunt sugerate cu mult abilitate. n condiiile unui regim
feroce, crile din geamantanul de piele, furat de cei doi prieteni de la Ochelarist, fiul unei familii
de scriitori, aflat i el la reeducare, reprezint un veritabil refugiu voluptuos. Spiritul triumf chiar i
n acest spaiu mbcsit de mizerie, lectura romanelor lui Balzac anulnd condiia umilitoare a celor
doi. Prima carte mprumutat de Ochelarist, este romanul Ursule Mirout de Balzac, care produce un
impact puternic asupra celor doi tineri, descoperindu-le realiti inedite. n absena hrtiei, fascinat
de coninutul romanului, naratorul copiaz, direct pe pielea unui ... cojocel de oaie, capitolul n care
protagonista cltorete n vis. Lectura acestui prim roman i provoac lui Luo un puternic impuls
erotic, iar naratorului un sentiment de revelaie, dar i o imens nostalgie dup casa printeasc:
Alegerea textului mi-a luat mult vreme, din cauza suprafeei de scris limitate; n plus, pielea
era pe alocuri, stricat, plesnit. Am copiat capitolul n care Ursule cltorete n vis. A fi vrut
s fiu ca ea: s dorm n patul meu i s pot vedea ce face mama n apartamentul nostru de la
cinci sute de kilometri distan, s-i vd pe ai mei stnd la mas, s le observ comportamentul,
s tiu ce mnnc, ce culoare au farfuriile lor, s simt mirosul mncrii, s-i aud vorbind... Ba
mai mult, s pot vedea n vis, ca Ursule, locurile unde nu am pus niciodat piciorul... (62)
Din acest moment, drama epic dezvluie, ntr-un ritm febril, nu doar pasiunea pentru lectur
a celor doi tineri, aflai n captivitatea unor cimcumstane ostile, dar i rolul formativ al romanelor
balzaciene, traduse n limba chinez de Fu Lei. Cei doi tineri devin lectori nvederai ai acestor cri
valoroase. Mai mult dect att, Luo i le citete i prietenei sale, fiica unui croitor din localitatea vecin,
un fel de prines a Muntelui Fenixului Ceresc, supranumit de cei doi prieteni Micua Croitoreas.
De aici i pn la finele crii, naratorul va urmri, pas cu pas, efectul metamorfozant al lecturii n
cazul acestei fete, care, de la prima ntlnire, i pare una ordinar. Detaliile unui prim portret fizic sunt
relevante n sensul fixrii entitii ei iniiale, care, pe parcursul romanului, va suporta o transformare
miraculoas:
Am bgat de seam c, atunci cnd rdea, ochii Micuei Croitorese trdau o natur nelefuit, ca
a feticanelor din satul nostru. Privirea ei avea strlucirea pietrelor preioase, dar brute, a metalului
nelustruit, iar efectul era amplificat de genele lungi i ochii uor migdalai (29).
149
Luo, care o consider necivilizat, o iniiaz treptat n universul epic balzacian i constat c lectura romanului Ursule Mirout ar fi fcut-o pe Micua Croitoreas mai rafinat, mai cultivat. Tot
el i evalueaz prima reacie dup lecturarea mpreun a fragmentelor transcrise pe cojocelul de piele,
mrturisindu-i prietenului su, naratorului:
Cnd a terminat de citit, a rmas nemicat, cu gura cscat [...]. Balzac sta, continu el,
este un adevrat vrjitor, care a pus o mn nevzut peste capul fetei steia: era transformat,
vistoare, i-au trebuit cteva momente ca s revin cu picioarele pe pmnt (64).
mbrcnd cojocul pe care naratorul scrisese fragmente din romanul Ursule Mirout, fata este convins c atingerea cuvintelor lui Balzac i va drui fericire i inteligen... (65).
n acest spaiu abrutizat, lectura, o form de supravieuire pentru cei doi tineti, i ofer Micuei
Croitorese instrumentele eliberrii de sinele su necivilizat. Dei aparine altei epoci dect cea a lui
Balzac i Flaubert, ea devine lectorul virtual, implicit, model, a crei prestaie, subliniaz Paul
Cornea, invocnd afirmaiile lui Umberto Eco, coincide cu intenia auctorial, ntruct textul, dac
e normal organizat, presupune competena cititorului, dar i o creeaz, controlnd felul n care sunt
actualizate semnificaiile (prin selecia elementelor pertinente etc.) . Colaborarea Micuei Croitorese
cu mesajul romanelor citite, dar mai mult cu sensul lor implicit, cu totalitatea intenional a textului
, o situeaz n imediata apropiere a Emmei Bovary. Ca i n cazul celebrului personaj, realitatea artistic, subiectiv, se suprapune peste cea obiectiv, fiind receptat de Micua Croitoreas ca fiind una
aievea. Intenia lui Luo, ca prin crile lui Balzac s o transforme dintr-o simpl rncu de la munte
ntr-o fat dezinhbat, se realizeaz: n finalul romanului, tnra se metamorozeaz ntr-un mod miraculos. De srbtoarea Anului Nou occidental, aflai n vizit la ea, cei doi i remarc, ncntai, fizicul
schimbat. Personajul-narator mrturisete, impresionat de aceast nou identitate a tinerei rance:
Aproape c n-am mai recunoscut-o. Intrnd n cas, am crezut c vd o elev de liceu de la
ora. i tiase coada lung, mpletit, legat cu panglic roie, iar prul i ajungea acum pn
la urechi, transformndu-i frumuseea ntr-una de adolescent modern. (...) haina sobr i
masculin, noua pieptntur i teniii imaculai, care luaser locul vechilor galoi, i ddeau
un aer neobinuit de senzual i o anumit elegan, vestind moartea frumoasei rncue puin
stngace (185).
Lumea virtual a romanelor occidentale se concretizeaz: croitoreasa chinez dintr-un sat pierdut
n muni i nsuete manierele i mentalitatea personajelor romaneti, preschimbndu-se dintr-o fat
ordinar ntr-o fiin emancipat. Noul su statut este sugerat n cel mai direct mod de modelele oferite de crile lui Balzac i ale altor romancieri francezi. n final, pleacarea sa la ora se produce sub
impulsul ideii c Balzac a ajutat-o s neleag un lucru: c frumuseea unei femei este o comoar
nepreuit, ceea ce face dovada unei abordri fidele a mesajului i normelor etice, emise de aceste
romane. n acest sens, se mai poate invoca i relaia de identificare a lectorului cu lumea textului,
relaie ce presupune transferul de identitate de la personaj la cititor.
Tabloul final al acestei istorisiri este terifiant: Luo, ndrgostitul romantic, admirator al lui
Balzac, n urma unui acces de nebunie, incendiaz crile care i-au corupt iubita.
n postfaa crii, Alexandru Clinescu afirm c romanul Balzac i Micua Croitoreas chinez
este emblematic pentru lectura ce i permite s evadezi i s construieti un imaginar. Citind romanele din geamantanul Ochelaristului, cei doi tineri se simeu captivai de misterele lumii exterioare,
mai ales de misterul femeii, al iubirii, al sexului (111), iar Micua Croitoreas dobndete libertatea
interioar i i modific radical destinul. Atestm aici o perspectiv modern asupra lecturii, conceput ca relaie interactiv ntre cititor i carte: tnra se situeaz n avanscen, iar centrul de greutate
al fenomenului literar se deplaseaz din spaiul dintre creator i oper, n cel dintre oper i cititor .
Romanul cucerete prin implicaiile mitico-simbolice (sesizm trimiteri la mitul despre Pygmalion
i Galateea), prin expunerea dinamic i prin formula ideatic. Textul mai poate fi interpretat i ca o
parabol politic, Dai Sijie sugernd clar impactul factorului cultural ntr-o societate nchis, dar i
imposibilitatea ngrdirii contactului unei lumi oprimate cu mesajele literaturii artistice.
Bibliografie
Clinescu, Alexandru. Un roman despre teroare, iubire i literatur, postfa la Dai Sijie, Balzac i Micua
Croitoreas chinez. Trad. de Daniela Boriceanu. Postfa de Clinescu, Alexandru. Iai: Editura Polirom, 2002.
Cornea, Paul. Introducere n teoria lecturii. Iai: Editura Polirom, 1998.
Sijie, Dai. Balzac i Micua Croitoreas chinez. Trad. de Daniela Boriceanu. Postfa de Alexandru Clinescu.
Iai: Editura Polirom, 2002.
---------------. Terminologie poetic i retoric. Coordonator Val. Panaitescu. Iai: Editura Universitii Al. I.
Cuza, 1994.
151
CONFUCIUS PRIMUL AUTOR DE LITERATUR N LUMEA CHINEZ

Valentina ENCIU
Comunicarea analizaez lucrarea Lun yu Analectele (dialogurile), text care reprezint motenirea doctrinal
a lui Confucius i care relateaz unele dintre conversaiile lui Kong Fu Zi cu cei mai apropiai dintre discipolii
si. Este opera n care Confucius nu face analiz filozofic propriu-zis, dar i definete conceptele ntr-o form
aforistic. n textul nostru, se insist asupra noiunii fundamentale din Analecte, cea de ren (termenul nsemnnd
omenie sau buntate), ncercndu-se o comentare a acestui concept, care poate fi interpretat drept o calitate
uman, o virtute, cea de a nelege adevrata natur a relaiilor dintre oameni. Prin cunoaterea i respectarea ren (a
relaiilor umane, lumea devine, n opinia lui Confucius, perfect deoarece se transform ntr-un imens ritual social,
ideea constituind un aspect al viziunii despre lume a lui Confucius, care era un specialist n rituri i ceremonii.
Aceste i alte idei confucianiste, se afirm n textul comunicrii, au avut consecine benefice asupra culturii i a
sistemului politic chinez.
Cuvinte-cheie: confucianism, filosofie chinez, analecte, ren, omenie, ritualizare, ceremonii.
Confucius discusses some aspects of the text Lun yu The Analects (dialogues). This text represents Confuciuss doctrinal heritage and renders some of the conversations between Kong Fu zi with his closest disciples. It is
the work in which Confucius does not do a philosophical analysis; instead he defines his concepts in a aphoristic
form. In our text, a fundamental notion taken from the Analects is being insisted upon and namely that of ren (the
term meaning humane or goodness), attempting to comment on this concept, which can be interpreted as a human quality, a virtue, that of understanding the real nature of human relationship. By knowing and respecting ren
(human relationship) the world becomes perfect, in Confuciuss opinion, as it transforms into an immense social
ritual, the idea constituting an aspect of Confuciuss vision of the world, who was a specialist in rituals and ceremonies. This article claims that these and other Confucian ideas have had benefic consequences both on Chinese
culture and on the Chinese political system.
Key-words: confucianism, Chinese philosophical system, the analects, ren, goodness, rituals, ceremonies.
Imperiul nu s-ar putea lipsi o singur zi de Confucius.

Mulmit doctrinei lui, posed ara civilizaia sa,
guvernmntul su, tradiiile sale, prosperitatea agriculturii
i a meteugurilor. Noi i datorm tot atta recunotin
ct Cerului i Pmntului. (...) Nicicnd nu va fi onorat
ndeajuns.
Zhu Xi (filosof chinez)
Concluzia care se impune n urma studierii mai multor lucrri consacrate lui Confucius este c
imaginea pe care s-au strduit s i-o cristalizeze cercettorii despre fenomenul Confucius a fost una
mereu supus modificrilor, din motivul inexistenei unor date precise referitoare la opera sa original. Cercetrile efectuate pn n prezent de ctre redutabili cunosctori ai patrimoniului antic al
civilizaiei chineze s-au ntemeiat preponderent pe ipoteze, mai mult sau mai puin plauzibile, lansate
de exegeii problemei, deoarece: De la nelept, care s-a stins n anul 479 .e.n., nconjurat de discipoli, murmurnd Viaa mea, o jertf adus Cerului, nu a rmas, ca mrturie direct, dect Movila
Bocetelor, movil funerar din apropiere de Qufu, numit astfel deoarece din ziua nmormntrii nu
a ncetat a fi pzit, la nceput de discipoli nlcrimai, apoi de descendenii neleptului, de-a lungul
a peste 2400 de ani pn astzi i venerat de toi trectorii, fie om simplu, fie mprat chinez (arambei 93).
Conform datelor atestate n studii speciale consacrate lui Confucius, numele filosofului este forma
latinizat a numelui chinezesc Kong [fu] zi (neleptul Kong) aa a fost numit cel mai important i
venerat filosof chinez din statul Lu. Varianta latinizat Confucius (i, respectiv, confucianism), creat
n Europa n secolul al XVIII-lea, nu are nici un sens n chinez.
De regul, investigaiile n cauz pornesc de la una din primele biografii ale multdisputatei personaliti, alctuit de ctre Sima Qian (145-86 .e.n.), din care se detecteaz unele trsturi personale,
unele aspecte din viaa Maestrului Kong, care conin o doz maxim de veridicitate.
Tradiia confucianist dezvolt pn la fabulos momentele biografice, conferindu-i lui Confucius
o aur legendar, n conformitate cu mentalitatea curentului. A trit ntre anii 551-479 .e.n. Fiind al
zecelea copil nscut n familia unor aristocrai scptai, chiar prin naterea sa, remarc cercettorii,
provocnd bucurie, deoarece este primul biat al lui Shu Lianghe, unde anterior se nscuser nou
fete. Cu aceast ocazie fericit, conform tradiiei, n ziua naterii lui, n stnga uii, a fost atrnat un
arc, semn al bucuriei tuturor tailor (ibidem: 90).
Rmas de mic orfan de tat, ncurajat de maic-sa s studieze, face din nvtur o pasiune a vieii
sale, ulterior mrturisind: ncepnd de la cincisprezece ani mi-am deschis inima nvturii (Doctrina lui Confucius 7). A trecut toate treptele colare Micul Studiu (Xiaoxul) i Marele Studiu (Daxul)
cu o reuit excelent i numai la vrsta de aptesprezece ani este deja recomandat casei regale Lu,
unde ulterior, conform biografiei scrise n tradiie confucianist, ar fi deinut diverse ranguri nalte n
stat.
Biografii au remarcat, de asemenea, prestana intelectual, manierele alese, inuta vestimentar impecabil, aspectul fizic impozant, date, care, n opinia lor, ar fi favorizat faptul oferirii tnrului Kong
a unei misiuni diplomatice pe lng Lao Zi, celebrul fondator al daoismului. Aceasta ar fi contribuit
mult la formarea personalitii lui Confucius i a condiionat o cunoatere profund de ctre acesta
a riturilor i, respectiv, a ceremonialului chinez, care vor influena mult formarea sa ca om erudit,
filosof.
Ulterior, ns, Confucius n-a mprtit conceptul de refugiu n nonaciune promovat de adepii
lui Lao zi i, prin activitatea sa viitoare, n special cea de mentor i ndrumtor, s-a preocupat de problemele sociale ale timpului.
Implicarea social i angajamentele civice ale lui Confucius sunt remarcate de ctre cercettorul
C.Gulian, care insist asupra ideii c pentru Confucius (...) eticul i politicul sunt probleme simultane i indestructibil solidare, subliniind n continuare c Maestrul Kong a pus mare pre pe valoarea educaiei i a culturii, valoarea celei mai bune crmuiri, valoarea muzicii i a riturilor, valoarea
studiului i a cunoaterii, valoarea tradiiei i a inovaiei etc.. Autorul studiului calific opera lui
Confucius drept un rspuns curajos, amplu i profund, la criza istoric a societii antice chineze din
perioada care se ntinde ntre secolele VIII-II .e.n. (39).
Exegetul gsete similitudini n atitudine i concepte dintre Confucius i Platon: Amndoi i fiecare n felul su nfieaz primele exemple impozante de trire contient a crizei istorice existeniale, a crizei societii antice din China i Grecia. Ei nu vor s amelioreze, ci viseaz o transformare
din temelii a omului i societii (idem).
Conform biografiilor, Maestrul Kong, n ultima perioad a vieii, s-ar fi dedicat exclusiv activitii
de mentor, pe aceast cale predicndu-i doctrina n mijlocul discipolilor si. Cercettorii indic cifra
de peste 3000 de elevi, pe care i-ar fi avut Confucius, 72 dintre acetia i-ar fi continuat preocuprile.
Alte biografii mai noi, apelnd la mrturii contemporane, informeaz c Maestrul Kong a fost un
crturar i un dascl itinerant, care a trit cu mijloace foarte modeste i n-a izbutit niciodat s se fac
prea ascultat de cei puternici, dei scurt vreme a deinut o slujb mrunt n statul natal (Enciclopedia Blackwell 273-274).
Florentina Vian, autoarea studiului ce prefaeaz Analecte, contest i ea elemente i date din
biografiile confucianiste, remarcnd, pe lng alte idei, i faptul, c acestea elimin de obicei colaborarea sa (a lui Confucius.- n.n.) cu filosoful Zhuang Zi, iniiatorul daoismului, dat fiind rivalitatea
ntre dou coli: daoismul i confucianismul.
153
Exagerrile, inexactitile, necorespondenele sunt inerente n cazul unor cercetri realizate n absena unor documente i mrturii originale. Indiferent de acestea, cert este faptul c Maestrul Kong
a fost un ilustru cunosctor al tehnicii rituale i al obiceiurilor, un mare crturar i filosof al timpului
su. Mrturie n acest sens pot servi i autocaracterizrile proprii, pe care le atestm n Analecte:
Nu m-am nscut deja nvat. Iubesc nvturile pe care cei vechi ni le-au lsat i de acolo m
strduiesc s aflu ce-i de aflat (Confucius, Analecte 7.19), sau, de exemplu, n articolul 7.18 din
Analecte atestm un alt moment de autocaracterizare: Prinul She l ntreab pe Zi Lu despre Maestrul Kong, ce fel de om e oare?, dar Zi Lu nu-i rspunde la ntrebare. Maestrul spune: De ce nu-i
rspunzi aa: E un om care are dorina de a nva, nct uit i de mncare. i e att de bucuros cnd
nva, nct las deoparte orice suprare, i nici ia seama la btrneea de care-i pndit. Spune-i att
i va fi lmurit.
Lucrarea Lun yu Analecte este cartea care relateaz unele din conversaiile maestrului cu cei
mai apropiai dintre discipolii si, singura n care el i explic ideile i i definete conceptele,
adevrata oper a lui Kong Qiu. Dei, afirm Daniela Zaharia, doctrina literailor confucianiti, celor care, ncepnd din epoca Han de Vest (206 .e.n. 2 e.n.), are drept surs un numr de ase scrieri
antice Cele ase canoane pe care tradiia le atribuie Maestrului Kong, ns disputele filosofice n
jurul acestor texte pun sub semnul ntrebrii paternitatea lor i doza de contribuie a lui Confucius la
scrierea acestor cri. Exegeza nclin spre a confirma doar implicarea Maestrului n realizarea Analelor Primvara Toamna i nu exclude efortul lui la scrierea acestui text, ns date ce ar confirma
ideea n cauz nu exist, afirmaiile rmnnd simple ipoteze (Dicionar de scrieri politice fundamentale 77).
Ideea c Lun yu Analecte este unicul text care reprezint motenirea doctrinal a lui Confucius
este una susinut de majoritatea exegeilor. Este lucrarea n care Confucius nu face analiz filosofic,
ci i definete conceptul ntr-o form aforistic.
Opera atribuit unanim lui Confucius Lun yu (Analecte) se constituie din mai multe aforisme,
maxime, mici parabole, anecdote, dictoane. Apare dup moartea Maestrului Kong, n anul 400 .e.n.,
prin efortul a dou generaii succesive de discipoli, care au adunat din tradiia oral yu zicerile Maestrului n diverse circumstane sau ceea ce rmsese notabil din materia leciilor sale (Confucius,
Analecte 11), deoarece spusele sale sunt introduse permanent n maniera citatului: Maestrul spune
(zi yue).
Arse n anul 213 .e.n. de mpratul dinastiei Han, Analecte i alte presupuse cri ale lui Confucius, sunt refcute de crturari din memoria celor care le conservaser oral.
Medierea de la nceputuri a crii pune n mare dificultate stabilirea paternitii acesteia. Cercettorii gsesc o mai mare doz de original mai ales n capitolele 1-9, prin prezena n acestea a unor
ziceri de-ale maestrului Kong care nu pot fi puse la ndoial, cum ar fi: Dinastia Zhou pe cele dou
dinastii de dinainte le-a imitat. O, ct de bogat e ritul lor i ct de rafinat ! La rndul meu, modelul
celor din Zhou l-am urmat (ibidem: 3.14).
Noiunea fundamental a Analectelor este cea de Ren (termenul nsemnnd Omenie sau Buntate), conceptul fiind interpretat drept o calitate uman, o virtute, de a nelege adevrata natur a
relaiilor dintre oameni. Prin cunoaterea i respectarea Ren (a relaiilor umane), lumea devine, n
opinia lui Confucius, perfect, deoarece se transform ntr-un imens ritual social, ideea constituind
un aspect al viziunii despre lume a lui Confucius, care era un bun cunosctor al tehnicilor rituale i
al ceremoniilor.
Confucius consider c viaa omului trebuie s fie impregnat de Li (ritual), n permanen omul
trebuie s se raporteze i s se conduc de Li, s-i adopte un comportament ritual, care, fr ndoial,
este superior legilor impuse. Prin raportarea la Li, el i va cultiva sntate intelectual i moral,
deoarece respectarea ritualului i raportarea la ritual disciplineaz, l nva s existe n armonie cu
sine i cu alii. Concludent este n acest sens zicerea Maestrului Kong: Dac nu cunoti riturile,
nu-i poi gsi locul n lume (ibidem: 20.3).
n atitudinea sa fa de Li, omul trebuie s manifeste o atitudine pioas i sincer, aceasta asigurndu-i o trire superioar, i confer statutul de Om i capacitatea de Ren (Omenie).
Concomitent cu unele concepte ca Ren i Li, n zicerile sale din Analecte se mai utilizeaz i
altele ca: Xiao (Pietate, respect ierarhic), Zhong Loialitate, Y Dreptatea, Y Curajul, Shu Reciprocitate, Xin Sinceritate i Credibilitate etc.
Prin comportamentul ritual (Li) i prin Comportamentul Superior uman (Ren), considera Confucius, este asigurat armonia om natur societate. Maestrul nu vorbea despre cele (...) ce tulburau
ordinea fireasc, i nici despre duhuri nu-i plcea s vorbeasc,- aceasta-i confirmarea atestat n
Analecte (7.20).
Virtutea omeniei (Ren), n opinia lui Confucius, se poate obine prin strduin, prin Li (Ritualizare), care, n ultim instan, educ Rang generozitate, druire.
Aforismele, conotaia, efectele eufonice, aluzia, citatul, enunul metaforic, oralitatea, ritmul frazei
confer literaritate textului, care, fr exagerare, poate fi considerat unul literar. De aici tendina de a-l
studia i din perspectiv literar, deoarece constituie o mostr veritabil de text artistic. Edificatoare
n acest sens sunt urmtoarele pasaje din capitolul 4 Li Ren (Despre virtutea Omeniei):
4.1. E frumos s vieuieti ntr-un loc binecuvntat de Omenie. Cel ce alege un loc ce nu e de
aceast virtute slluit, nelept mai poate fi socotit?.
4.4. Cel ce cu ntreaga voin ntru Omenie se las cluzit, nu mai poate fi de Ru stpnit.
4.7. Greelile pe care le svreti te arat ce fel de om eti. Dac tii s cntreti greelile pentru
fiecare, afli ct omenie acela are.
4.14. Nu te necji, dac nu ai un rang anume. S-i pese numai dac n-ai puterea s merii un loc
demn n lume. Nu te necji dac nimeni cu-adevrat nu te tie. S faci ceea ce merit s te faci recunoscut de ceilali, asta tu nsui cere-i ie.
4.17. Dac ntlneti un om ales, caut s vezi, cum ai putea s fii la fel. Dac ntlneti unul care
nu-i astfel, scruteaz-i nluntrul i vezi dac n-ai metehnele pe care le are el.
4.23. Cnd tiu s se stpneasc, rari sunt acei ce ajung s greeasc (Analecte).
Exemplele demonstreaz, c, apelnd la un apanaj metaforic, filosofia omeniei superioare elaborat de Confucius n Analecte se prezint ca o metaetic viznd o multitudine de aspecte ale existenei
umane i sociale: nvtura, guvernarea, virtutea omeniei, pstrarea regulilor, virtui i punerea lor n practic, modelarea de sine, calea modelrii prin rit etc. Sunt cteva din conceptele
elaborate de Confucius n Analecte i considerate condiii de existen a omului i a societii.
n concluzie, constatm c lumea chinez l-a venerat ntotdeauna pe cel mai important filosof chinez Kong Ni sau Kong Qiu, considerndu-l personalitate de nsemntate crucial pentru poporul su:
(...) doctrina lui Confucius are (...) un caracter fundamental practic: ea impune omului, fiin perfectibil, obligaia de a se autodepi; cu toii trebuie s facem efortul de a ajunge la perfeciunea ideal
pe care a atins-o Confucius nsui, magistrul, nvtorul prin excelen, perfeciune care se numete
virtutea omeniei (Doctrina lui Confucius sau cele patru cri clasice ale Chinei 14).
155
Bibliografie
Confucius. Analecte. Trad. de Florentina Vian. Bucureti: Editura Humanitas, 1995. 320p.
Dicionar de scrieri politice fundamentale. Coord.: Laureniu tefan-Scalat. Bucureti: Editura Humanitas,
2000. 408p.
Doctrina lui Confucius sau cele patru cri clasice ale Chinei. Trad. de Vlad Cojocaru. Iai: Editura Timpul,
1994. 480p.
Enciclopedia Blackwell a gndirii politice. Coord.: David Miller. Trad. de Dragan Stoianovici. Bucureti: Editura Humanitas, 2000. 814p.
Enciclopedia universal Britannica. Coord.: Ilie Cmpeanu, Corneliu Marinescu. Vol. 4. Bucureti: Editura
Litera, 2010. 360p.
Gulian, C.I. Axiologie i istorie: De la Zarathustra la Hegel. Bucureti: Editura Academiei Romne, 1987.
268p.
Jaspers, Karl. Oamenii de nsemntate crucial: Socrate. Buddha. Confucius. Isus. Bucureti: Editura Paideia,
1996. 199p.
arambei, I. i N. arambei. 99 personaliti ale lumii antice. Bucureti: Editura Artemis, 2000. 316p.
CULTURA I SPIRITUALITATEA CHINEZ

N VIZIUNEA ARTISTIC A JULIEI KRISTEVA
Ana GHILA
Universitatea de Stat din Moldova
Activitatea multiaspectual a Juliei Kristeva o include i pe cea de scriitor, autoarea publicnd (din 1990) romanele Samuraii, Btrnul i lupii, Posesiuni, Crim la Bizan. n Samuraii urmrim imaginea unei generaii care ncearc s creeze un cod moral al timpului, s rstoarne i s afirme anumite principii n tiin, s
aprecieze arta ca pe o revoluie a limbajului poetic. Capitolul 3 al romanului este intitulat Chinezete, aciunea
desfurndu-se n China unde au plecat cercettorii francezi pentru a se documenta la faa locului cu privire la
anumite probleme lingvistice, culturale, sociale, psihologice. Funciile artistice ale personajelor de origine chinez
(copii, maturi, btrni) constau n relevarea modului de gndire, de aciune, de cunoatere a lumii. Dezbaterile i
monologurile reflecii asupra celor vzute de europeni se refer la relaia via-moarte, individ-sistem, civilizaia
european i cea chinez, creaia ca mod de afirmare a individualitii .a. Un rol esenial l are ns spiritualitatea
chinez asupra cunoaterii de sine a personajelor venite din Europa (Olga, Brhal, Herv Sinteuil, care au ca prototipuri, respectiv, pe Julia Kristeva, Roland Barthes, Philippe Sollers).
Cuvinte-cheie: Julia Kristeva, romanul Samuraii, cultura i civilizaia chinez, cunoaterea de sine.
Julia Kristevas multi-aspectual activity includes that of a writer as well. Starting in 1990 the author publishes
the novels The Samurais, The Old Man and the Wolves, Possessions, Crime in Byzantine. In the novel
The Samurais we track the image of a generation which tries to create a moral code of time, to overturn and to affirm some principles in science, to appreciate art as a revolution of the poetic language. Chapter 3 of the novel is
entitled In the Chinese Way. The action takes place in China where the French researchers go to document themselves on some linguistic, cultural, social and psychological issues at the site. The artistic functions of the Chinese
characters (children, adults, and old people) consist in revealing the way of thinking, of action, of getting to know
the world. The debates or the monologues are reflections on what the Europeans see and refer to the relations lifedeath, individual-system, European and Chinese civilizations, the creation as a way of affirmation of individualism
etc. An essential role is played by the Chinese spirituality on how the characters, who come from Europe (Olga,
Brhal, Herv Sinteuil), get to know themselves and who have Julia Kristeva, Roland Barthes, Philippe Sollers
respectively as prototypes.
Key-words: Julia Kristeva, novel The Samurais, chinese culture and spirituality, self-knowledge.
Plcerea textului ne intrig a discerne realitatea de ficiune n primul roman al Juliei Kristeva
Samuraii, roman al unei generaii de intelectuali care devin prototipuri n imaginarul artistic al
autoarei: Roland Barthes (Brhal), Claude Lvi-Strauss (Strich-Meyer), Michel Foucault (Scherner),
Jacques Lacan (Lauzun), Jacques Derrida (Saida), Lucien Goldmann (Edelman), mile Benveniste
(Benserade), Philippe Sollers (Herv Sinteuil), Julia Kristeva (Olga). Idei expuse n anii 60-80 ai
secolului XX de lingviti, literai, psihanaliti, sociologi, filosofi sunt trecute i prin viaa, mintea,
sufletul unei femei intelectuale, care este aici personaj i narator. Urmrim o epoc de efervescen
intelectual, probleme ce in de relaia social-ideologic, de moral, diferena dintre Europa i SUA
la nivel de nelegere a unor idei, probleme, suflete care mai c nu au timp s stea de vorb cu sine.
Toate acestea sunt prezentate prin fragmente din jurnalul personal, din scrisori, dialoguri i dezbateri ale personajelor, naratorilor. n acelai timp, foarte subtil se simte, se ntrezrete sufletul, dorina
de linite, de pace interioar, de nelegere, de maternitate a personajului principal Olga. Apropo, romanul i are nceputul n Memoriile autoarei, publicate n anul 1983, dar i n eseul Chinezii, publicat
n 1975, dup vizita n China a unui grup de intelectuali francezi, condus de Philippe Sollers i din
care fceau parte R.Barthes, J.Kristeva .a.
157
Asupra acestui nivel cognitiv al romanului, mai precis asupra relaiei adevr istoric adevr artistic vom strui n continuare, evideniind specificul spiritualitii chineze i, n acelai timp, rolul
viziunii chineze asupra lumii n cunoaterea de sine a personajului principal. Capitolul 3 (din cele 5
ale romanului Samuraii) este intitulat Chinezete. Plecarea unui grup de cercettori francezi n
ndeprtata Chin devine o provocare pentru ei: s afle cu adevrat ce se ntmpl acolo, pe timpul
revoluiei culturale, s surprind/cerceteze esena formrii limbajului si a textului, pe baza studierii
modului de gndire a comunicrii la chinezi, s evadeze din lumea plin de revolte de orice fel a
Europei, cutnd astfel un loc tihnit, nou pentru linitea sufletului fiecruia dintre ei. Evoluia evenimentelor este pregtit de meditaiile personajului/naratorului, care ba se contopesc , ba se evideniaz prin stil indirect liber: Aveau oare sentimentul (fie chiar i unul vag, incontient vinovat i, deci,
lesne de negat) c se avnt ctre China pentru a iei dintr-un impas personal? (...) unde s fug de
dezastrul lor obscur (pe care, de altfel, l regsesc cteva luni sau civa ani mai trziu.... (Kristeva
149). Naratorul, din perspectiva personajelor, confirm acest gnd ascuns, sau poate intuit, al lor: S
te smulgi din tine nsui prin intermediul chinezilor. S strpungi deghizarea conformist . S descinzi
nu numai pn la rdcini (dei, am mai spus-o, o coborre n tradiie nu este lipsit de interes), ci
dincolo de ele, n dezrdcinarea total. S-i descoperi o contra-identitate.
Evoluia discursului pe motiv chinezesc, mai precis, pe motivul ateptrii unei ntlniri cu China, continu prin reflecii asupra relaiei individ-exil. Astfel, urmrim curgerea gndului, nlnuirea
imaginilor cu semnificaii senzitive, filosofice, aflm idei privind statutul i spiritul omului nevoit s
triasc n exil (probleme etern actuale i nerezolvate, se pare, niciodat), trecndu-se, treptat, spre
esena i necesitatea ntoarcerii la origini, nu att naionale, ct general-umane, mitice chiar, prin mijlocirea unei culturi milenare:
Mult vreme Frana fusese pentru ea [Olga] un fel de Chin; o ar de exil poate elibera.
Or, ea nu se integrase cu adevrat, tia c aa ceva nu se va ntmpla niciodat, chiar dac devenea mam a zece micui francezi. (...). Nostalgia ei stpnit cunoscuse pn n prezent recea
aparen a unui spleen pe care tia s-l transforme n poft de lectur, de nvat, de scris. i
iat c aceast aviditate se preschimb ntr-o interogaie asupra ei nsi. Nu cine sunt?, ci,
ntr-un mod mai meditativ, mai intelectual: care sunt chipurile extreme, chinezriile pe care le
simt n mine i nu le pot formula? Cum se poate scrie altfel dect vorbeti? Cum de e cu putin
s fii o femeie invizibil, ignorat sau reprimat (de ctre Confucius), dar esenial i chiar
atotputernic (n tao)? O mam nu este oare un fel de Chin, etern i incognoscibil? Mamele
s fie ele oare chinezoaicele noastre?.
Se poate observa micarea gndurilor, ideilor, meditaiilor, legtura lor, discursul romanesc ctignd astfel n luciditate i caracter intelectual (un alt tip, contemporan, al personajului intelectual
atestm n roman). Pe de alt parte, naratorul ne provoac la dezbateri i ne convinge de adevrul
celor spuse, generaliznd caracterul mamei n general.
Omul lipsit de rdcini n exil se afirm cum poate, demonstrnd personalitatea sa, treptat se uit
cele trite acolo, n ara ta de origine, doar comarul rmne a fi cu adevrat interesant i semnificativ. Lipsit de amintiri-triri prin vise, omul din exil i caut i gsete totui o rdcin mai adnc,
mai puternic pentru a-l convinge de eternitatea existenei civilizaia chinez: China venea aadar
s ia locul unei anti-origini: cea mai adnc, cea mai ancestral, rasa strmoilor cu ochi oblici, dar
i cea mai neverosimil, prin urmare cea mai insensibil, impersonal, fr culori copilreti, doar un
puzzle din miraje. Un fel de teatru al identitilor, unde se folosesc mti pentru a evoca esenialul, cu
toate c mtile nu fac dect s dezorganizeze tot ce se presupune a fi fundamental.
Piaa Tiananmen este apreciat ca imagine a unei puteri invizibile, dar certe (...). Spaiul i anula
pe oameni, lsndu-se punctat de gesticulaia lor. De fapt, pictorii chinezi clasici erau nite vizionari
ntru totul realiti n privina pulsaiei locurilor, a claritii lor impuntoare i gunoase. S se lase
purtai de viziunea lor. S priveasc prezentul din aceast perspectiv.

n urma unei atente observaii i a unor situaii neprevzute n care nimeresc europenii (francezii),
dialogurile, conversaiile, impresiile lor caracterizeaz, aduc n imagine vizual, auditiv, senzitiv
specificul gndirii i viziunii chineze: Or, ce anume semnific pentru noi chinezii foarte exact?, se
ntreab unul dintre personaje. C totul st n aparene i c aiurea se afl o alt lume, impenetrabil,
naratorul rezumnd c Fericirea e lipsit de istorie. Brhal, al crui prototip este Roland Barthes, e
surprins, mai nti, n cutarea sensurilor cuvntului, apoi ntr-o treptat coborre n sine: Pe msur
ce cltoria i urma cursul, ambiiile de semiolog i de mitolog ale lui Brhal pleau. Se lsa n voia
unei observaii vistoare care nu-i mai gsea dect un pretext foarte diluat n persoanele observate.... n timpul excursiei la valea Morilor, el rmne n autobuz i Scria fr ncetare n carnetul lui,
cu ochii nchii ctre exterior, prins de cltoria n propria-i lume. Ce altceva ar mai fi putut vedea
pe pietrele acelea orbitoare?, Privelitea i gndurile personajului converg ntr-o meditaie privind
semnificaiile culorii albe la chinezi, concepia morii de ctre ei, nelegerea esenei existenei omului. n China moartea este alb, observ Brhal, idee explicat prin bestiarul monumental compus
din mai multe animale: un leu culcat, un leu n picioare, un elefant culcat, un elefant n picioare (...)
i mai albe n lumina de mai ddeau morii aerul unui Disneyland atemporal. Nici o und de tragism,
doar un fel de eviden monstruoas i n acelai timp blajin . La fel sau aproape la fel acioneaz
imaginea animalelor sculptate, de o albea impenetrabil asupra celorlalte personaje (europenii),
fiecare se ntorcea la propria solitudine, iar Moartea nu li se pruse nicicnd att de mblnzit i,
n consecin, propria identitate valorizat i sanctificat n Occident prin moarte nu li se pruse
nicicnd att de nensemnat.
Dansul, gimnastica ca parte indispensabil a activitii corpului, surprinse peste tot de francezi,
sunt descrise, de asemenea, prin descoperirea unor realiti netiute de europeni: trebuie s dansezi
cu arterele i cu venele. S nu credei c e vorba de brae sau picioare. Sngele e pompat, apoi se
retrage i vine clipa cnd trupul se transform. Propriu-zis nu dispare, ci ritmul su sangvin se armonizeaz cu figurile imaginate de spaiu, trupul ntruchipeaz ntreg spaiul, un nuntru i un n afar
luate mpreun i remodelate, mrite parc la infinit, disecate parc la infinit. Toate l fac pe Sinteuil
s descopere ceva imposibil de aflat n slile de gimnastic de la Paris sau New York: o circulaie
armonioas, fr interior sau exterior, ntre trupul meu i lume, o circulaie care metamorfozeaz
lumea n trup i trupul n nesfrirea spaiului. Vedei,..., datorit lucrurilor acestora mrunte eu sunt
mai puin pesimist dect dumneavoastr .
Astfel, aflnd treptat din interior, dar i dintr-o parte, lumea chinez, personajele opineaz asupra
relaiei occident-orient, cultura european cultura chinez. Versuri scrise de Mao devin motive,
laitmotive pentru nchegarea textului, aducnd, prin sinestezie, imaginea transmiterii mesajului i
transformrii lui de ctre receptor n modalitate de autocaracterizare.
Cultura chinez este exprimat/neleas i prin mijlocirea copilului. Astfel, copilul chinez i sentimentul matern, copilul i limbajul, copilul i jocul sunt aspecte pe care le dezbate autoarea/naratorul
n descrierea cltoriei i a impresiilor din aceast parte a lumii, necunoscute de majoritatea europenilor pn i azi. Abordarea multiplelor probleme ce in de copil i specificul lui psihic, naional se
face de la contrariu: Olga credea c nu-i plac copiii, ba chiar era sigur c nu-i plceau copiii.
ns ntlnirea cu lumea chinez, cunoaterea pe viu a acestei civilizaii o face s priveasc mai atent
nu att i nu doar la copil, ci la lumea omului, a limbajului, a moralei, a ceea ce se numete viziune
ontologic, reflectnd din perspectiv cultural-psihanalitic asupra cunoaterii omului prin limbaj i
demonstrnd sau concluzionnd c acesta din urm este un joc de la care pornete vorbirea, gndirea:
Micii chinezi ns erau cu totul altceva. Frumoi: ovalul perfect , obrajii ca mimozele , dou
crpturi oblice n locul ochilor i nite gurie pline de cntece, de rsete. Cumini: observai
cu atenie o festivitate public la Luoyang sau Shangai i o s vedei negreit progenitura
vreunui diplomat american, englez, francez maimurindu-se pe bnci, n vreme ce prinii lui
159
zbiar de la distan, rechemndu-i la ordine. Normal? Deloc, cci nici un mic chinez nu emite
nici cel mai mic zgomot, ci contempl doar universul cu un aer extatic i, uneori, de-a dreptul
consternat. E politicos, nu stnjenete pe nimeni, seductor, dar fr s fie lipicios. Farmecul unei mnue mngietoare, care deseneaz caractere n podul palmei. Maliia unei priviri
trengreti pe care i-o arunc i apoi o ia dendat la goan, nspimntat de atta nemsur.
Bieii sunt mai gravi, au deja ochii triti ai tatlui lor: de fapt, Olga nu remarcase asemenea
expresii, att de ndurerate, dect la femeile mediteraneene i la brbaii chinezi. Fetiele,
dezgheate, mai mobile dect bieii de vrsta lor, greoi, domin toate jocurile de la grdini.
M dau n vnt dup copilaii tia, repeta Olga, care nu mai fotografia dect cpoare
uluite, mnue innd pensule, piciorue dansnd, burtici n iureul dansului.
ntlnirea cu copiii i cu mamele lor la maternitate conduc spre discuii dintre personaje privind
specificul limbajului i rolul copilului n cunoaterea valorilor naionale:
tii c limba lor e alctuit din tonuri? Ei bine, micuii sunt capabili s disting tonurile
nc de la vrsta de ase sau apte luni peste tot n lume, de altfel, - nainte de a distinge
fonemele i, bineneles, cuvintele, frazele etc. Or, limbile noastre nu folosesc deloc tonalitle
cu pricina; noi nu folosim tonalitatea cuvintelor pentru a da natere sensului: n francez spui
scaun cu intonaie ascendent sau descendent, dar tot despre un scaun e vorba. Din contr,
n chinez ma cu tonalitate suitoare, cobortoare, plat, neutr sau n zig-zag va nsemna
cinci lucruri diferite.
(...) Dac un copil utilizeaz, pentru a produce sens, tonalitile pe care este capabil s le
discearn i s le reproduc nc de la vrsta de ase luni, nseamn c ptrunde n profunzimile limbajului nc de la vrsta de ase luni iat mcar un lucru evident i nu la doi ani.
La doi ani, aa cum va proceda micul francez, englez, rus etc.
Reflecia de natur lingvistic a autoarei transmite, de fapt, ideile discutate intens n acel timp anii
60-70, de ctre cei de la revista Tel Quel privind limba, limbajul, textul scriitura, printre care cel nti
este R.Barthes, n roman Brehal. Ideile, discuiile continu pe paginile romanului, Olga generaliznd
concepia despre limb i copilul care are simul limbii materne, n funcie de popor, viziune etc.:
...copilul chinez e captat foarte de timpuriu de sistemul vorbirii, e educat i cizelat de simboluri nc din perioada suptului i prin supt. i exprim osmoza-i de prunc cu trupul mamei
cntnd-o, dac vrei, n-o nmormnteaz, ateptnd s se poat exprima la un an sau doi.
Doar eu m hrnesc cu mama, spune cineva pe care Herv l citeaz cu plcere. Susin c
orice mic chinez e un discipol potenial al lui Tao-t king: se hrnete din mam precum i din
cuvintele cntate, muzica leag laptele de limbaj.
Ideile filosofico-lingvistice ale naratoarei sunt ncheiate prin relatarea aciunilor personajelor i,
abia tangibil, se simte un element liric, subiectiv, individualizat dorina Olgi de a avea copii o
opunere convingerii proprii: credea c nu-i plac copiii, era sigur c nu-i plac copiii. Acum ns,
n vizit la maternitate i la grdinie, ea Nu mai prididete cu fotografiile flash. Mngie obrjorii,
depune cteva srutri n cretete i dup urechi, chiar dac, dup cum i amintete soul, n China
copiii sunt srutai doar n somn. E ns i rspunde printr-o constatare-dorin:
Nimic nu e mai emoionant dect un copil... chinez. (Olga).
Ba da, doi copii. (Herv).
Vreau unul. (Olga) .
Copilul i filosofia vieii, copilul i jocul, ntoarcerea la origini prin copii i eterna rentoarcere spre
nceputuri, spre originar, spre maternitate, spre copilrie i spre sine continu logic firul naraiuniireflecii. Cltoria pe care o faci pentru a afla alte lucruri, alte locuri i ali oameni este, de multe ori,
o posibilitate de relaxare, de a fugi de griji, de probleme, de a sta de vorb cu alii i cu sine. Crezi
c pleci ct mai departe, dar o cltorie reuit nu poate fi dect o etern ntoarcere i teza continu a
fi argumentat prin idei filosofico-psihanalitice. Aflm astfel c eterna ntoarcere nu are de-a face cu
spaiul ci cu timpul. Astfel cnd cltoria ajunge la zenitul plcerii sau la saietate, timpul ei, devenit
circular, te face s te retragi n tine nsui. Este evident c nu doar cltoria ntr-un spaiu exterior, ci
i n cel interior se are n vedere, n aa fel textul cptnd semnificaii duble filosofice i psihanalitice. Apelul la ideile lui Borges care A citit totul, s-a ndoit de tot, a rescris totul sau la cele ale lui
Platon care s-a inspirat de ciclurile astrologice i care l-a influenat, se pare, pe Nietzsche prin una
din cele mai dramatice ntoarceri eterne constituie o modalitate artistic de ncadrare/caracterizare a
viziunii chineze asupra trecerii timpului: Destinul n chip de roat al acestei ri cu memoria adormit este, poate, un destin heraclitean. O etern ntoarcere care absoarbe abjecia speranei, precum
i patosul disperrii n echilibrul provizoriu al copilriei. i n darul banal, dar misterios pe care-l
posed adulii de a face copii. Revenind la ideile lui Heraclit Timpul e un copil care face copilul,
care se joac, urmrim reflecii despre via i moarte, timp i copil. Cci esenial este ca jocuil s
continue, s includ moartea.
(...) Dac ai privit un copil, dac tii ce e copilreala i ce e procreaia, nu se poate s nu
fi aflat c orice generare reprezint i o ncercare de a amgi moartea, o perfecionare sau o
degradare, o nviere la bine i la ru.
(...) n China viermuind de copii i de copilreli eternitatea nesocotete moartea, o reduce
la un simplu joc. (...) deschidei ochii, nimic nu e nici tragic, nici triumftor, e doar un ritm. n
fluxul ei prind contur marile asemnri-diferene: se numesc revoluii, ele scandeaz Istoria.
Aductoare de moarte. Pe care rsul copiilor o potolete. Eterna ntoarcere a copiilor este o
idee matern.
Astfel, teoreticianul convertit la literatur Julia Kristeva, printr-un capitol din romanul Samuraii,
ne convinge c civilizaia chinez rmne pentru noi, europenii, un prag de trecere n lumea filosofiei
maternitii, a limbajului, a ciclicitii timpului, a echilibrului temporal i spaial. Ataamentul fa de
tot ce nseamn China i cunoaterea problemelor contemporaneitii, ce pot fi rezolvate prin prisma
viziunii chineze asupra lumii i a lucrurilor, sunt demonstrate i n discursul autoarei (2) n cadrul
forului cultural privind relaia Europa China din 6-7 octombrie 2010 , care a avut loc la Bruxelles.
Bibliografie
Kristeva, Julia. Samuraii. Trad. de Magda Jeanrenaud. Bucureti: RAO International Publishing Company, 1997.
http://www.kristeva.fr/europe-china.html - accesat la 20 martie 2011.
161
SAPIENA LITERATURII CHINEZE DIN PERSPECTIVA CATEGORIILOR ESTETICE

ALE GROTESCULUI, COMICULUI I UMORISTICULUI
Drago VICOL
Depozitar a unei nelepciuni milenare, literatura chinez a reliefat nc din antichitate variate forme de exprimare (i implicit maniere artistice), tratnd de pe principii satirice i umoristice tipologii i caractere umane, destine
i cazuri simptomatice, metehne i moravuri, circumstane i situaii specifice. Abordnd cu frenezie i savoare
n general proza scurt, pus n serviciul unui umor suculent, comicul literaturii chineze nu este deloc vindicativ,
ci unul de sorginte moralizatoare, pe alocuri tragi-comic, cu un pronunat substrat estetic. Satirizarea viciilor se
produce ntr-un cadru grotesc, caricatural, tocmai pentru a combate flagelul cusururilor omeneti i a imprima naraiunilor un pregnant caracter jovial i terapeutic. Epica genului i trage sevele nc din timpul celor Trei Regate
(220-265 e.n), odat cu apariia ediiei Xiao Lin (Culegere de anecdote, autor Han-dan Chun), pivotul aciunilor
derulate fiind salubrizarea prin ironie, zeflemisire i bclie.
Filonul satiric i cel umoristic, pasiunile exprimate prin intermediul poantei, fabulei, inseriei de zeflemea,
anecdotei i ironiei au atins o pregnant expresivitate literar ndeosebi graie resurselor grotescului, frazrii comice i umoristice n creaiile corifeilor Hou Bai de pe timpul dinastiei Sui (581-618 e.n.), Zhu Kui de pe timpul
dinastiei Tang (618-907 e.n.), Su Shi de pe timpul dinastiei Song (960-1279 e.n.), Feng Meng Long de pe timpul
dinastiei Ming (1368-1644 e.n.), You Xi Zhu Ren de pe timpul dinastiei Qing (1644-1911). Opernd, de cele mai
multe ori, cu material istoric i factlogic bogat, fibra acestor creaii posed i o anumit cursivitate incisiv, apt s
cristalizeze viziuni etice integratoare i s genereze situaii-cadru de moral i predispoziie jovial. Exprimrile
complexe, fondul sociologic relevant de probleme ales, surprinderea spaial a caracterului uman, n ipostazele lui
hilare, resimt prezena unui sens pansiv mobilizator i ardent, absolut necesar pentru imprimarea maturitii operelor de o asemenea factur.
Cuvinte-cheie: sapien, grotesc, comic, umoristic, principii satirice, proz scurt, element caricatural, caracter terapeutic, cusururi umane, filon satiric, satirizarea viciilor, rezonan estetico-emoional, umor obiectiv,
umor subiectiv, viciu, contextul grotescului etc.
The Chinese literature being deposited as a millenary wisdom had registered still from antiquity varied forms of
expression (and implicitly artistic manners) treating the human typologies and characters, fates and symptomatic
cases, weaknesses and traditions, circumstances and specific situations from the satirical and humoristic principles.
Approaching with frenzy and savor to the short prose which was put in the service of some succulent humor,
the comic of the Chinese literature is not at all vindictive but one of moralizing source here and there tragic-comic
with a pronounced esthetic substratum. The satirizing of vices is produced into a grotesque way, in the form of
caricatures, in order just to combat the calamities of the human imperfections and to transmit jovial pregnant and
therapeutical characters to the narrations. The epic of the genre absorbs its vigor still from the times of those Three
Kingdoms (220-265 AD), together with the appearance of Kao Lin edition (Collection of Anecdotes, Han-dan
Chun being the author), the pivot of the unrollea actions being the saubrization by irony, moching and making
fun. The satiric and humoristic vein, the passions expressed by means of jist, fable, insertion of mockery, anecdote
and irony have achieved a pregnand literary expressivity by means of grotesque resources, comic and humoristic
phrasing in the creations of coryphaenses: Hou Bai during Suidynasty (581-618 AD), Zhu Kui during Tang dynasty
(618-907 AD), Su Shi during Song dynasty (960-1279 AD), Feng Meng Long during Ming Hynasty (1368-1644
AD), You Xi Ren during Qing dynasty (1644-1911). Operating many times with the historic and folklore rich material the fibre of these creations possess a certain biting continuity able to crystallize integratory ethic views and to
generate situations frame of moral and jovial predisposition. The complex expressions, the sociologic relevant
fund of selected problems, the special surprising of the human character in its hilary hypostases experience the
presence of a pensive stimulating and ardent sense, absolutely necessary for the recording of the maturity of the
works of such a structure.
Key-words: wisdom, grotesque, comic, humoristic, satirical principles, short stories, caricature element, therapeutic nature, human flaws, satirical vices, aesthetic-emotional resonance, objective humor, subjective humor, vice,
grotesques context.
Depozitar a unei nelepciuni milenare, literatura chinez a reliefat nc din antichitate variate
forme de exprimare, i implicit maniere artistice, tratnd de pe principii satirice i umoristice tipologii i caractere umane, destine i cazuri simptomatice, metehne i moravuri, circumstane i situaii
specifice. Abordnd cu frenezie i savoare n general proza scurt, pus n serviciul unui umor suculent, comicul literaturii chineze nu este deloc vindicativ, ci unul de sorginte moralizatoare, pe alocuri
tragi-comic, cu un pronunat substrat estetic. Satirizarea viciilor se produce ntr-un cadru grotesc,
caricatural, tocmai pentru a combate flagelul cusururilor omeneti i a imprima naraiunilor un pregnant caracter jovial i terapeutic.
Concomitent, elementele auditive i vizuale se transfigureaz artistic, constituind sufletul peisajului, prin intermediul unui lirism cu semnificaie cosmic. Descriptivismul se transform, astfel,
n sugestivitate, n for tonifiant, relevnd cu ajutorul mijloacelor de evocare a lumii vzute, ce
triete cu o intensitate demiurgic. Prozele sunt umoristice doar la prima vedere, n realitate ele
mbrac, de cele mai multe ori fr tirea autorului, haina versificaiei, transformndu-se n poeziepeisaj (acuarel, pastel sau ulei), poezie-portret (crbune, gravur n lemn, tablou sau aqua-forte).
Majoritatea personajelor care constituie obiectul operelor literare din timpul celor Trei Regate (220265 e.n), ediiei Xiao Lin (Culegere de anecdote, autor Han-dan Chun), au misiunea de a salubriza prin ironie, zeflemisire i bclie. Filonul satiric i cel umoristic, pasiunile exprimate prin
intermediul poantei, fabulei, inseriei de zeflemea, anecdotei i ironiei ating o pregnant expresivitate
literar ndeosebi graie resurselor grotescului, frazrii comice i umoristice n creaiile corifeilor
Hou Bai de pe timpul dinastiei Sui (581-618 e.n.), Zhu Kui de pe timpul dinastiei Tang (618-907 e.n.),
Su Shi de pe timpul dinastiei Song (960-1279 e.n.), Feng Meng Long de pe timpul dinastiei Ming
(1368-1644 e.n.), You Xi Zhu Ren de pe timpul dinastiei Qing (1644-1911).
Eroii care populeaz ducatul Song se caracterizeaz nu doar prin vrednicia sufletului i dorina de
a restabili dreptatea, ci i prin nvlnicia lingvistic, depistat la orice nivel conceptual al i avnd
valene expresiv-acustice sub toate aspectele-cheie: lexical, fonetic, sintactic. Textele artistice conin
elemente de arhiv, documente istorice concrete dintr-o perioad nc haotic a istoriei Ecourile rostirii cuvintelor, ale construciilor frazeologice determin semantic coninutul operei, prin intermediul
unor relevane de ordin stilistic.
Ciclul Despre mandarini suprapune puternice efecte auditive i vizuale, astfel nct se produce
o puternic senzaie artistic. Umorul succulent, frenezia trepidant a satirei se ascult i se vede
deopotriv, glasul interior, att al personajelor, ct i al lucrurilor aparent nensufleite solicit dreptul
la existen. Prezentnd peisaje, ochiul cititorului se las ispitit, cu egal satisfacie, de ctre acestea.
El sondeaz destinele oamenilor n direct corelaie cu evoluiile cereti i micrile naturii.
n aceeai ordine de idei, nu poate fi efectuat vreo delimitare clar ntre rafinamentul portretistului
i evocatorul de realiti exterioare i luntrice, modalitate, prin excelen, de factur poetic. Personajele cunosc caracteristici pregnante, elementele ascunse diminund sobrietatea determinrilor, ca
i ponderea lor, ce sunt n concordan intern cu ambiana contextual care lumineaz din interior
termenii viznd non-exprimarea, imprimnd creaiei o muzicalitate deosebit. Prezentarea cadrului
vegetal, a elementelor naturii este, n fond, o estetic a frumosului prin biciuirea urtului. Dinspre
aceste fore miraculoase parvine sublimul literaturii chineze, a genotipului conservat, de risipire a
realitii alegorice, onirice, fabuloase, plin de coninut ontologic. Deplasrile asociative ntre culoare
i sunet (vocale sau consoane), pluralizarea simultan a senzaiei, faciliteaz trecerea de la cmpul
auditiv la cel vizual.
Opernd, de cele mai multe ori, cu material istoric i factlogic bogat, fibra acestor creaii posed
163
i o anumit cursivitate incisiv, apt s cristalizeze viziuni etice integratoare i s genereze situaiicadru de moral i predispoziie jovial. Exprimrile complexe, fondul sociologic relevant de probleme ales, surprinderea spaial a caracterului uman, n ipostazele lui hilare, resimt prezena unui sens
pansiv mobilizator i ardent, absolut necesar pentru imprimarea maturitii operelor de o asemenea
factur. Este i cazuri unor snoave care descriu trmuri mirifice, bucolice, elegiace, n care n-a clcat
piciorul omului, prezene i fore mute, ndeletniciri esoterice, descoperind cuvntul prin intermediul artei transpunerii magice.
n pofida caracterului pretins neserios i prejudecilor de tot felul, de a cataloga epica umoristic
drept o chestiune de importan minor, enunm esena pictural a scrierilor de acest gen, datorit
structurrii armonioase a ansamblului, a arhitectonicii ei artistice, a diversitii i rezonanei esteticoemoionale i implicit a a tehnicilor utilizate. Apare convingerea c o oper artistic de valoare
suprem, indifferent de dimensiune i modalitate de expresie, poate fi plmdit doar prin intermediul unor mijloace neprevzute i de mare eficacitate artistic. Documentul istoric, situaia concret,
veridicitatea informaiei constituie primordial doar un prilej al verosimilitii ulterioare a faptelor
relatate. Creaiile umoristice chineze se abstrag de la ideile fixe, substituind carenele documentare cu
metafore i comparaii, cu un limbaj individualizat i de o mare libertate creatoare.
Din aceast perspectiv, nu doar fibra naraiunilor, ci mai ales cuvintele capt o ncrctur
sugestiv i semantic de maxim intensitate luntric, ncrctur mereu potenat prin: descntece,
blesteme, dezlegri de farmece, vrji, oraii etc. E un fel de ritual al cuvintelor care izvorte din
tradiia strmoeasc asiatic, beneficiind, probabil, de un suprem destin providenial.
n timpul parcurgerii ciclurilor Despre prostime, Petera duhurilor din muntele de la soare-apune i se creeaz impresia c o anumit for transcendent controleaz i dirijeaz ntreg universul artistic, nvedernd un paseism pregnant n utilizarea ordinii interioare, vzut dintr-o perspectiv gnoseologic autentic. Fotografia literar, n aceste cazuri, nu se regsete cu desvrire. Bineneles,
exist n orice creaie urma unei ncheieturi a realitii, dar att. Restul e invenie, fantezie, prelucrare.
Ca i pictorul, autorul-vizionar nu prezint aspectele exterioare ale anumitor personaje, ci, n primul
rnd, semnificaiile lor interioare. Muli demnitari ai timpului se recunoteau n crile cu pricina,
alii erau deconspirai de ctre prieteni. Totodat, textelor satirice li se imputa lipsa de moralitate,
nclcarea dreptului la intimitate, amestecul n viaa particular. De altfel, procesele literare nu
reprezint o inovaie doar n cazul literaturii chineze. n literatura romn, de exemplu, s-au confruntat cu aceste intemperii i I.L.Caragiale, i L.Rebreanu etc., iar, pe plan universal, cele mai celebre
situaii-litigioase aparin scriitorilor francezi H.de Balzac i E.Zola.
Scrisul la comand nu nseamn creaie, i deci nu are o semnificaie literar. nregimentarea
dogmatic a actului creativ suprim adevrata creaie artistic, tot ce e atins de morbul ideologizrii
dispare, cine accept cmaa de for, se autodesfiineaz pur i simplu.
Varietatea umorului chinez, exprimat artistic sub diferite faete i prin diverse modaliti, vizeaz
cunoaterea n adncime a tainielor sufletului omenesc. Zmislitorii operelor literare de o asemenea
factur, muli din ei rmai anonimi, premeditat sau nu, sunt observatori subtili ai metehnelor umane,
pe care le surprind pe calea unor poante provocatoare de rs, ironizndu-le i zeflemisindu-le. Specificm, n contextual dat, dou categorii de umor: obiectiv i subiectiv, primul integrndu-se structurii morale a eroilor, cel de-al doilea fiind o caracteristic a propriului temperament al autorilor.
Naraiuni umoristice propriu-zise pot fi considerate: Se apeleaz, n consecin, la stilul i expresivitatea umoristic inclusiv i n scrieri grave, cu specificarea c aici umorul este prezent chiar i
printre lacrimile celor marcai de inechitatea alctuirii sociale sau a celor lovii de soart.
Caliti artistice speciale denot literatura chinez a genului i n cazurile cnd sunt relatate
anecdote sugestive, protagonitii crora sunt diferii scriitori, sau, pur i simplu, sunt repovestite
ntmplrile auzite de la acetia. Farmecul i expresivitatea sunt puse n serviciul zugrvirii mizeriilor
vieii politice, inflaiei economice, cnd preurile fac adevrate acrobaii ascendente. n fond, umorul
chinez, niciodat mizantrop, este unul viguros, plin de substan moralizatoare, devenind expresia
inteligenei lucide a poporului.

Textele literare de sorginte umoristico-satirice din literatura Chinei antice denot atitudine,
atmosfer, vizionarism, imprimnd o tonalitate, un timbru i o organicitate interioar proprie. Aceast
literatur reprezint, mai nti de toate, un stil i o predispoziie afectiv, corolare ale unor fore artistice de absorbie, asimilare i convertire a tot ceea ce este exterior i eterogen date istorice, repere
topografice, subiecte, teme, motive predilecte, idei sau texte prefabricate.
Bibliografie
--------. Povestiri cu haz, povestiri cu tlc din China antic. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1986.
--------. Adevrata poveste a lui Aq. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1986.
--------. Istorisirile lui Rolang Mortul fermecat. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1985.
--------. Petera Duhurilor din Muntele de la Soare-Apune. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1985.
--------. Mai bine o zi om dect o mie de ani umbra lui (proverbe i zictori chinezeti). Bucureti: Editura Univers,
1986.
---------. Pasrea fericirii (basme populare din China). Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1986.
Pu Sung-Ling. ntmplri extraordinare din pavilionul desftrii. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1986.
U ng-Zi. ntmplri din lumea crturarilor. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1983.
Mao Dun. Miezul nopii. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1984.
Ye Shengtao. O via. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1985.
Li Ruzhen. Flori din oglind. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1983.
Cao Xue Qin i Gao E. Visul din pavilionul rou. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1981.
Li Bao Jia. ntmplri nemaipomenite din viaa mandarinilor. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1988.
Rileanu, Vitalie. Originile ironiei. Timpul 16 (28 ianuarie 2011): 25.
Note
Din materialul supus analizei am observat c textul ironic chinez (ironia) nu poate fi confundat cu batjocura,
nici cu ridicularizarea exagerat a destinatarului. Am mai sesizat c sarcasmul este o evideniere prin cuvinte a
unui atentat la valori, fapte i norme, avnd n vedere c specific celui ce ironizeaz e respectul pentru destinatrul
su, fapt impropriu n cazul batjocurei sau ridicularizrii. Ironia, ca figur ideatic, nu submineaz demnitatea ironizatului, n timp ce satira exagerat i batjocura caut argumentul, strnind rs, dar un rs fr inim. Iat de ce
exagerarea i batjocura sunt mai rare n proza chinez clasic.
165
IMAGINEA CHINEI N JURNAL DE CLTORIE N CHINA

DE NICOLAE MLESCU SPTARU
Diana VRABIE
Prezenta comunicare propune analiza imaginii Chinei sec.al XVII-ea, contemplat prin prisma unui homo viator, Nicolae Milescu Sptaru, demnitarul care i-a scris lucrrile n timpul cltoriei sale cu multe popasuri, ntre
3 mai 1675, plecarea din Tobolsk, i 5 ianuarie 1678, ntoarcerea la Moscova. n istoria culturii noastre respectiva
lucrare reprezinta una dintre primele mrturii asupra Chinei, cucerind prin ineditul imaginilor. Fiind scris de
un crturar erudit, lucrarea surprinde prin seriozitatea tiintific, dar i prin frumuseea expunerii, autenticitatea
notaiei pe viu i viziunea exterioar.
Cuvinte-cheie: homo viator, autentcitat, jurnal, cltorie.
In the present paper we made an attempt to analyze the image of the XVII th century China as seen by a homo
viator, Nicolae Milescu Sptaru, a sword bearer who wrote his works during a long journey with numerours stopovers between May 3, 1675 (his departure from Tobolsk) and January 5, 1678 (his return to Moscow). In the history
of our culture the present work i sone of the first testimonies about China, it captures the readers by genuine images.
Being written by a scholar, this work is amazing due o scientific earnestness, as well as the beauty of exposition,
the authenticity of notaion on the spot and writers external vision.
Key-words: homo viator, authenticity, journal, voyage.
ncepnd cu secolul al 18-lea, Europa a manifestat un interes sporit fa de cultura chinez, fascinaiei pentru estetica neobinuit a acesteia adugndu-i-se n perioada respectiv i pasiunea pentru
studiul filologic al limbilor i literaturilor orientale, dar i a religiei acestui popor. Autor de scrieri
istorice i teologice, diplomat i om politic, nalt funcionar n serviciul arilor Rusiei i ambasadorul
lor n China, Nicolae Milescu Sptaru (1636-1708) s-a nscris cu fermitate n aceast ampl tendin
a vremii. Reprezentnd un original sincretism de cultur bizantin i occidental, fiind unul dintre cei
mai importani crturari ai secolului al XVII-lea, Milescu Sptaru a beneficiat de nalta consideraiune a ambasadorului Franei n Suedia, Arnould de Pomponne, dar i a lui Ludovic al XIV-lea nsui.
Notorietatea sa european depise apreciabil hotarele rii nc la sfritul secolului al XVII-lea, contientizarea importanei cltoriilor adevrate enciclopedii pentru un intelectual avnd s explice
n msur considerabil cheia succesului su.
Celebritatea numelui lui Nicolae Milescu Sptaru va crete mai ales dup ntoarcerea sa din cltoria n China, ntreprins n calitate de sol al arului ctre mpratul Kang Hi. Cu acest prilej a scris
trei lucrri despre cltoria fcut, publicate postum de ctre cercettorul rus J.N. Arseniev: Cltorie
de-a lungul Siberiei de la Tobolsk pn la Nercinsk i la frontiera Chinei (1880); Jurnal de cltorie (1906); Descrierea primei pri a lumii, Asia, n care se gsete descrierea imperiului Chinei,
a oraelor sale i a provinciilor sale (1910). Primele dou, cuprinznd nsemnrile asupra drumului
prin Siberia i raportul oficial asupra misiunii sale diplomatice, au fost predate imediat dup sosirea
la Moscova, constituind, n fapt, obligaia de serviciu a diplomatului. Cea de-a treia lucrare a fost
predat mai trziu, dup ce crturarul a revizuit-o n prealabil. Aceast lucrare va contribui esenial
la reabilitarea sptarului, czut n dizgraia noii stpniri a statului rus, dup moartea arului Aleksei
Mihailovici.
Jurnalul, ca specie a genului autobiografic, ce conine nsemnri zilnice ale cuiva despre anumite
evenimente (operaiuni militare, expediii, cltorii) nregistreaz o bogat tradiie n cultura noastr.
nc n opera cronicarilor regsim unele elemente specifice jurnalului de cltorie, dei ntiul jurnal
de cltorie de studiu i aparine lui Dinicu Golescu (nsemnarea cltoriei, 1826). Spiritul de panoram specific jurnalului lui Dinicu Golescu va caracteriza i Jurnalul de cltorie al lui Nicolae
Milescu Sptaru, care se va dovedi extrem de util pentru arul rus, care voia s afle totul despre treburile obteti ale chinezilor, mpria i obiceiurile lor, precum i de alte lucruri care sunt de trebuin unor descrieri generale i publice. Cert este c civilizaia milenar a Chinei l-a marcat profund
pe crturarul moldovean, care nu va adopta tonul impersonal i rece al omului de tiin, detaat de
faptele descrise. Sensibilizat de descoperirea unei culturi inedite, el nu va ezita s-i refuleze strile
sufleteti din timpul cltoriei, exprimndu-i admiraia fa de frumoasele peisaje ntlnite n itinerarul su: n ziua de 11 mai am plecat din oraul de grani printre aceiai muni pleuvi, i am mers
ase verste. Am ajuns la un ora nconjurat cu ziduri de piatr, cu o populaie numeroas nuntru i n
mprejurimi. Ct poate vedea omul cu ochii, peste tot erau sate i orae, i oriunde erau sate se vedeau
sumedenie de pomi roditori (Milescu 185).
Contient de privilegiul de a descrie cel dinti locurile Chinei, crturarul i va urma sarcina cu
maxim rigurozitate, insistnd asupra detaliilor ce ar elucida pentru necunosctori misterul Chinei.
Aa se ntmpl n pasajul unde descrie ceremonialul servirii ceaiului: Cnd a sosit solul, a nceput s
serveasc frailor hanului, rudelor i tuturor sfetnicilor ceai, pe care l aduceau curtenii lui mai tineri,
ce purtau pe cap cte o pan de pun. Ceaiul l-au servit n ceti mari de lemn, de culoare galben, i
era fiert cu unt i cu lapte, dup obiceiul ttresc. Cnd primeau cetile, toi fceau o temenea pn la
pmnt, cu mna stng, n timp ce cu dreapta ineau ceaca, apoi se aezau pe locurile lor i beau
(ibidem: 237).
mbrcat deopotriv n haina nsemnrilor zilnice de drum, dar i n cea a unei scrisori a sptarului
ctre arul Alexei Mihailovici, trimis din satele de pe Naun cu fiul boierului Daur, Ignati Milovanov,
n 17 aprilie 1675 (ibidem: 129), jurnalul respect principiul calendaristic dintr-o perspectiv memorialistic. Autenticitatea acestor notaii este indiscutabil, avnd n vedere imensa responsabilitate pe
care i-o asumase sptarul i pioenia manifestat fa de cneazul rus: Mria-ta, ar i cneaz Alexei
Mihailovici, sunt supusul tu preaplecat Nicolae (ibidem). Mai mult, cronica oficial chinez a domniei mpratului Kangsi confirm cele relatate de sptar (Vergatti 193). Descrierea celei dinti pri a
pmntului, numit Asia, n care se afl i mpria Chinei cu oraele i provinciile sale, ncheiat
la 13 noiembrie, anul 7186 de la facerea lumii viza ns misterele Chinei nu doar prin lentil apusean, ci i ruseasc (Tartler 4). Anticipnd parc marele exod al chinezilor n lume, crturarul face
la un moment dat urmtoarea sugestie arului: Ctig va fi i pentru mrfurile ruseti la vnzarea n
China, ca i la mrfurile chinezeti la vnzarea lor n Rusia, fiindc ei tiu cum se vnd mrfurile lor
n Rusia (ibidem: 251).
Pe lng relatrile viznd evenimentele trite de echipa misiunii diplomatice n China, obligat s le
fac prin specificul angajamentului, Nicolae Milescu Sptaru relev prin aceast lucrare foaia de observaie a explorrii tiinifice a unor inuturi prea puin cunoscute europenilor. Cltorind pe drumuri
netiute, printre popoare i rase diferite, vslind pe ruri pe care nu mai vslise nici un european pn
la el, curiozitatea venic treaz a acestui crturar moldovean se oprete asupra configuraiei solului,
descrie amnunit rurile pe care le strbate, noteaz aspectul particular al munilor, face msurtori
topografice. Sentimentul de participare direct a cititorului la cltoria prin inuturile ndeprtate
este att de putrenic, nct unele ariditi ale consemnrii stricte a rurilor, oraelor, grlielor, prin ritmicitatea interioar, confer dinamism lecturii, desctund imaginaia: Noaptea, n oraul Beijing
vegheaz strji pe ziduri i pe ulie, iar ziua strjuiesc n faa porilor eunuci, care adun taxele de la
toi aceia care intr n ora, ns de la strini nu iau nimic [...]. n oraul Beijing puine sunt uliele
care s nu fi fost aternute cu piatr, iar pe ulie se afl spate fntni i de amndou prile sunt spate
anuri mari ndreptate spre ruri i lacuri. i cnd plou, prin aceste anuri se scurge apa de pe ulie
i ulicioare, iar din curi apa de ploaie se scurge n ulie tot prin nite tuburi (ibidem: 179).
Dei vizeaz cu precdere nregistrarea elementelor geografice i etnografice, nsemnrile zilnice
ale traseului parcurs prin Siberia, de la Tobolsk pn la graniele Chinei, comport i veritabile pagini
de literatur. Cu adevrat artistice sunt numeroasele descrieri surprinse cu ochiul celui capabil s descifreze poezia n elementele naturii (Rul curge printre muni de la miaznoapte-apus ctre miaz-zi.
167
Pe el pluteau dou corbii mici de transport. Apa rului este albstruie i nu are vaduri) (ibidem: 190).
Dar pe Milescu nu-l intereseaz exclusiv aspectul geografic al inuturilor, ci i cel etnografic. Privirea lui iscoditoare caut s surprind i viaa specific uman, pe care o triesc intens populaiile att de variate ca nfiare, pe acele ndeprtate meleaguri: ocupaia, armele,
manifestrile religioase, superstiiile. Pe lng descrierea itinerariilor de-a lungul Siberiei, care
cuprinde cea mai ampl parte din lucrare, atestm i primele mrturii n cultura noastr asupra religiilor chinezilor. Ele se dovedesc deosebit de interesante pentru crturarul moldovean
care era i teolog cu studii la coala Patriarhiei ecumenice din Constantinopol, traductor n
romnete al lucrrii Mntuirea pctoilor a teologului grec Agapie Landos. Religiile ntlnite de
Milescu n China nu au fost doar descrise, ci i comparate cu direciile filosofice europene cunoscute
de el. Nu e de mirare c simpatia lui Milescu s-a ndreptat spre confucianism, anticipnd, n acest sens,
concepia iluminitilor vest-europeni. Nicolae Milescu Sptarul observase preocuparea confucianitilor nu doar pentru religie, ci i (mai ales) pentru cultur i pentru civilizaie n general. n acest spirit,
diplomatul nu precupeise nici un efort pentru a-i demonstra temeinicia informaiilor, citnd deseori
termenii n original.
Interesul sptarului-teolog, pentru credinele din China pare c descrete n ordinea enumerrii lor: cinul idolatrilor, zis xekiao este vzut ca o rtcire aprut n China dup naterea lui
Christos i mprit n dou pri, una sufleteasc, cealalt trupeasc. Din acestea, prima se refer
la ntruparea omului, dup moarte, n animalele cu care se aseamn la nravuri i la pofte, ispindu-i astfel pcatele. Nirvana e descris ca nimic, nici rsplat, nici pedeaps. Idolatria trupeasc este numit de Milescu nchinarea la idoli, credina n rencarnare i interdicia de a mnca vreo
vietate tritoare pe lume (ibidem: 50).
Treapta epicurean (daoist) este redus de Milescu la alchimiti, vrjitori, atei (care nu venerau
statui) i cheflii (pare a fi vorba de sentimentaliti) care caut s prelungeasc viaa prin tot felul de
plceri (inclusiv droguri). Preoii daoiti alung dracii din oameni cu hrtii galbene, pe care
scriu numele lor i le lipesc de zidurile caselor, leag i dezleag ploile, spun c pot aduce fericire
i svresc i alte obiceiuri diavoleti, despre a cror mulime nu se cade s se scrie aici. Evident,
sptarului ortodox, tehnicile de hrnire a principiului vital (yang sheng) cu drogurile, gimnastica
lor i mai ales arta din camera de culcare i preau uneltele diavolului. Nici alchimia interioar
nu se acorda cu mentalitatea sa cretin-ortodox. Mulimea de temple din China, fiecare din ele cu
specificul propriu, duhurile protectoare ale oraelor, locurile sacre, atinse de vreun balaur (dragon)
toate acestea alctuiau pentru europeanul Milescu o lume bizar, din care reine doar c dintre idolii
mprii n trei categorii (cereti, pmnteti i subpmnteti) cei cereti sunt trei, cel mai nsemnat
fiind Fe fapt prin care ncearc s-l asocieze n mod nejustificat cu Sfnta Treime. Cu alte cuvinte,
reine, n primul rnd, ceea ce i pare ntr-un fel sau altul familiar.
Spirit laborios i precis, crturarul descrie cu minuiozitate tradiiile populaiilor, magia marelui
zid chinezesc, pdurile i ruinele vechilor chinezi etc. Dei dens sub raportul informaiei, sugrumat
uneori de detaliul tiinific rigid, scriitura cucerete prin descrierea aventurii cltoriei: Pe drum
piciorul se afunda n nisip un sfert pn la genunchi. Am mers trei verste i am ajuns ntr-o pdurice
n care creteau viini, iar printre acetia vi-de-vie slbatic i piersici slbatici. Mai cretea i un
copac pe ale crui ramuri atrnau nite psti ca cele de mazre; ele se fierb n loc de ceai (ibidem:
177). Nimic nu scap acestui observator metodic: riturile religioase ale diferitor triburi, aspectul lor
fizic, locuinele, modul de alimentare, vechile monumente, templele i plante. Descrierile sunt nsoite i de consideraii istorice i politice, dri de seam asupra conversaiilor autorului cu chinezii i
iezuiii din Pechin, audienele sale la mpratul Chinei i chiar preioasele consideraii psihologice
asupra poporului chinez. Este deci o descriere de cltorie complet i tiinific; nimic nu lipsete:
geografie fizic, etnografie, istorie, descrieri de monumente, istoria anecdotic a cltoriei, susine
P.P.Panaitescu (92). Prin notarea impresiilor de cltorie, prin implicarea subiectiv, crturarul ajunge
la regsirea eului risipit, la rdcinile existenei, la autoreflexivitate, astfel un modus vivendi devine
modus scribendi.
Dei nu a fost scris n romnete, Jurnal de cltorie n China reprezint opera unui crturar
romn, un veritabil homo viator, care, prin bogia de informaii inedite asupra Siberiei i Chinei, prin
seriozitatea i implicarea tiinific, dar i prin poezia expunerii, se situeaz printre marile figuri ale
culturii universale din secolele al XVII-lea si al XVIII-lea.
Bibliografie
Milescu, Sptaru N. Jurnal de cltorie n China. Trad. Corneliu Brbulescu. Bucureti: Eminescu, 1974.
Panaitescu, P.P. Nicolae Milescu Sptaru. Chiinu: tiina, 1993.
Tartler, Grete. Peste opt mri i ri: Pe urmele sptarului Milescu. Romnia literar 28 (2008): 4-7.
Vergatti, Radu . Nicolae Sptarul Milescu. Bucureti: Paideia, 1998.
RECENZII
PRIMA CONFERIN TIINIFIC INTERNAIONAL

A INSTITUTULUI CONFUCIUS LA CHIINU
Prof. univ. dr. Luminia Blan
Universitatea din Bucureti
Facultatea de Limbi i Literaturi Strine
Prima conferin tiinific internaional organizat de ctre Institutul Confucius i Institutul de
Cercetri Filologice i Interculturale din cadrul Universitii Libere Internaionale din Moldova a
avut loc n data de 4 martie a.c., un eveniment extrem de important nu doar prin anvergura i obiectivele propuse, ci i prin contribuia adus la dezvoltarea sinologiei n aceast ar.
Avnd ca tem Paradigme ale culturii chineze fond valoric i imagine civilizaional, conferina i-a propus o incursiune ntr-o arie cultural mai ndeprtat, cu tradiii aparte i o evoluie diferit
de cea a Occidentului. Ultimele decenii au adus n atenia ntregii lumi China, n postura unei ri n
plin dezvoltare, un candidat ambiios la statutul de mare putere, fiind totodat depozitara unei civilizaii multimilenare ce ne ofer cu generozitate nesfrite surse de inspiraie i cercetare. Necesitatea
cunoaterii ndeaproape a unei asemenea culturi i civilizaii i-a determinat pe organizatorii acestei
conferine s aleag o tem ce ngduie i, totodat, ndeamn ctre investigarea fenomenelor culturale i sociale specifice, din multiple perspective, care dezvluie tradiia strveche, dar i modalitile
valorificrii sale n concordan cu nevoile lumii moderne.
Parteneriatul dintre Institutul Confucius i Institutul de Cercetri Filologice i Interculturale din
Chiinu conduce ctre o ntlnire fericit ntre dou instituii preocupate de deschiderea ctre lume,
de cunoaterea reciproc a limbilor i culturilor diferite i identificarea unor puni de legtur din care
s rezulte o mai bun nelegere a celuilalt. Dac secole de-a rndul China a reprezentat maxima alteritate, iar studiile diverse au cutat s evidenieze tocmai exotismul acestei lumi, ultimii ani au adus
o abordare inedit, ce presupune apropierea culturii strine, cunoaterea complex, uznd de instrumentele cercetrii interdisciplinare, i stabilirea zonelor comune, a punctelor ce mai degrab apropie
i faciliteaz comunicarea, dect ndeprteaz i traseaz granie. Este o perspectiv care transpare n
majoritatea lucrrilor prezentate n cadrul acestei conferine, ntruct autorii ntreprind o investigare
a culturii i societii chineze, sub multiple faete, de cele mai multe ori ntr-un demers comparativ
riguros, menit s reliefeze specificitatea paradigmelor culturale avute n vedere.
Remarcm participarea profesorilor Han Gaonian, Wang Jianjiang i Tian Shu, de la Universitatea Normal de Nord-Vest din Lanzhou cu lucrri ce au pus n discuie tocmai aspectele particulare,
puternic marcate de tradiia cultural strveche, ns structurate sub un reperaj modern. Acest filon
tradiional de gndire, repotenat n deplin acord cu dinamica lumii moderne, asigur vigoarea civilizaiei chineze actuale i constituie fundalul pe care se grefeaz modernitatea.
Interesul manifestat de ctre participanii la conferin fa de tradiia cultural chinez se reflect
ntr-o serie de lucrri ce trateaz probleme fragmentare sau o problematic mai ostensiv privitoare la
confucianism. Acest curent filozofic, care a modelat gndirea chinez, imprimnd culturii un caracter
ritualizant semnificativ, a constituit o tem de cercetare cu o palet larg de aplicare. Se observ abordarea confucianismului din diverse unghiuri, relevndu-se astfel bogia sa ideatic i conceptual.
Astfel, au fost prezentate lucrri despre gndirea politic confucianist, despre conceptele specifice,
dar i investigaii filologice pregnante asupra termenilor emblematici din textele scripturale i analize
ale principalelor ediii ale operei Analecte. Confucius patronul spiritual al acestui curent de gndire a constituit un subiect de cercetare pentru o serie de participani la conferin, fiind dezvluit
rolul su ca gnditor, pedagog, dar i ca un redutabil scriitor al antichitii chineze. De asemenea,
a fost reliefat impactul covritor pe care aceast filozofie l-a exercitat n trasarea evoluiei Chinei,
furnizndu-i nu doar o concepie politic viabil, ci i acea etic confucianist, despre care se spune
171
tot mai mult n ultimii ani c este o vertabil candidat la universalizare. Nu ntmpltor profesorii i
cercettorii care i-au ales o atare tem pentru prezentul eveniment s-au ndreptat ctre confucianism,
cci dac este s vorbim despre paradigma cultural fundamental, atunci acesta a fost modelul maxim de interpretare a lumii i de reglare a comportamentului oamenilor, cu valoare definitorie pentru
civilizaia chinez.
Remarcabile au fost i lucrrile dedicate reflectrii imaginii Chinei n diverse spaii culturale, cum
ar fi Moldova, Romnia, Frana i Germania. Mai multe lucrri se opresc asupra operelor lui Nicolae
Milescu Sptarul Jurnal de cltorie n China i Descrierea Chinei, analiznd modul n care
se intersecteaz i se lumineaz reciproc cele dou lumi n viziunea crturarului romn din a doua
jumtate a secolului XVII.
Pe lng lucrri din domeniul filozofiei i antropologiei culturale rein atenia i o serie de lucrri
referitoare la literatura chinez clasic i contemporan, care, apelnd la instrumentarul conceptual
literar i estetic, au prezentat auditoriului opere cu o mare ncrctur tematic i stilistic, demne de
marile literaturi ale lumii. Sfera artistic a fost prezent, la rndul ei, prin lucrri privitoare la pictura
chinez, arta spectacolului, precum i filmul de animaie chinez, aceste lucrri oferind incursiuni sistematice, riguroase n zona semnificaiilor simbolice i a artelor sincretice.
Domeniul traductologiei a fost bine reprezentat printr-o serie de lucrri cu larg disponibilitate
pentru abordarea att a unei problematici generale, ct i a particularitilor ce in de translarea din i
n chinez. Analize interesante, efectuate pe traduceri ale unor cri de referin, precum Analectele
lui Confucius sau pe teme bine circumscrise, cum ar fi de pild echivalarea conceptului femeie n
chinez, romn i rus, au favorizat desprinderea unor observaii i concluzii judiciare i bine fundamentate tiinific, privind particularitile lingvistice i culturale care influeneaz procesul traducerii
limbii chineze.
Beneficiind de o larg participare, prin prezena a numeroi profesori i cercettori din prestigioase
universiti i instituii de cercetare din Republica Moldova, dar i de peste hotare, conferina tiinific internaional Paradigme ale culturii chineze fond valoric i imagine civilizaional s-a dovedit
a fi un cmp al dezbaterilor tiinifice fructuoase, cu comunicri diverse, ns deopotriv de incitante.
Dincolo de diversitatea temelor i abordrilor, s-a putut lesne observa faptul c toi participanii au
fost animai de dorina de a dezvlui identitatea cultural a unei civilizaii milenare, de a evidenia
elementele specifice ale modelului cultural chinez, ns i de a mbogi astfel sfera refleciei teoretice
ce poate facilita la o mai bun cunoatere reciproc. Varietatea temelor abordate, rigoarea abordrilor
tiinifice i perspectivele moderne de cercetare au contribuit la configurarea unui eveniment important n viaa academic moldovean. Succesul de care s-a bucurat conferina, excelenta organizare
i, nu n ultimul rnd, entuziasmul organizatorilor confirm ideea c aceast prim conferin internaional a Institutului Confucius n parteneriat cu Institutul de Cercetri Filologice i Interculturale
(ULIM) a reprezentat o contribuie important nu numai pentru promovarea limbii i culturii, ct i
pentru dezvoltarea sinologiei chineze n Republica Moldova.
THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE

AT CONFUCIUS INSTITUTE IN CHIINU
Luminia BLAN
University of Bucharest
aculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures
The first international scientific conference organized by Confucius Institute and The Institute for
Philological and Intercultural Research of the Free International University of Moldova took place
on the 4th of March 2011, an event which is extremely important not only for its objectives and scope,
but also for its contribution to the development of sinology in this country.
Its theme being Paradigms of Chinese Culture Background Values and the Image of Civilization, the conference aims at exploring a remote cultural area, endowed with its own traditions and an
evolution that is very different from the evolution of the West. The latest decades have brought China
to the first line as a country in full development, an ambitious candidate to the status of a great power
in the world, at the same time being the keeper of a millenary civilization which generously offers us
endless sources of inspiration and research. The necessity to approach such a civilization determined
the organizers of this conference to choose a theme which allowed and also called for investigating
specific cultural and social phenomena, from multiple perspectives, which can reveal the ancient
tradition, but also the strategies of putting it into value in accordance with the needs of the modern
world.
The partnership between Confucius Institute and The Institute for Philological and Intercultural
Research leads to a very fruitful cooperation of two institutions preoccupied by opening to the world,
by knowing other languages and cultures and also by identifying ways of better mutual understanding. Centuries on end China represented the most remote world, and various studies tried to bring
evidence for its exotic spirit, but the recent years have brought a different perspective, implying a
closer approach of the foreign culture, a complex understanding, by applying the instruments of the
interdisciplinary research, identifying the common areas which rather bring different cultures closer
to each other and allow communication than increase the distance and set the borders. This is a perspective which becomes obvious in most of the papers presented in this conference, as the authors
investigate the Chinese culture and society under multiple aspects, most of the times due to a rigorous
comparative approach meant to bring up the specificity of the cultural paradigms.
The professors Han Gaonian, Wang Jianjiang and Tian Shu, from the North-West Normal University in Lanzhou, who attended the conference, presented papers discussing the very particular
aspects which are deeply influenced by the ancient cultural tradition, but which are set in a modern
framework. This traditional system of thought, put into value in full accordance with the dynamics
of the modern world, guarantee the vigour of the Chinese civilization nowadays and represents the
background against which modernity is defined.
The participants interest for the traditional Chinese culture is reflected in numerous papers which
discuss fragmentary problems or more comprehensible issues referring to Confucianism. This philosophical system, which gave shape to the Chinese thought, at the same time bringing a significant
ritualizing character to the culture, represented a wide field of research. One can notice that Confucianism is investigated from different perspectives and thus its spiritual richness is better revealed.
The participants presented papers concerning the Confucian political thought, its specific concepts,
but also concerning philological research on fundamental concepts in the most representative texts,
as well as analyses of the main editions of Analects (Lunyu). Confucius the spiritual master of
this thought system represented an important subject for the research of many participants, who investigated his role as a thinker, as a teacher, but also as a famous writer of the Chinese ancient world.
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They also emphasized the overwhelming influence that his philosophy had on the evolution of China,
by providing not only a viable political conception, but also that Confucian ethics, which has been
promoted as a genuine candidate to the status of universal value during the recent years. Therefore,
it is only natural that many participants in this conference chose a topic related to Confucianism, because if we are to talk about the major cultural paradigm, then it is this very system of thought that
represented the ideal model for interpreting the world and for mouldering peoples behavior, having
a defining value for the Chinese civilization.
The papers concerning the reflection of Chinas image in the cultures of various countries, such as
Moldova, Romania, France, Germany, United States were also much appreciated. There were several
papers investigating Nicolae Milescus works, such as The Diary of the Journey in China and The
Description of China, analyzing the authors vision upon the way in which two different civilizations
meet and perceive each other.
Besides the papers referring to the domains of philosophy and cultural anthropology, we can also
appreciate several papers about the classical and contemporary Chinese culture, which using the inventory of literary and esthetic concepts, brought into discussion works of great thematic and stylistic
richness, as it happens with the greatest literatures of the world. The panels of the conference also
included papers referring to Chinese painting, performance art, as well as the animation film, such
papers offering systematic investigations in the area of symbols and complex arts.
The domain of traductology was well represented by a series of papers which dealt with problems
of general interest, but also with particular aspects concerning the translation into and from Chinese.
Interesting analyses were operated on the translations of representative works, such as Confucius
Analects, or on specific themes, like the strategies for translating the concept woman in Chinese,
Romanian and Russian. These papers allowed the authors to draw interesting, well-grounded conclusions about the linguistic and cultural specificity that influence the process of translating the Chinese
works
Due to the participation of numerous professors and researchers from renowned universities and
research institutes from the Republic of Moldova and from abroad, the international scientific conference Paradigms of Chinese Culture Background Values and the Image of Civilization proved to
be the very place for presenting very intriguing papers, for interesting and fruitful debates. Besides
the diversity of topics and approaches, one could notice that all the participants shared the same desire to reveal the cultural identity of a millenary civilization, to emphasize the specific aspects of the
Chinese cultural model, but also to enrich the sphere of theoretical reflection, that could contribute
to a better mutual understanding between European cultures and Chinese culture. The variety of the
themes that were analyzed, the rigorous scientific approach and the modern perspectives of scientific
research contributed to the unfurling of an important event in the Moldovan academic world. Last
but not least we should underline that the success of the conference owes it a lot also to the excellent
management of the conference and to the enthusiasm of the organizers. Therefore, we consider that
the first international scientific conference of the Confucius Institute together with The Institute for
Philological and Intercultural Research of the Free International University of Moldova represents an
important contribution not only for promoting of the Chinese language and culture, but also for the
development of the sinology in the Republic of Moldova.
RELAIILE CULTURALE MOLDO-CHINEZE N ASCENSIUNE
Ruslan EVCENCO
Istoria relaiilor chineze este multisecular: fiind iniiat de misiunea lui N.Milescu-Sptaru n
China (sec.XVII), colaborarea moldo-chinez a continuat n perioada sovietic prin stabilirea relaiilor tiinifice i culturale ntre Moldova i China. Ascensiunea adevrat n relaiile Moldovei i
Chinei ncepe dup proclamarea independenei Moldovei n 1991, cnd ntre rile noastre au fost
stabilite relaii diplomatice i s-au extins contactele politice, sociale, comercial-economice .a.
Astzi a devenit un imperatival vremii cunoaterea tradiiilor culturale ale Chinei. Dinamismul
culturii sale actuale este condiionat de unirea eforturilor cercettorilor din domenii diferite: antropologie, filosofie, sociologie, literatur, lingvistic, traductologie, art, istorie .a Una din organizaiile
chineze, care activeaz intens n direcia promovrii cunotinelor despre China printre locuitorii
Moldovei, n special, privind la cultura i limba chinez, este Institutul Confucius (director dna Huangai Zhao), creat n cadrul ULIM n septembrie 2009 n urma colaborrii ntre ULIM i Universitatea
Pedagogic din Nord-West (Lanzhou, China). Institutul instruiete cadre de profesori de limb chinez, organizeaz diferite aciuni culturale, ofer informaii despre bursele de studii n China, promoveaz arta tradiional chinez.
Recent aciune cultural de proporii, organizat de ctre Institutul Confucius, a fost conferina
internaional Paradigme ale culturii chineze fond valoric i imagine civilizaional (4 martie
2011, ULIM), efectuat n strns colaborare u Institutul Cercetri Filologice i Interculturale (director dna Elena Prus, dr.hab., prof.univ.) i Northwest Normal University din Lanzhou (China).
n calitate de obiectiv major al acestei frumoase aciuni culturale a fost propus radiografierea
fenomenologic a multiplelor ipostaze ale culturii chineze. S-a ncercat dezvluirea fondului cultural
chinez, n care se concentreaz tradiia i actualitatea, pentru a-i valoriza i reactualiza limbajul simbolico-metaforic, uneori impenetrabil pentru alte culturi.
Mesaje de salut n cadrul conferinei au prezentat Excelena Sa Fang Li, Ambasadorul Republicii
Populare Chineze n Moldova, Ministrul Educaiei al Republicii Moldova Mihai leahtichi, rectorul
ULIM Andrei Galben, vicerectorul Northwest Normal University din Lanzhou, Zhonkui Liu, ex-Ambasadorul Moldovei n China, dr.hab.Victor Borevici.
Printre invitaii la conferin au fost savanii din SUA, Frana, Argentina, Georgia, Romnia, cercettorii care reprezentau diferite instituii de nvmnt superior i de cercetri tiinifice din Moldova Academia de tiine a Moldovei, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova, Universitatea Studii
Europene din Moldova, Universitatea Alecu Russo din Bli.
Participanii la conferin au fcut cunotin cu activitatea Institutului Confucius n cadrul ULIM,
apreciind nalt biblioteca bogat a acestei instituii. n cadrul conferinei au fost prezentate rapoarte
care reflectau diferite aspecte ale culturii chineze i ale relaiilor moldo-chineze. Printre acestea putem meniona raportul lui N.Redouane, prof.univ., dr. (Universitatea de Stat din Kalifornia) China
i lumea occidental: diferena, divergena, complementaritate; Horacio Seoane, dr., (Universitatea din Buenos-Aires, Argentina): Cooperare i parteneriat ntre institutele Confucius i companiile chineze n rspndirea culturii chineze; Marine Jibladze, dr.prof.asociat (Universitatea Liber
din Tbilisi): Influena lui Confucius asupra Chinei contemporane; Inga Stoianova, conf.univ.,dr.
(ULIM) Conceptul de femeie n paremiologia chinez, englez, romn i rus; Ana Ghila,
dr.conf. (USM) Cultura i spiritualitatea chinez n viziunea artistic a Iuliei Kristeva; Elena
Prus, dr.hab, prof.univ., Cezar Secrieru, consilier al Institutului Cercetri Filologice i Interculturale:
Pictura chinez, o po(i)etic a sensurilor simbolice; Ruslan evcenco, dr., (USEM): Cooperarea
moldo-chinez n domeniul culturii; Victoria Fonari, dr.conf., (USM) Pianjeniul conexiunea
175
simbolistic ntre www i xx; Alexandru Bohanov, dr.conf. (ULIM) Prezene culturale chineze n
presa romneasc de azi .a.
Conferina, desfurat la ULIM, a fost rezultatul eforturilor comune, depuse de Institutul Cercetri Filologice i Interculturale i Institutul Confucius al acestei Universiti, a permis stabilirea relaiilor strnse ntre instituiile de nvmnt superior din diferite ri, a lrgit diapazonul de cunotine
a savanilor i a contribuit la promovarea culturii chineze n mediul tiinific al Moldovei.
Dei savanii n cauz au reprezentat tiinele umanistice care la prima vedere par a fi diferite, muli
dintre ei au observat cu satisfacie existena aspectelor comune n discursuri i idei-ax, unice pentru
participani cercetarea aspectelor culturii.
n acest context crete importana ideii unitii n diversitate, care devine indispensabil ntr-o
lume ce evolueaz pe calea mondializrii totale; interptrunderii savanilor n domeniile apropiate ale
cercetrii, ceea ce contribuie la lrgirea intereselor tiinifice ale acestora, a ntregului diapazon de
cercetri i a sferei de contact cu colegii din diferite ri ale lumii i, n special, cu savanii din China.
Acest fapt reprezint, n viziunea noastr, o contribuie incontestabil a conferinei moldo-chineze,
desfurate la ULIM. Rmnem n ateptarea altor aciuni utile de acest gen n ara noastr.

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Free International University of Moldova

Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE

Chiinu: ULIM, 2012

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

Victoria FONARI. Pianjeniul conexiunea simbolistic dintre www i

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

Academician Andre GALBEN

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

Acad. Andrei GALBEN

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

Vice President of Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

THE CONFUCIAN CONCEPTION OF THE IDEAL STATE PAST AND PRESENT

1. Premises and Objectives

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

2. Traditional Conception of a Harmonious Society Goals and Perspectives

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

The paragraph cited here belongs to Chapter 1. 5.

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

3. Trends in the Modern Theory of Governing the State

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

ON THE DIVERSITY OF ORIGINS OF CHINESE CULTURE

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

FEELE I MTILE POVETILOR CHINEZETI

Cnd vezi un om bun, ncearc s-l imii,

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

Doroevici, Vlas. Poveti i legende. Mn: Nauka i tehnika, 1983 // http://az.lib.ru/d/doroshewich_w_m/text_0160.shtml

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

perspectiv ntre bine i ru trdeaz criza

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

RELEVANA ETICII CHINEZE N CONTEXTUL GLOBALIZRII

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

Hsiao: pietate de copil (foarte important n confucianism).

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

dionisiacul, prezent n cultura oriental cu prisosin.

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

CHINA FASCINATING AND POTENTIALLY REDOUBTABLE THE CHINESE MIRAGE

Fear of the Other. A Short Historic Insight

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

Western science settled.

See: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_chinoise. Visited on 21/2/2011.

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL

PARADIGMS OF CHINESE CULTURE BACKGROUND VALUES AND THE IMAGE OF CIVILIZATION

PICTURA CHINEZ, O PO(I)ETIC A SENSURILOR SIMBOLICE

PARADIGME ALE CULTURII CHINEZE FOND VALORIC I IMAGINE CIVILIZAIONAL