IMPACT LOADING

Loads can be classified as static or dynamic depending upon whether they remain constant or vary with
time. A static load is applied slowly, so that it causes no vibrational or dynamic effects in the structure.
The load increases gradually from zero to its maximum value, and thereafter it remains constant.
A dynamic load may take many formssome loads are applied and removed suddenly (impact loads),
others persist for long periods of time and continuously vary in intensity (fluctuating loads). Impact
loads are produced when two objects collide or when a falling object strikes a structure. Fluctuating
loads are produced by rotating machinery, traffic, wind gusts, water waves, earthquakes, and
manufacturing processes.
As an example of how structures respond to dynamic loads, we will discuss the impact of an object
falling onto the lower end of a prismatic bar (Fig. a). A collar of mass M, initially at rest, falls from a
height h onto a flange at the end of bar AB. When the collar strikes the flange, the bar begins to
elongate, creating axial stresses within the bar. In a very short interval of time, such as a few
milliseconds, the flange will move downward and reach its position of maximum displacement.
Thereafter, the bar shortens, then lengthens, then shortens again as the bar vibrates longitudinally and
the end of the bar moves up and down. The vibrations are analogous to those that occur when a spring
is stretched and then released. The vibrations of the bar soon cease because of various damping effects,
and then the bar comes to rest with the mass M supported on the flange.
The response of the bar to the falling collar is obviously very complicated, and a complete and accurate
analysis requires the use of advanced mathematical techniques. However, we can make an approximate
analysis by using the concept of strain energy and making several simplifying assumptions.
Let us begin by considering the energy of the system just before the collar is released (Fig. b). The
potential energy of the collar with respect to the elevation of the flange is Mgh, where g is the
acceleration of gravity. This potential energy is converted into kinetic energy as the collar falls. At the
instant the collar strikes the flange, its potential energy with respect to the elevation of the flange is
zero and its kinetic energy is Mv2/2, where v = 2 gh is its velocity.

During the ensuing impact, the kinetic energy of the collar is transformed into other forms of energy.
Part of the kinetic energy is transformed into the strain energy of the stretched bar. Some of the energy
is dissipated in the production of heat and in causing localized plastic deformations of the collar and
flange.
To make a simplified analysis of this very complex situation, we will idealize the behavior by making
the following assumptions:

(1) We assume that the collar and flange are so constructed that the collar sticks to the flange and
moves downward with it (that is, the collar does not rebound). This behavior is more likely to
prevail when the mass of the collar is large compared to the mass of the bar.
(2) We disregard all energy losses and assume that the kinetic energy of the falling mass is
transformed entirely into strain energy of the bar. This assumption predicts larger stresses in the
bar than would be predicted if we took energy losses into account.
(3) We disregard any change in the potential energy of the bar itself (due to the vertical movement
of elements of the bar), and we ignore the existence of strain energy in the bar due to its own
weight. Both of these effects are extremely small.
(4) We assume that the stresses in the bar remain within the linearly elastic range.
(5) We assume that the stress distribution throughout the bar is the same as when the bar is loaded
statically by a force at the lower end, that is, we assume the stresses are uniform throughout the
volume of the bar. (In reality longitudinal stress waves will travel through the bar, thereby
causing variations in the stress distribution.)
On the basis of the preceding assumptions, we can calculate the maximum elongation and the
maximum tensile stresses produced by the impact load.
Maximum Elongation of the Bar
The maximum elongation max (Fig. b) can be obtained from the principle of conservation of energy by
equating the potential energy lost by the falling mass to the maximum strain energy acquired by the
bar. The potential energy lost is W(h + max), where W = Mg is the weight of the collar and (h + max),
is the distance through which it moves. The strain energy of the bar is
EAmax/2L, where EA is the
axial rigidity and L is the length of the bar. Thus, we obtain the following equation:
This equation is quadratic in max and can be solved for the positive root; the result is

From this equation it can be seen that the elongation of the bar under the impact load is much larger
than it would be if the same load were applied statically.
Maximum Stress in the Bar
The maximum stress can be calculated easily from the maximum elongation because we are assuming
that the stress distribution is uniform throughout the length of the bar. From the general equation =
PL/EA = L/E, we know that
Substituting from Eq. (2-50), we obtain the following equation for the maximum tensile stress:

From this result we see that an increase in the kinetic energy Mv2/2 of the falling mass will increase the
stress, whereas an increase in the volume AL of the bar will reduce the stress. This situation is quite
different from static tension of the bar, where the stress is independent of the length L and the modulus
of elasticity E.
The preceding equations for the maximum elongation and maximum stress apply only at the instant
when the flange of the bar is at its lowest position. After the maximum elongation is reached in the bar,
the bar will vibrate axially until it comes to rest at the static elongation.

Impact Factor
The ratio of the dynamic response of a structure to the static response (for the same load) is known as
an impact factor. For instance, the impact factor for the elongation of the bar described above is the
ratio of the maximum elongation to the static elongation:
; where st is the static elongation.
This factor represents the amount by which the static elongation is amplified due to the dynamic
effects of the impact. Equations analogous to the above equation can be written for other impact
factors, such as the impact factor for the stress in the bar (the ratio of max to st). When the collar falls
through a considerable height, the impact factor can be very large, such as 100 or more.
Suddenly Applied Load
A special case of impact occurs when a load is applied suddenly with no initial velocity. Here the
sliding collar is lowered gently until it just touches the flange. Then the collar is suddenly released.
Under static loading conditions, the load is released gradually and equilibrium always exists between
the applied load and the resisting force of the bar.
Initially the elongation of the bar and the stress in the bar are zero, but then the collar moves downward
under the action of its own weight. During this motion the bar elongates and its resisting force
gradually increases. The motion continues until at some instant the resisting just equals W, the weight
of the collar. At this particular instant the elongation of the bar is st. However, the collar now has a
certain kinetic energy, which it acquired during the downward displacement st. Therefore, the collar
continues to move downward until its velocity is brought to zero by the resisting force in the bar. The
maximum elongation for this condition is obtained from the equation for max by setting h equal to
WL
zero; thus, max = 2st, (since st = EA ). After the maximum elongation 2st has been reached, the
end of the bar will move upward and begin a series of up and down vibrations, eventually coming to
rest at the static elongation produced by the weight of the collar.
Example 1:
A round, prismatic steel bar (E = 210 GPa) of length L = 2.0 m and diameter d = 15 mm hangs
vertically from a support at its upper end. A sliding collar of mass M = 20 kg drops from a height h
=150 mm onto the flange at the lower end of the bar without rebounding.
(a) Calculate the maximum elongation of the bar due to the impact and determine the
corresponding impact factor.
(b) Calculate the maximum tensile stress in the bar and determine the corresponding impact factor.
Example 2:
A horizontal bar AB of length L is struck at its free end by a heavy block of mass M moving
horizontally with velocity .
(a) Determine the maximum shortening max of the bar due to the impact and determine the
corresponding impact factor.
(b) Determine the maximum compressive stress max and the corresponding impact factor. (Let EA
represent the axial rigidity of the bar.)
MECHANICAL WEAR - Removal of material due to mechanical process under conditions of
sliding, rolling, or repeated impact. Included are abrasive wear, fatigue wear and adhesive wear, but
not the corrosive and thermal wear.

REPEATED LOADING AND FATIGUE

The behavior of a structure depends not only upon the nature of the material but also upon the
character of the loads. In some situations the loads are staticthey are applied gradually, act for long
periods of time, and change slowly. Other loads are dynamic in characterexamples are impact loads
acting suddenly and repeated loads recurring for large numbers of cycles.
Some typical patterns for repeated loads are sketched in Fig.1. The first graph (a) shows a load that is
applied, removed, and applied again, always acting in the same direction. The second graph (b) shows
an alternating load that reverses direction during every cycle of loading, and the third graph (c)
illustrates a fluctuating load that varies about an average value. Repeated loads are commonly
associated with machinery, engines, turbines, generators, shafts, propellers, airplane parts, automobile
parts, and the like. Some of these structures are subjected to millions (and even billions) of loading
cycles during their useful life.

FIG. 1: Types of repeated loads: (a) load acting in one direction only, (b) alternating or reversed load, and (c)
fluctuating load that varies about an average value

A structure subjected to dynamic loads is likely to fail at a lower stress than when the same loads are
applied statically, especially when the loads are repeated for a large number of cycles. In such cases
failure is usually caused by fatigue, or progressive fracture. A familiar example of a fatigue failure is
stressing a metal paper clip to the breaking point by repeatedly bending it back and forth. If the clip is
bent only once, it does not break. But if the load is reversed by bending the clip in the opposite
direction, and if the entire loading cycle is repeated several times, the clip will finally break. Fatigue
may be defined as the deterioration of a material under repeated cycles of stress and strain, resulting in
progressive cracking that eventually produces fracture.

FIG. 2: Fatigue failure of a bar loaded repeatedly in tension; the crack spread gradually over the cross
section until fracture occurred suddenly. (Courtesy of MTS Systems Corporation)

In a typical fatigue failure, a microscopic crack forms at a point of high stress (usually at a stress
concentration, discussed in the next section) and gradually enlarges as the loads are applied repeatedly.
When the crack becomes so large that the remaining material cannot resist the loads, a sudden fracture
of the material occurs (see Fig. 2). Depending upon the nature of the material, it may take anywhere
from a few cycles of loading to hundreds of millions of cycles to produce a fatigue failure.
The magnitude of the load causing a fatigue failure is less than the load that can be sustained statically,
as already pointed out. To determine the failure load, tests of the material must be performed. In the
case of repeated loading, the material is tested at various stress levels and the number of cycles to
failure is counted. For instance, a specimen of material is placed in a fatigue-testing machine and
loaded repeatedly to a certain stress, say 1. The loading cycles are continued until failure occurs, and

the number n of loading cycles to failure is noted. The test is then repeated for a different stress, say
2. If 2 is greater than 1, the number of cycles to failure will be smaller. If 2 is less than 1, the
number will be larger. Eventually, enough data are accumulated to plot an endurance curve, or S-N
diagram, in which failure stress (S) is plotted versus the number (N) of cycles to failure (Fig. 3). The
vertical axis is usually a linear scale and the horizontal axis is usually a logarithmic scale.

FIG. 3: Endurance curve, or S-N diagram, showing fatigue limit

The endurance curve of Fig. 3 shows that the smaller the stress, the larger the number of cycles to
produce failure. For some materials the curve has a horizontal asymptote known as the fatigue limit or
endurance limit. When it exists, this limit is the stress below which a fatigue failure will not occur
regardless of how many times the load is repeated. The precise shape of an endurance curve depends
upon many factors, including properties of the material, geometry of the test specimen, speed of
testing, pattern of loading, and surface condition of the specimen. The results of numerous fatigue
tests, made on a great variety of materials and structural components, have been reported in the
engineering literature.
Typical S-N diagrams for steel and aluminum are shown in Fig. 4. The ordinate is the failure stress,
expressed as a percentage of the ultimate stress for the material, and the abscissa is the number of
cycles at which failure occurred. Note that the number of cycles is plotted on a logarithmic scale. The
curve for steel becomes horizontal at about 10 7 cycles, and the fatigue limit is about 50% of the
ultimate tensile stress for ordinary static loading. The fatigue limit for aluminum is not as clearly
defined as that for steel, but a typical value of the fatigue limit is the stress at 5x10 8 cycles, or about
25% of the ultimate stress.
Since fatigue failures usually begin with a microscopic crack at a point of high localized stress (that is,
at a stress concentration), the condition of the surface of the material is extremely important. Highly
polished specimens have higher endurance limits. Rough surfaces, especially those at stress
concentrations around holes or grooves, greatly lower the endurance limit. Corrosion, which creates
tiny surface irregularities, has a similar effect. For steel, ordinary corrosion may reduce the fatigue
limit by more than 50%.

FIG. 4: Typical endurance curves for steel and aluminum in alternating (reversed) loading

STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
When determining the stresses in axially loaded bars, we customarily use the basic formula = P/A, in
which P is the axial force in the bar and A is its cross-sectional area. This formula is based upon the
assumption that the stress distribution is uniform throughout the cross section. In reality, bars often
have holes, grooves, notches, keyways, shoulders, threads, or other abrupt changes in geometry that
create a disruption in the otherwise uniform stress pattern. These discontinuities in geometry cause
high stresses in very small regions of the bar, and these high stresses are known as stress
concentrations. The discontinuities themselves are known as stress raisers.
Stress concentrations also appear at points of loading. For instance, a load may act over a very small
area and produce high stresses in the region around its point of application. An example is a load
applied through a pin connection, in which case the load is applied over the bearing area of the pin.
The stresses existing at stress concentrations can be determined either by experimental methods or by
advanced methods of analysis, including the finite-element method.