November

26, 2014

CEE410
Lab Assignment #2
Flow Measurement Testing

NOAH DUFOEGUILES
VANNA LIU
CRAIG SNORTHEIM
JACQUI GERMAN

Introduction
Testing and calibration of flow meters is important for understanding the true volumetric flow
rates in pipes so that a proper system analysis can be conducted. In this lab, we recorded
reservoir tank elevation data and flow meter data at Unit Well 30 within the Madison Water
Utility district. Two types of flow meters were used: an acoustic (ultrasonic) flow meter, and a
magnetic flow meter. The pump frequency was set to five different levels, and then turned back
to full power while a control valve was progressively shut to three different levels. At each flow
level, a steady flow rate was established by the pump operator, and flow and tank elevation data
was were recorded. With this data, we were able to compare the true flow rate (change in tank
volume over time) to the readings on the flow meters. We averaged the measured flow rates that
fell into each interval, and assumed the true flow rate was constant within a given interval. In
reality, the flow would change slightly was as the NPSH was changing over time. Our analysis
of the accuracy of the flow meters and the ensuing recommendations follows.

Commented [g1]: Thisisagoodintroductionbutitneeds

asentencethatstartswithsomethinglikethepurposeof
thisreportisto
Commented [g2]: Trytousethirdperson.

Commented [g3]: Theworddataisusuallyplural.

Commented [g4]: Thiswouldactuallybethetotal

dynamicheadbecausereservoirelevationinthesystemis
alsochanging.So,thedischargeandsuctionelevationsare
bothchangingwithtime.

Literature Review
The selection of water and pressure sensors as well as flow meters is a detailed process.
Environment Environmental conditions are considered (i.e. temperature, humidity, gases)
however, adequate ventilation assists in minimizing the effect of many of these. Modern devices
can be useful in the sense they are generally more detail with up-to-date technology. Although,
these unique instruments generally also require more highly skilled specialists for servicing and
installation. Another important consideration that Bosserman et al. (2008) states is that,
Instrument systems usually consists of a number of interdependent elements, each of which
contributes to the total measurement of error, therefore errors are generally greater than the ones
published in manufacturers literature, (20.4). Pumping station instruments are selected to
provide long lifespan, low maintenance, and high reliability in damp, corrosive environments.
This selection process is specifically important to pumping stations as they are generally
designed with a minimum lifespan of 20 years or more without major construction (Bosserman et
al., 2008). This literature review goes over pressure sensors, elevation sensors, and flow meters
in the Unit Well 30 design as well as ones in the market.
Pressure Sensors
The pressure sensor or transducer also takes on the name pressure transmitter. This device
converts pressure into an analog electrical signal. This differs from discrete signals, which
reports a true/false signal (e.g. open/closed, running/stopped). These devices can be designed to
function immersed in liquid and these are defined as submersible pressure transducers (Omega,
2014).
Submersible pressure transducers have been around since the 1960s and are documented to be
involved in the Unit Well 30 design (exact design is undetermined). They were developed to
record water level and pressure data. Combined with other pressure data collecting devices (e.g.
piezometers, tensiometers) these tools aid in providing continuous data. Differential pressure
transducers measure with respect to a varying pressure reference (e.g. ambient atmospheric
pressure). Freeman et al. (2004) evaluate evaluated the standard for USGS pressure transducer
performance in terms of accuracy with error brackets (+/- 0.01 ft or 0.1 percent of expected

Commented [g5]: Imnotsurewhatyouaresayinghere

butIcanguess.Inmyexperience,theprimarydifference
overtimehasbeentheabilityofsensorstocontinuously
sendelectronicoutputtoasupervisorycontrolanddata
acquisition(SCADA)system.
Commented [g6]: howeverwouldbeabetterword
here.
Commented [g7]: Indeed,itisjustasimportantforusto
understandtheuncertaintyinasetofmeasurementsasitis
forustounderstandthecentraltendencyofthose
measurements.
Commented [g8]: Simultaneouslyusingminimumand
ormoreisusuallyconfusingtothereader.

Commented [g9]: Doweknowhowthisdevicesenses

pressureandthenconvertsthattotheanalogsignal>
Commented [g10]: Imnotclearwhatthiswordis
referringtohere.Isitreferringtothedeviceortothe
analogelectricalsignal?

Commented [g11]: Goodtheyperformbothelevation

andpressuremeasurements.

range) for most water level application. Omega (2014) recorded a high accuracy pressure
transducer in their inventory with an error percentage as low as 0.05% (stating the average
pressure transducer is around 0.25%).

Figure1:DiagramofaCshapedBourdonpressure
transducer(slightlymodifiedfromFreemanetal.,
2004)

There are a couple pressure transducers that are

assumed not to be included in the Unit Well 30 system.
The C-Shaped Motion-balance Bourdon-tube is utilized
for measuring pressure (see figure 1; Freeman et al.,
2004). As pressure increasing increases in the Bourdon
tube, the tube displaces a linear voltage differential
transformer (LVDT). This system is generally not
preferred as it supplies a significant amount of wear on
the equipment and therefore decreases the incentives for
usage (Bosserman et al., 2008). See Appendix C for a
more detailed table of wastewater and clean water
application applications for pressure sensors.

Commented [g12]: Ok.Consideringyourearlier

statement,itisprobablyhigherthanthisinrealworld
application.Also,manufacturerswillsometimescompare
appleswithorangestomaketheircase.Inthiscase,the
averagemightbeinthefieldwheretheirowndatamaybe
inwellcontrolledlaboratoryconditions.Alwaysconfirm
manufacturerstatementswhenyoubeginworkingasan
engineer.

Commented [g13]: Ok,sowhatdoestheLVDTdo?

Iseehowthisdeviceworks.Imnotclearhowtheprevious
deviceworks.
Commented [g14]: Onwhatequipment?

Elevation sensors
Float sensors provide a means of measuring liquid elevation. These devices involve a buoyant
body that remains at the liquid surface. Generally it is connected to a cable contraption that
allows free range in vertical direction, but restricts the range in the horizontal plane. This cable
is then connected to a rod, possibly by means of a magnet, and as the system moves the magnet it
actuates a switch returning feedback as to the level the liquid has reached.
Floaters are frequently used in wastewater applications however containbut have a few
disadvantages. Difficult to adjust, maintenance requiring access, and the wearing on the cable
(2-3 years lifespan) are among the drawbacks. Due to likely debris in wastewater conditions
these devices are made larger than in the clean water industry and are generally not preferred.
Float switches are believed to be utilized at Unit Well 30 as stated in the design drawings. They
provide a backup data feed to assist in calibration and data analysis. A very simplistic drawing
of this device can be viewed in figure Figure 2. Specifically the example models performance
(selected in figure Figure 2) is rated for is maximum current, frequency range, and the number of
micro disconnect automatic life cycles (HCP Pump, 2011). These switches also aid in insuring
that the water level does not fill past a designated elevation or does not drain past a designated
elevation.

Commented [g15]: Nicesummary.

Commented [g16]: Thiscouldbebetterwritten.

Commented [g17]: Thisishelpful.


Figure2:Diagramdepictionofhowafloatswitchoperates(HCPPump,2011).

Floaters remain on the surface of the liquid while displacers remain below the surface. Displacer
instruments are selected to be denser than the liquid submersed in and are accompanied with a
spring related system the displacer adjusts with the changing liquid level. Again the device is
restricted in its motion in the horizontal and allowing free range in the vertical. These
instruments are preferred in wastewater application due to their inherent washing as the device
continues to be used decreasing maintenance. See Appendix C for a more detailed table of
wastewater and clean water application.

Commented [g18]: Imnotsurewhatthisisreferringto.

Commented [g19]: Thisisanicelywrittensection.

Magnetic flow meter

Magnetic flow meters operate under the principle of Faradays Law of Electromagnetic
Induction, which states that voltage generated in a conductor, E, is proportional to the velocity of
the conductor, v, magnetic field strength, B, and length of conductor, D (equation 1, figure 3).
The conductor, in this case, is the liquid measured.

(1)

The magnetic flow meter induces a magnetic field on

the fluid of a known strength, and as the fluid moves
through the magnetic field, a voltage signal is
generated according to Faradays Law. Electrodes
on the pipe walls sense this voltage and an electronic
transmitter calculates the velocity of the moving fluid
(Instrumart, 2014).
There are several requirements with the use of
magnetic flow meters in the fluid measured and
Figure3.Operatingprincipleofmagneticflow
placement of the meter. The fluid has to be a
meters(UniversalFlowMonitors,2014).
conductive liquid, so conduits in de-ionized water,
hydrocarbon or gaseous service cannot be measured by a mag meter. In addition, the flow meter
must be placed downstream of 3-5 diameters and upstream of 0-3 diameters straight run. This
assures that the flow through the meter is laminar, assuring the most accurate measurements.

Commented [g20]: Canmagmetersbeusedinturbulent

flowconditions?Ifyes,thenlaminarisntquitetheright
word.

According to Bosserman et al. (2008), magnetic flow meters are one of the most accurate flow
meters available. The vendors typically report an accuracy of 0.5% of flow, but, in situ
verification of calibration (20.13) is critical, as with installation of any flow meters. In the
experiment conducted at Unit Well 30, this flow meter was used to measure the discharge of
Booster Pump #2.

Commented [g21]: Thiswastheprimarypurposeofthis

labreport.

Ultrasonic flow meter

Figure4.Operatingprincipleofultrasonicflowmeters(Smart
Measurement,2012).

Ultrasonic flow meters operate by the Doppler

Effect, where frequency shifts of an ultrasonic
signal is are directly proportional to the
velocity of the fluid. Equation 2 explains this
relationship, whereby f1 is the frequency
injected by the transducer, fa is the reflected
frequency off bubbles or discontinuities in
flow, v is the velocity of ultrasonic wave in the
fluid, and s is the velocity of the fluid
(Bosserman et al., 2008). This relationship
can be seen pictorially with the figure Figure 4.

Commented [g22]: Thisfigurecouldbetterexplain

Equation2.

(2)
Similar to the magnetic flow meter, the advantage to the ultrasonic flow meter is that they are
nonintrusive to conduit flow. An added benefit is that they can also be portable, as is the case in
the experiment conducted at Unit Well 30 (Smart Measurement, 2012). There is no probe that
needs insertion, and no direct contact with the fluid is necessary for measurement.
With an error of up to 20%, ultrasonic flowmeters are not used in applications where accuracy is
critical. They are employed for wastewater service, as wastewater contains the discontinuities
necessary for waves to reflect off of. Drinking water does not generally contain, reliable
reflective surfaces (Bosserman et al., 2008).
Venturi flow meter

Figure5:Operatingprincipleofventureflowmeter(FluidMechanics,n.d.).

Conservation of energy and Bernoullis equation are the governing principles for venturi flow
meters. When a fluid travels from a larger cross-sectional area through a smaller area, pressure

Commented [g23]: Andwhyisthisanadvantage?

Commented [g24]: Ok,Imnowcurioushowyourresults

compare.

increases proportional to the change in area. The pressures are read from the pressure taps a and
b in figure Figure 5. However, energy and flow at both points must remain the same. Using
equation Equation 3, which combines conservation of energy and Bernoullis equation, and
equation Equation 4, a mass balance, the flow can be solved for (Sleigh & Noakes, 2009).
(3)

(4)

In contrast to the two previously discussed flow meters, the venture venturi flow meter does
maintain direct contact with the fluid. However, according to Bosserman et al. (2008), head
recovery is excellent, (20.14). That is to say the venturi flow meter does not disturb the flow
such that it loses much energy. Because of the meters shape, it can actually correct any
irregularity in flow through the conduit/meter (Bosserman et al., 2008). This can be useful when
flow needs to measured where there is a very short straight run of pipe.
According to Engineering Toolbox (n.d.), the venturi flow meter can be accurate up to 10% of
flow if calibrated properly. This kind of meter is generally used for drinking water applications,
as solids will disturb pressure measurements.

Commented [g25]: Beverycarefulusingthiswordasan

engineerbecauseitputsyouatriskforunanticipated
problems.Thereareinsurancecompaniesthatcallthisone
oftheforbiddenwordsinlegaldocumentssuchas
engineeringreports.
Commented [g26]: Ok.
Commented [g27]: Youdidntuseaventurimeterinthis
labbutitwouldbecalibratedwithasimilarapproach.

Methods
The pump was run at five different speeds as well as at full speed with the control valve
manually throttled at three different rates. Each of the pumping speeds were run long enough to
produce accurate results, approximately long enough to pump the reservoir down one foot. Time
and water elevation data were collected at the beginning and ending of the flow rate period. Once
the flowmeters stabilized multiple readings were collected from both the magnetic meter and the
acoustic meter during each flow rate period. The flowmeter readings for each meter were
averaged for each pumping speed.
The time and elevation changes were used to calculate volumetric flow rates for each pumping
speed. This rate was then compared to the average rates recorded for each flowmeter throughout
the same period and percent error was calculated. The results can be seen in Appendix B.

Commented [g28]: Whatdoesthisreferto?Areyou

sayinglongenoughtoproduceanaccuratelymeasured
elevationchangeinthereservoir?

Commented [g29]: Alwaysprovideawrittensummaryof

resultsinalabreportsmainbody.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The results of our analysis show that the flow meters were generally within -5% to 15% of the
true flow rates calculated via tank elevation changes over time. The magnetic meter was more
accurate (between -4.6% and 10.8% error) than the acoustic flow meter (0.2% to +16.9%), as is
expected. The mean error of the magnetic meter was +0.2% while the mean error of the acoustic
meter was +5.7%, suggesting that the acoustic meter was biased and tended to overestimate the
flow. The acoustic meter likely showed greater error because it has a lower accuracy (0.5% and
20% for the magnetic and acoustic meters, respectively), and because it was placed in close
proximity to a fitting which caused turbulence in the flow. The acoustic meter measurements fell
within this accuracy range (+/- 20%), but the magnetic meter measurements did not (+/- 0.5%).

Commented [g30]: Inretrospect,Ishouldhaveaskedyou

tolookuptheacceptableerrorlistedinstatelaw(thisisin
thesectionenforcedbythePublicServiceCommission).

Commented [g31]: Immissingsomethinghereit

doesntseemconsistentwiththerestoftheparagraph.

This suggests that either the magnetic flow meter was not operating correctly, or the true flow
rates are flawed.
We suggest that the reason for the relatively high error in the magnetic flow meter measurements
is due to sources of error in measuring the true flow rates. The flow rates are based on change
in elevation in the tank (digitally displayed to tenths of feet) over time (recorded to accuracy of
one minute). There is notable error associated with the timing of reading the tank elevation
changes (length of time since last change in digital display) and recording the time with a device
that had only minute accuracy. Therefore, the true flow rates have some considerable error
associated with them, and the error cannot be completely attributed to the flow meters.
Given the uncertainty in the baseline flow rate data (derived from tank volume), we are not
making any recommendations related to the operational state of the flow meters. Instead, we
recommend a more rigorous test be conducted with the following changes: 1) time recorded with
a stopwatch or device with second resolution; 2) times recorded at exact time of the elevation
display changes; 3) longer time intervals at each flow. Alternatively, it might be helpful to
utilize time-series elevation and flow data from the Utility if available. Finally, the portable
acoustic flow meter should be placed as far from sources of turbulence (e.g. fittings, bends) as
possible.

Commented [g32]: Thisneedsmoreexplanation.

Commented [g33]: Perhapswecangetdatafromthe

SCADAsystem.
Commented [g34]: Ok.

Bibliography
Bosserman, B. E, Jones, G. M, Sanks, R. L, & Tchobanoglous, G. (2008). Pumping station
design. Rev. 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann.
Fluid Mechanics (n.d.) Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/CIVE1400/Section3/bernoulli-apps.htm Date Retrieved:
Novemeber 22, 2014
Freeman, L., Carpenter, M., Rosenberry, D., Rousseau, J., Unger, R., and McLean, J. (2004).
Use of Submersible Pressure Transducers in Water-Resources Investigations Reston, Virginia;
United States Geological Survey, Chapter A of Book 8, Instrumentation for Measurement of
Water Level.
HCP Pump (2011). Float Switch http://www.hcppump.com.tw/English/Archive/SJE.html
Date Retrieved: November 22, 2014
Instrumart (2014). Magnetic Flow Meters https://www.instrumart.com/pages/223/magneticflow-meters Date Retrieved: November 23, 2014
Omega (2014). Pressure Transducers & Transmitters
http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/pressuretransducers.html Date Retrieved: November 22, 2014
Smart Measurement (2012). Ultrasonic Measuring Principle
http://www.smartmeasurement.com/Products/FlowMeters/Ultrasonic/MeasuringPrinciple.aspx
Date Retrieved: November 23, 2014
The Engineering Toobox (n.d.). Types of Fluid Flow Meters
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/flow-meters-d_493.html Date Retrieved: November 23,
2014
Universal Flow Monitors (2014). Magnetic Flowmeter Technology
http://www.flowmeters.com/magnetic-technology Date Retrieve: November 22, 2014

Appendix A
Raw Data

Appendix B
Time
Period
1
2
3
4
5
T1
T2
T3

Elapsed Change Change Change

Mag
Flowrate
Time Elevation Volume Volume
Meter
(gpm)
(min)
(ft)
(ft^3)
(gal)
(gpm)
10
1
3002
22455
2246
2197
11
1
3002
22455
2041
2143
10
0.8
2401
17964
1796
1757
15
1
3002
22455
1497
1440
14
0.3
901
6737
481
468
14
1
3002
22455
1604
1777.25
22
1.4
4203
31437
1429
1363.222
17
0.8
2401
17964
1057
1070.375

Mag
Meter
Error
2.2%
5.0%
2.2%
3.8%
2.8%
10.8%
4.6%
1.3%

Acoustic
Acoustic
Meter
Error
(gpm)
2310
2.9%
2233
9.4%
1848
2.9%
1519
1.4%
497
3.4%
1875
16.9%
1432
0.2%
1152
9.0%

Appendix C

Figure6:PressureMeasuringElements(Bossermanetal.,2008)

Figure7:LevelMeasuringElements(Bossermanetal.,2008)

Appendix D
Calculations

1: 52

1: 42

17.3

3056

7.48

22860
10

2207
2286

16.3

22860

2286

2286

10

3.5%